Learning Strategies

EducationalTesting Service

ESCORT

Center forApplied

Linguistics

Litton/PRC, Inc.

DREAM, Inc.

David C. AnchinCenter,

University ofSouth Florida

Learning Strategies

Resource Guide

Disseminated by

Region XIV Comprehensive Center

Educational Testing Service

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Tucker, Georgia 30084-5865

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TABLE OF CONTENTSPage

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

LEARNING STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

EXPLORING TEXT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2● Example — Directed Reading Thinking Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3● Example — Prediction Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5● Example — Rainbows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Brainstorming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Pre Reading Plan (PReP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

K-W-L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11● Example — K-W-L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Cloze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15● Example — Variation of Cloze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Questioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19● Example — ReQuest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21● Example — Question-Answer Relationship (QAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23● Example — ERRQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Think-Along . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25● Example — Think-Along in Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26● Example — Think-Along in Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Big Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Wordless Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30● Bibliography of Wordless Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Schema Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34● Example — Schema Story Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36● Example — Math Schema Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

EXPANDING MEANING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Semantic Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40● Example — Semantic Mapping Before Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42● Example — Semantic Mapping After Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43● Example — Semantic Mapping for Vocabulary Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 45● Example — Semantic Mapping as a Study Skill Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Page

Sketch to Stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48● Example — Problem-Solving Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Reciprocal Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Partner Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Say Something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Written Conversation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Responding to Reading as Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Journals and Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60● Example — Ideas for Math Learning Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63● Example — Guiding Questions for Reading Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Authoring Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Spelling Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Literature Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70● Example — Suggestions for Literature Response Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Readers’ Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Text Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75● Example — Text Set Project Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Student Research Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81● Example — Planning Guide for Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83● Example — Ideas for Writing a Research Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84● Example — Teaching Planning Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85● Example — Guidelines for Individual Research Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86● Example — Evaluation Form for Research Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Praise-Question-Polish (PQP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Exit Slips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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INTRODUCTION

WHAT ARE LEARNING STRATEGIES?

Strategies are ways for learners to solve problems encountered in constructing meaning in anycontext. Unlike skills, strategies chosen by learners are modified to fit the demands of thelearning situation. Strategic learners know how and when to alter, modify, combine, and testindividual strategies against their prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences.

Strategy teaching does not require commercial materials, nor does it need to be a separate part ofthe curriculum; it does not consist of “tricks” or isolated activities.1 Rather, strategic instructionis a process that involves teaching students to read using procedures used by good readers, towrite using approaches used by good writers, and to problem solve using techniques used bygood problem solvers.

WHY USE LEARNING STRATEGIES?

Both research and common sense provide a rationale for using learning strategies with students.There has been a shift in focus for curriculum and instruction based on practical research that hasgained attention nationally. To address the implications of the GOALS 2000: Educate AmericaAct and to promote the implementation of the Improving America’s Schools Act (IASA), there isa need to restructure and provide support for effective teaching and learning for all.

Using learning strategies supports the purpose of the Improving America’s School Act, as statedin the introduction:

The purpose . . . [is] . . . ensuring access of children [from the earliest grades] toeffective instructional strategies and challenging academic content that includes intensivecomplex thinking and problem-solving experiences (Section 1001, (d)(3)).

Research findings also indicate that the following actions particularly benefit low achievingstudents:

● Emphasizing meaning and understanding. Teachers who give priority to understandingand meaning help students to comprehend what written text says “between the lines,”assist students to communicate in writing thoughts that an audience would care to know,and demonstrate what mathematical procedures mean and how to tackle unfamiliarproblems.

● Embedding skills in context. In each subject area, the teacher presents skills within thecontext of application. Comprehension skills are connected with the text being read,writing skills are a part of the act of composing, and math problems are solved withselected mathematical tools in context.

Pressley, M., Goodchild, F., Fleet, J., Zajchowski, R., & Evans, E. (1989). The challenges of classroomstrategy instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 89(3), 301-335.

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Knapp, M.S., Adelman, N.E., Marder, C., McCollum, H., Needels, M.C., Shields, P.M., Turnbull, B.J.,& Zuker, A.A. (1993). Study of academic instruction for disadvantaged students: Academic challenge for thechildren of poverty: Volume 1: Finding and conclusions (Contract No. LC88054001). Washington, DC: U.S.Department of Education, Office of Planning, Budget and Evaluation.

● Encouraging connections between subject areas and between school and life outside ofschool. Teachers focus on making connections between subject areas and between what islearned in school and the students’ home experiences.2

The materials included in this resource book were selected to emphasize effective teaching andlearning practices, to develop a shared meaning about educational jargon, and to providealternatives to programs that focus on basic skills for at-risk students.

HOW TO USE THE STRATEGIES

This resource book includes examples of strategies that assist learners in the construction ofmeaning. For students to become genuinely strategic, they must participate in authentic learningopportunities that reflect their needs and access their prior knowledge. The learning strategiesdescribed here are not necessarily specific to any content area but emphasize communication andproblem solving throughout the curriculum.

Communication is the heart of language learning and reading and writing are tools for learning aboutthe world. Because there are multiple ways of knowing, there are multiple ways of communicatingand sharing understanding. Although problem solving is an organizational framework formathematics instruction, it is essential for understanding science, social studies, language, and othercontent areas. Problem solving, according to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, is“a process by which students experience the power and usefulness of mathematics in the worldaround them. It is a method of inquiry and application” (NCTM Standards, p. 23). When educatorsview the problem-solving process as inquiry and application, it is logical for them to use it as afoundation, complementary to communication, for curriculum planning.

Some of the ideas presented in this resource book are strategies, while others are demonstrationsand some are activities, but all are intended to be invitations for learning. An effective learningstrategy is applicable to a range of grade levels, students needs, and content areas.Demonstrations, activities, or instructional experiences become strategies when the learnersassume ownership and adapt the experiences to meet their individual needs.

The format used in this resource book for introducing a strategy includes a definition (WHAT), arationale (WHY), and a procedure or method of operation (HOW). Examples are included withsome of the learning strategies. Although the learning strategies included are cross-categoricalbecause they include communication and problem solving, they seem to fit two generalcategories: exploring text and expanding meaning. The section on exploring text includes ideasthat are connected to specific text selection, and the section on expanding meaning includesextensions and applications for understanding text.

The learning strategies are organized to engage students in exploring written text, oral text,and illustrations and to extend their understanding and help them expand meaning bymaking personal connections and sharing learning. Some of the strategies are designed forgroup work, some are suggested for partners, and some are for individual engagement. Many of

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the strategies that focus on specific text include suggestions for group involvement before,during, and after the reading of content area materials. Given the social nature of learning, thestrategies for expanding meaning include the sharing of personal interpretations throughcollaborative inquiry.

The long-term goal of strategic teaching is to help students construct meaning through self-regulated use and adaptation of a wide repertoire of strategies. Teachers are encouraged toreflect and adapt these learning strategies to meet their students’ needs as they become strategiclearners. All of the experiences described are appropriate for assessment and evaluationpurposes.

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Learning Strategies

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LEARNING STRATEGIES DESCRIPTIONS

The following descriptions provide an overview of the strategies discussed in this resourse book.

A. Exploring Text

1. Prediction. This is a basic strategy for using prior knowledge to understand text. Thelearner generates a hypothesis about the type, purpose, or scope of a text to provide aframework for transacting with the text to confirm comprehension. Examples of teachingreading as thinking include prediction, directed reading, and confirming.

2. Brainstorming. Brainstorming is a way to value prior knowledge and prior experience byinviting students to associate concepts with a selected topic. All contributions are acceptedand recorded. Group members review and discuss the related ideas and determine how toorganize and use the information.

3. Pre Reading Plan (PReP). The Pre Reading Plan is a three-step demonstration for teachersto use before assigning reading to their students. It includes accessing prior knowledge,reflecting on associations, and reformulating knowledge.

4. K-W-L. K-W-L is a strategy that models the active thinking needed when reading expositorytext. The letters K, W, L stand for three activities students engage in when reading to learn:recalling that they KNOW, determining what they WANT to learn, and identifying what theyLEARN as they read.

5. Cloze. Cloze refers to the procedure of using reading material from which words or partialwords have been systematically deleted. This procedure has been adapted to serve differentpurposes. Selected deletion is a way to assess the learner’s sense of language and to supportprediction and confirmation strategies.

6. Questioning. Questions are tools for engaging attention, investigating ideas, assessingknowledge, and encouraging deeper understanding. Appropriate questions help studentsdevelop metacognition and assist them in problem-solving strategies. Teachers use questionsto gain information about students’ understanding.

7. Think-Along. A think-along is a teaching demonstration that makes the invisible thinkingprocess of reading visible. It is an attempt on the part of the teacher to model the thinkingprocess that any good reader engages in when reading. Students observe as the teacher thinksaloud while reading a text.

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8. Big Books. These enlarged texts are designed for shared reading time so that students canbe aware of print and how it works. Although the primary purpose is to share the enjoymentof stories or poetry, big books may be used to provide a linguistic framework for languagelearning within the context of a story or connected text. Predicting and confirming strategiesmay be used with big books that have predictable patterns and interesting plots.

9. Wordless Books. These are books that tell a story in pictures without words, or sometimeswith minimal print. They are valuable resources to encourage language knowledge and usageand also to assess oral and written language development. Student responses may includewriting a narrative with or without dialogue or creating a script for a play, a puppet show, aradio dramatization, or a video production.

10. Schema Stories. Prior experience with text is helpful in developing a schema for identifying,thinking about, and talking about story structure to encourage comprehension. The experienceof arranging parts of a story into a logical sequence assists students in making predictionsand confirming language knowledge. The teacher selects short, well structured stories orinformational pieces, divides them into sections, and places the parts in an envelope. Groupsof students work together to determine the sense or schema of the piece.

B. Expanding Meaning

1. Semantic Mapping. Visual representations of connected ideas may be labeled as semanticmaps, semantic webs, concept maps, clusters, schema diagrams, or structured overviews.After brainstorming and discussing associations on particular topics, students can use semanticmapping to organize the information in categories.

2. Sketch to Stretch. Representing ideas through drawing provides students an alternativeway of responding to text. Students may do a listening activity and draw what they visualize,or they may read a text and represent their understanding through illustrations. Sketchingmay be used to assess students’ knowledge of sequential order or main idea and details.Semantic webbing may be used to follow a sketch to stretch activity.

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3. Problem Solving. Problem solving is a method of inquiry and is essential as an approachto finding solutions to problems. Development of student capacities for problem solving inall areas of learning is necessary to achieve the goal of helping students become more effectivecritical thinkers about what they read and hear. The basics of the 21st century include problemsolving and communication.

4. Reciprocal Teaching. Reciprocal teaching is an instructional activity that takes place inthe form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. The dialogueis structured by the use of four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, andpredicting. The teacher and students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading thisdialogue.

5. Partner Reading. Partner reading encourages the sharing of ideas. Sometimes partnerstake turns reading aloud, sometimes they each read silently, but they talk about theirperceptions, questions, and insights. Partners of different ages and abilities work well together.The teacher may be a student’s partner to assess individual needs and strengths.

6. Say Something. This is a reading activity that invites conversation and discussion bypartners or small groups of students. Each person receives a text for reading and responding.The participants decide cooperatively how far to read before stopping to talk about the author’sideas. Someone is designated to speak first, or to say something related to the text. Eachperson listens and responds with comments, reactions, or questions. They may reread thetext to clarify understanding or answer questions.

7. Written Conversation. One sheet of paper is shared by partners as they carry on a silentconversation in writing. Young children can participate by drawing pictures, using inventedspelling, or doing both. One person starts the conversation and often asks a question beforehanding the paper to the writing partner. This conversation continues as the writers respondto each other’s comments and questions.

8. Responding to Reading as Writers. This strategy gives readers and writers a sense ofauthorship by involving students in sharing their writing with peers. The collaboration assistsboth readers and writers in the composing process as they listen and respond to the written work.

9. Journals and Logs.

a. Personal Journals. These journals are like diaries that record personal thoughts, feelings,ideas for exploration, and perplexing questions. The writer and reader are the same personand the contents are not necessarily shared with anyone else.

b. Dialogue Journals. Dialogue journals are another form of written conversation, ortwo-way responding that may focus on specific needs or issues. The interactive formatextends the discussion between a teacher and a student, or between two students, over aperiod of time to explore understanding and inquiry related to reading, writing, or problemsolving.

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c. Traveling Journals. When groups of students are working together on a project, book,story, topic, question, or common theme, the individuals write to one another. This strategyis similar to written conversation. The journal may travel from person to person or remainin a central location for individuals to make regular entries. The teacher reads and respondsto the group communication.

d. Reading Logs. General reading logs provide opportunities for students to record theirthoughts and questions about anything they are reading, including content area or researchmaterial. Reading response logs are important components of reading discussion groupsin which students share their written responses to initiate and continue discussion aboutspecific text.

e. Learning Logs. These logs are an example of using writing as a way of knowing. Theymay include responses to a variety of content materials and concepts, or theme cycles, orthey may focus on one particular lesson or idea. Students keep track of what they havelearned about a particular topic in the learning log and use it for reflection and self-evaluation. Entries may include summaries, insights, and questions to extend learning.

10. Letters. Students need to know that letter writing is an important ability that serves anumber of purposes. There are pen pal letters, letters to the editor, letters of application,consumer awareness letters, and friendly letters, notes, invitations, and messages that studentsmay write to real people for real reasons.

11. Authoring Cycle. This is a framework for using the processes of reading and writingthroughout the curriculum. Students are engaged in thinking, writing, reading, revising,sharing, editing, and presenting their written work. After choosing a topic, students thinkabout what they want to say and begin a first draft of those ideas. They share, get suggestionsfrom other students, and revise their work. Self-editing is encouraged before an outsideeditor reviews the work. Multiple drafts are kept in writing folders to monitor progress.

12. Spelling Strategies. Spelling strategies are ways that students focus on the conventions ofwritten language.

13. Literature Study. Literature discussion groups give students a chance to talk about theirperceptions and interpretations of a selected text. After reading the selection and respondingin a literature log, they meet to discuss ideas and insights. After discussion, group membersdecide how far they will read and what they will consider for the next discussion time.Different students serve as discussion leaders.

14. Readers’ Theatre. Reading aloud for a collective purpose is a variation of shared readingexperiences. Readers’ theatre is a group project that gives students the opportunity to worktogether to present a collaborative oral interpretation of a written text. Rehearsal demonstratesthe importance of listening to others and of feeling the rhythm of blended voices. Scriptsmay be adapted from predictable language stories or those with distinctive dialogue.

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15. Text Sets. The text sets used in literature study circles are usually multiple copies of thesame text to provide a focus for shared meaning. However, text sets may be a collection ofdifferent books on a related topic. Using sets of different texts encourages students to compare,contrast, and make connections in a reading discussion group. Related poetry may be includedas text sets as well as different versions of particular fairy tales or collections of books by thesame author.

16. Student Research. Reading and writing are important tools in content area learning.Self-selected research promotes active engagement of students in focused study. Many ofthe questions that students want to research cut across disciplines. A curriculum based oninquiry includes the examination of various perspectives. Students need the opportunity toexplore and share their discoveries by presenting their knowledge through various media.

17. Praise-Question-Polish (PQP). PQP is a framework used to assess understanding andevaluate learning. It has three columns for student responses to specific lessons, texts, topics,or focus studies. The praise column is for positive comments, the question column is forrecording ideas that are not clear, and the polish column is for suggested changes to improveunderstanding.

18. Exit Slips. Exit slips are self-evaluations that prompt students to review their learning.They may be used at the end of a class session, the end of a day, the end of a week, or the endof a focused study, a presentation, or a theme unit. Students reflect on what they learned andrequest further assistance if needed.

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Exploring

Text

The learning strategies and experiences that are included in this section begin with theassumption that reading is a thinking process that connects prior knowledge with pre-dicting and confirming strategies when dealing with text. All of the ideas are related togaining meaning from specific texts or topics related to texts. Students explore textthrough predicting, brainstorming, and confirming in a variety of situations; using clozeprocedures for specific and general purposes; questioning as a framework for readingand understanding; and analyzing and appreciating text.

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PREDICTION

WHAT: Prediction is a process used by readers to combine their knowledge with textual infor-mation to generate a hypothesis about what will happen next.

WHY: Prediction is a way of focusing interest and establishing a purpose for reading a par-ticular text — to confirm or expand understanding.

HOW: 1. Sample text.

2. Determine author’s purpose.

a. Inform (give facts)b. Persuade (attempt to influence reader’s opinion)c. Entertain (amuse)

3. Make prediction based on prior knowledge and textual information.

4. Resample text.

5. Confirm or adjust prediction.

6. Repeat the steps, stopping at logical places.

7. Prove, confirm, or reject.

8. Guide students to apply strategy in all content areas.

Further information:

Palinscar, A.S., & Brown, A.L. (1985). Reciprocal teaching: Activities to promote reading with your mind. InT.L. Harris & E.J. Cogen (Eds.), Reading, thinking, and concept development: Strategies for the classroom.New York: The College Board.

Tierney, R.J., Readence, J.E., & Dishner, E.K. (1990). Reading strategies and practices — A compendium(3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn Bacon.

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Example

DIRECTED READING THINKING ACTIVITY

Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) is a useful strategy to get students to make inferenceswhile reading. The role of the teacher is to guide students through a selection in order for them toformulate questions for themselves, make predictions, and validate or reject the predictions. Thestrategy should be done over a period of time during which the teacher models and gradually reducesguidance until students begin to use the strategy independently. The final instructional objective isthat the students be able to independently apply the DRTA strategy to all their reading selections.

STEPS

Activate background knowledge. “Look at the picture and the title on the first page of theselection. Think about what you already know about the topic of the selection. Let’s shareour ideas.”

Predict. “What do you think the selection will be about? What do you think will happen next?”

Support the prediction. “Why do you think so?”

Read silently. The students read a section of the text such as an episode or episodes in a story.

Confirm or reject the predictions. “What predictions can you prove? Why or Why not?”

Repeat the cycle. Use with the next section of the selection.

Many teachers find it useful to write predictions and modifications on the board to focus the discus-sion as they progress through the selection.

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Gill, J.T., & Bear, D.R. (1988). No book, whole book, and chapter DR-TAs. Journal of Reading, 31, 444-451.

Haggard, M.R. (1988). Developing critical thinking with the Directed Reading-Thinking Activity. The Reading Teacher,41, 526-535.

Stauffer, R.G. (1969). Directing reading maturity as a cognitive process. New York: Harper & Row.

Tierney, R.J., Readence, J.E., & Dishner, E.K. (1990). Reading strategies and practices—A compendium (3rd ed.).Boston: Allyn Bacon.

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Example

PREDICTION GUIDE

The Prediction Guide is a preparatory activity that focuses students’ interests and helps them establishpurposes for reading a particular section of a text. The Prediction Guide makes use of students’prior knowledge about a topic.

PROCEDURE:

Teacher compiles statements (some true, some false) from the selection to be read.

Students read the statements and sort them into YES/NO columns PRIOR to reading.

Students read selection.

Students check their predictions and confirm or reject.

YES NO

Adapted from:

Handout developed by the North Kansas City School District Chapter 1 Program.

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Example

RAINBOWS

DIRECTIONS:

BEFORE reading the selection about rainbows, read each statement and place a check in thefirst column for each statement with which you agree. Be prepared to defend your decision.

THEN share your decision with group members and make a group decision.

AFTER reading the selection, place a check on the third line beside the statements the authorwould support. Be ready to cite evidence from the text to support your arguments.

Personal Group Author

1. A rainbow forms in the part of the sky opposite the sun.

2. A rainbow can be formed by the light of the moon.

3. There are seven colors in each rainbow.

4. Each color in the rainbow takes up the same amountof space.

Developed by:

Seltzer, D. (1994). Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates, Inc.

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RAINBOWS

“RAINBOW is an arch of brilliant colors that appears in the sky when the sun shines after a shower

of rain. It forms in that part of the sky opposite the sun. If the rain has been heavy, the bow may

spread all the way across the sky, and its two ends seem to rest on the earth. The reflection and

refraction of the sun’s rays as they fall on drops of rain cause this interesting natural phenomenon.

‘All the colors of the rainbow’ is an expression that means a brilliant display color. The seven colors

that appear in each rainbow are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. But these colors

blend into each other so that the observer rarely sees more than four or five clearly. The amount of

space each color takes up varies, and depends chiefly on the size of the raindrops in which a rainbow

forms. LUNAR RAINBOW — occasionally, the light of the moon forms a rainbow. The feebleness

of the light creates faint colors, which are difficult to observe. This rainbow differs from the sun’s

only in intensity of color.”

Reprinted from:

Saucier, W.J. (1984). Rainbow. In The World Book Encyclopedia, (Vol. 16, pp. 125-126). Chicago: World Book, Inc.

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BRAINSTORMING

WHAT: Brainstorming is an exercise that involves groups of students in free association ofconcepts. All responses are accepted.

WHY: Brainstorming is a way to assess and value prior knowledge and experience. Also, itmay be used to review and evaluate learning. Group members work together to exploreconcepts and relationships.

HOW: 1. Choose a topic or concept to brainstorm. Topics for brainstorming may includesymbols, words, phrases, questions, or statements. Ideas may be generated by thesequestions:

● What does this mean?● What do you know about ?

2. Group members call out concepts that they associate with the topic. All associationsand terms are accepted and recorded on paper or a transparency.

3. Members of the group review the display of written responses and think about howthey might fit into categories or groups that have similarities. The leader asks howterms are similar or different.

4. The leader may summarize or add some concepts or suggest names for categories.

5. This experience is related to semantic webbing and the individuals or group mem-bers may draw a semantic web to organize ideas for further study.


Adams, J.L. (1986). Conceptual block busting. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.

Southeastern Educational Improvement Laboratory. (1990). Teacher’s aspirations for school improvement.Research Triangle Park, NC: Author.

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Pre Reading Plan (PReP)

WHAT: The Pre Reading Plan is a three-step demonstration for teachers to use before assigningtextbook reading to their students. It includes accessing prior knowledge, reflecting onassociations, and reformulating knowledge.

WHY: PReP helps teachers and students assess what students already know about a conceptand encourages student to refine predictions about concepts in the text. Readers have anopportunity to access their prior knowledge and to elaborate and evaluate their ideas.Teachers are assisted in making instructional decisions by assessing students’ priorknowledge about a given topic, assessing language use in expressing ideas, anddetermining the need for additional background information to assist students in under-standing the text.

HOW: The instruction given reminds students of what they already know about a topic, elicitsgroup elaboration of shared language and concepts, and refines predictions to assistindividuals in confirming and comprehending text.

GROUP DISCUSSION

The PReP calls for a group discussion before students read the text. The teacher reviewsthe assigned text to select a word, phrase, or picture to initiate group discussion about akey concept in the text. In a brief introduction, the teacher puts the prereading activity incontext by introducing the topic to be studied. There are three phases to the PReP.

1. Initial associations with the concept. In this first phase, the teacher says, “Tell meanything that comes to mind when . . . (you hear this word, see this picture, etc.).”As each student freely associates and tells what ideas initially came to mind, theteacher writes these responses on the board. During this phase, students have theirfirst opportunity to make associations between the key concept and what they alreadyknow.

2. Reflections on initial associations. During the second phase, the students are asked,“What made you think of . . . (the response given by each of the students duringphase 1)?” This phase encourages students to think about the associations they havemade, to listen to one another’s responses, and to become aware of their changingideas. Through this procedure, they gain the insight that permits them to evaluate theusefulness of these ideas in the reading experience.

3. Reformulation of knowledge. After all students have had an opportunity to think andtell about what triggered their ideas, the teachers asks, “Based on our discussion,have you any new ideas about . . . (the word, the picture, etc.)?” This phase allowsstudents to tell about associations that have been expanded, deleted, or changed as aresult of the discussion. Because they have had a chance to probe their memories and

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evaluate their ideas in terms of the text, they will read and reformulate their ideas inlight of the reading task. The responses elicited during phase 3 are often more refinedthan those elicited during phase 1.

LEVELS OF RESPONSE

There seem to be three levels of response during phase 1 and phase 3, based on theamount and organization of students’ prior knowledge. Categorization of knowledge intolevels provides teachers with diagnostic information in planning for instruction. Previousstudies have shown these levels to be more important than IQ or standardized reading testscores in predicting student recall of a particular passage (Langer & Smith-Burke, 1982;Langer & Nicolich, 1981).

If the student has much prior knowledge about the concept being discussed, responsesto “Tell me anything that comes to mind when . . .” generally take the form ofsuperordinate concepts, definitions, or analogies. They may also link the concept withanother concept, evidencing high integration of ideas.

If the student has some knowledge about the concept being discussed, responses generallytake the form of examples, attributes, or defining characteristics. If the student has littleprior information about the concept, responses generally focus on low-level associationswith morphemes (prefixes, suffixes, or root words), words that sound like the stimulusword, or firsthand (but not quite revelant) experiences. (A more complete description ofthe levels or organization of knowledge can be found in Langer & Nicolich, 1981.)

Taken from:

Farr, B., Peterson, S., Strickler, D., & Cripe, R. (1990). Understanding reading (Workshop leader’s guide). Indianapo-lis, IN: PRC, Inc. (formerly Advanced Technology, Inc.).

References:

Langer, J.A., & Smith-Burke, M.T. (1982). Reader meets author/bridging the gap (pp. 153-156). Newark, DE: Interna-tional Reading Association.

Langer, J.A., & Nicolich, M. (1981). Prior knowledge and its effect on comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior,13(4).

11

K-W-L

WHAT: K-W-L is a strategy that models the active thinking needed when reading expositorytext. The letters K, W, L stand for three activities students engage in when reading tolearn: recalling what they KNOW, determining what they WANT to learn, and identify-ing what they LEARN as they read.

WHY: This strategy is designed to help students develop a more active approach to readingexpository material. Teachers first model and stimulate the kinds of thinking needed forlearning and then give students individual opportunities to list what they know, whatquestions they want answered, and what they have learned from reading the text. In thisway, the benefits of group instruction are combined with individual student commit-ment and responsibility.

The strategy was developed to translate current research findings about the active,constructive nature of reading into an instructional lesson format. In classroom testing,K-W-L has been shown to be an effective tool to help students become more activethinkers and to help them remember better what they read (Ogle, 1986). It has also beenuseful in helping teachers better communicate the active nature of reading in groupsettings.

HOW: The strategy is designed for group instruction and can be used with either whole classesor smaller groups. It can be used in all curricular areas and at all grades in whichstudents are reading expository material.

1. Group instruction. The initial group portion of this strategy involves three basiccomponents.

a. First, the teacher engages students in a discussion of what they as a group alreadyknow about the concept the teacher or the students have selected to introduce thelesson. The teacher lists this information on the chalkboard or overhead projector.When disagreements and questions emerge, the teacher notes them and suggeststhat students may want to include them on the center column as questions theywant to have answered.

b. Second, after students have volunteered all that they can think of about the concept,they should be asked to categorize the information they have generated. Theteacher may need to identify one general category that incorporates two or morepieces of information on the board to model the building of chunks or categories.

c. Third, after the students are somewhat familiar with this process, they should beasked to anticipate the categories of information they would expect to have includedin an article on the topic. The categories of information identified will be usefulin processing the information they read and in future reading of a similar nature.

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2. Individual reflection. After the group introduction to the topic, students should beasked individually to list what they feel confident they KNOW about the concept.They can also write down the categories they think are most likely to be included. Atthis time, the teacher should help students raise those questions that have emergedduring the discussion or that come from thinking of the major categories of informa-tion they expect to find.

3. Reading. Students should be directed to read the text once they have focused both onwhat they know and what they want to find out from reading. Depending on thelength and difficulty of the text and the class composition, the text can either be readas a unit or be broken into sections for reading and discussion. As they read, studentsshould jot down information they learn as well as new questions that emerge.

4. Assessment of learning. The final step in the process is to engage the students ina discussion of what they have learned from reading. Their questions should bereviewed to determine how they were resolved. If some have not been answeredsatisfactorily, students should be encouraged to continue their search for information.

Taken from:

Godt, P.T., Jensen, D., & Ehlmann, M. (1991). Reading assessment: How do we measure understanding? (Workshopleader’s guide). Indianapolis, IN: PRC, Inc. (formerly Advanced Technology, Inc.).

Reference:

Ogle, D.M. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. The ReadingTeacher, 39(6), 564-570.


Anderson, R.C. (1977). The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise. In R.C. Anderson, R.J.Spiro, & W.E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence ErlbaumAssociates.

Anderson, C.W., & Smith, E.L. (1984). Children’s preconceptions and content-area textbooks. In G. Duffy,L. Roehler, & J. Mason (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: Perspectives and suggestions. New York: Longman.

13

Adapted from:

Ogle, D.M. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. The Reading Teacher,39(6), 564-570.

WHAT SO WHAT? NOW WHAT?

K W L(What we think

What we know we know) What we want to learn What we learned

14

Reprinted from:

Olson, M.W., & Gee, T.C. (1991). Content reading instruction in the primary grades: Perceptions and strategies.The Reading Teacher, 45(4), 303.

Example

K-W-L

K-W-L worksheet for a science selection on toads

K W LWhat we know What we want to What we learned and

find out still need to learn

Toads Are toads the sameas frogs?

1. small animals If not, how are theydifferent?

1. grayWhere do toads live in the

1. has a long tongue winter? In the summer?

3. jumps What do toads eat?

3. spits poison How do toads protectthemselves?

2. eats bugsHow far can they jump?

2. eats spiders

Categories

1. description

2. food

3. what toads do

15

CLOZE

WHAT: Cloze refers to the procedure of using reading material from which words or partialwords have been systematically deleted. The student completes the cloze passage byusing context clues to predict the missing words. Since its introduction by WilsonTaylor in 1953, the cloze procedure has taken many forms, including random deletion(every __nth word), limited cloze (deleted words are randomly listed in the margin),selected deletion (deleting selected words or parts of words such as verbs or nouns),word length clues, macrocloze (deleting an entire story part), and oral cloze (the teacherreads aloud a selection that contains deleted content words — students supply possiblewords).

WHY: The cloze procedure has various instructional uses such as developing readingcomprehension and use of context clues, assessing comprehension in a contextual set-ting, and evaluating the readability of texts to select appropriate instructional materials.

HOW: 1. The teacher introduces the students to the prediction procedure used in completingcloze passages by using an oral cloze with the students. The oral cloze procedureinvolves deleting selected content words from a high interest selection. Forexample, the book Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day(Viorst, 1972) is a good choice for an oral cloze because it is humorous, relates tochildren’s experiences, provides many alternatives for discussion, and buildsenthusiasm for the prediction process. As the teacher reads aloud, the childrensupply possible words for each of the words in brackets:

I went to sleep with gum in my [mouth] and now there’s gum in my [hair] andwhen I got out of [bed] in the morning I tripped on the [skateboard] and by mis-take I dropped my [sweater] in the sink while the [water] was running and I couldtell it was going to be a terrible, horrible, no good, very [bad] day.

During the completion of the oral cloze, the teacher should stress “taking risks” inmaking predictions by emphasizing that there are many correct answers.

2. As students supply possible answers for the words in brackets, the teacher lists themon the board. The students give reasons why their answers make sense. Students maywant to tape-record different versions to keep oral records of “Alexander’s DifferentTerrible Days.”

3. The teacher distributes a cloze paragraph to each student. The paragraph eachstudent receives should be on his or her independent reading level. Students read

16

their paragraph silently to predict as many possible answers that make sense in eachof the blanks in the paragraph. Students share their predictions and justify their choices.The teacher emphasizes that there are many correct answers.

4. Using materials on the students’ independent reading level from content areas,newspapers, magazines, or lyrics to popular songs, the teacher distributes copies ofselected paragraphs that contain underlined words. Working in teams of two or three,the students read the paragraphs together and record possible synonym substitutionsabove each of the underlined words.

Reference:

Viorst, J. (1972). Alexander and the terrible, horrible, no good, very bad day. New York: Macmillan.


Blachowicz, C.L.Z. (1977, December). Cloze activities for primary readers. The Reading Teacher, 300-302.

Jongsma, E.A. (1980). Cloze instruction research. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Rye, J. (1982). Cloze procedure and the teaching of reading. Exeter, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.

Schoenfeld, F.G. (1980). Instructional uses of the cloze procedure. The Reading Teacher, 34(2), 147-151.

Searfoss, L.W., & Readence, J.E. (1989). Helping children learn to read (pp. 218-220). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.

17

Example

VARIATIONS OF CLOZE

Sample Text

Once upon a time there was a little girl named Sherry who loved to visit her grandparents’ farmbecause there were so many interesting things to do. There were trees to climb and ponds to explore.There were horses to ride and cows to milk. There were sheep, pigs, ducks, geese, chickens, cats,and dogs to feed and care for. There were fruits and vegetables to pick and eggs to gather. There wascream to churn into butter and other food to prepare for cooking and eating. After supper, there wasalways time to tell stories by the light of the coal oil lamp.

Random Deletion

Once upon a time was a little girl Sherry who loved to

visit her grandparents’ farm because were so many interesting

to do. There were to climb and ponds explore.

There were horses to and cows to milk. were sheep,

pigs, ducks, , chickens, cats, and dogs feed and care for.

were fruits and vegetables pick and eggs to . There

was cream to into butter and other to prepare for

cooking eating. After supper, there always time to

stories by the light the coal oil lamp.

Limited Cloze

Once upon a time was a little girl Sherry who loved to visit her grandparents’ farm

because were so many interesting to do. There were to climb and ponds

explore. There were horses to and cows to milk. were sheep, pigs, ducks, ,

chickens, cats, and dogs feed and care for. were fruits and vegetables pick and

eggs to . There was cream to into butter and other to prepare for

cooking eating. After supper, there always time to stories by the light

the coal oil lamp.

and churnfood gathergeese namedof ridetell therethere therethere thingsto toto treesvisit was

18

Selected Deletions

Particular verbs: was and were

Once upon a time there a little girl named Sherry who loved to visit her grandparents’ farm

because there so many interesting things to do. There trees to climb and ponds to

explore. There horses to ride and cows to milk. There sheep, pigs, ducks, geese,

chickens, cats, and dogs to feed and care for. There fruits and vegetables to pick and eggs to

gather. There cream to churn into butter and other food to prepare for cooking and eating.

After supper, there always time to tell stories by the light of the coal oil lamp.

Initial consonant c lues

Once upon a time t was a little girl n Sherry who loved to v her grandparents’

farm because t were so many interesting t to do. There were t to climb and ponds

t explore. There were horses to r and cows to milk. T were sheep, pigs, ducks,

g , chickens, cats, and dogs t feed and care for. T were fruits and vegetables

t pick and eggs to g . There was cream to c into butter and other f to

prepare for cooking a eating. After supper, there w always time to t stories by the

light o the coal oil lamp.

Initial consonant c lues

Once p n t m th r w s l ttl g rl n m d Sh rry wh l v d t v s t h r

gr ndp r nts’ f rm b c s th r w r s m ny nt r st ng th ngs t d . Th r

w r tr s t cl mb nd p nds t xpl r . Th r w r h rs s t r d nd c ws

t m lk. Th r w r sh p, p gs, d cks, g se, ch ck ns, c ts, nd d gs t

f d nd c re f r. Th r w r fr ts nd v g t bl s t p ck nd ggs t

g th r. Th r w s cr m t ch rn nt b tt r nd th r f d t pr p r f r

c k ng nd t ng. ft r s pp r, th r w s lw ys t m t t ll st r s by

th l ght f th c l l l mp.

19

QUESTIONING

WHAT: If inquiry reflects the natural curiosity of children and adults, then questioning is animportant part of exploring text. A good question can give direction to learners to exam-ine their thinking, their reading, and their writing. Teachers create appropriate questionsas instructional cues and students ask questions to gain knowledge. Questioning as astrategy requires demonstration and use of questions that focus on meaning.

WHY: Questioning is used to involve students in experiencing, interpreting, and using text andin solving problems. Questions are tools for engaging attention, investigating ideas,assessing knowledge, and encouraging deeper understanding. Appropriate questions helpstudents develop metacognition and assist them in problem-solving strategies. Teachersuse questions to gain information about students’ understanding.

HOW: The effective questioner demonstrates and uses questions that serve different purposes.Questions may range from those that focus on recall of information to those that empha-size critical, creative thinking.

1. If the focus is on gaining factual information from text, the following questions mayhelp students before, during, and after reading.

Before reading:

● What is the topic?● What do I already know about this?● How is the text organized?● What do the illustrations tell me?

During reading:

● What kind of information am I learning?● Which of these details are important?● How does this information fit with what I already know?

After reading:

● What are the main points?● What does the author want me to know?● What do I do with this information?● What else do I want or need to find out?

20

2. If the focus is on literary text, then the following questions may help students tothink about what they are reading:

● What does the title mean?● What is the author trying to tell me?● What do I think this story or poem means?

For additional questions, refer to the section on literature response logs.

3. The challenge for teachers is to move students from literal recall questioning (Whatdo I know?) to self-generated questioning that values thinking (What do I think orwhat do I want to know and why?). Some of the following prompts may be useful:

● What do you think . . . ?● How do you know that . . . ?● How did you decide . . . ?● Why did you . . . ?● What else could you do . . . ?● What if . . . ?

Reference:

Christenbury, L., & Kelly, P.P. (1983). Questioning, a path to critical thinking. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachersof English.


Munkins, F.D. (1995). Teaching thinking through effective questioning (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Christopher-GordonPublishers, Inc.

21

Example

ReQuest

The ReQuest (Reciprocal Questioning) Procedure guides a student through as many sentences asnecessary to enable the student to comprehend the rest of the passage successfully. The ReQuestProcedure (Manzo, 1969) is designed to improve the student’s reading comprehension by provid-ing an active learning situation for the development of questioning behaviors. The teacher encour-ages the student to ask questions about the text material and to set his or her own purposes forreading. The ReQuest Procedure was originally devised as a remedial procedure involving an indi-vidual student and the teacher, but it can also be used with pairs, teams, and small groups.

The procedure is indirectly diagnostic; by noting the kinds of questions the student asks for eachkind of text structure, the teacher can determine whether the student is comprehending. Throughteacher modeling of good questioning behavior, the student gains insight into how good readers askthemselves questions as they are reading. In addition, the procedure encourages the exchange ofcontent information and ideas.

The Request Procedure consists of the following steps:

1. Both the student and the teacher silently read a common selection from the text. The selectioncan be read one sentence at a time or a paragraph at a time.

2. After they have both read the passage, the student asks as many questions as he or she can.The teacher answers the questions clearly and completely.

3. Then it is the teacher’s turn to ask the questions about the same sentence or paragraph, and thestudent answers as fully as possible. By forming questions that call upon the student’s graspof text structures, the teacher models good questioning strategies.

4. When the student has finished answering, the teacher and student read the next sentence orparagraph and proceed as before.

5. When the student has processed enough information to make predictions about the rest of theselection, the exchange of questions stops. The teacher then asks directed questions: “Whatdo you think the rest of the assignment is about?” “Why do you think so?” The student readsthe rest of the assignment.

6. The teacher facilitates follow-up discussion of the material.

The teacher chooses a story or passage to be read by the student and the teacher; content area textsand prose materials work equally well. Both the student and the teacher need copies of the readingmaterials. This procedure can be done with an individual student and the teacher or with pairs,teams, and/or small groups. Students are told they will read a story and take turns asking each otherquestions over a specified section to improve their understanding of what they read.

22

Taken from:

Godt, P.T., Jensen, D., & Ehlmann, M. (1991). Reading assignment: How do we measure understanding? (Workshopleader’s guide). Indianapolis, IN: PRC, Inc. (formerly Advanced Technology, Inc.).

Reference:


Manzo, A.V. (1969). ReQuest: A method for improving reading comprehension through reciprocal questioning. Jour-nal of Reading, 13, 123-126.

23

Example

QUESTION-ANSWER RELATIONSHIP (QAR)

To follow up on the development of questioning behaviors, the teacher may introduce students tothe Question-Answer Relationship (QAR). The QAR strategy helps students clarify the differentsources of information available to answer questions during the ReQuest Procedure. The teacherhelps the student decide if the questions they asked can be answered from IN-THE-BOOK or IN-MY-HEAD.

The IN-THE-BOOK category can be expanded to include:

1. Answers that are stated in the text (RIGHT THERE).

2. Answers that require the reader to put together material from the text (THINK AND SEARCH).

The IN-MY-HEAD category can include answers that require:

1. Students to think about what they already know and how that information fits in with theinformation the author provides in the text (AUTHOR AND ME).

2. Questions that can be answered without reading the text (ON MY OWN).

References:

Farr, B., Stephenson, S., Strickler, D., & Cripe, R. (1990). Understanding reading (Workshop leader’s guide). India-napolis, IN: PRC, Inc. (formerly Advanced Technology, Inc.).

Raphael, T.E. (1982). Question-answering strategies for children. The Reading Teacher, 36.

Raphael, T.E. (1985). QARS revisited. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

QAR

RightThere

INTHE

BOOK

INMY

HEAD

Think & Search(Putting ittogether)

Authorand Me

On MyOwn

➞ ➞ ➞ ➞

➞ ➞

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Developed by:

Watson, D. (1979) Columbia, MO: University of Missouri.


Watson, D., & Gilles, C. (1988). ERRQ. In C. Gilles, M. Bixby, P. Crowley, S. Crenshaw, M. Henrichs, F. Reynolds, &D. Pyle (Eds.), Whole language strategies for secondary students (pp. 44-45). New York: Richard C. Owen Publishers.

Example

ERRQ

ERRQ (Estimate, Read, Respond, and Question) is a reading strategy that involves students’ ques-tioning of text to gain meaning. Students estimate how far they can read with understanding andthen read that portion. They respond to the information by reacting to it and forming a questionabout it.

Readers who are given choices about a text are more willing to make a commitment to exploremeaning. ERRQ is designed to help students link new information to their own experiences. Whenstudents formulate questions, they have to think about what they know in a different context. Thequestions help to organize information and give the teacher a way to understand the reader’s com-prehension. The teacher may need to demonstrate different types of questions and discuss theappropriateness of each in accessing information.

1. The teacher explains that ERRQ stands for estimate, read, respond, and question. After a texthas been chosen and distributed, the teacher demonstrates the process.

2. Estimate. Students look over the text and estimate how far they can read and maintain under-standing. They identify the text portions with a light pencil mark.

3. Read. Students read the text silently, orally, or with a partner in paired reading. They are urgedto consider how the text affects them. What images come to mind as they read? Does the textremind them of anything from their experience?

4. Respond. After reading, students react. What comes to mind as they read? What images orfeelings are evoked? If students are working with partners, they share oral retellings with theirpartners. If students are working individually, they retell everything they can remember tothemselves or write their responses down for future reference.

5. Question. Students generate questions about the reading. If students have marked the text byparagraphs or smaller portions of text, they may create questions about each of the markedportions, or they may ask general questions about the whole piece. The teacher may collectthe questions for evaluation purposes.

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THINK-ALONG

WHAT: A think-along is a teaching demonstration that makes the invisible thinking process ofreading visible. It is an attempt on the part of the teacher to model the thinking processthat any good reader engages in when reading. Students observe the teacher thinkingaloud while reading a text.

WHY: Students need demonstrations of thinking processes to activate their own constructionof meaning. Making personal connections with text is important in becoming a transac-tional reader.

HOW: 1. Select a short story or informational passage to read aloud to students while theyfollow along with their own copies. Interrupt the reading by verbalizing the ideasthat are evoked by the text. Thinking aloud may include:

• Repetition or elaboration of details of setting or characters.• Prediction of what might occur next.• Cognitive confusion of events or word meanings.• A need to reread for confirmation or clarification of meaning.• Activation and connection of prior knowledge.

2. After the demonstration, ask the students what they noticed about your thinking pro-cess as the text was analyzed. Make a list on the chalkboard. Discuss the strategiesthat were demonstrated. Were some repeated or used more than others? Make a check-list for use in doing think-alongs in small group settings. Students may tape-recordand listen to their think-aloud experience to check which strategies they used.


Davey, B. (1983). Think-Aloud: Modeling the cognitive process of reading comprehension. Journal of Reading, 26(2),44-47.

Farr, R. (1989). Teaching good habits with think-alongs. Educational Leadership, 47(3), 94.

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Example

A THINK-ALONG IN READING

Gwynne, F. (1970). The king who rained. New York, NY: Windmill Books and E.P. Dutton.

Teacher: My big sister’s getting married and she says I can hold up her train.

Thinking: I wonder if I will ever get married. Where will I live? Why does a train have to beheld up? What kind of train — a diesel, an electric? Is this the kind of train thespeaker means?

Teacher: Daddy says there are forks in the road.

Thinking: What are forks doing in the road? Did they come from someone’s dinner table? Dothey have three or four prongs? Are there other kinds of forks that I don’t knowabout?

Developed by:

Seltzer, D. (1994). Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates, Inc.

27

Example

A THINK-ALONG IN MATH

Teacher: The fifth grade students at University Elementary School are planning a party, toinclude the entire school. There is only one classroom per grade.

Thinking: I wonder how many boys and girls are in each classroom?

Teacher: To plan refreshments for the party, we need to figure out how many boys and girlsare to be served.

Thinking: How do I go about obtaining this information?

Teacher: A planning group will canvas the rooms to ask for the enrollment of each classroom.

Thinking: How will this information be recorded?

Teacher: The number of students will be written on a list showing each grade.

Thinking: Using my calculator I will add up the number of students in each grade to find thetotal number of students.

Teacher: What is the total number of students at University Elementary School?

Thinking: My calculator has given me the answer. I need to check for reasonableness andsubmit the answer so planning for the party can continue.

Developed by:

Burns-Stowers, R. (1994). Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates, Inc.

28

BIG BOOKS

WHAT: Big books are enlarged texts designed to be used in shared reading time. Increasing thesize of pictures and print makes it possible for children to see the illustrations and thewords as the teacher reads aloud and shares the text. Big books should have predictablepatterns or interesting plots so that students can have a worthwhile experience. Big printand big pictures get attention, but the value is diminished if the text is not interesting.Big book sets include multiple copies of small books for individual and group readingafter the text has been shared in a large group.

WHY: These large texts are used to make children aware of print and how it works. Big booksprovide a linguistic framework for language learning within the context of a story orconnected text. The large visual display of conventional print along with the comple-mentary illustration helps students to see interesting structural patterns and graphicarrangements. Students may notice interesting letter similarities, punctuation symbols,word order, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other conventions of print. Using texts thatinclude rhyme, repetition, cumulative structure, natural language flow and familiar sub-ject matter, or other predictable features assists students in developing confidence intheir ability to construct meaning.

HOW: 1. The teacher introduces a big book by showing the title and asking students to predictthe content (“What do you think this book will tell us about ___________?”).

2. The teacher reads the text aloud, stopping at natural points for student interaction.

3. The teacher invites students’ questions and comments after the reading is completed.

4. The teacher reads the book again and invites the students to read along. At the end ofthis reading, he or she encourages a discussion about personal connections made bythe students.

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THEN

WHAT: The teacher invites students to select individual ways of extending the story or retellinginformation in visual or written forms.

Sources for big books:

Delmar Publishers, 2 Computer Drive West, Albany, NY 12212

Goldencraft-Children’s Press, Western Publishing, 5440 North Cumberland Avenue, Chicago, IL 60656

Learning Well, Department DF, 200 South Service Road, Roslyn Heights, NY 11577

Random House, Department 436, 400 Hahn Street, Westminster, MD 21157

Rigby, P.O. Box 797, Crystal Lake, IL 60014

Scholastic, P.O. Box 7501, 2931 East McCarthy Street, Jefferson City, MO 65102

Wright Group, 10949 Technology Place, San Diego, CA 92127

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WORDLESS BOOKS

WHAT: These are books that use pictures and either minimal print or no print at all to tell a storyor to present information. The absence of print focuses attention on constructing mean-ing from the illustrations.

WHY: Books without words are used to encourage language knowledge and use and also toassess oral and written language development because students demonstrate their lin-guistic knowledge and experiential background as they construct meaning.

HOW: There are numerous ways to use these picture books with groups and individuals. Per-haps personal enjoyment with no requirements for responding is the best idea.

1. Some students like to look at a wordless book and then tell the story or make com-ments about the information into a tape recorder. Some choose to write dialogue;others prefer to write a narrative account of the plot, setting, or characters.

2. Students may work together as partners or within a small group to share their percep-tions of the illustrations. They may respond by writing a group description of theideas generated by the pictures. Other possibilities include writing narratives of storyplots, creating dialogue for the characters, or developing scripts for puppet shows orreaders’ theatre. Students may also create their own wordless books for the classlibrary.

THEN

WHAT: Students may present their creative projects to the rest of the class, to other classes, orfor parents’ programs.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORDLESS BOOKS

Alexander, M. (1970). Bobo’s dream. New York: Dial Books.

Anno, M. (1974). Anno’s alphabet. New York: Harper & Row.

. (1979). Anno’s animals. New York: Philomel.

. (1981). Anno’s journey. New York: Philomel.

. (1983). Anno’s USA. New York: Philomel.

Baker, J. (1991). Window. New York: Puffin.

Bang, M. (1980). The grey lady and the strawberry snatcher. Four Winds.

Briggs, R. (1986). The snowman. New York: Random House.

Day, A. (1985). Good dog, Carl. San Diego, CA: Green Tiger Press.

. (1989). Carl goes shopping. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux.

. (1991). Carl’s afternoon in the park. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux.

. (1993). Carl goes to daycare. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux.

DePaola, T. (1978). Pancakes for breakfast. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

. (1980). The knight and the dragon. New York: Sandcastle.

Felix, M. (1980). The story of a little mouse trapped in a book. San Diego, CA: Green Tiger Press.

. (1993). The further adventures of a little mouse trapped in a book. San Diego, CA: GreenTiger Press.

Florian, D. (1982). The city. New York: Crowell.

Goodall, J. (1968). Adventures of Paddy Pork. New York: Harcourt.

. (1972). Jacko. New York: Harcourt.

. (1975). Creepy castle. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

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. (1979). Story of an English village. New York: Macmillan.

. (1982). Paddy goes traveling. New York: Macmillan.

. (1983). Lavinia’s cottage. New York: Macmillan.

. (1984). Paddy under water. New York: Atheneum.

. (1985). Naughty Nancy goes to school. New York: Macmillan.

. (1986). Paddy to the rescue. New York: Macmillan.

. (1986). The story of a castle. New York: McElderry Books.

. (1988). Little red riding hood. New York: Macmillan.

. (1989). The story of a farm. New York: Margaret K. McElderry Books.

. (1990). Puss in boots. New York: Margaret K. McElderry Books.

Hoban, T. (1971). Look again. New York: Macmillan.

. (1981). Take another look. New York: Greenwillow.

Hutchins, P. (1971). Changes, changes. New York: Macmillan.

Krahn, F. (1974). April fools. New York: Dutton.

. (1975). Who’s seen the scissors? New York: Dutton.

. (1977). The mystery of the giant’s footprints. New York: Dutton.

. (1978). The great ape. New York: Viking Press.

. (1981). Arthur’s adventure in the abandoned house. New York: Dutton.

Mariotti, M. (1982). Hanimals. San Diego, CA: Green Tiger Press.

. (1982). Humands. San Diego, CA: Green Tiger Press.

. (1984). Humages. San Diego, CA: Green Tiger Press.

Mayer, M. (1967). A boy, a dog, and a frog. New York: Dial Books.

. (1976). Ah-choo. New York: Dial Books.

. (1977). A boy, a dog, a frog, and a friend. New York: Dial Books.

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. (1977). Frog goes to dinner. New York: Dial Books.

. (1978). Hiccup. New York: Dial Books.

. (1978). Oops. New York: Dial Books.

. (1980). Frog on his own. New York: Dial Books.

. (1980). Frog, where are you? New York: Dial Books.

McCully, E. (1984). Picnic. New York: Harper.

. (1985). First snow. New York: Harper.

Ormerod, J. (1981). Sunshine. New York: Puffin.

. (1982). Moonlight. New York: Puffin.

Spier, P. (1982). Rain. New York: Doubleday.

. (1986). Dreams. New York: Doubleday.

Tafuri, N. (1987). Do not disturb. New York: Greenwillow.

. (1988). Junglewalk. New York: Greenwillow.

Turkle, B. (1976). Deep in the forest. New York: Dutton.

Vincent, G. (1985). Breakfast time, Ernest and Celestine. New York: Greenwillow.

Wiesner, D. (1991). Tuesday. New York: Clarion Books.

Winter, P. (1976). The bear and the fly. New York: Crown Publishers.

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SCHEMA STORIES

WHAT: Schema stores are based on students’ understanding of story elements and the useof language. Whole stories are divided into parts for students to arrange in logicalorder. Students work in small groups to arrange and discuss one complete story or storysummary.

WHY: The experience of arranging parts of a story into a logical sequence assists students inmaking predictions and confirming language knowledge.

HOW: The teacher selects short, well structured stories or informational pieces, divides theminto sections, and places the parts in an envelope. Group members work together todetermine the sense or schema of the piece and arrange the parts in order.

1. Form groups and choose a leader and a recorder from each group.

2. The leader of a group takes the story parts from the envelope and gives a differentsection to each member of the group.

3. The parts are not in sequential order so that the participants can determine the logicalsequence. Each person in the small group reads his/her part silently. The leader maysuggest that they think about what could have happened before and after their sec-tion of text. After individuals have had time to read and think about their portions oftext, they try to determine the sequence.

4. Members of the group try to determine who has the beginning of the story, and theone who thinks s/he has the first section, reads aloud his/her section to the rest of thegroup. They agree or disagree which is the first part. This process continues until thegroup agrees on the sequential order of the parts.

5. If the group has trouble deciding, give members of it a copy of the complete story toconfirm their decisions. The important aspect of this strategy is the attention paid tothe structure and language of the story rather than the sequential order.

6. Invite small groups to share their experiences and insights.

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Developed by:

Watson, D. (1977). Columbia, MO: University of Missouri.


Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors (pp. 340-345). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Possible sources for schema stories and materials:

Cole, J., & Calmenson, S. (Eds.). (1988). The read-aloud treasury. New York: Doubleday.

Haugaard, E. (1974). A treasury of Hans Christian Andersen. New York: Barnes & Noble.

Kipling, R. (1978). Just so stories. New York: Weathervane Books.

Oxenbury, H. (1985). The Helen Oxenbury nursery story book. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Prelutsky, J. (1984). New kid on the block. New York: Scholastic.

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Example

SCHEMA STORY SUMMARY

White, E.B. (1970). The trumpet of the swan. New York: Harper & Row.

This example is a variation of using schema story. A summary of a familiar story may be used tointroduce a story before reading or to review the plot after reading. Student-written summaries maybe used after the teacher has demonstrated the procedure. This summary of The Trumpet of theSwan is divided in five parts so that a group can make decisions about the sequence of the sectionsto check their understanding or to use their linguistic knowledge for making connections. Deletethe numbers before distributing the parts to individuals in the group.

1. Sam Beaver loved living on a ranch in western Montana, but most of all, he enjoyed thecamping trips to Canada that he and his father took when they could get away from the ranch.During the summer he and his parents were kept busy entertaining guests at their ranch, sospring and fall were the best times to plan on a few days of camping, fishing, and exploring.

2. On one of these trips, when Sam was exploring the swamps and woods around the Canadiancamp site, he discovered a nest of trumpeter swans. This event began an interesting and excit-ing adventure that Sam recorded in his diary. For some time, Sam had been writing in a diary,or journal, to keep a daily log of his experiences. Every night at bedtime he wrote about theevents of the day, the things that he had seen, and the thoughts that he had had. Sometimes hedrew a picture, but he always ended his journal by asking himself a question.

3. Sam returned to the pond the next morning to observe the trumpeter swans and did not knowthat they were also observing him. When the eggs in the nest hatched, Sam observed thecygnets’ (baby swans) first swimming lesson and noticed one cygnet in particular. That babywas Louis, who had a real problem.

4. Louis was different from the rest of his noisy brothers and sisters because he couldn’t make asound. The family tried to help him but they were unsuccessful. Sam gave Louis a slate tohang around his neck and taught him to read and write. However, since the other swans couldn’tread, Louis still couldn’t make himself understood. He loved the beautiful Serena, but with-out a trumpet sound, he couldn’t get her attention, so she ignored him.

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5. Sensing the severity of the problem, Louis’ father crashed into a music shop and stole a brasstrumpet to give his son a voice so that he could woo Serena. Louis felt obligated to pay off hisfather’s debt for damages and stolen property. He also wanted to win Serena’s love, so he hadto leave his home and family to find ways of making a living. Louis learned to play thetrumpet and found employment as a musician in Boston and Philadelphia to earn enoughmoney to repay the music shop owner. His faith and determination eventually brought success.

Developed by:

Crenshaw, S. (1994). Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates, Inc.

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Developed by:

Burns-Stowers, R. (1994). Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates, Inc.

Example

MATH SCHEMA STORY

This story is divided into four parts for students to read and arrange in logical order. The numbersare deleted before distributing the parts to different individuals.

1. On a cold and windy day in Anytown, America, a very large, ugly creature emerged from theriver to explore the possibilities of finding a home. It was 7 a.m. when he lumbered from theriver to start his investigation. The creature stood an awesome 40 feet tall and weighed 1,000pounds. The amazing thing about him was that each day he would double in size.

2. After eating several prominent landmarks, he doubled in size. Twelve hours later, at 7 p.m., hewas 80 feet tall and weighed 2,000 pounds. The local police and fire departments, which werein the path of the monster, seemed to be a perfect dessert. Eating them caused him to grow to160 feet tall and to weigh in at 4,000 pounds. Amazing to say the least!

3. Mr. Monster devastated the town of Anytown, America, roaming back and forth destroyingeverything in sight. The water tower was the next item on his menu, and it added to his size of160 feet and 4,000 pounds. He doubled both his height and weight after eating the Anytownwater tower.

4. At 320 feet and 8,000 pounds, the monster decided to settle in what was left of Anytown. Whoknows if he will eat other things and continue to grow.

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Expanding

Meaning

When students are exploring text, there is the hope that they are expanding meaning andunderstanding. The ideas and activities that are included in this section assist learners inthat process. The suggestions are arranged from simple to more complex involvementbut are not necessarily meant to be sequential. Organizing concepts in visual formemphasizes the arrangement of related ideas and includes semantic webbing, story maps,and sketches to represent understanding. Problem solving focuses on thinking processesapplicable to all content areas. Meaning is expanded through social interactions withothers in reciprocal teaching, partner reading, and focused conversations. Writing isboth an individual and group process of expanding meaning through reading responseexperiences such as journals, logs, letters, and the authoring cycle. Literature study indiscussion groups encourages shared meaning. Text sets and research projects are use-ful for connecting student questions and interest. The last two items in this section areevaluative forms that invite learners to expand meaning by reflecting on what they learnedor what they want to do next to expand their meaning.

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SEMANTIC MAPPING

WHAT: Semantic maps or webs are diagrams that help students see how words or topics arerelated to one another. Semantic mapping is not a new instructional strategy; for a num-ber of years it has been known as “semantic webbing,” “plot mapping,” and “semanticnetworking.”

WHY: The procedure activates and builds on students’ prior knowledge and generally involvesbrainstorming and discussion of how new information links to this prior knowledge.The maps can be used for vocabulary and comprehension development as a prereadingor postreading activity.

HOW: While there are a number of variations to semantic mapping, the general steps involvedare:

1. Write the chosen vocabulary word or story topic on the blackboard. Draw a box orcircle around the word or term.

2. Encourage students to think of as many words or ideas as they can that relate to theselected word or topic.

3. Students may:

● Write their ideas on paper and then share those ideas in group discussion.

● Brainstorm ideas in a small group to share in large group discussion.

● Orally share ideas together to generate a class semantic map.

4. Students’ ideas are listed on the semantic map in categories that organize the words ina reasonable and related manner. These details or related words or ideas are writtenaround the main word or topic.

5. Discussion of the semantic map is perhaps the most important part of the activity.Here students see how words or ideas are related, learn new words and find newmeanings for words they already know. During discussion, focus on the ideas mostappropriate to the lesson being taught, add new related ideas to the map, and helpstudents to identify those ideas that do not appropriately fit the map.

41

Taken from:

Godt, P.T., Jensen, D., & Ehlmann, M. (1991). Reading assessment: How do we measure understanding? (Workshopleader’s guide). Indianapolis, IN: PRC, Inc. (formerly Advanced Technology, Inc.)

Reference:

Heimlich, J.E., & Pittelman, S.D. (1986). Semantic mapping: Classroom applications. Newark, DE: Reading AidsSeries, IRA Service Bulletin.

Other sources:

Hanf, M.A. (1971). Mapping: A technique for translating reading into thinking. Journal of Reading.

42

Taken from:


Reference:


Example

SEMANTIC MAPPING

. . . before reading

The activity integrates information from several sources to build students’ background knowledgefor a topic to be studied. The instructor prepares for this activity by choosing several materials thatprovide information on the topic. These materials could include posters; pictures; maps; easy-to-read trade books; filmstrips; various high-interest, low-vocabulary reading materials; and textbookor basal materials.

1. Write the topic on the blackboard and draw a circle around the word. List key vocabularywords on the blackboard, including a context phrase or sentence for each word.

2. Write each key word on the semantic map as a category heading. Discuss each word, listingdetails students already know about these category headings in colored chalk. Ask students toskim the basal textbook to find the key words in context. Discuss the uses or meanings ofthose words in the text and write those ideas on a semantic map in white chalk. (The differentcolored chalk indicates information from different sources.) Have students review the othermaterials (e.g., posters, filmstrips, library books) to find additional information that fits orrelates to the categories on the semantic map. Write these ideas on the map in chalk of adifferent color.

3. Have students read the textbook material, stopping at the end of each section to add informa-tion to the semantic map. Write this information in white chalk to indicate that the informa-tion came from the textbook. When the semantic map is completed, use the map to helpstudents summarize or recap the information about the topic.

4. Have students use the semantic map to write a summary of the important facts and detailsabout the topic.

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Example

SEMANTIC MAPPING

. . . after reading

1. Tell students they are going to read a story about ______ (topic). Provide enough context forthe upcoming reading to help students make predictions about what they think will happen inthis story. Introduce any key vocabulary words in context and then have students read thestory silently.

2. Write the title of the story in the center of the blackboard and draw a circle around it. On linesdrawn from the circle, write key concepts or themes from the story. For example, these con-cepts or themes can include how the characters look, important problems and episodes in thestory, how the characters feel or react, and outcomes of the story. Have students suggest ideasfor each of these concepts or themes based on what they remember from reading the story.Write their ideas on the map.

JACOB HAVE

I LOVED

Rass Island

Chesapeake Bay

Louise feelsdisappointed andsad but she finds

happiness

EVENTS

SETTING

THEME

Louise Caroline

plain beautiful

quiet talented

thoughtful successful

ignored by center of attentionfamily

World War II brings hardships

Captain Wallace marries AuntTrudy

Caroline receives money fromaunt to study music

Louise leaves school to helpsupport family

McCall, Louise’s friend, marriesCaroline

Louise goes to work inAppalachia

Louise marries widower andsettles in Appalachia

➞➞

➞➞

➞➞

➞

CHARACTERS

McCall

Capt. Wallace

Aunt Trudy

Father Mother

Twins

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3. With the students, recap the story by reviewing the semantic map. Have students reread thestory (orally or silently) to look for other important information not included on the map. Asstudents find new information through this guided reading, add it to the map.

4. Have students use the completed map to guide retelling of the story. If appropriate, havestudents role-play or act out the story. The map can also be used to structure a writing activityin which students write a summary of the story using the information on the map.

Taken from:


Reference:


Paterson, K. (1980). Jacob have I loved. New York: Avon Books.

45

Example

SEMANTIC MAPPING

. . . for vocabulary development

1. Write the word or concept to be studied on the blackboard and ask students to think of asmany words as they can related to that word or concept. An alternate way to initiate theactivity is to ask, “What do you think of when you see the word ___________ (topic)?”

2. Have students, in small groups or as a whole group, brainstorm a list of words related to thekey word or concept. These words are written on a sheet of paper or on the blackboard in alist.

3. Construct the group semantic map by writing the brainstormed words in categories aroundthe key word or concept. Have students suggest labels for these categories, if possible. As theinstructor, you may add words or ideas to appropriately complete the group semantic map.Discuss the group’s semantic map, pointing out relationships and differences among words.Have students point out new words they learned from this map as well as new meanings forwords they already knew.

4. Have students look for words in the semantic map as they read an appropriate story. Studentsmay also be asked to write a paragraph or short story using the words or concept from thesemantic map.

Reference:


46

Reference:


Example

SEMANTIC MAPPING

. . . as a study skill strategy

Semantic mapping may be used as a study skill strategy to guide the processing of textbook mate-rial with either individuals or groups.

There are three basic steps to design a map of content information from a text.

1. Identification of main idea. The title or main idea is written on a sheet of paper and a shape isdrawn around it. Students then think of all they already know about the topic and decide whatthey expect to find in the chapter. Next, students write three or four questions about the topicon the other side of the map.

2. Secondary categories. The principal parts of the textbook chapter will form the secondarycategories in the semantic map. Before reading the textbook, students hypothesize what thebasic parts of the chapter will be and then skim the chapter for the accuracy of their hypoth-eses. Labels for the secondary categories are then written on the map. (If sections in the texthave not been labeled, the secondary categories must be summarized and labeled.) The sec-ondary categories organized around the main idea complete the structure of the map andprovide a picture of the thinking that has taken place. Students may place a question markafter each category label so they know what information to target during reading.

3. Support details. In this final step of the procedure, students read the chapter for details andcomplete the map by adding the details from memory. The map provides immediate feedbackabout whether students need to reread the chapter to add more information to any of thecategories. The completed map provides a graphic summary of the information in the chapter.

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SKETCH TO STRETCH

WHAT: Representing ideas through drawing provides another way of responding to text thatstudents have read, heard, or viewed. It can be an individual or group experience. Afterreading, hearing, or viewing a text, individual students are invited to illustrate the con-cepts or ideas that are important to them. Students may listen to a taped story and sketchtheir ideas or read a short text and illustrate the meaning in a series of pictures. Theymay listen to a text being read aloud, or they may view a video and draw their responsesas well.

WHY: Visual imagery helps students to see what they are thinking and understanding. Sketchto stretch is an alternative way of responding to text by retelling a story or expandinginformational concepts through drawings or sketches. The drawings may be used togenerate writing.

HOW: To demonstrate this strategy, the teacher may read aloud a poem or a short story andinvite students to sketch any pictures or images that come to mind.

1. The teacher reads aloud a descriptive passage from a story or chooses a poem toshare with the class.

2. Students sketch while they are listening. Copies of the text may be distributed for thestudents to read. After revisiting the text, students may revise their illustrations torefine details or to expand the meaning gained from reading the material.

3. The teacher gives them additional time to complete their sketches and asks if theywould like to share them with a partner or in a small group. Students talk about themeaning of their sketches and generate discussion about the author’s ideas and thesimilarities or differences in individual interpretations.

Developed by:

Harste, J., Burke, C., Siegel, M., & Feathers, K. (1984). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University.


Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors (pp. 353-357). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

48

PROBLEM SOLVING

WHAT: Problem solving is a method of inquiry and is a means of using “thinking processes toresolve a known or defined difficulty” (Cohen, 1972) in any curricular area. Problemsolving, as described in mathematical terms, is “a method of inquiry and application toprovide a consistent context for learning and applying mathematics” (NCTM Standards,p. 23). Teachers nurture problem finding and problem solving by encouraging studentsto ask questions.

WHY: Development of students’ capacities for problem solving in all areas of learning is nec-essary to achieve the goal of helping students become more effective, critical thinkersabout what they read and hear. The basics of the 21st century include problem solvingand communication.

HOW: Problem solving is often viewed as a series of steps that include defining or describinga problem, determining a desired outcome, selecting possible solutions, choosing strat-egies to use, trying out solutions, evaluating the outcomes, and revising where neces-sary. A simplified version includes:

I Identifying the problem

D Defining the problem

E Exploring strategies

A Acting on ideas

L Looking for the effects (Bransford, 1984)

IDEAL A PPROACH TO PROBLEM SOLVING

Have participants form groups of five.

Choose a newspaper article on a problem or social issue. Divide the article up into fivesections. Have each person read one section of the article to the group. This requires thatthe reader participate by preparing and delivering the reading, but it also requires thelisteners to pay careful attention to details. (If the article contains a solution, you maywish to keep the section on the solution so participants can come up with their ownsolution.)

Consistent with the IDEAL approach to problem solving, the participants work together —first identifying the problem, then defining it more clearly, exploring, acting on ideas,and looking at the effects.

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Have groups share their collaborative results and their thinking processes.

What distinguishes this model from traditional lessons on teaching critical reading skillsis the application of these skills in a reading context that presents real or simulatedproblems. Successful problem solving uses many skills simultaneously.

Based on:

Bransford, J.D., & Stein, B.S. (1984). The ideal problem solver: A guide for improving thinking, learning, and creativ-ity. New York: Freeman.

Reference:

Cohen, J. (1972). Thinking (p. 5). Chicago: Rand McNally and Co.

50

Example

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

Using objects. There are two major ways of using objects, materials, or manipulatives in problemsolving. First, objects can be used to represent various aspects of a problem or situation. A secondmethod of using manipulatives is particularly related to geometry, which requires physical modelsfor real understanding. Whether studying computational concepts such as angular measure or areaor considering perceptual ideas such as symmetry, students must experience tangible realities.

Acting out problems. Many problems are based on actions. Accurate modeling of the problemrequires students to carry out these actions to discover a solution. Unfortunately, textbooks oftensuggest pictorial representations when concrete actions would be more appropriate for students’level of thinking. By taking an active role in finding the solution, students are more likely to rememberthe process they used and be able to use it again for solving similar problems.

Using or making a table. A table is an orderly arrangement of data, such as numbers. Problemsolvers find that making tables helps them keep track of data, spot missing data, and identify datathat are asked for in the problem. Because patterns often become obvious when data are organizedin a table, this strategy is often used in conjunction with other strategies. The table is used to keeptrack of data and could also be used for identifying a number pattern.

Making an organized list. Making an organized list helps problem solvers organize their thinkingabout a problem. Recording work in an organized list makes it easy to review what has been doneand to identify important steps that must yet be completed. It also provides a systematic way ofrecording computations made with given data or recording combinations of given items.

Making a pictur e or diagram. For some students, it may be helpful to use an available picture ormake one when trying to solve a problem. Pictures and diagrams must be compatible with theschemata that students have in their mind. It is important that they help the problem solver under-stand and visualize the data in the problem.

Making a guess and checking the result. When problem solvers use this strategy, they guess theanswer, test to see if it is correct, and make another guess if the previous one was incorrect. In thisway, they gradually come closer and closer to a solution by making increasingly more reasonableguesses. Problem solvers can also use this strategy to get started and may then find another strategythat can be used. Guessing and checking is particularly helpful when a problem presents so manypieces of data that making an organized list becomes a major task.

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Using or looking for a pattern. A pattern is a regular, systematic repetition. A pattern may benumerical, visual, or behavioral. By identifying the pattern, the problem solver can predict whatwill come next and what will happen again and again in the same way. Looking for patterns is avery important strategy for problem solving and is used to solve many different kinds of problems.Sometimes students can solve a problem just by recognizing a pattern, but often they will have toextend a pattern to find a solution. Making a number table often reveals patterns and, for thisreason, is frequently used in conjunction with the “look for a pattern” strategy.

Working backwards. To solve certain problems, the solver must make a series of computations,starting with data presented at the end of the problem and ending with data presented at the begin-ning of the problem. This strategy is used when the answer is given but a reconstruction of the partsthat made up this answer is needed.

Using logical reasoning.Logical reasoning is really used for all problem solving. However, thereare types of problems that include or imply various conditional statements such as: “if . . . then,” or“if . . . then . . . else,” or “if something is true, then . . . ,” or “if something is not true, then . . .” Thedata given in the problems can often be displayed in a chart or matrix. This kind of problem requiresformal logical reasoning as the problem solver uses deductive reasoning to attack the problem.

Simplifying the problem. Students will find it helpful to be able to make problems simpler, espe-cially when they begin to solve complex problems. Making a problem simpler may mean reducinglarge numbers to small numbers or reducing the number of items given in a problem. The simplerrepresentation of the problem may then suggest what operation or process can be used to solve themore complex problem. The simpler representation may even reveal a pattern that can be used tosolve the problem.

Adapted from:

Hyde, A. A., & Hyde, P. R. (1991). Mathwise, teaching mathematical thinking and problem solving. Portsmouth, NH:Heinemann.

Hoogeboom, S., & Goodnow, J. (1987). The problem solver 1, activities for learning problem-solving strategies. Sunny-vale, CA: Creative Publications.

Problem solving and literature source:

Griffiths, R., & Clyne, M. (1988). Books you can count on: Linking mathematics and literature. Portsmouth, NH:Heinemann Educational Books, Inc.

52

RECIPROCAL TEACHING

WHAT: Reciprocal teaching is an instructional activity that takes place as a dialogue betweenteachers and students regarding segments of text. The dialogue is structured by the useof four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. Theteacher and students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue.

STRATEGIES

Summarizing provides the opportunity to identify and integrate the most importantinformation in the text. Text can be summarized across sentences, across paragraphs,and across the passage as a whole. When students first begin the reciprocal teachingprocedure, their efforts are generally focused on sentences within a paragraph. As theybecome more proficient, they are able to integrate paragraphs and passages.

Question generating reinforces the summarizing strategy and carries the learner onemore step along in the comprehension activity. When students generate questions, theyfirst identify the kind of information that is significant enough to provide the substancefor a question. They then pose this information in question form and self-test to ascer-tain that they can indeed answer their own question. Question generating is a flexiblestrategy to the extent that students can be taught and encouraged to generate questionsat many levels.

Clarifying is an activity that is particularly important when working with students whohave a history of comprehension difficulty. These students may believe that the purposeof reading is saying the words correctly; they may not be particularly uncomfortablethat the words, and in fact the passage, are not making sense. When the students areasked to clarify, their attention is called to the fact that there may be many reasons whytext is difficult to understand (e.g., new vocabulary, unclear referent words, and unfa-miliar and perhaps difficult concepts). They are taught to be alert to the effects of suchimpediments to comprehension and to take the necessary measures to restore meaning(e.g., reread, ask for help).

Predicting occurs when students hypothesize what the author will discuss next in thetext. To do this successfully, students must activate the relevant background knowledgethat they already possess regarding the topic. The students have a purpose for reading:to confirm or disprove their hypotheses. Furthermore, the opportunity has been createdfor the students to link the new knowledge they will encounter in the text with theknowledge they already possess. The predicting strategy facilitates use of text structureas students learn that headings, subheadings, and questions embedded in the text areuseful means of anticipating what might occur next.

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WHY: These strategies help students to construct meaning from text and to monitor their read-ing to ensure that they are understanding what they read.

HOW: 1. Reciprocal teaching should be introduced to students with some discussion regard-ing the many reasons why text may be difficult to understand, why it is important tohave a strategic approach to reading and studying, and how the reciprocal teachingprocedure will help the students understand and monitor their understanding as theyread.

2. The students are then given an overall description of the procedure, emphasizing thatit takes the form of a dialogue or discussion about the text and that everyone takes aturn assuming the role of teacher in this discussion. To illustrate, the person who isassuming the role of teacher will first ask a question that he or she thinks coversimportant information that has been read. The other members of the group answerthat question and suggest others they may have thought of. The “teacher” then sum-marizes the information read, points out anything that may have been unclear, leadsthe group in clarifying and, finally, predicts the upcoming content.

3. To ensure a minimal level of competency with the four strategies, the students receivepractice with each of them. For example, the students summarize their favorite movieor television show. They then identify main idea information in brief and simplesentences and graduate to more complex paragraphs that contain redundant and trivialinformation. Each strategy receives one day of introduction.

THEN

WHAT: After the students have been introduced to each of the strategies, the dialogue begins.For the initial days of instruction, the adult teacher is principally responsible for initiat-ing and sustaining the dialogue. This allows the teacher to provide further instructionand to model the use of the strategies in reading for meaning. The adult teacher maywish to call upon more capable students who will serve as additional models, but it isimportant that every student participate at some level. For some students, this participa-tion may be such that they are noting one fact that they acquired in their reading. This isa beginning, and over time the teacher, through modeling and instruction, can guidethese students toward a more complete summary.

As students acquire more practice with the dialogue, the teacher consciously tries toimpart responsibility for the dialogue to the students while he or she becomes a coach,providing the students with evaluative information regarding the job they are doing andprompting more and higher levels of participation.

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Taken from:




Brown, A., & Palincsar, A.S. (1982). Inducing strategic learning from texts by means of informed, self-control training.Topics in Learning and Learning Disabilities, 2(1), 1-17.

Palincsar, A.S. (1986). Reciprocal teaching. In Teaching reading as thinking (pp. 5-10). Alexandria, VA: Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Palincsar, A.S., & Brown, A. (1985). Reciprocal teaching: Activities to promote “read(ing) with your mind.” In T.L.Harris & E.J. Cooper (Eds.), Reading, thinking, and concept development: Strategies for the classroom. New York:The College Board.

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PARTNER READING

WHAT: Partner reading is a simple strategy of reading with someone else. Some students readaloud to each other; others read silently and then talk about their perceptions, questions,and insights. Students from different classrooms may be partners, or teachers and stu-dents may be partners.

WHY: Sharing a text with someone else has benefits that go beyond enjoying a story or gaininginteresting information. It encourages shared meaning. Reading together works well inmultiage classrooms where partners of different ages share text and understanding. Theteacher may be a reading partner with individual students to assess strengths and needsfor planning appropriate instruction.

HOW: 1. Select partners and texts by choice or by random assignment.

2. Partners negotiate how they will read the text and how they will discuss shared mean-ing. They will decide how far to read and who will begin. They may take turns read-ing aloud or they may read silently. The value of having a partner is to talk aboutwhat is clear and what is not. Questions may arise that send the readers back to thetext to find answers.

THEN

WHAT: 1. Partners may join other partners in a small-group setting to talk about their texts andtheir interpretations.

2. A recorder in the group in the group takes notes and the group decides how to reportthe questions or comments from the group discussion.


Gilles, C., & Crowley, P. (1987). Partner book selection. In D.J. Watson (Ed.), Ideas and insights (pp. 176-177).Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Routman, R. (1991). Invitations (p. 35). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

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Developed by:

Watson, D. (1977). Columbia, MO: University of Missouri.


Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

SAY SOMETHING

WHAT: This is a reading strategy that invites immediate response similar to written conversa-tion. Instead of writing, students use oral language to share understanding or confusion.It works best with partners but may be used with three or four. The students take turnsspeaking first each time.

WHY: Talking about ideas is important in comprehending text. Verbalizing thought to some-one else assists individuals in making connections with an author’s purpose for sharinginformation and feelings.

HOW: 1. Each student receives a copy of the text for reading and responding.

2. The partners or group members decide cooperatively how far to read before stoppingto talk about the author’s ideas or descriptions, and they decide who will speak first.

3. After reading the identified portion of the text, they stop and the designated speakerwill say something related to the text.

4. Each person listens and responds with comments, reactions, or questions. The part-ners or members of the group may decide to reread the text to clarify ideas or toanswer questions before reading the next portion for further discussion. They decidehow far to read for the next section and the readers take turns and continue the cycleuntil the text has been completed.

5. Each person may keep notes of the main ideas discussed so that a group or partnerreport may be shared.

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WRITTEN CONVERSATION

WHAT: This quiet communication experience is an approved form of note passing, and it can beused with all ages, grade levels, and content areas. Anything that can be discussed ver-bally can be written down, but it is a silent communication. Young children can partici-pate by drawing pictures and using invented spelling.

WHY: Written conversation is a way of thinking and sharing understanding with someone else.The teacher may use written conversation to check for understanding of specific contentby suggesting focus questions as a prewriting experience or as a review technique forrecalling or evaluating previous knowledge in various content areas.

HOW: One sheet of paper is shared by partners as they carry on a silent conversation in writing.One person starts the conversation and usually asks a question before handing the paperto the writing partner. The partner reads the comment or question and responds in writ-ing. This conversation continues as the writers respond to each other’s comments andquestions.

Developed by:

Burke, C. (1977). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University.


Crafton, L. (1991). Whole language: Getting started . . . moving forward (pp. 195-198). Katonah, NY:Richard C. Owen.

Burke, C. (1977). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University.

King, D. (1987). Written conversation. In D. Watson (Ed.), Ideas and insights. Urbana, IL: National Councilof Teachers of English.

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RESPONDING TO READING AS WRITERS

WHAT: This strategy involves having students present their own writing to their peers. The goalis to develop readers and writers who have a sense of authorship and readership, whichhelps them in the composing process. This goal includes developing students’ apprecia-tion of the following:

● What they read has been written by someone who has certain purposes in mind andcontrol over what has been written.

● When they write, they use a variety of options.

● What they write can be interpreted in different ways by different readers.

Collaboration is the Key

● The role of the teacher is nontraditional.

● Students act as advisors and evaluators along with the teacher.

● Students are given control of questioning and other ideas that are raised.

WHY: Providing students with opportunities to write — including writing in response to whatthey read and interacting with each other about their own writing — encourages stu-dents to generate their own ideas and provides feedback on the quality of their thinking.

HOW: Students give and receive responses to writing through different types of conferences.

1. Reading and Writing in Progress Conference

● The student who requests the conference is responsible for entertaining thequestions and ideas from the group.

● The key is providing peers an opportunity to get an issue on the floor, acquireinput, and then discuss how the advice can be used.

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2. End of Book Conference

The reader/writer chooses a method to share his/her writing: summarizes the piece,reads a section of the report or story, or discusses the process of reading or writing.

After the reader/writer’s presentation, the listener(s) responds with comments andquestions.

3. Peer Author Conference

● The author and another student (the reader) present the reading.

● The reader reports on the writing (including what he/she enjoyed, found confus-ing, and might use) and fields questions and comments.

● The author listens as someone else represents the writing. The author may ask thereaders about their recommendations and evaluation.

Obstacles to Consider:

● Avoid center stage; a conferencing approach requires a social setting filled with acollegial tone.

● Encourage students to comment honestly; and in the beginning, comments maybe off-base, too general, or too tentative.

● Model appropriate interactions.

Vital Conferencing Tenets:

1. Students should have the opportunity to write extended stories and reports oftheir own choosing for longer than 30 minutes twice a week.

2. Writing experiences contribute to reading. Unless these tenets are observed in theclassroom, these conferences cannot take place.

Adapted from:

Tierney, R.J., Readence, J.E., & Dishner, E.K. (1985). Reading strategies and practices, a compendium,second edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.

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JOURNALS AND LOGS

WHAT: Journals and logs are records of thinking and give students the chance to use writing asa way of discovering what they know. Keeping a journal or a log is a way to preserveone’s personal thoughts, feelings, opinions, ideas for exploration, and questions offuture consideration. The contents of personal journals are not usually shared with any-one else unless an idea is taken from the journal as a seed for writing that will be shared.Dialogue journals and traveling journals, variations of written conversation, are intendedfor sharing.

WHY: Journals and logs are often used for making personal connections, sharing insights, andcollecting data to document learning.

HOW: Journal and log entries may be kept in manila folders, spiral notebooks, or three-ringbinders or on plain sheets of paper stapled together.

1. Paper, a stapler, and masking tape are the basic materials for assembling a personaljournal. Students may choose to vary construction from the model provided.

2. Ask the students to take some time to think about a personal entry. Ask, “What thoughtsor ideas are most important at this time?” Everyone is encouraged to participate sothat the experience may be shared. Show samples of journal writing or share a per-sonal entry to demonstrate the possibilities.

3. Give the students sufficient time to think and write.

4. When everyone has finished, ask students to form small groups to reflect on theexperience. Have each group choose a discussion leader and a recorder for sharing.Discuss the experience of putting personal thoughts on paper. Realizing writing is away of knowing, ask students, “What did you learn about yourself?”

5. Invite the group leaders to share their discussion ideas and ask students to makesuggestions for using journals or logs.

6. Try a variety of types to see what works best.

● Personal journals are used like diaries to record personal thoughts and feelings,interesting ideas to explore, or perplexing questions. The writer and reader arethe same person, and the contents are not necessarily shared with anyone else.

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● Dialogue journals are used for writing ideas, responses, feelings, insights, andquestions to share with others. Many students dialogue with their teacher, whichgives the teacher the opportunity to note the interests and abilities of individualstudents. The teacher can demonstrate the use of dialogue format while usingconventional forms of language. Dialogue journals are another form of writtenconversation and are not graded for spelling, punctuation, or any other conven-tions of language. However, they may be used as an assessment tool to observehow a student uses language.

● Traveling journals are used to record group responses to particular texts. Whengroups of students are working together on a project, book, story, topic, question,or common theme, the individuals write to each other, similar to written conver-sation, in a traveling journal. Entries may include comments on the progress orthe lack of it that each person is experiencing. The journal may travel from personto person in the group on a rotation schedule or it may be kept in a central loca-tion for individuals to make regular entries. The teacher reads and responds to thegroup effort to encourage progress, to provide new invitations for extendingunderstanding, or to suggest ways of locating assistance.

● Reading logs provide opportunities for students to record their thoughts and ques-tions about what they are reading. Teachers need to demonstrate that they arereaders by sharing their reading log entries with students. Reading response logsare variations of journals with a particular focus and literature response logs canbe specific components of literature discussion groups where students share theirwritten responses to initiate and continue discussion in the group. Teachers mayincorporate reading or literature logs as documentation for evaluations.

● Learning logs are another variation of writing as a way of knowing. They mayinclude responses to a variety of content materials and concepts, or theme cycles,or they may be focused on one particular lesson or concept. They may take theform of science logs or math logs if subject areas are not integrated. Studentskeep track of what they have learned about a particular topic or lesson in thelearning logs and use them for reflection and self-evaluation. Entries may includesummaries, insights, and questions to extend learning.

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Crafton, L. (1991). Whole language: Getting started .. . . moving forward (pp. 163-168). Katonah, NY:Richard C. Owen.

Fulwiler, T. (Ed.). (1987). The journal book. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors (pp. 280-285). Portsmouth,NH: Heinemann.

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Example

IDEAS FOR MATH LEARNING LOGS

Teachers might give students any of the following assignments:

● Write math word problems using the concept being taught.

● Describe a practical application of the concept being taught.

● Keep a budget to show how you use your allowance.

● List the steps you would follow to construct a five-sided polygon. (This activity could be usedfor many figures.)

● Which configuration is best to describe life: a line? a circle? a square? a triangle? a spiral?Explain.

● Make up an advertisement for a job requiring extensive math skills.

● Describe what would happen if no one could count past five.

● Take a real-life problem and describe how a computer would assist in solving it.

● When in real life has knowing math been helpful to you? Explain.

● Write a paragraph with the title “Computers I Have Known.”

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Example

GUIDING QUESTIONS FOR READING LOGS

A reading log has many labels, such as reading journal, literature log, or reading response log.Regardless of the label, it is a record of responses to reading literature. The purpose is to givereaders ownership of their understanding of the text and to connect reading, writing, and thinkingprocesses. Student responses in the log are valuable for initiating and continuing discussion in theliterature study groups. Teachers may use logs as part of guided reading activities or as dialoguejournals between teacher and student or student and student. Logs may also serve as documentationfor evaluations.

Here are some possible questions to get students started:

1. Who was your favorite character? Describe.

2. Where did the story take place?

3. What was a problem in the story?

4. Did any of the characters change? If so, how?

5. Was there anything that surprised you?

6. Were you disappointed about anything?

7. Would you change anything in the story? Why or why not?

8. Is this story like any other you have read or seen?

9. Did you have strong feelings as you read this story?

10. What thoughts went through your head while you were reading?

11. Were you reminded of something or someone in your own life?

12. What questions occurred to you as you were reading?

Developed by:


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Developed by:


LETTERS

WHAT: The prevalent availability of technology has affected students’ style and interest in writ-ing letters. Some have suggested that letter writing is becoming a lost art. Students needto know that personal and business correspondence is still important. Pen pal letters,personal letters to family and friends, business letters of application, persuasive let-ters, and consumer awareness letters are possibilities for developing communicationproficiency.

WHY: Students need to know that letter writing is an important ability that serves a number ofpurposes. Some examples for student involvement include persuasive letters to the localnewspaper editor, the school board president, the school superintendent, or to state andnational legislators. Other options are pen pal letters to students in other schools, otherstates, or other countries. Learning to write letters of application is the first hurdle manyjob seekers face. Knowing how to write consumer awareness letters is important whenordering materials and protesting inferior products when returning materials. Studentsare invited to generate the types of letters that they would like or need to write. Thesense of audience determines the format and language.

HOW: Ask students to think about the different purposes for writing letters. Divide them intosmall groups and choose someone in each group to lead the discussion and someoneelse to record ideas for later sharing.

1. The leader or teacher may begin with the following introduction: “Think about thelast letter you wrote. What was the purpose? How often do you write letters?” Afterindividuals have shared some perceptions, invite them to think about what kind ofletter they would like to draft.

2. Provide paper for first draft writing of a letter. After about ten minutes, lead a discus-sion about the experience. What was easy? What was difficult?

3. Have the recorder list the major points of the discussion and share them with thelarger group.

4. Facilitate whole group sharing of ideas about letter writing. Ask students to choosetwo kinds of letters they will write. Suggest partner conferences for revision andediting.

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AUTHORING CYCLE

WHAT: An authoring cycle is a framework for using writing as a way of knowing in the class-room. As a writing process, the authoring cycle includes thinking, drafting, sharing,revising, editing, and publishing. Students make choices about what they want to sayand how to say it.

WHY: An authoring cycle is useful for helping students to view themselves as authors withimportant ideas to share and to develop communication abilities. The emphasis is ongenerating ideas and selecting the appropriate expressive language. Students’ progressand needs are monitored by reviewing collected drafts, and strategy lessons may beused in context to encourage writing improvement.

HOW: Students follow these steps:

1. Think about experiences.

2. Read and write materials of one’s choice.

3. Prepare writer’s folder.

4. Choose topic.a. The teacher leads discussion about choices.b. The students list two or three possibilities.c. Individuals brainstorm on paper all the ideas they have related to one or both of

the topics.d. The students choose a listening partner and share ideas for two or three minutes

each.

5. Write first drafts.a. Write name and date on paper.b. Write “draft #1” on paper.

6. Conference.a. The teacher circulates among students to check progress.

(1) “How is it going?”(2) “What do you plan to do now?”

b. The teacher holds conference.(1) The student reads a piece to the teacher.(2) The student says what s/he likes best about the work.(3) The teacher may ask revision questions:

“Did anything give you trouble?”“Is there anything you would like to change?”“What do you plan to do next?”

c. The students hold peer conferences.The students may follow the format of the teacher conference.

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7. Work on additional drafts using ideas from the conferences.

8. Revise to express the message clearly — focus on meaning.Label additional drafts in order (draft #2).

9. Edit to check the form or structure.

10. Publish on bulletin board displays or in newsletters, class books, individual books,or like materials.

11. Celebrate and share one’s work with others.a. Invite the principal, librarian, and parents.b. Share the writing with other classes.c. Have an author’s party.

12. Start another topic and keep the cycle going.

Developed by:



Applebee, A., Langer, J., & Mullis, I. (1987). Grammar, punctuation, and spelling: Controlling the convention ofwritten English at ages 9, 13, and 17. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 282 928).

Atwell, N. (1990). Coming to know: Writing to learn in the intermediate grades. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Calkins, L. (1986). The art of teaching writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Graves, D. (1983). Writing: Teachers and children at work. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors: The reading-writing connection. Ports-mouth, NH: Heinemann.

Moffett, J. (1992). Active voice. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

Murray, D. (1989). Expecting the unexpected: Teaching myself — and others to read and write. Portsmouth, NH:Boynton/Cook-Heinemann.

Parson, L. (1991). Writing in the real classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Watson, D. (Ed.). (1987). Ideas and insights. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

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SPELLING STRATEGIES

WHAT: Spelling strategies are ways the students focus on the conventions of written language.

WHY: Editing is an important part of written communication, and spelling is a part of theediting process. Students need options for dealing with spelling problems.

HOW: Discuss the following strategies with students and ask them for additional suggestions.

Try it f ir st. To encourage students to explore language structure, have them try severalspellings of a particular word. Invite them to try as many forms as they wish, but theymust try at least two spellings that make sense to them.

Use other resources. Students may ask someone other than the teacher, or they mayuse the dictionary or other printed resources.

Work with a partner. Students may work with a partner to check spelling or to learnnew spelling words. They teach and support each other.

Develop own list. Students choose five focus words each week that they want to learnto spell. This works well with partners because they can give each other hints and pre-tests or develop crossword puzzles to increase spelling efficiency. They keep records ofprogress and share these with the teacher.

Create personal dictionaries. These may evolve from focus words identified by indi-vidual students or may include high-frequency words that are difficult to remember. Asstudents learn the words, new dictionaries may be constructed or word files may bereviewed and reorganized. Known words may be deleted and new ones included.

Check four basic rules. Sixty years ago, Leonard Wheat identified four basic rulesthat were consistent enough to spend time in learning (cited in Wilde, 1992, pp. 89-90).They are:

1. When a word ends in a single vowel and single consonant, double the consonantbefore adding -ed or -ing if the word is a monosyllable or has stress on the finalsyllable.

2. When a word ends in a consonant and y, change the y to i before adding mostsuffixes (except those beginning with i).

3. When a word ends in a silent final e, drop the e before adding suffixes starting witha vowel.

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4. When a word has the vowels i and e together, the i comes before e except after c.

Check classroom display chart. Students brainstorm frequently used words that havedifficult spelling configurations. These words are printed on a display chart that is usedas a handy reference for immediate visual checking as needed.

Share mnemonic strategies. Students take the role of teacher to share tips for remem-bering specific spellings by presenting their strategies as a mini lesson.

Developed by:


Wilde, S. (1992). Portland, OR: Portland State University.


Buchanan, E. (1989). Spelling for whole language classrooms. Winnipeg, Manitoba: Whole Language Consultants.

Frith, U. (Ed.). (1980). Cognitive processes in spelling. London: Academic Press.

Henderson, E., & Beers, J. (Eds.). (1990). Developmental and cognitive aspects of learning to spell: A reflection ofword knowledge. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Read, C. (1981). Children’s categorization of speech sounds in English. Urbana, IL: National Council ofTeachers of English.

Wilde, S. (1992). You kan red this! Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

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Adapted from:

Peterson, R. (1987). Literature groups: Intensive and extensive reading. In D. Watson (Ed.)., Ideas and insights(pp. 21-23). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.


Cullinan, B. (1987). Children’s literature in the reading program. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors: The reading-writing connection.Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Moss, J. (1984). Focus units in literature: A handbook for elementary school teachers. Urbana, IL: National Council ofTeachers of English.

Nelms, B. (Ed.). (1988). Literature in the classroom: Readers, texts, and contexts. Urbana, IL: National Council ofTeachers of English.

LITERATURE STUDY

WHAT: Literature study is extensive and intensive reading for learning and for pleasure.

WHY: Literature is a way to connect with the language strengths of children and to expandtheir thinking and experience. By sharing literature in this active and natural way, read-ers increase the foundations for reading, writing, listening, and speaking.

HOW: 1. Provide books for extensive reading. Books are chosen based on readers’ interestsand on the books’ potential for helping readers make personal meaning and extendtheir previous experiences with literature and their desire to know. Young readersmay primarily need familiar stories or those that have predictable language andexperiences. Introduce the books to the group by giving short book talks.

2. Form groups of three to five readers based on their selection of books to be read.

3. Read the book to the group or negotiate a number of pages to be read. Readers areinvited to keep records of their reading in reading logs, which are self-written ordrawn or dictated.

4. Recognize that the intensive reading occurs in the group when the readers study anddiscuss the book. Begin the discussion by encouraging readers to share their impres-sions and ideas based on the text and problems they may have encountered in creat-ing meaning as they read. Encourage students to think critically and “live” the actionand characters. Study of literacy elements will naturally occur as discussion focuseson characters, mood, language, action, and symbols.

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Peterson, R., & Eeds, M. (1990). Grand conversations: Literature groups in action. Richmond Hill, Ontario:Scholastic-TAB.

Short, K.G., & Pierce, K.M. (Eds.). (1990). Talking about books: Creating literate communities. Portsmouth, NH:Heinemann.

Watson, D. (Ed.). (1987). Ideas and insights. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

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Example

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERATURE RESPONSE LOGS

A literature response log may be called a reading log, reading journal, literature log, or readingresponse log. Regardless of the label, it is a record of responses to reading literature. The purpose isto give readers ownership of their understanding of the text and to connect reading, writing, andthinking processes. Student responses in the log are valuable for initiating and continuing discus-sion in the literature study groups. Teachers may use logs as part of guided reading activities or asdialogue journals between teacher and student or student and student. Logs may also serve asdocumentation for evaluations.

SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERATURE LOG ENTRIES:

Respond to cues:

● Describe one of the characters.● Where did the story take place?● What was a problem in the story?● What were the main events?● Did any of the characters change? If so, how?● Was there anything that surprised you?● Were you disappointed about anything?● How did the author keep you interested?● What do you think might happen next?● Would you change the ending? Why or why not?

Reflect on personal reactions:

● Is this story like any other you have read or seen?● Did you have strong feelings as you read this story?● What thoughts went through your head while you were reading?● Were you reminded of something or someone in your own life?● What questions occurred to you as you were reading?● What was your overall feeling about this story?● Why do you think the author wrote this story?● Is there any part that you would change?

Illustrate part of the text:

● Draw your favorite part of the story.● Draw particular character(s) based on description.● Draw a setting as described by the author.● Assume the role of illustrator for a part of the book.

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Use for vocabulary enrichment:

● Reader-selected miscues — Students select unknown words by writing the page and linenumber for each. They suggest how each word is used and what they think it could mean.Share ideas in the discussion group.

● Author’s use of words — Students select interesting words; that is, those that describe par-ticular story elements or those that they find fascinating for any reason.

● Students copy interesting passages that connect to different writing styles or exemplify par-ticular language patterns or usage.

Generate questions for discussion:

Students learn how to ask discussion questions as teachers model good ones. Often, their firstones are quite literal and text-dependent, but as students gain experience, they learn more aboutopen-ended questioning to enrich the discussion in the group.

Freewrite:

Invite students to write anything they choose. Give no cues or prompts. This may be the bestresponse of all.

Suggestions for other writing activities:

Books without words.

Extending reading by writing● Different ending● Changing characters, revised plot● Different point of view● Student-written books

Rewriting patterned language● Repetitive (The Gingerbread Man, Arno, E., 1973, Scholastic)● Cumulative (The Napping House, Wood, A., & Wood, D., 1984, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich)● Interlocking (Small Talk, Pienkowski, J., 1985, Price/Stern/Sloan)● Chronological (The Giving Tree, Silverstein, S., 1964, Harper & Row)● Rhyme and rhythm (Over in the Meadow, Keats, E.J., 1985, Scholastic)

Reference:

Crenshaw, S.R. (1992). Literature sets, circles, and cycles. An in-service presentation at Wydown Middle School forClayton, Missouri, district teachers.

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Sloyer, S. (1982). Readers’ theatre: Story dramatization in the classroom. Urbana, IL: National Council ofTeachers of English.

READERS’ THEATRE

WHAT: Readers’ theatre is a variation of choral reading. It is a group project that gives studentsthe experience of working together to present a collaborative oral interpretation of awritten text.

WHY: Reading aloud for a focused purpose alleviates the anxiety associated with oral readingbecause everyone is helping in a positive way. In the process, individuals engage natu-rally in silent reading to track other readers’ parts. Several practice sessions may benecessary to establish confidence for sharing the piece with an audience.

HOW: Rehearsal provides the opportunity to listen to others and to feel the rhythm of blendedvoices. When performing, students usually stand in a semicircle facing the audience.Each reader has a marked script in a folder that is held at a comfortable reading distance.Some groups have the readers step forward to deliver their lines and then step back intothe formation. Script may be developed from predictable language stories or those withrepetitive passages. Stories with dialogue are easily adapted to script with the use of anarrator to give background information. Poetry is a good way to begin because of therhythm and imagery of the language. Here are some suggestions for group presentation:

1. Distribute copies of the script to each reader.

2. After everyone reads the text silently, talk about how to arrange the different parts orvoices.

3. Have the students do a first draft oral reading to experience the sound of the languageand the meaning that they want to express.

4. As rehearsal continues, have them generate and adapt ideas for presentation to thelarger group.

5. Have groups select a recorder and reporter and discuss how to use readers’ theatre inthe classroom. Suggest some good resources for scripts.

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TEXT SETS

WHAT: Text sets are collections of books related by theme, author, illustrations, or genre.

WHY: Text sets are helpful in encouraging students to compare, contrast, and make connec-tions in a reading discussion group. Literature discussion groups are sometimes difficultto sustain because multiple copies of the same text are not available. Sharing is neces-sary in using text sets because all group members do not have access to each text.

HOW: Students should form groups and do the following:

1. Explore the various books in the text set collection.

2. Share discoveries from the various copies of texts.

3. Talk about differences and likenesses.

4. Decide how to share information with the larger group.

5. List how books were alike or different.

THEN

WHAT: Text sets give students the opportunity to read two or more texts that are related in someway and then talk about the relationships. Generally two or more texts that have similarcharacteristics are chosen. Following are different ways to choose text sets.

1. In content areas, students can read conceptually related texts and use them for textsets (Crafton, 1991). For example, if students were studying Abraham Lincoln’s partin the Civil War, a teacher might begin collecting books such as:

Beatty, P. (1988). Be ever hopeful, Hannalee. New York: Morrow. (Sequel to Turn Homeward,Hannalee. This work of fiction authentically portrays regulators, the Ku Klux Klan, and blacksand whites after the Civil War.)

Fehrenbacher, D. (Ed.). (1964). Abraham Lincoln: A documentary portrait through his speechesand writings. New York: New American Library. (Lincoln’s own writings.)

Freedman, R. (1987). Lincoln: A photobiography. New York: Clarion Books. (Photos and textabout Lincoln.)

Neely, M. (1982). The Abraham Lincoln encyclopedia. New York: McGraw-Hill. (For refer-ence and browsing.)

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To this list, a variety of expository texts — including encyclopedias, nonfiction tradebooks, National Geographic articles, facsimiles of newspapers of the era and fictionbooks — could be added.

Students then have opportunities to read their choice(s) and discuss a common ques-tion or compare and contrast the similarities in the texts. Using text sets in this wayleads into research and reporting in content areas.

2. Genre-related text sets such as using fairy tales or folk tales allow students to com-pare and contrast stories to gain a better understanding of the genre itself (Moss,1990). For example, the following tales all deal with magical objects:

DePaola, T. (Reteller). (1975). Strega Nona: An old tale. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Lang, A. (Reteller). (1981). Aladdin and the wonderful lamp. New York: Viking Press.

Steel, F. (Reteller). (1976). Tattercoats: An old English tale. Scarsdale, New York:Bradbury Press.

Steig, W. (1969). Sylvester and the magic pebble. New York: Windmill Books.

Of course, other genres such as biography, poetry, social issues, realism, historicalfiction, high fantasy, and informational books could be used.

3. Teachers often can focus literature study group books around a theme. Since allstudents have read novels centered on a theme, students can discuss the theme as anentire class after they all have finished their novels, or members of the class whohave read different books with a similar theme can meet together in small groups todiscuss the similarities and differences in their books. Some books that lend them-selves to particular themes are:

Survival/personal discoveryGeorge, J. (1972). Julie of the wolves. New York: Harper & Row.George, J. (1959). My side of the mountain. New York: Dutton.Holman, F. (1974). Slake’s limbo. New York: Scribner.Mazer, H. (1973). Snow bound. New York: Delacorte Press.Paulsen, G. (1987). Hatchet. Scarsdale, New York: Bradbury Press.

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Family problemsByers, B. (1985). Cracker Jackson. New York: Viking Kestral.Danziger, P. (1980). Can you sue your parents for malpractice? New York: Dell.Nixon, J. (Dates variable). The orphan train quarter (includes A Family Apart, Caught in the

Act, A Place to Belong, In The Face of Danger). New York: Bantam Books.Peterson, K. (1978). The Great Gilly Hopkins. New York: Crowell.

4. Literature text sets are useful for developing math concepts. The following twobook lists both use time as a theme, but for different age groups.

Text Set for Younger Childr en

Carle, E. (1987). The very hungry caterpillar. New York: Philomel.Coats, L. (1987). The oak tree. New York: Macmillan.Florian, D. (1988). A summer day. New York: Greenwillow Books.Gerstein, M. (1989). The sun’s day. New York: Harper & Row.Gould, D. (1988). Brendan’s best-timed birthday. Scarsdale, NY: Bradbury PressMaestro, B., & Maestro, G. (1985). Through the year with Harriet. New York: Crown Publishers.Neasi, B. (1988). A minute is a minute. Chicago: Children’s Press.Sendak, M. (1986). Chicken soup with rice: A book of months. New York: Scholastic.

Text Set for Older Childr en

Anno, M., Briggs, R., Brooks, R., Carle, E., Calvi, G., Chengliang, Z., Dillon, D., Dillon, L.,Hayashi, A., & Popov, N. (1986). All in a day.. New York: Philomel.

Anno, M. (1987). Anno’s sundial. New York: Philomel.Burns, M. (1978). This book is about time. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co.Fisher, L. (1987). Calendar art: Thirteen days, weeks, months, years from around the world.

New York: Four Winds Press.Kirst, Werner. (1977). Time. Woodstock, NY: Beekman Publishers.

5. Other ways of grouping books for text sets are:

— Texts with a similar structure (especially useful with younger children are rep-etitious language, rhyme, and refrain).

— Different versions of the same story (Chicken Little stories, Jack and theBeanstalk versions, the Elves and the Shoemaker versions).

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— Texts by the same author (Jean George, S.E. Hinton, Roald Dahl, VirginiaHamilton).

— Texts with similar characters (compare the strong women characters of MildredTaylor, or the male characters of S.E. Hinton).

— Various cultures or a similar culture as a theme.

— Caldecott or Newbery Award text sets. Students can read award winners fromprevious years, generate ideas for the criteria used for selection, and then readnominees for the current year and try to select a winner based on their criteria.

Reference:

Gilles, C. (1994). Literature study, phase II. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri.


Crafton, L. (1991). Whole language: Getting started . . . Moving forward. Katonah, New York: Richard C. Owen,Publishers.

Harste, J.C., Short, K.G., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Jensen, J.M., & Roser, N.L. (Eds.). (1993). Adventuring with books: A booklist for pre-k-grade 6. Urbana, IL: NationalCouncil of Teachers of English.

Matthews, D. (Ed.). (1988). High interest easy reading. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Moir, H. (Ed.). (1992). Collected perspectives: Choosing and using books for the classroom. Boston, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers, Inc.

Moss, J. (1990). Focus on literature: A context for literacy learning. Katonah, NY: Richard C. Owen, Publishers.

Rhodes, L, & Dudley-Marling, C. (1988). Readers and writers with a difference: A holistic approach to teachinglearning disabled and remedial students. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Taxel, J. (Ed.). (1992). Fanfare: The Christopher-Gordon children’s literature annual. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers, Inc.

Tway, E. (1981). Reading ladders for human relations. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

Webb, C.A. (Ed.). (1993). Your reading: A booklist for junior high and middle school. Urbana, IL: National Council ofTeachers of English.

Wirth, S. (Ed.). (1992). Books for you: A booklist for senior high students. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers ofEnglish.

79

Example

TEXT SET PROJECT FORM

Read:

Present understanding of book

Record in journal

Read: compare to

Interview one person about

Write up interview

Write original story

Read articles on:

Write reactions to articles

Project on topic (suggestions given)

Find newspaper articles

Possible choices

● Adventure● Death● Dog● Early America — Pioneers● War● Survival

Developed by:

Copeland, K. (1991). Columbia, MO: Stephens Elementary Children’s School.


Vacca, R., & Rasinski, T. (1992). Case studies in whole language. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS

WHAT: Student research projects are based on student inquiry. Individual choice is important tofully engage students in research investigations. Research may focus on current curriculaand may integrate curricular content areas. Many of the questions or topics that studentswant to research are not confined to a specific content area but rather cut across disci-plines. A curriculum based on inquiry includes the examination of various perspectives.

WHY: Research projects involve students and teachers in acquiring knowledge, skills, and strat-egies using many learning processes. Extensive reading and writing are incorporated inproject preparation, along with problem solving and decision making to support theresearch that expands meaning.

HOW: Initiate a discussion about research by brainstorming what students know about it. Sug-gest that everyone can be a researcher and share the ideas about the components of aresearch project.

1. Selecting a topic. Ask individuals to think about something that would be a goodtopic or question to explore.

2. Criteria for topic. Help students to narrow a topic for a focused study. Using seman-tic webbing, determine which subtopics are manageable.

3. Determining purposes of the research project. Invite students to think about the rea-sons they have for choosing a particular question or topic. What do they want to findout and why?

4. Identifying available resources. Where will students look for information? Suggestthat they do a library search and make a list of other sources for information.

5. Developing research procedures. Elicit ideas from the group for ways to gain andorganize information for the research project.

6. Writing a proposal for a research project. The teacher demonstrates the process ofdeveloping a proposal (see the example “Planning Guide for Research”). A researchproposal is an outline that structures the project and gives direction for the research.

7. Implementing the project proposal. After the proposal has been approved, studentswork individually or in groups to carry out the activities and methods included in theresearch plan. There will be ongoing assessment and revision as the researchprogresses.

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8. Culminating activities. Students need the opportunity to share their discoveries andnew knowledge with others. They may demonstrate their learning in a variety ofways. The teacher may suggest some alternatives and then ask students to think ofother possibilities. Some suggestions may be biographical sketches or journals, timelines, dramatic scripts, field guides for scientific subjects, posters, displays, models,murals, mobiles, topic-oriented alphabet books, skinny books, how-to books, games,puzzles, computer programs, videotapes and audiotapes, articles for class magazines,newsletters, or newspapers.

Adapted from:

Flores, B. (1988). Whole language: A pedagogy of resistance. San Bernardino, CA: CSU — School of Education.

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Adapted from:


Example

PLANNING GUIDE FOR RESEARCH

(May be filled out by teacher for younger children. Older children fill it out for themselves.)

Name (individual or members of group):

Theme or topic:

Questions to be explored:

Plan for exploration and reporting (“How will I find out? How will I share findings withothers?”):

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Adapted from:


Example

IDEAS FOR WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A proposal is a statement of the rationale, the purpose, and the methodology of a research project.It is a planning activity to focus energy into inquiry and guide the investigative process.

Why Write a Proposal

● Writing makes thoughts and ideas concrete.

● Writing helps with understanding of what is already known.

● A written proposal provides an outline and a direction for research.

● A written proposal helps assess progress toward objectives.

Elements of a Proposal

● Identification of topic, issue, subject to be researched

● Reasons for researching the selected topic

● What might be learned about the topic

● Methods to be used to investigate the topic (research strategies and activities)

● Resources to be used in the investigation

Writing a Proposal

● The teacher explains the reasons for writing a proposal (scientific method).

● The teacher models the process of developing a proposal.

● Students and the teacher collaborate on developing the proposal and on brainstorming top-ics, questions, and rationales.

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Adapted from:


Example

TEACHER PLANNING FORM

Theme or topic:

Names of those working on plan:

Student plans: Teacher plans:

Includes: How can I help the studentsaccomplish their plans? What do I alreadyknow about the questions? How can I helpstudents learn? What resources can I provide?What processes can I facilitate? What are somelearning objectives? How will we evaluate?How will I learn?

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Example

GUIDELINES FOR INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH PROJECTS

1. Once you have chosen your research topic, list everything you know about your topic. Then listeverything you don’t know and formulate a list of questions to which you would like to findanswers. Review the questions, drop the ones that don’t fit, and clarify the ones that do.

2. Brainstorm ways you can find the answers to your questions.

3. Collect your data accurately from as many sources as possible and then organize and collate it.What conclusions does it support?

4. Write a summary statement of your work: What were you looking for? What did you find?

5. Represent your learning in a way that you can share with others. Here are some ideas — feelfree to use your own, keeping in mind the nature of your research topic. You will need todetermine which presentational format will best serve your data and findings.

Possibilities for sharing:

letters to the editorposter sessions, bulletin boardscrapbook or photo albumoral histories and interviewsnewspapersurveys, interviews, questionnairesslide or video presentationdebate or panel discussionmodels and mapsdiagrams, tables, graphs, flowcharts, time linesrole-playing, socio-dramafolk art, songs and dances, foodmuseum kits

6. What do you want to research next?

Reference:

Bird, L. (1991). Supporting real research. In K. Goodman, L. Bird, & Y. Goodman (Eds.), The whole language catalog(p. 296). Santa Rosa, CA: American School Publishers.

86

Developed by:

Copeland, K. (1990). Columbia, MO: Stephens Elementary Children’s School.

Example

EVALUATION FORM FOR RESEARCH PRESENTATION

Rank yourself 1 (poor) to 5 (outstanding) on the following areas of your report.

COMMENTS

ORAL REPORT

● Information

● Visual aids

WRITTEN

● Appearance

● Information

MATH PROJECT

ART PROJECT

GAME

I learned:

I would like to learn:

87

PRAISE-QUESTION-POLISH (PQP)

WHAT: PQP is a framework used to assess understanding and evaluate learning. It has threecolumns for student responses to specific lessons, texts, topics, or focus studies. Thepraise column is for positive comments, the question column is for recording ideas thatare not clear, and the polish column is for suggested changes to improve understanding.

WHY: PQP gives students time to analyze what they understand, critically evaluate their learn-ing, and identify and clarify troublesome areas. It also provides a structure for feedbackto the teacher about how much more time needs to be spent clarifying and extendingmeaning.

HOW: PQP is done at the end of the class period or lesson. Students react by writing or discuss-ing three things about the lesson. The teacher may demonstrate the procedure in thefollowing way:

1. After a particular presentation or lesson, the teacher asks the students for positivecomments: have them tell what they liked best or what part of the lesson helped themmost. Prepare a large PQP chart on the chalkboard or on an overhead transparency.Write students’ comments on the chart.

2. Ask students to produce a question or two about what was confusing or about infor-mation that they still need. Record some of these on the chart.

3. Invite students to make suggestions about how to improve or polish the lesson. Afterrecording their ideas, ask them to try a PQP on their own.

Reference:

Reading/Language in Secondary Schools Subcommittee of IRA. (1990). Working with at-risk learners.Journal of Reading, 33(7), 551.

88


Crafton, L. (1991). Whole language: Getting started . . . Moving forward. Katonah, NY: Richard C. Owen Publishers, Inc.


EXIT SLIPS

WHAT: Exit slips are self-evaluations that prompt students to review their learning. They maybe used at the end of a class session, the end of a day, the end of a week, or the end of afocused study, a presentation, or a theme unit. Students reflect on what they learned andrequest further assistance if needed.

WHY: Students need to assume responsibility for their own learning. Exit slips offer them theopportunity to make learning personal, give an account of the knowledge they havegained, and identify areas for further exploration. These self-evaluations help the teacherto monitor students’ understanding and to provide resources for further assistance.

HOW: 1. Talk to students about the importance of taking responsibility for learning. Theyhave the opportunity to think about what they have learned that they didn’t knowbefore the information, concepts, or ideas were presented.

2. Distribute slips of paper or index cards to each student at the beginning of the classor presentation. Tell them that the slips will be collected at the end of the session.This establishes the expectation that everyone will take responsibility for learningand recording something.

3. When the lesson or study is completed, ask students to list one or two things that theyhave learned and one thing that they want to know more about. Additional ideasinclude one question they have, one thing they will do to extend their learning, orsome assistance that they need to learn more about the topic. Some exit slips havetwo prompts: I learned and I need. Others include I learned, I will try, and I need orI have a question. The teacher may adapt exit slips to meet individual needs.

4. When all exit slips are collected, the teacher reviews them for information aboutwhat students have emphasized. It is interesting to see if there are similarities inlearning entries, identified needs, or specific questions.

89

90

February, 1995

A publication of the Curriculum & Instruction Option forthe Chapter 1 Technical Assistance Centers.

Prepared under contract number LC91027044

Research & Training Associates, Inc., 9209 West 110th Street, Overland Park, KS 66210-1439(800) 922-9031 FAX (913) 451-8190

Permission to reproduce is granted by the publisher.

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