Leadership, Personality and Outcomes: An …business-school.open.ac.uk/sites/business-school.open.ac...multiple correlation of .48 between the Big Five traits and leadership providing

Leadership,PersonalityandOutcomes:AnEmpiricalReview

VincentLoUniversityCollegeLondon

DepartmentofPoliticalScience.SchoolofPublicPolicyMarch2017

SupervisorsDrMarcEsteve ProfessorCarlosLosadaUniversityCollegeLondon ESADEBusinessSchool

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IntroductionIthasbeenfifteenyearssincethepublicationofJudge’s(2002)seminalworkonPersonalityandLeadership:AQualitativeandQuantitativeReview.Cited2,152times in Google scholar this work rekindled scholarly interest in the field ofpersonality and leadership theory. A vast amount ofwork has been publishedsincethen.This research paper seeks to build upon Judge’s work by conducting a fullliteraturereviewofrelatedpublicationsfrom2000to2016.Tore-examinewhatpersonality traits are still relevant to leadershipbasedupon thenewandnowwidely accepted HEXACO personality model developed by Ashton and Lee(2007).TheFiveFactorModel(FFM)andBigFivetraitsutilizedbyJudgein2002asanorganisingframeworkhasnowevolvedintoasix-factormodelinHEXACO.ThisupdatedmodelincorporatestheadditionaldimensionofHonesty-Humility(H) whilst modifying the trait of neuroticism to Emotion (E) and offersresearchers a comprehensive instrument to assess leadership personality.Recently,charismaticleadershiphascapturedtheimaginationofscholars.Judge(2007)recommendedthatfutureresearcheffortsbedirectedtowards‘definingand conceptualising’ transformational leadership. This reviewwill include thephenomena of transformational leadership and examine the support forcharismaasatrait.Thispaperoffersthefoundationsforanintegratedmodelofeffective leadership. To further understand the state of the art in leadershiptheoryandtheantecedentstoemergenceandeffectiveness.Previous studies (Bass, 1990; Keeney & Marchioro, 1998; Kenny & Zaccaro,1983) focused on single traits found in leadership. Judge’s comprehensivereview in 2002 of related literature cited the lack of taxonomy in definingpersonality traits. Leading to research proliferation through the use ofincongruenttraitsandlabels.Thisinconsistencycomplicatedfindingsmakingitdifficult to explain genuine relationships between personality and leadership.Labels ranged from alertness to originality to self-confidence. This lack of anagreed model for defining and measuring personality led to a dilution in theinterest around leadership trait theory. By adopting the commonly acceptedframework of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of Personality. Judge synthesizedprevious data within the Big Five traits thereby organising the literature anddata into a manageable and consistent framework. Judge reported the strongmultiplecorrelationof.48betweentheBigFivetraitsandleadershipprovidingastrong foundation for further research into leadership trait theory. Inaddition,Zaccaro’s (2004) studyprovides further supportby concluding that leadersdodiffer from non-leaders on a number of attributes and that these differencescontributesignificantlytoleadershipeffectiveness.Judge focused purely on the FFM as an organising framework. It would beinvaluable to consider the dispositional effect that personality has upon thephenomena of leadership. In particular, the behavioural dimensions of Ethical,Task,Transactional,RelationalandTransformationalleadership.IndeedJudge’srecommendations for future research concluded that ‘future research should

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attempt to explain the linkages between the Big Five traits and leadership (to)developprocessmodelsthatilluminatethedispositionalsourceofleadership’.Scholars have furthered this work to incorporate a multivariate approach inexaminingtheeffectsofnotonebutseveraltraitsuponleadershipeffectiveness.Zaccaro (2004, 2007) offered a model to conceptualise how leader attributesincluding personality influence leadership performance. Arguing that effectiveleadershipinvolvestheinteractionofmultipletraitsdeployedtooptimaleffect.Resulting ina frameworkofcomplimentingdistalandproximalattributes.Thedistal attributes of personality, cognitive ability and motive values being theconsistent universal antecedents to the development of situation boundproximal attributes of social appraisal, problem solving and expertise. IndeedZaccaro highlights the conundrum of situational moderators in the study ofleadershiptheoryandrecommendsthatresearchersdisentangletheimportanceofcontextasafactorinthedevelopmentofleadershiptraittheory.Derue (2011) proposed an integratedmodel of ‘LeaderTraits, Behaviours andEffectiveness’. Conceptualising leadership traits through the mediatingbehaviours of task, relational and change-oriented leadership to effectiveness.Thisanalysissupportedemotionalstability,extraversion,conscientiousnessandopennessastraitsthatpositivelycorrelatewithleadership.Antonakis and Day (2012) (see figure 1) provide valuable guidance on futureresearch into leadership and individual differences. In particular the researchbeing developed in the study of follower personalities and their mediation ofleadership effectiveness, integrating concepts of attachment theory frompsychologicalscholarshipintobroaderleadershipconstructs.Whilsthighlightingthebiologicaldifferencesthatmayleadtoneurologicalandgeneticrelationshipsto leadership. Nana (2010) studied the effects of perceived leadership baseduponthephotographsoftenrandomlyselectedCEOs.Theresultsdemonstratedthatparticipantsactivelyattributedperceivedleadershiptraitsandeffectivenessto the corresponding facial features of the leader being assessed. Theseadditional caveats warrant consideration in any future research design andmethodology.Inthispaperwewillofferempiricalevidencetosupportourproposedmodelforleadership. That personality traits form the foundational antecedents toleadership. These traits are then expressed through the behavioural modesrequiredwithin a given situation. It is these behaviouralmodes that form thedispositional source of leadership. By examining leadership through ourframeworkofpersonality traits andbehaviourwe candevelopamodel that ispredictiveofleadershipeffectivenessandoutcomes.

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Figure1.TheconundrumoflinkingtraitstoleadershipoutcomesLiteratureReviewMethodologyWe performed a literature search from 2000-2016 in the electronic libraryresources of University College London using the keywords ‘Leadership’,‘Personality’andeachofthesixdimensionsoftheHEXACOpersonalitymodel.Atotalof2933articles,journals,booksanddissertationswerereturned.Afirstsiftbasedontheabstractswasconducted.Onlyliteraturethatcontaineddataandspecificmentionof thepersonality traitsof leadershipwereretained.Journalarticlesweregivenpriorityoverdissertationsonthebasisthatpublishedarticleswouldencompassanymajorfindingsfromtheresearchworkconducted.Thisleft42piecesforHonesty-Humility,51forEmotion,64forExtraversion,25forAgreeableness,39forConscientiousnessand22forOpenness.Totaling243peer reviewed articles for examination within the Honesty-Humility,Emotionality, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Openness ofthe HEXACO framework. After excluding other literature reviews 72 articlesremained with 81 separate studies containing correlation data betweenleadershipcriteriaofemergenceoreffectivenessandoneormoreoftherelatedHEXCAOtraits.CorrelationdatawasalsocollectedforthetraitofCharisma.

TraitsofEffec.veLeaders

Processes?

Situa.on?

Cogni.ve?

Physiology?

Followers?

HEXACO+C

OUTCOMES

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LeadershipCriteriaThetotalsamplesizeforthisreviewwas28,373ofwhich15,364self-reported,767peer-reported,11,842followerorsubordinatereportedand400supervisorreported on leadership criteria. The majority of studies adopted instrumentssuch as the Multi-Factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5x) or derivationsthereoftomeasureleadershipeffectiveness.Ratingscoveredthefullspectrumofleadershipcriteria, fromindividual, to team, togroupperformance. Includingamultitude of scenarios in task, project, leader-member exchanges and overallsatisfactionwithaleader.Emergencewascodedseparatelyandincludedratingsandrankingsofleaderlessgroupsandtheemergenceofaleader.A total of 250 correlations were classified with available standard deviations,alpha reliabilities and p-values for each. A sample-weighted mean correlationwas first computed for each of theHEXACO traitswith leadership emergence.Followed by HEXACO traits with leadership effectiveness. The addition ofcharisma with leadership effectiveness completes our correlational dataextractionandreview.OurreviewwillincludeupdatedelementsoverandabovetheBigFivemodelofpersonalityandofferafurtherintegrationoftheliteratureincluding:

1. TheadditionaltraitofHonesty-HumilityorHfromHEXACO2. SubstitutingneuroticismwithEmotionalityorEfromHEXACO3. TheexpansionofEmotionalityorEfromHEXACOtoincludethedomain

ofEmotionalIntelligence(EI)4. TheadditionaltraitofCharisma5. IndividualHEXACOtraitsandtheireffectonleadershipemergence6. IndividualHEXACOtraitsandtheireffectonleadershipeffectiveness7. Multiple HEXACO trait relationships and their effect on leadership

effectiveness8. ConceptualisingaFiveDimensionalBehaviouralModelforleadership9. LinkingHEXACOtotheFiveBehaviouralDimensions10. InteractionsbetweentheFiveDimensionsofleadership11. Proposal for an Integrated Model of Leadership: A Five Dimensional

FrameworkThis study proposes that effective leadership is related to each of the sixpersonalitydomains.WewillexplorehoweachtraitrelatestoleadershipandtheeffectofHEXACO in its totality.Arguing that it is thecombinationof traitsandtheirexpression,dependentuponthebehaviouralmoderequired,thatformsthedispositional source of leadership. Each behavioural mode will be situationspecific.Whilstnotwosituationswillbeidentical,Zaccaro(2004)proposedthatcertaintraitspromotealeader’sabilitytorespondeffectivelyandappropriatelyacrosssituationsaffordingdifferentperformancerequirements.Inthisstudywewill offer empirical evidence that certain traits provide the foundation fordifferentbehaviouralmodesofleadership.

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MorerecentdevelopmentsinpsychologyscholarshiphasledtotheevolutionoftheBigFiveintoasixdimensionalframeworkintheHEXACOmodel.AshtonandLee began developing a Personality Inventory (PI) in 2000 researching lexicaldispositions acrossmultiple cultures and languages to conclude that there aresix,andonlysix,dimensionstopersonality.Subsumedwithineachareadditionalstatesculminating ina totalof208 items in the inventory.There isnowbroadconsensus that HEXACO is a viable alternative framework to the FFMencompassing the additional factor of Honesty-Humility. We will use theHEXACO personality model to examine the relationship between traits andleadership.Wewill adoptHEXACOas theorganizing framework for classifyingthe six personality dimensions to consolidate and code the data into amanageabledatabase.Theleadershipcriteriawerecodedintoeitherleadershipemergence or leadership effectiveness to report on each criterion separately.Whilst combining the results of both leadership criteria for anoverall analysisandreview.Withanadditionalcodingtodistinguishdatafromtheprivatesectorandthepublicsector.Aswithallmeta-analyses,somediscretionwillberequiredinthisclassification.As a control two individuals randomly divided all articles and coded both anydifferencesweresettledafterdiscussion.This review will allow us to build a correlation matrix of the HEXACO traitsversusleadershipcriteriaofemergenceandeffectiveness.HEXACOPersonalityFrameworkAshtonandLee(2007)concludedthattherearesixandonlysixdimensionsofpersonalitybasedupontheircomprehensivelexicalstudies.Honesty-Humility(H)ThedimensionofHonesty-Humility orH is an additional personality trait thatdistinguishesHEXCAOfromtheBigFive.AshtonandLee(2007)identifiedfourfacetstoHincludingfairness,sincerity,modestyandgreed-avoidance.Previousliterature has included traits of trustworthiness, integrity and faithfulness inleadershipresearch.IncludingHprovidesanadditionalsubstantialdimensiontoexamineleadershipantecedents.Emotionality(E)Thefour facetsofEmotionalityorE includesentimentality, fearfulness,anxietyand dependence. This dimension encompasses some elements of the Big Fivetrait neuroticism but lacks the anger related facets of neurotic personalities.Judge through his meta-analysis in 2002 found neuroticism to be negativelycorrelatedwith leadership criteria (p = -.24). This supports the evidence thatneurotic personalities are less likely to be perceived as leaders. In the FFMneuroticism is the instrument used to examine the emotional stability ofsubjects.InHEXACOtheinstrumentisEmotionalityorE.Zaccaro(2004)andhis

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teamprovided support that social intelligence resides at the heart of effectiveleadership. Social intelligence refers to “the ability to understand the feelings,thoughts,andbehaviorsofpersons,includingoneself,ininterpersonalsituationsand to act appropriately upon that understanding.” Leadership is a socialendeavourinvolvingpeopleorsocialproblemsolving.MuchliteraturehasbeenproducedaroundtheemotionalcontextofleadershipinparticulartheconceptofEmotionalIntelligenceorEI.SeveralleadershipthinkersincludingGolemanhaveproposed that EI is an effective predictor of leadership emergence andeffectiveness.IncludingEIinourstudywillallowustoexplorethemeritsofthisdimension in greater detail. Empathic leaders listen towhat followers have tosayandallthenon-verbalcuesatthesametime.Theydisplaygenuineconcernfor the feelings of others. As a result, data from studies for the sole trait ofneuroticismwereexcludedinfavourofemotionalitytoensureconsistencywiththe HEXACO framework. We also choose to broaden the construct ofEmotionality to encompass the facets of Emotional Intelligence within ourreview.Extraversion(X)ExtraversionorXincludesthefourfacetsofsocialboldness,sociability,livelinessandsocial self-esteem.Thisdimension is largely thesameas in theFFMofBigFivetraits.Judge2002concludedthatX(p=.31)wasthestrongestcorrelateofleadershipcriteria.Extravertstendtobeactive,energetic,livelyindividualsandperceived to be more leader-like in social settings. Such personalities wouldcorrelate with leadership emergence and effectiveness. However, overtextraversionmaybemoderatedbytheotherdimensionspresentintheHEXACOmodelsuchashumilityandagreeableness.Agreeableness(A)AgreeablenessorAincludesthefourfacetsofforgiveness,gentleness,flexibilityandpatience.ThisdimensionisbroadlysimilartothatproposedintheBigFive.JudgefoundAtoberelativelyweaklycorrelatedtoleadership(p=.08).Thiswasunderthepredicamentthatagreeablepersonalitieswouldtendtobemeekandtimidandsubordinatetoleadershipcriteria.However,cooperationisrelatedtoleadership and sensitivity a hallmark of agreeableness. Thus the relationshipbetween A and leadership is ambiguous. We will examine this dimension ingreaterdetail.Conscientiousness(C)ThedimensionofconscientiousnessorCincludesthefourfacetsoforganisation,diligence,perfectionismandprudence.JudgefoundCtobethesecondstrongestcorrelatetoleadership(p=.28).Previousliteraturehassupportedconscientiousleaderswhoaretenaciousinfollowingthroughprogrammeswithaction.Thisispertinent when engaging in the behavioural mode of task leadership in

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completing projects through to delivery. Conscientious individuals will persistanddiligentlyfollowthrough.Openness(O)Openness or O includes the four facets of creativity, unconventionality,inquisitiveness and aesthetic appreciation. Judge found O to be the thirdstrongest correlate to leadership (p= .24) of the Big Five traits. Openness toexperience andnew ideas encompasses intellectual curiosity and the ability tothink creatively. This dimension is important in the role of innovation.Approaching old problems with a new openness. In considering large-scaletransformationalchangeinitiativesOcouldprovideanadditionalelementintheconceptualisation of a transformational leader. Ashton and Lee specify that Odoesnotprecludeintellectualabilitypersebutintellectualorientationdoes.Charisma(+C)andTransformationalLeadershipIlies, Judge and Wagner (2006) reviewed the evolution of charisma as aleadership trait. Developed by House (1977), Burns (1978) and Bass (1985).Scholars including Avolio (1994), Conger and Kanungo (1998), Fuller et al.(1996) and Lowe et al. (1996) debated the merits of charismatic andtransformational leadership. Bass and Avolio’s proposed model fortransformationalleadershipincludescharismaasatraitwithinthedimensionofidealised influence. With the other three dimensions being inspirationalmotivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration. Thisapproach has been widely adopted by scholars in the development oftransformationalleadershiptheory.Hoffmanetal.(2011)foundcharismatobemore predictive of effectiveness in government and military settings than inbusinessandtheprivatesector.Thiscouldbeduetothedifferentorganisationalgoals, situations and hence behaviours required to achieve desired outcomes.What could be agreed is that charisma matters and it affects leadershipoutcomes. Phaneuf et al. (2016) strongly correlated charisma totransformational leadership (p= .98).Wewill review thisphenomenon in thisstudy.HEXACO (+Charisma)will form the foundation for our empirical reviewof theliteratureonleadership,personalityandoutcomes.

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CorrelationAnalysisResultsTheliteraturereviewedinthisstudycoversabroadrealmofresearchconductedoverthelastsixteenyears.Encompassingdifferentgeographies,theprivateandpublic sector, differing degrees of leadership experience, industries fromeducation to the military and ultimately differing situations. The resultantanalysisprovidesbroadsupportforthedevelopmentofaHEXACO(+Charisma)based leadership model. Resulting in sample-weighted mean correlations ofHonesty-Humility p= .32, Conscientiousness p= .27, Extraversion p= .21 andCharisma p= .43 with leadership effectiveness. This study illuminates theimportance of Honesty-Humility as an additional trait that affects leadershipoutcomes, particularly, within the domain of ethical leadership. Ethicalleadership as defined by Brown (2005) is ‘the demonstration of normativelyappropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationshipsand the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-waycommunication, reinforcement and decision-making.’ Such conduct includesfairness, sincerity and trustworthiness, which is core to the Honesty-Humilitytrait in HEXACO. Ethical leaders through the consistent demonstration ofnormative behaviour then have the credibility to act as role models to theirfollowers. This behaviour is also related to the idealized influence dimensionwithintransformationalleadershipofthesocialized(ethical)kindasopposedtopersonalized(unethical).Honesty-Humilityisthusafoundationalelementinthedevelopmentofethicaland transformational leadershipbehaviour.The traitofcharisma within the domain of transformational leadership is significantlyrelated to leadership effectiveness. Warranting its inclusion within ourleadershippersonalityframework.The significant positive correlation between Honesty-Humility and ethicalleadership, charisma with transformational leadership coupled withconscientiousness, extraversion (and to a lesser degree emotionality,agreeablenessandopenness)toleadershipeffectiveness.Providessupportforaleadership-personalitybasedmodelwithHEXACO(+Charisma)atitsfoundation.ResultsA sample-sized weighted mean correlation was calculated for each of theHEXACO(+Charisma)traitswithleadership(seetable1).Table1.SampleWeightedMeanCorrelationsforLeadershipandHEXACO+Charisma

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HEXACOandLeadershipEmergenceThisstudydistinguishesleadershipemergencefromleadershipeffectivenesstodifferentiatethosetraitsprevalentinindividualsinleaderlessgroupsandthosefound in leadership positions. Many empirical studies have investigated thephenomenaofindividualdifferencesandtheeffectuponamembers’emergenceas a leader. Within the HEXACO framework, Ogunfowora (2013) found thatHonesty-Humility had no significant effect on leadership emergence. Howeverindividuals low on Honesty-Humility were more likely to engage in moraldisengagement resulting in lower leadership emergence ratings. However,Marinova et al. (2013) found that duty and trustwere significantly correlatedwith emergence. Emerging leaderswith a duty bound dispositionwouldmorelikely build trust with followers in team working situations to deliver groupgoalsandobjectives.Li et al. (2012) found leadership emergence to be significantly related toemotional resilience (p= .54). Defining resilience as the ability to managenegative emotions and stress during group or task conflict situations.Krishnakumar and Hopkins (2014) studied the relationship between emotionperception(theabilitytoreademotions)andthemotivationtolead(p=.29).Campbell et al. (2003) studied the relationship between extraversion andleadership emergence in an experimental setting and found a positiverelationship(p=.50)formalesubjectswheretheevaluatorwasfemale.Walteret al. (2012) found a significant relationship between extraversion andemergence(p=.36).Krishnakumar(2014)foundasimilarrelationship(p=.39)in their studyofmotivational factors to lead.Thesestudies support the theorythat extravertedmembers of a leaderless group aremore likely to emerge asleaders.Krishnakumar and Hopkins (2014) found agreeableness to be significantlyrelated to motivation to lead (p = .41). This was somewhat negated byOgunfowora and Bourdage (2013) p= -.13. Walter et al. (2012) supportedagreeableness toemergence (p= .28) this coupledwithextroverted individualsenable leaders to emerge in task situations. O’Connor and Jackson (2010)studied emergence in the context of four situations initiating structure,consideration, persuasion and production emphasis. With agreeablenesssignificantlyrelated(p=.24)tothepersuadingdispositionofemergentleaders.Marinova et al. (2013) correlated helping role perceptions to emergence (p=.26). Cogliser et al. (2012) found agreeableness to affect social orientatedemergence.Whichcouldbefurtherinvestigatedwithinthedomainofrelationalleadership. Agreeableness could also be related to the individualisedconsiderationelementwithinthedomainoftransformationalleadership.Marinovaet al. (2013)modelled conscientiousness into two facetsofdutyandachievementstriving.Findingdutyrelatedtoemergence(p=.42)moderatedbytrustandhelpingbehaviours.Dutiful individuals tend todevelop trust throughmember-orientated actions thinking of the whole as opposed to the self.Demonstratingatendencytocooperateandofferhelptogroupmembersleading

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to emergence. Whereas high achievers tended to compete vigorously,cooperatingonlyif itgetsthemahead.Achievementdrivenindividualssethighgoalsforthemselvesandothers,leadingthemtoemergewithinagroupsetting.O’Connor and Jackson (2010) conducted an experimental design across foursituations. Conscientiousness was found to have a negative impact uponinitiating structure (p= -.04)whilst insignificantly affecting consideration (p=.11). Ogunfowora and Bourdage (2013) correlated conscientiousness toemergencesignificantly(p=.29)forself-ratingsand(p=.14)forpeerratingsofleadership emergence. Cogliser et al. (2012) supported conscientiousness inemergent task-orientatedbehaviour.Providingpossible linkages to thedomainoftaskleadership.KrishnakumarandHopkins(2014) foundopenness toberelated tomotivationto lead (p = .38) in their study of leadership emergence.Walter et al. (2012)found a similar relationship through a research design involving taskcoordination.Theysignificantlycorrelatedtaskcoordinationwithemergence(p= .59).Naturally,opennesstoexperience, intellectualcuriosityandopennesstonew ideas leads to innovation in task management and the seeking of novelsolutions to old problems. This falls within the domain of task leadership.O’Connorand Jackson(2010)reported(p= .22) foropenness in thecontextofconsideration and (p = .30) for persuasion in leadership emergence. Theseconstructsfallintotherealmofrelationalleadership.Thisprovidessomeinitialsupport for linking the HEXACO trait of openness to the domains of task andrelationalleadership.The literature supports the relationship between HEXACO and leadershipemergencetovaryingdegrees.Withsomestudies findingstrongerassociationsthanothers.Thisisdependentuponmanylimitingfactorshighlightedinthevastmajority of the studies.However, this reviewdoes reiterate the stronger linksbetweenextraversion(p=.25)andconscientiousness(p=.17)withemergenceas found in Judge 2002. This review aims to build upon these foundations infurtherlinkingHEXACOtraitstothebehaviouraldomainsofleadership.HEXACO(+Charisma)andLeadershipEffectivenessIntra-HEXACOanalysisZaccaro(2007)highlightedthevalueofconsideringcombinationsoftraitsinanintegrated conceptual framework. Whilst also giving consideration to thesituational effects prevalent. By examining the linkages between the Big Fivetraitsinthevariousbehaviouralmodesofleadershipwecandevelopaworkingframework to predict effectiveness. We will examine the intra-trait dynamicsfurther in this paperwithin theHEXACO framework.Whilst 81 studies in thisreviewcontaineddata, relatingat leastoneof theHEXACO traits to leadershipemergenceoreffectiveness.Onlythreestudiescontaineddataforintra-HEXACOtraits in its entirety. This could be due to the relatively recent adoption ofHEXACO as an organising framework for personality assessment. However, a

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brief review may provide some useful future guidance. Correlating Honesty-Humility (H) to EXACO offered support for Agreeableness (A) (p = .45),Conscientiousness (C) (p = .28) and Openness (O) (p = .22). The inter-relationshipbetweenthesefourtraitssupportBrownetal’s(2005)summariseddefinition of ethical leadership in honest truth telling, principled behaviour,fairnessandtrustworthiness.Actingasrolemodelsthemselveswhilstpromotingsuch ethical conduct through two-way communication. Drawing uponagreeableness and openness to deliver such ethical behaviour in followers.Ziaran(2015)studiedtherelationshipbetweenhumilityandethicalleadership.Focusing on the sub-traits of sincerity and modesty. Further research couldsupport the construct that honesty-humility, agreeableness, openness andconscientiousnessaffectethicalleadershipeffectiveness.Emotionalitywasnegativelycorrelatedtoalltraitsapartfromhonesty-humilityandconscientiousness.Extraversionwasnegativelyrelatedtoemotionalityandpositivelyrelatedtoopenness(p=.22).Agreeablenesswasweaklyornegativelycorrelatedtoallothertraitsapartfromhonesty-humility(p=.45)andopenness(p= .23). Conscientiousness also related weakly or negatively to other traitsapartfromhonesty-humility(p=.28).Opennesswasrelatedtohonesty-humility(p=.22),agreeableness(p=.23)andextraversion.Whilstitwouldbeprematuretodrawanyinferencesat thisstageduetothe limitedsamplesizeof thethreecomplete studies. Future research could focus on the interaction between thefour traits of honesty-humility, agreeableness, conscientiousness andopennesswithin the contextof leadershipeffectiveness.Particularly, how theyaffect thedifferent leadership behaviours or ‘domains’ as a dispositional source ofeffectiveness.Weoffersomefurthersuggestionsintheanalysisbelowfromthecoded81studies.HEXACO(+Charisma)analysisThemajorityofstudieshaveadoptedratingstoassessandmeasure leadershipeffectiveness.Whetherself,peer,superior,followerorsubordinate,theadoptionof 360-degree assessments aim to offer a comprehensive review of perceivedperformance.Inthisstudywereviewleadershipeffectivenesswithinaproposedframework of the five domains of leadership namely, ethical, task, relational,transactionalandtransformationalbehaviours.This review of the literature found significant positive correlations betweenHonesty-Humilityandtheethicaldimensionof leadershipeffectiveness.Brown,TrevinoandHarrison (2005)definedethical leadershipas, “thedemonstrationofnormativelyappropriateconductthroughpersonalactionsandinterpersonalrelationshipsandthepromotionofsuchconductto followersthroughtwo-waycommunication, reinforcement and decision-making” with leader honestycorrelating .65 to ethical leadership. The study also linked ethical leadershipwithtransformationalleadershipthroughthefacetofidealisedinfluence.Inthatsuch leadersactasrolemodelsto followersbydisplayinghigh levelsofethicalbehaviourand conduct. However theoverlapbetweenbothdimensions isnotentirely clear. Ethical leaders are likely to exhibit both transformational and

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transactional dimensions of leadership behaviour to influence followeroutcomes.Bakker-Pieper&deVries(2013)studiedpersonalitytraitsandleaderoutcomes through the moderating effects of communication styles correlatinghonesty-humilitywith leadership performance significantly at .34. Kelloway etal. (2012) examined transformational leadership and employee psychologicalwellbeing.Correlating leadership trustwith transformational leadershipat .46.Guillén & Saris (2013) studied motive-based behaviour at work correlatingtransparency with inspirational leadership .39. Ou et al. (2014) examinedhumility within CEOs and its effect upon senior management teams. “Overall,humility is grounded ina self-viewof accepting that something is greater thantheself andmanifests in self-awareness,openness to feedback,appreciationofothers, lowself-focus,andself-transcendentpursuit.”ResultinginCEOhumility(p=.31)withCEOempoweringleadershipand(p=.41)withseniormanagementteam integration. These studies provide support that honesty-humility ispositively related to leadershipoutcomes.Thedimensionsof ethical, relationaland transformational leadership (and toa lesserdegree taskand transactionalleadership) link the HEXACO trait of honesty-humility with leadershipeffectiveness.Ashton(2014)clarifiedthetheoreticalapplicationoftheHEXACOframeworkinrelation to the Five Factor Model of personality. The construct of theEmotionality(EofHEXACO)dimensionsharessomeelementsoftheneuroticismtrait fromtheBigFive.However,emotionality lacks theanger related facetsofneuroticpersonalities.Insteademotionalityincludeskinaltruistictendenciesofsensitivity, vulnerability and sentimentality. High scorers in the facet ofsentimentality develop strong emotional attachments and display empathicsensitivitytowardsothers.Scholarshaveexpendedconsiderableresearcheffortsin thedevelopmentofEmotional Intelligence(EI)and its incrementaleffectonleadership. Rosete and Ciarrochi (2005) adopted Mayer and Salovey’s (1997)definition of EI as ‘an ability to recognize themeanings of emotions and theirrelationships,andtoreasonandproblem-solveonthebasisofthem.EIinvolvesthe capacity to perceive emotions, assimilate emotion-related feelings,understand the informationof those emotions, andmanage them.’ Their studycorrelatedEIwithleadershipeffectivenessat.384.WhilstcitingtherelationshipbetweenEIandtransformational leadershipfromPalmeretal. (2001), findingsignificant correlations in the inspirational motivation and individualizedconsideration components of transformational leadership with the ability tomonitor and manage emotions. Mathew and Gupta (2015) correlated EI withtransformational leadership at .346. Supporting the theory that empathy andemotionality affects leadership effectiveness through the domain oftransformational leadership. Mahsud et.al (2009) examined the relationshipbetweenempathyandLeader-MemberExchange (LMX) through thedomainofRelational Leadership. Finding a positive correlation of p = .50. The relationaldimension of leadership includes aspects of emotionality and EI in theconsideration of and empowerment of followers during interactions of LMX.Emotionality is particularly relevant when supporting subordinates duringsituations of high stress. This study also found a correlation of .50 betweenempathyandthedomainofethicalleadership.Ethicalleadersaremorelikelytoengage in relationsorientedbehaviours.Displaying the altruistic tendenciesof

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the emotionality trait in their interactions with followers. Investing time andenergytounderstandtheemotionsofstaffandempoweringothersasaresult.BellandMurugan(2013)assessedleadershipeffectivenessinlocalgovernmentmanagersandcorrelatedextraversionsignificantlywitheffectiveness(p=.379).Clarke(2010)investigatedprojectmanagersatworkandfoundextraversiontobe significantly related to transformational leadership (p= .39). Zopiatis andConstanti(2011)studiedtheeffectoftraitsontransformationalleadershipandalso found a strong relationship between extraversion and transformationalleadership (p = .553). They also found a significant correlation betweentransformationalleadershipandcontingentreward(p=.809).Providingfurthersupport to the theory (Judge 2004) that the transactional dimension ofleadership is related to and acts as a precursor to leadership of thetransformative kind. Passive leadership of the laissez fairekind is negativelyassociatedwithleadership(p=-.448).Bakker-Pieper&deVries(2013)stronglyassociatedextraversionwithbothleaderperformanceandsatisfaction(bothatp= .55) in the context of leader communication styles. De Vries (2012) alsosupportedextraversionas a trait that is related to charismatic leadership (p=.33). Supporting the construct that extraversion predicts transformativebehaviourtoacertaindegree.Nana et al. (2010) attributed perceived leadership effectiveness to facialcharacteristics. Strongly correlating perceived effectiveness with perceivedagreeableness (p = .38) based upon photographs of CEOs. Moderated by Ali(2011)(p=-.14)instudyingtheleadershiptraitsofteachersintasksituations.Robieetal. (2008)also foundanegativerelationship(p= -.13).Supporting therationalethatagreeableleadersmaynotnecessarilybeeffective.However,PiperandDeVries (2013) foundapositive correlation for agreeablenessof .36withleaderperformance.ChuaandIyengar(2011)studiedthemoderatingeffectsofdecisional latitude and leadership effectiveness. Explaining that increasedeffectivenessduetolowtomoderatelatitudewasduetoincreasesinperceivedagreeableness (p = .45). Walumbwa and Schaubroeck (2009) foundagreeablenesstobeanantecedenttoethicalleadership(p=.43).Discussinghowethicalleadershipmaynotrequirethehighlyengaging(charismatic)stylefoundin transformational leadership. Thus both introverted and extroverted leadersmayexhibitethicalleadershipeffectiveness.Several studies provided strong support for conscientiousness and leadershipeffectivenessincludingNanaandJackson(2010),Yahayaetal.(2011),Houghtonet al. (2004). Although Sy et al. (2006) found a negative relationship betweenconscientiousnessandjobperformance(p=-.09).ZopiatisandConstanti(2011)foundasignificantcorrelationbetweenconscientiousnessandtransformationalleadership (p = .617). Linking the self-discipline, diligence and achievementorientation of conscientious individuals to the domain of transformationalbehaviour.Whilstalsorelatingconscientiousnesstocontingentreward(p=.53)a facet in the domain of transactional leadership. Marinova et al. (2013)developed a process model for conscientiousness and leadership. They foundmoderating factors in dutiful behaviour in building trust and helping others.Zheng et al. (2015) furthered this research and significantly related

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conscientiousnesstothedomainofethicalleadership(p=.51)inthecontextofteamcohesionandfolloweremotionalexhaustion.Clearlyconscientiousnessisakey traitwithin theHEXACO framework in the context of leadership.Affectingoverall leadership effectiveness through the domains of ethical, transactionalandtransformationalleadership.Openness(toexperience)relatedweaklytomoderatelyinouroverallreviewtoleadershipeffectiveness.However,strongerlinkswerefoundbetweenthefacetsofopennessandtask,ethicalandrelational leadership inStein(2008),Bakker-Pieper&DeVries(2013).OpennessalsorelatedtotransformationalleadershipinLee(2012),Constanti(2011)andClarke(2010).Mossetal.(2007)researchedthe mediating effect of transformational leadership to openness andorganisationalcommitment.Employees,evenwhenfacedwithlimitedresourcesmight still commit further to the organisation in an open environment andculture if inspired to do so by their leader (p = .43). Transformational leaderscould significantly affect the expression of openness to experience and ideas.Modellingbehaviourthroughthefacetsofintellectualstimulationandindividualconsideration.Culminating in inspirationalmotivationandperformance. ‘Theseleaders inspireall their followers to transform,extend, andunify - rather thanmerelyfulfil-theirgoalsandobjectives.’Charisma or idealised influence was the strongest correlate to leadershipeffectiveness (p= .43) through thephenomenaof transformational leadership.Clarke (2010)p= .71 supports this construct. Shao andWebber (2006) foundcharisma to affect the inspirational motivation facet of transformationalleadership (p = .72) where followers go beyond expectations and also thecontingent reward (p = .66) andManagement by Exception – Active (p = .36)facets of the transactional dimension of leadership. Kelloway (2012) foundcharisma to affect the liking of a leader (p= .66). Drawing upon the ethicaldimensions of transformational leadership and the self-transcendence of suchindividuals to think of the longer-term effects of decision-making upon theorganisation and its people. Bakker-Piper and De Vries (2013) relatedexpressivenesstoleaderperformance(p= .50)andsatisfactionwiththeleader(p = .48) in a study of communication styles, personality and outcomes. Theliterature strongly supports the construct that charisma significantly affectsleadershipoutcomes.This review provides further support that extraversion is predictive of bothleadershipemergenceandeffectiveness.Withconscientiousnessstronglyrelatedto leadership effectiveness. Reaffirming Judge’s findings in 2002. Furthermore,with the addition of charisma and honesty-humility, both, supersedeextraversion as the most significant correlates to effectiveness. Warrantingfurtherexaminationnot justwithin thedomainofethicalandtransformationalleadershipbutacrossall fivebehaviouraldimensions. Includingrelational, taskand transactional leadership. Linking the HEXACO (+charisma) traits toeffectivenessthroughthefivebehaviouraldomains.

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Emergence to Effectiveness the transitional traits and associated FiveDimensionalBehaviouralModesExtraverted individuals aremore likely to emerge as leaders appealing to theperceivedsocialattractivenessofcharismaticindividuals(Cavazotteetal.2012).However, extraversion alonemay not be sufficient enough to see through thelonger-term nature of leadership roles. In this review of the literatureextraversion (p = .25) was the most significant correlate to emergence.Moderatingsomewhatto(p=.21)foreffectiveness.Conscientiousness(p=.27),honesty-humility (p = .32) and charisma (p = .43) offers stronger predictivevalidityastheleadertransitionsintoaformalrolerequiringeffectiveness.Withthese traits having a more positive effect upon leadership outcomes. Forexample in the case of political campaigns and elections, a candidate’sextraversion may enamour supporters to elect the emergent leader as theirstandardbearer.However, it is thedeliveringof campaignmanifestopromisesthat cement the credibility and effectiveness of the elected leader underexamination. This transitional phenomenon illuminates the trait-activationtheoryofleadership(TettandBurnett2003)andhowskilledindividualsemergeandthensubsequentlytakeonleadershippositions. Throughthedevelopmentand activation of different traits in different situations to positive effect. Ourstudyproposes, that theprocesses, that link theHEXACO (+Charisma) traits toeffectivenessmay have an incremental effect upon outcomes. Zaccaro (2004,2007) and Derue et al. (2011) validated the incremental effects of leadershipbehaviour upon outcomes. Offering models that linked traits to effectivenessthroughthemediatingeffectofbehaviour.Zaccaro’sdistalandproximalmodelofleadershipissituationspecific.Inherenttraitsareactivatedincertainsituations.Delivering thebehaviour required leading to effectiveness.Derue incorporatedthe behavioural aspects of leadership to offer further integration. This currentstudy supports the idea that leadership, personality and outcomes areinterrelatedandoffersafurtherintegrationofthecurrentliteraturetoproposeaFive Dimensional Framework for Leadership. Composed of Relational, Ethical,Task,TransactionalandTransformational(RETTT)behaviours.RelationalleadershipInstudiesassessingleadersatisfactionandleader-memberexchangetheory.Therelationaldimensionofleadershipaffectedoutcomes.Derueetal.(2011)foundthetraitsofextraversionandagreeablenesstoaffectthequalityofrelationshipbetween leadersand their followers.Consideration, a construct conceptualisedby Bass (1990) draws upon elements of HEXACO in honesty-humility,agreeableness, openness and emotionality to a degree. Leaders who exhibitconsideration treat all members as equals inferring the altruistic tendenciesexaminedbyAshton andLee (2014)within theHEXACO framework. They areopentofollowersandapproachable,attentivetofeedbackandnewperspectives.Considerate leaders sense the emotional state of their staff and teams. Theygenuinely show concern for thewelfare of the group as awhole. Empoweringstafftoparticipateanddeveloptheirownideas.Hoffmanetal.(2011)includedinterpersonal,oralandwrittencommunicationwithintheiranalysisofproximalattributes to effectiveness. Meurs et al. (2011) found significant positive

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relations between political skill and interpersonal influence, social astutenessandnetworkingability.WewillincludethesewithinthebroaderconstructoftherelationaldimensionofourRETTTframework.EthicalleadershipBrown et al. (2005) defined ethical leadership behaviour. Such conduct beingperceived as fair, trustworthy, honest and sincere. Reinforced on a consistentbasisthroughbehaviour,communication, leader-memberexchangesandadutyofcaretofollowers.Actingasamentorinthedevelopmentofethicalemployeesensuringthatfollowerslearnintheprocess.Whilstgivingethicalconsiderationto decisions that are being made. Ethical leadership serves as a heavycounterweight to the ‘dark-triad’ traits of unethical leaders who exploit theirpositionssolelyforpersonalormaterialgain.LaBouffetal.(2011)foundhumbleindividualstobemorehelpfulthanlesshumbleindividuals.Activatingthetraitofhumilityinthecontextofethicalleaders.Owensetal.(2013)foundthevirtueof humility as an important construct and counter-balance to the traits ofegoism, hubris, sense of entitlement and self-importance. Which has led tocorporate scandals and corruption in recent times. Expressed humility is theadmiring of others strengths and contributions transcending the comparativeand competitive construct of one’s self. Leading to a positive view of others.Ethical leaders who express humility view others through a non-judgementalcomplex lens of strengths and skills rather than a simplistic binary view ofcompetentorincompetent.Listeningandopennesstonewideas,whichleadstothe discovery of valuable resources and opportunities for learning within thegroupanditsmembers.Leadingtopositivejobsatisfactionamongstemployees(p=.44).TaskleadershipSeveralstudies investigated leadershipthroughthemodeof task identification,structuring, analysis, planning and execution. Examining the phenomena ofleadership emergence within a leaderless group setting. Derue et al. (2011)categorises intelligence, conscientiousness,opennessandemotionalstabilityasvalidtraits foreffectivetask leadership.Whilstalso integratingtheelementsofcontingent reward, management by exception-active from the transactionaldimension of leadership. Intelligent, highly conscientious members are morelikely to initiate structure in a task setting. Whilst, diligently reviewing andassessing the situation at hand. Comprehending the problems presentedcognitivelyandcohesively.Ensuringthatmembershaveclarityonthegoalssetandthenecessarysupporttocompletetasksanddeliver.Hoffmanetal.(2011)investigated state-like proximal attributes to effectiveness includingmanagement,problemsolvinganddecision-makingskills.Wewillincludetheseattributeswithinthetaskdimensionofleadershipbehaviours.

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TransactionalleadershipTransactional leadership (Judge and Piccolo 2004) involves three dimensions.Contingentrewarda‘carrotandstick’approachwhereexpectationsareclarifiedandrewardsmadeavailableoncompletionoftasks.Managementbyexception–activewheremanagersmonitorthesituationcloselytakingcorrectiveactionbyanticipatingpotentialproblemsbeforetheyescalate.Managementbyexception–passiveinvolvesmanagerswaitingforanissuetoescalatefirstbeforetakinganyaction. Laissez-faire leadership involves the absence of leadership. Leadersengage in transactions constantly. Economically in the buying and selling ofgoods and services. Brand-building in the offering and keeping of customerpromises.Topersonnel, in theagreementsmade,explicitlyor implicitly, in thebuilding of trust and goodwill. Judge and Piccolo (2004) found transactionalleadership to be as effective as transformational leadership. With contingentreward, a facet of transactional leadership, affecting leadership criteriasignificantly (p = .39). Developing Avolio and Bass’s (1991) model to furtherintegrate the two. Furthermore, contingent rewardwas strongly correlated totransformationalleadership(p=.80).Transformationalleadershipsignificantlyaffected (p = .44) leadership across all criteria and study designs. Confirmingthat transformational and charismatic leadership exhibit similar overallvalidities.TransformationalleadershipTransformationalleadershiphascapturedtheimaginationofleadershipscholarsover the lastdecade.The fascinationwith leadershiptheory isunderstandable.Leadersby their verydefinitionoccupy thepinnacleof society’sorganisations.Across different sectors, geographies, cultures and hierarchies. The mostcomplexsituationstypicallyinvolvechange.Challengingthestatusquo,changingan organisation, city or even a country. Transformation leads to change andhence the continued interest in transformational leadership, ‘the summit ofleadership theory’ one could argue. Transformational leadership (Judge et al.2006)consistsoffourdimensions.Charismaoridealisedinfluenceisaperceived‘gift’orabilitytowintheheartsandmindsoffollowers.Inspirationalmotivationor‘visioning’istheperceivedabilitytoconstructanddeliveracompellingvisionof the future.Offering a senseof purposeby rallying followers to exceed theirownexpectationsandgobeyondthecallofdutyforthegreatergood.Intellectualstimulation challenges followers to create new solutions to old problems.Individualisedconsiderationthedegreetowhichaleaderunderstandstheneedsandmotivationsofa followerandrespondseffectively throughactive listeningand emotionally positive responses. Judge (2006) explained that not alltransformational leaders are good or elicit positive outcomes. Raising thequestionofethicalleadershipasapivotalissueforfutureresearch.Thiscurrentstudy introduces and supports the validity of honesty-humility as a significanttraitthataffectsthetwodimensionsofethicalandtransformationalleadership.Moderatingthepotential ‘dark-triad’traits.Leadingtooveralleffectivenessandpositiveoutcomes.It isduringtransformational leadershipthatthemoderatingeffectofHonesty-Humility, inparticular,humility that tempers the charismatic

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leader. The elements ofmodesty and restraint stabilise the euphoric emotionsinvoked. These four facets form the theoretical basis of transformationalleadership. The antecedents of which relate to the HEXACO (+Charisma)personalitytraits.HEXACOantecedentstotheFiveBehaviouralmodesofleadershipIn response to Judge’s recommendations in 2002 and building upon Zaccaro(2004, 2007) and Derue’s (2011) leadership process model. The systematicreviewconductedinthispapersupportstheproposalforanintegratedmodelofleadership, personality and outcomes. We propose that the traits of HEXACO(+Charisma) affect leadership outcomes through the mediating effect of ‘FiveBehaviouralModesofLeadership’inRelational,Ethical,Task,TransactionalandTransformational(RETTT)behaviour.RelatingthisproposedmodeltoZaccaro’s(2007). HEXACO (+Charisma) can be conceptualized as those distal attributesinherentwithintheleader’spersonality.WithRETTTbehavioursmediatingtheproximalsituationalcontextswithina leader’soperatingenvironment.Thefivedimensions of RETTT and their resultant processes offer possibilities to thedispositional source of leadership. Research has been conducted in examiningeachof the fivedimensionsofRETTTandPiccolo,Bonoand Judge (2012)andother scholars have furthered understanding in the relationship betweentransactionalandtransformational leadership.However,nostudyhasofferedafully integrated model encompassing the key dimensions of HEXACO(+Charisma),leadershipbehaviourandoutcomes.Weproposetheintegrationofthe five dimensions of leadership to offer a comprehensive model foreffectivenessthroughRETTT.For example, we know thatHonesty-Humility is related toEthical leadershipandTransformational leadership. This trait also affectsRelational, Task andTransactional behaviour. Honesty-Humility permeates throughout the RETTTbehaviours supporting its inclusionwithin ourmodel. The literature supportsEmotionasaconstructthataffectstheRelationalLeadershipdimensionwithinthe RETTT framework. As a leader develops working relationships withsuperiors, peers, followers or subordinates. The HEXACO trait of Emotion isrelevant in consideration, empowerment, servant leadership and thedevelopment of others. Constant emotional stability is a pre-requisite toleadership effectiveness. Extraversion correlated significantly with leadershipemergencep=.24andleadershipeffectivenessp=.21.Thisfurthersupportstheliterature’snotionthatextravertedpeopleinleaderlessgroupsaremorelikelytoemerge as leaders. These leaders then seek out relationships to furtherparticipate in interactions to deliver outcomes. The trait of Extraversion inHEXACOfacilitatestheRelationalleadershipdimensioninRETTTwhilstbeingmoderated by Emotion in leader-member exchanges. An extraverted leader ismorelikelytoinitiatestructureamongstgroupsintheTaskdimensionofRETTTandengagedirectlywithteammemberstosolicit ideasandviews.Aneffectiveleader is constantly networking for new ideas, opportunities and talent.

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ExtraversionisakeyantecedenttotheTransformationaldimensioninRETTT(Judge and Bono 2000). Transformational leaders deliver change through thefour‘Is’inidealisedinfluence,inspirationalmotivation,individualconsiderationand intellectual stimulation. Extraversion affects the first two dimensionscontributing to follower affiliation and performance over and above what isrequired. The act of communicating a compelling vision and interacting withfollowerstoshareandadoptthevision isasocialconstructandextraversionatraitinthefacilitationoftheproximalattributeofcommunicating.Agreeablenessp=.18withintheHEXACOframeworkoverlapswiththealtruistictendenciesofaleader. The dynamics of gentleness, patience and forgiveness are likely tomoderate theRelationaldimensionofRETTTandcontribute towards the taskbehaviouralmodewhenseekingtoformaconsensus.Conscientiousnessp=.27issignificantlycorrelatedwithleadershipeffectiveness.Theworkethicoftheteamisdrivenbytheconscientiousnessdisplayedbytheleaderintasksinthedeliveryof projects, plans and the group’s objectives.ModeratedbyAgreeableness andEmotion during highly pressurized situations. This trait is also related to theManagement by Exception – Active and Contingent Reward constructs of theTransactional behaviouralmode of leadership.Openness to experiencep= .14conceptualisedwithinHEXACOastheintellectualorientationoftheleaderbeingassessed. The literature supports the effect that Openness has on Taskleadership in the inquisitiveness and creative possibilitieswhen solving groupproblems. Openness is also relevant in transformational behavior during theprocess of envisioning a future state of countless possibilities. Charismapositively affected transformational leadership across all studies. Furtherresearchcouldinvestigatetheeffectsofcharismaupontheotherdimensionsofleadershipinrelational,ethical,taskandtransactionalbehaviours.De Vries (2012) utilised the HEXACO PI-R instrument to investigate therelationship between personality and leadership styles. Arguing that previousstudies may have suffered from low levels of self-other agreement amongleaders and subordinates surveyed. Using an instrumental variable procedurethisstudyfoundrelationsbetweenpersonalityandleadershipstylestobeverystrong. For example with subordinate-subordinate ratings of personality-leadershipstyle forethical leadershipreturned(p= .76).Thisprovides furthersupportforourproposedmodelofpersonalityandleadership.RegressionanalysisandmodellingClarke(2010)foundsignificantassociationsbetweentraitsandtransformationalleadershipwithBetasof .48, .31, .31 and .20 for openness, emotional stability,extraversionandconscientiousnessrespectively.Personalitytraitsaccountedfor26%oftheoverallvariationintransformationalleadershipbehaviour.Similarly,Cavazotte (2012) found traits to substantially increase explained variance intransformational leadership and managerial performance. Concluding thatleadership effectiveness as measured by organisational outcomes is a directfunction of transformational leadership, with traits working through thetransformationalbehaviours.Lee(2012)alsofoundbenevolence(kindness)andopennesstoexperiencetobesignificantlyrelatedtotransformationalleadership

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B=.376.Withtraitsexplaining22.5%oftheoverallvariancemakingpersonalityan important determinant of transformational behaviour. De Vries (2012)significantly related honest and humility to ethical leadership (B = .50),extraversion to charismatic (transformational) leadership (B = .76),agreeablenesstosupportive(relational)leadership(B=.74),conscientiousnesstotaskleadership(B=.33).These hierarchical regression analyses with associated explained incrementalvarianceinleadershipeffectiveness.Offerfertilegroundtodevelopanintegratedmodelforeffectivenessbaseduponthefivedimensionsofleadershipwithtraitsflowingthroughthebehaviours.We propose the integration of HEXACO (+Charisma) traits and ‘leadershipstyles.’However,preferringtoexaminesuchstylesasbehavioursinstead(Derue2011). Specifically, Five Behavioural Modes (FBM) of leadership in Relational,Ethical,Task,TransactionalandTransformationalleadership.Competencyinallfive domains could lead to incremental effectiveness. This two-step modelinvolves the interaction between each of the HEXACO (+Charisma) traitswitheach of the FBM. Followed by the interaction between the five dimensionsthemselves. To further investigate the effect of HEXACO (+Charisma) on theRETTTbehaviouralmodes.Thisintegrativeapproachwillallowustoassesstherelationshipbetweenpersonalityandleadershipwithinaconsistentframework.Further research is required tomodel the processes that explain themultipleinteractions between these traits and the five dimensions of leadership toexplain incremental variance in effectiveness. Through empirical design andresearch to gather data to further investigate the relationships. Assessing theinteraction between each of the five dimensions to explain the moderatingeffectsuponthesituationaldemandsoftheleader’soperatingenvironment.Forexample,whenaleadergivesaspeechtogarnersupportformorevoteswiththeintention of winning an election outcome. They are engaging in the RETTTbehaviour of transformational leadership through the facets of idealisedinfluenceandinspirationalmotivation.Whichisdrivenbythepersonalitytraitsof charisma, extraversion and honesty-humility.When a leader is organising ateam of people to deliver a project they are engaging in the proximal RETTTbehaviour of task leadership.Displaying extraversion in reaching out to solicitfeedbackandviewstoformaconsensualapproachbecausetheyhaveactivatedthe distal trait of openness to new ideas and creative possibilities. Activelylistening because they are agreeable to team members through patience andflexibility in the presenting and processing of new information. Exhibitingconscientiousness in the delivery of milestones within the planned course ofaction whilst taking corrective action prudently and diligently to ensure apositiveoutcomeforthegroupasawhole.Leadingtoeffectiveness.Manystudies(Martinetal.2011,Mathieuetal.2015,Furnhametal.2016)haveexplored the ‘dark triad’ of personality traits thatmay lead to destructive andcorruptivebehavioural tendencies.TherecentcasesofEnron,WorldCom,Tycoand the Global Financial Crisis of 2008 have highlighted the dangers oftransformational leaders who abuse their gift of charisma to fulfil their ownneeds and desires over and above the welfare of their followers, to the

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subsequent detriment of their organisations and society as a whole. Ethicalleadership through the traits of Honesty-Humility and Emotionmoderate thisdestructivebehaviourtoacertaindegree.Ethical leadersusetheircharismatoserveothersinasociallyconstructiveway.Aproposedtheoryshouldexplainincrementalvarianceandbesimpleenoughtorememberandrecall.Thispaper’sproposalforafivedimensionalframeworkinRETTToffersacertaindegreeofparsimony.BasedonthisempiricalreviewweproposeanIntegratedModelforLeadership,PersonalityandOutcomesinfigure2.

Figure2.AFiveDimensionalFrameworkforLeadership,PersonalityandOutcomesTheFiveBehaviouralModesofLeadershipEwen et al. (2013) found politically skilled leaders to exhibit bothtransformational (p = .33) and transactional (p = .21) behaviours that aresituation specific with personality traits acting as the antecedents to effectivebehaviour and positive outcomes. Both dimensions serve as mediators to theleader (political skill) – leadership effectiveness construct. Political skill isdefinedas“theability toeffectivelyunderstandothersatwork,andtouse thisunderstanding to influence others to act in ways that enhance one's personaland/or organizational objectives” (Ferris et al., 2005) and is reflective of “acomprehensive pattern of social competencies with cognitive, affective, and

BehaviouralModesofLeadership

EthicalRela6onal

Transforma6onal

Transac6onalTaskH

EXACO+C

OUTCOMES

5DIMENSIONSofEffec/veLeadershipSitua/onSpecific

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behavioralmanifestations”(Ferrisetal.,2007).Theabilitytoreadandrespondto social situations is related to effectiveness.We choose to integrate politicalskill within the Relational dimension of our proposed five dimensionalframework in RETTT. Relationally orientated leaders offer genuineconsiderationand concern for thewelfareof their group in thedeliveryof thetasks associated with the vision inspired. Such leaders rapidly assess thesituational context at hand and activate the appropriate mix of traits to offerbehavioural responses to ensure positive outcomes. Behavioural adaptabilityandsocialastutenesspositivelyaffectseffectiveness(p= .21).Effective leadersthrough their extraversion are expert networkers skilled at buildingrelationships,partnershipsandalliancesthatcontributetowardstheaimsofthegroup. Moderated by honesty and humility to offer authenticity and sinceritywhich falls within the facets of the Ethical dimension within our RETTTframework. Recent literature has focused on the importance of transformativeleadership,due to the far-reaching consequences that these leadershaveuponour organisations, institutions and society. However, apart from the articlesreviewed in this paper supporting the linkage between charisma andtransformational leadership, alongside studies of transactional andtransformational leadership with Zaccaro and Derue’s frameworks. Theantecedents to transformative leadership remain elusive. By integrating thesubstantialbodyofscholarlyworkweproposethatRelational,Ethical,TaskandTransactional behaviours form the foundations for effective transformationalleadership. With HEXACO (+Charisma) serving as the antecedents to theseleadership behaviours. Mastery of the above traits and behaviours afford theleaderwiththenecessarypre-requisitestoundertaketransformationalchange.Observational primary research (ethnography and elite interviewingmethods)In adopting the ethnography method to empirically research leadership in apolitical context. We observed a prominent political leader in the UnitedKingdom from2015-2016.Weweregrantedprivilegedaccess to themeetings,campaigningsessionsandpeople that this leaderworkedwithoveraone-yeartime frame. Plans have been made to extend this access into a multi-yearlongitudinalstudy.SituationalleadershipandtheFiveBehaviouralDimensionsofRETTTTheleaderbeingobservedismaleagedfortysomethingofanaverageheightandweight, educated todegree levelwith twentyyearsofprofessional experience.Hisappearancehasbeendescribedas‘professionalandcompetentlooking.’Weproceeded to apply the HEXACO +(Charisma) and RETTT five dimensionalframework to observe, assess and examine the subject’s leadership activityduringtheyearof2015-2016.He isperceivedasapotential future transformational leader.He ishonestandtells the truth as it is, based upon the factual information he has. Hecommunicates in an expressive way to articulate a vision of what the future

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could be. Explaining why the necessary course of action is required. Hisextraversionallowshimtoreachouttopeopletobuildnewrelationshipsintheinterests of the group.Affordinghim the self-confidence tomanage conflict bybeingagreeablewhenthesituationrequiresadaptabilitywithoutanylossofhisethicalmoral values.He is open tonew ideas fromnewpeople to address oldproblemswith new solutions leading to innovation. The stress and burden ofhigh office is moderated because he is emotionally stable and emotionallyintelligentenoughtoreadpeopleandsituationseffectively.Hehasthecourageto acknowledge whenmistakes have beenmade because he exhibits humilityand ishumbleenough toseewhenoperationsarenotgoingaccording toplan.Thisleadertakesimmediatecorrectiveactionthroughmanagementbyexceptionbecause he is actively monitoring the output and emotions of the group. Heleads the team by example setting an unprecedentedwork rate because he isconscientiousinthepursuitoftaskstoensurethebestpossibleoutcomesfortheorganisation. Occasionally suffering as a direct result because he exhibits theself-transcendence and altruistic kin tendencies of ethicallymotivated leaders.Furtherbindingthegrouptogetherfromtheconsistentconsiderationaffordedtomembers in his relational leadership and empathy. This leader engages andhonour’stransactionsinanequitablewaytoacquiretheresourcesnecessarytoachievethevisionforthegroup.Thisleaderactivateshischarismatoinfluencethe team to inspire them and himself to do what was once thought to beimpossible. He challenges the organisation to think about what is possible,beyond normal convention. He treats each member with respect and givespeoplehisfullattentionatalltimes.Readytoleadthepeoplethroughaperiodofchallengingtransformationalchangetoachievethevision.ThisleaderexhibitstheHEXACO(+Charisma)traitsandRETTTbehavioursonaconsistent basis to a high degree. Leading to effectiveness. His ambition is totransition into a transformative role to change his organisation into a unifiedentityforwinningelections.LeadershipDevelopmentThe literaturedraws readers into theongoingnarrativeofwhether leadershipcan be learnt and therefore taught. One view is that leaders are bornwith aninnategifttoincrementallyinfluenceandaffectpeoplemoresothanothers.Onestudywent so far as to propose a ‘leadership genome’ (DeNeve 2012),whichraises ethical questions and is beyond the scope of this discussion. The other,thatleadershipisaprocessthatiscontextualinitsverynatureandbyobservingleaderswecanlearnhowtolead.Otherscholarsproposethatleadershipisasetofskillsandabilities thatcanbe learntandthateveryonecanbecomethebestleader that they can be through practice and reflection (Kouznes and Posner2016). Hoffman et al. (2011) suggests that whilst inherent trait-like distalindividual differences are more stable and thus less malleable. Proximaldifferences are more malleable and thus more responsive to developmentalintervention. The study found that both trait-like and state-like attributesaffected leadership effectiveness to varying degrees. However, in Hoffman’sconstructofstate-likeattributes,behaviourwasexcluded.

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Exposingnewleaderstoavarietyofsituationsinalowriskenvironmentcoulddevelopthoseskills,knowledgeandbehaviourthatovertimeallowa leadertodevelop a mental framework of what is effective and what is not. Thisexperiential learning is a highly personal journey. Where the guidance of aprofessional outside of the working environment, could play a key role inleadershipdevelopment.Hence themultitudeofself-helpbooks, resourcesandleadershipcoachesthatareavailable.Whatcouldbemosteffectiveisaconstantpracticingofleadershipfollowedbydeepreflectionupontheeffectofbehaviouron one’s people and organisation. This continuous inner conversation withoneself could take the form of a simple diary (Kouznes and Posner) alongsidecounselfromatrustedadviserwhoistrulyindependent.On reviewof the recent literature thispaperoffersevidence that certain traitsaremorepredictiveofemergenceandsubsequentleadershipeffectivenessthanothers. However, with the leadership development industry in full bloomattractingbillionsofdollarsofinvestment.Attemptingtofulfillthenever-endingquest for new leaders at every organisational level. Theremust be a learningaspect to leadership that warrants such investment.What this paper seeks tooffer is aworkable frameworkwithinwhich to further develop the intricaciesthat affect leadership outcomes whether they are reflective or pragmatic innature. What is clear is that leadership theory as a social-phenomena, is asfascinating as it is a conundrum that continues to attract much scholasticattentionandeffort.Byintegratingthelatestthinkingintothedevelopmentofanaccessiblefivedimensionalframeworkweaimtocontributetowardsthestateofthe art of leadership theory and further understanding of the antecedents toeffective leadership. Contributing towards the development of current andfutureleaders.Management scholars Rowe, Yukl, Mintzberg, Zaleznik, Goffee, Robbins andothers have contributed significantly to leadership theory and practice withinthe contextof organizationalbehavior.Definitionsof leadershiparebroadandgenerallyconvergetowardsthe influencingofotherstoachieveobjectives.Thesocial-phenomena of influence, occurs in a situational context and thebehavioural response then leads to outcomes. Different situations demanddiffering responses in leader-member exchanges. This is a two-way socialinteractionwith the leader influencing the follower and the follower affectingleadershipbehaviourinadynamicrelationship.Whatbindsthetwotogetherisasharedsituationwithacommonpurposeandaim.Typicallyinvolvingthesolvingofaproblemthatfacesthemembersofthatgroup.Problemsolvingoccursatalllevelsofanorganization.Emergenceoccursatthisjuncture.Requiringadaptableandflexibleleadership(Yukl2008).Yukl’staxonomyofleadershipbehavioursofmaking decisions, influencing, building relations, giving/seeking informationdrawuponthe task, relationalandchange-orientateddimensionsof leadershipbehaviour.Rowe(2007)highlightstheimportanceofethicalconsiderationwhenmakingdecisionsasaleader.Leadershipdevelopmentisalong-termendeavourpursuedoverthecourseofmanyyearsof interactions,situations,personalitiesandexperiences.Itisacomplexmulti-dimensionalhumanphenomenon.

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The current leadership development models typically consisting of classroombasedlearninginMBAandrelatedprogrammes,complimentedwithon-the-jobexperiencebasedlearning,hopestomanufactureeffective leaders.However, tothedetrimentoforganisationsandsocietytoacertaindegreesuchprogrammesdonotalwaysleadtoeffectiveness.Ourreviewhassupportedthesignificanceofpersonality traits and behaviours as predictors of leadership emergence andsubsequent effectiveness. This paper supports the situational school ofleadership theory and recommends that organisation’s invest in and exposeleadership candidates to a broad variety of situational experiences to developand refine the traits and behaviours that are related to positive outcomes.Leaderswho’veemergedfromtheoperationalsettingofwork, typically intasksituations, in goal setting, initiating structure, the analysis and synthesis ofinformation. Demonstrating the relational aspect of people management andconsideration in the fair treatmentof staff.Buildingrelationships thatenhancethe group’s aims and objectives. Transacting to ensure the group has theresources it needs to deliver. Consistently exhibiting ethical behaviour anddecision-making. Are well placed to take on future leadership challenges. Themost paramount of which is transformation. Changing a team, group ororganisation is a multi-year, multi-disciplinary endeavour. Requiringeffectiveness in all dimensionswithin theRETTT framework.Wepropose thatRelational, Ethical, Task, Transactional behaviour form the foundations foreffective transformational leadership.WithHEXACO (+Charisma) serving as theantecedentstothesefiveleadershipbehaviours.Furtherresearchisnecessarytotestthepredictivevalidityofourproposedmodel.Phaneuf et al. (2016) found organisation’s with a supportive and cooperativeenvironmenttobeconduciveto transformational leadership(p= .24).Relatingaffiliative aspects to the individualized consideration facet of transformationalbehaviour. Illuminating the importance of culture and context in the workingenvironment of effective leaders. Such leaders are likely to seek alternativeorganisations instead if thevalues associatedwith transformational leadershiparelacking.ThePracticeofLeadershipMckinsey&Coisawell-knownglobalconsultingfirmspecialisinginleadershipdevelopmentandadvisingleadersatalllevelswithinanorganisation.Theyenjoyprivilegedaccesstopractisingleaderswhoareengagedinthestateoftheartofleadershiponadailybasis.DominicBarton,CEOofMckinseypresentedaseriesof lectureson leadershippractice. ‘In the80sand90s leadershipwasallaboutwhatleadersdo.Nowadays it’sallaboutwho the leader is.’BartonsummarisesMckinsey’s view on 21st century leadership in figure 3. Incorporating someelementsofourHEXACO+(Charisma)frameworkandtheidealisedinfluenceandindividualisedconsiderationfacetsoftransformationalleadership.OuranalyticalframeworkdistinguishesbetweenthepersonalitytraitsofHEXACO(+Charisma)and the five dimensional RETTT behaviours that are predictive of leadershipeffectiveness. Barton sheds light on the importance of context and situationalfactorsthatinfluenceaCEO’sbehaviour.Furtherempiricalresearchintheform

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ofobservationandelite interviewing isrequiredto furthermapthesituationalcontext to the trait activation and subsequent behavioural modes evoked.Coupledwiththemeasurementofresultantoutcomes.Offeringdatatodevelopprocess maps to illuminate the linkages between the antecedents to thedispositionalsourceofleadership.

Figure 3. Extract from Dominic Barton’s (CEO of Mckinsey) speech on leadership at OxfordUniversity2015LimitationsandFurtherRecommendationsThis review serves to consolidate the literature on leadership and personalityover the last sixteen years and offers support for the trait approach and aframeworkforfutureempiricalresearch.Italsohasanumberoflimitations.Wehave offered possible linkages between the HEXACO traits themselves toleadership emergence and effectiveness. With further linkages between themediating five behavioural dimensions in RETTT. Future empirical researchwork and resultant supporting data can further disentangle the mythssurroundingleadershiptofurtherunderstandtheinteractionsbetweenHEXACO(+Charisma),RETTTandleadershipoutcomes.Futureresearchshouldexaminethe situational moderators of leadership roles including levels of situationalstress. Degrees of group support in followers and leader-member exchangetheory. Controlling for leader intelligence, physiology and experience. Furtherresearch development into follower characteristics, such as personality,experience,intellectualorientationandmotivationuponleadershipeffectivenesswithin the RETTT five dimensional framework. Refinement of outcomes withbroadermeasurementconstructsotherthanselfandother360-degreefeedbackmechanisms to incorporate additional metric based measures of group andorganisationalperformancetoassessoutcomessuchasenterprisegrowthinthe

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privatesectororelectionresultsinthepoliticaldomain.ResearchdesignshouldalsocontrolforindividualHEXACOtraitstoofferprocessmapsforhowRETTTinfluencesoutcomes.ConclusionDue to the continuedefforts froma greatmany scholarswehave comea longwaysince thedaysof the ‘greatmantheory’ firstconceivedbyCarlyle in1840.Our quest for understanding the antecedents and the dispositional source ofleadership continues. This review examined the literature since Judge’s 2002seminalworkonleadershiptraitsandpersonalitytoofferanintegrationofthekey research findings to date. The evolution of the FFM to a six dimensionalHEXACO framework introduces the additional element of honesty-humility toleadershiptraittheory.Thecurrentresearchsupportstheinclusionofthistraitwithinthecontextofethicalleadershipandotherdimensionstoo.Charismaisasignificanttraitthatpredictstransformativeleadership.TheliteraturesupportstheHEXACO(+Charisma)traitsasaframeworkforinvestigatingleadership.Wetherefore proposed an integrated model based upon these foundationalpersonality traits. There is also strong evidence that the well-establishedclassical behavioural schools of leadership in Relational, Emotional, Task,Transactional and Transformational leadership (RETTT) affect outcomes. Byintegrating thesealongside theestablishedsituationalmodelsof leadershipwecan offer a five dimensional framework for examining leadership, personalityand outcomes in its entirety. In response to Judge’s 2002 further researchchallenge. These Five Behavioural Domains and their associated HEXACO(+Charisma) traits are a significant dispositional source of leadership. Futureresearch should further investigate the relationship between HEXACO(+Charisma)and leadershipoutcomesthroughthedynamic interactionswithinthe Five Dimensional Framework of RETTT. Further empirical research andsupportingdatawouldascertainthepredictivevalidityofthismodel.ToaddressJudge’s second challenge of building process maps to further illuminate thedispositional source of leadership. It is a platform that leadership researcherscanfurtherbuildupon.

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