Lecture 8: Depression: Why you learn better when you are sad C83MLP Mechanisms of Learning and Psychopathology Dr. Mark Haselgrove
Mar 28, 2015
Lecture 8:
Depression: Why you learn better when you are sad
C83MLP Mechanisms of Learning and Psychopathology
Dr. Mark Haselgrove
Content of Lecture
(2) Helplessness theory: Alloy & Abramson’s (1979) challenge
(3) Replications of Depressive realism: SuccessesFailures
(1) What is contingency and how do we measure it?
(5) Theories of Depressive realism
(4) Depression ↔ Realism?
- Motivation theory
- Context processing
What is contingency?
(1) Rescorla (1968)
Suppression ratio:
R(Tone)
R(Tone + No Tone)
0.5 = no fear0.0 = lots of fear
What is contingency and how do you measure it?
(1) Allan (1980)
Defined contingency in terms of responses and outcomes (Instrumental learning)
ΔP = P(O|R) – P(O|~R)
a c a + b c + d=
Discussion point:Work out the ΔP for
these:
20 010 10
15 515 5
ΔP = 1 - 0.5 = 0.5 ΔP = 0.75 - 0.75 = 0
Helplessness theory
Seligman (1975)
Depressed people: Generalized expectancies of independence between their responses and outcomes
Believe they are powerless to control the world
Alloy & Abramson (1979)
Depressed people should therefore underestimate the contingency betweenTheir responses and environmental outcomes
Helplessness theory
Alloy & Abramson (1979) Cont…
- 40 discrete trials (each lasting 3 s) in which ss could press a button (R) or not (~R). Green light was then illuminated (O) or not (~O)
- At the end of 40 trials, ss rated the control they had over the light: (0= no control, 100= complete control)
- Experiment 1: 96 undergrads, divided into depressed & non-depressed groups Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, 1967)
No difference between Depressedand Non-depressed groups
Discussion point:Do these data support
or challenge Seligman’s theory?
Helplessness theory
Alloy & Abramson (1979) Still Cont…
- Non-depressed people should have a generalized expectation of control- Should interfere with their judgements of non-contingencies (ΔP = 0)
- Experiment 2: 64 undergrads, divided into depressed & non-depressed groupsΔP set to zero, P(O) varied:
0.25 (low outcome density) 0.75 (high outcome density)
- Non-depressed = Illusion of control- Depressed = Depressive realism
Do these data still challenge Seligman’s
theory?
Replications: (1) Successes
Lennox et al. (1990)
- Replicated Alloy & Abramson, Exp 1: Looked at different patient groups:- Major depressive disorder- Schizophrenia with or without depression- Non-psychiatric patients
- Two levels of ΔP (0.25, 0.75)- Again, no difference in ratings of control between groups
Vasquez (1987)
- ΔP and P(O) confounded by A&A and Lennox et al:- As one goes up, the other goes down:
- Vasquez (Exp1) corrected for this. Held P(O) constant and varied only ΔP
- Replicated A&A Exp 1 result
Replications: (1) Successes
Vasquez (1987) Cont…
- Replicated A&A Exp 2- 16 Spanish undergrads, 8 depressed, 8 non-depressed (determined by BDI)
Low P(O)High P(O)
- Extends generality of Depressive-realism effect
- See also Presson & Benassi (2003) for another recent replication
Replications: (2) Failures
Bryson et al. (1984)
- Failure to Replicate A&A Exp 2- 64 Male and female undergrads, - Depressed and non-depressed (again determined by BDI)
Low P(O) High P(O)
Neither Depressed nor non-depressed individuals showed an illusion of control
Kapci & Cramer (1999) both mood groups showed an illusion of control: ratings increased for both groups with P(O)
Depression ↔ Realism?
Alloy & Abramson (1979) – Experiment 3
- Varied outcome valence rather than probability
- Thus an outcome was made either desirable or undesirable (rather than frequent or infrequent)
- ΔP =0, P(O) = 0.5 Win Condition = SS Starts with $0 Each trial with a light = +$0.25
Lose Condition = Ss Start with $5.00 Each trial with no light = -$0.25
- For the lose condition….Ratings of control low for both moods- For the win condition…..Nondepressed > Depressed
An Outcome Valence effect
Depression ↔ Realism?
Alloy, Abramson & Viscusi (1981)
- Used the Outcome Valence effect
- Induced elated and depressed mood states in (respectively): Naturally depressed female studentsNaturally nondepressed female students
(1) Depressed state induced by ss reading negative self-referent statements:“I have had too many bad things happen in my life”“I want to go to bed and never wake up”
(2) Elated state induced by ss reading positive self-referent statements:“God, I feel great!”“Things will be better and better today”
(3) Control ss (depressed and nondepressed) read neutral statements:“Utah is the Beehive State”
Depression ↔ Realism?
Alloy, Abramson & Viscusi (1981) Cont…
No/ Neutral induction: Nondepressed > Depressed
- Depressives made “happy” showed illusion of control- Nondepressives made “sad” showed realism
Depression → realism
Discussion point:Depression → Realism or
Realism → Depression
Naturally depressed students given elation induction gave higher ratings than non-depressed students given depression induction
Theories of Depressive Realism
Alloy & Abramson (1979)
Motivational Theory…
Depressed People → Low self-esteemNon Depressed People → High(er) self-esteem
Non-depressed people engage in behaviours to enhance their self esteem
In particular, distort reality, in an optimistic way
Thus nondepressed: Overestimate their control over desired behaviourUnderestimate their control over undesired behaviour
The depressed, don’t. They have a specific motivation to preserve self esteem
Theories of Depressive Realism
Alloy & Abramson (1979)
Why is depressive realism restricted to high levels of P(O)?
If non-depressives overestimate thecontrol they have over their behaviour,should see illusion of controlwhen P(O) = 0.25
Theories of Depressive Realism
Msetfi, Murphy, Simpson & Kornbrot (2005)
The Inter-trial Interval (ITI) hypothesis
3 s
14 s
A&A Experiment structure:
Alan & Jenkins (1980): Removing the ITI, resulted in no outcome density bias
Is there something special about the ITI….?
Theories of Depressive Realism
Msetfi, Murphy, Simpson & Kornbrot (2005)
Theories of Depressive Realism
Msetfi, Murphy, Simpson & Kornbrot (2005)
Varied: ITI - Long (15 s), or Short (3 s)Depression - Depressed, or Not depressedOutcome density - High [P(O) = 0.75, or Low [P(O) = 0.15)
Theories of Depressive Realism
Msetfi, Murphy, Simpson & Kornbrot (2005)
What is it about depression and the ITI?
Morrow & Nolen- Hoeksema (1990) – Depressed people spend time ruminating about their feelings and symptoms
Perhaps attention is diverted during ITI in depressed people
- Do not use information provided by the ITI, or (background context) to evaluate the relationship between noR and noO
Theories of Depressive Realism
Msetfi, Murphy, Kornbrot & Simpson (2009)
Do depressed people have a deficit in processing contextual information?
AX continuous performance task:- Letters presented sequentially on a computer screen- Have to respond when they see “X” (Target) – only after “A” (Context)
Look at errors on the distractor trials: A-Y and B-X
If Context is well processed: A-Y errors > B-X errorsIf Context is poorly processed: A-Y errors < B-X errors
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
AY BX
Error type
Me
an
pro
po
rtio
n e
rro
r
Depressed
Nondepressed
Depressed people have a deficit in context processing
OK, so you can explain data for ΔP = 0, what about ΔP ≠ 0
Theories of Depressive Realism
OK, so you can explain data for ΔP = 0, what about ΔP ≠ 0
Theories of Depressive Realism
Is this true? Read:Msetfi, Murphy & Simpson (2007)
Further reading…
Further reading…