Jitendra

THE ROLE OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION IN INDIAN

ELECTRICITY PARADIGM

Jitendra Singh Bhadoriya ( School of instrumentation davv ,indore)

Abstract—this paper is an overview of some of the main issues in distributed generation

(DG). It discusses various aspects of DG such as definitions, technologies, distributed power

application, economics, environmental performance, reliability issues, the role of DG in the

new electricity paradigm of India, and the comparative study of DG in India with respect to

some developed country. It also presents some of the challenges that DG systems are

confronting today. In this article, some benefits and potential problems of DG systems are

brought out, and the current status of DG systems operation is presented.

I. INTRODUCTION-

The concept of distributed generation, which is now gaining worldwide acceptance, was

started in the USA almost a decade ago. The earliest electric power systems were distributed

generation (DG) systems intended to cater to the requirements of local areas. Subsequent

technology developments driven by economies of scale resulted in the development of large

centralized grids connecting up entire regions and countries. The design and operating

philosophies of power systems have emerged with a focus on centralized generation. During

the last decade, there has been renewed interest in DG. The relevance of these options for a

developing country context is examined using data for India.

New concerns are emerging in the power industry today. For example, although hydro power

plants are recognized to be environmentally friendly, it is difficult to find new sites for hydro

power plant installations in developed countries. Furthermore, some countries such as

Germany and Sweden have enacted laws to decommission nuclear power plants, and under

public pressure, retired nuclear power plants would not be replaced [1]. Additionally, in the

deregulated power sector of today, it is not easy to convince market players to invest in

multibillion dollar power generation and transmission projects where the payback period may

be very long [2].These issues, and the decentralization of power systems and liberalization of

the electricity sector, along with dramatically growing demand for electricity in developed

countries has made DG an attractive option that has been reconsidered by various entities in

the new electricity market such as customers, power distributors, power producers, regulators

and researchers.

II. DG Definitions

As per Wikipedia collections Distributed Generation (DG) is also known as on-site

generation, dispersed generation, embedded generation, decentralized generation, etc. It

varies from country to country. Over the last century, be it developed nation or developing

nation, on account of rapid industrialization causing high rate of growth in the demand for

electricity, everyone resorted to establishment of large scale centralized generation facility.

IEEE defines the generation of electricity by facilities sufficiently smaller than central plants,

usually 10 MW or less, so as to allow interconnection at nearly any point in the power

system, as Distributed Resources [2] The plants concerned were based on use of fossil-fuel

(solid, liquid as well as gas), hydro, nuclear elements. Due to the economy of scale with large

unit size, it became possible to have big centralized power stations near the sources to deliver

power to load centers through the medium of high voltage transmission lines over a long

distance. From environment point of view as well due to limitation of natural resources, it is

in fact advantageous too to have the plants away from populated areas. Of course like power

grid, gas grid has also been constructed that allows use of less polluting natural gas-based

plants right at the load center, where it may not be uncommon to have waste heat recovery

and use combined cycle plant to achieve higher efficiency and at the same time for heating in

winter days, if the need be. On the other hand Distributed Generation too is a method to

reckon with, particularly when unbundling of power sector has come up with generation,

transmission, and distribution recognized as distinct entities. Low capital investment, local

use of generated power by the load, absence of any high voltage transmission system, etc.

lead to flourishing of this type of decentralized generation. Advancement of technology with

renewable energy sources, gradual reduction in cost, ease of operation and maintainability,

etc., all go in favor of Distributed Generation as source of green power. Also if it is not as

replacement to centralized large generation, it is at least to supplement the entire effort of

generating capacity addition to a great extent. Further in the context of absence of right-of

way for drawing new high voltage lines, it is a boon as it envisages connectivity through low

voltage networks only and that too over short distance. In UK Distributed Generation is

defined [3] as a generation plant that is connected to a distribution network and not to a

transmission network. The US Department of Energy (DOE) defines DG as follows:

“Distributed power is modular electric generation or storage located near the point of use.

Distributed systems include biomass-based generators, combustion turbines, thermal solar

power and photovoltaic systems, fuel cells, wind turbines, micro turbines, engines/generator

sets, and storage and control technologies. Distributed resources can either be grid connected

or independent of the grid. Those connected to the grid are typically interfaced at the

distribution system” [4].In a similar tone in USA it is referred to as small scale generation of

electric power by a unit sited close to the load being served. Both of these justify terming

Distributed Generation as embedded to distribution system. However, as per American

Council for an Energy Efficient Economy for Distribution Power Generation, its is also

known as any technology that produces power outside of the utility, which is in fact the case

for this type of generation. Furthermore, in the literature, terms such as embedded generation,

dispersed generation, distributed energy resources or DER and decentralized generation, have

also been used in the context of DG. The term dispersed generation is usually referred to a

distributed power generation unit regardless of the technology, and whether it is connected to

the grid or

completely independent of the grid [5] In India too effectively it means decentralized small

scale generation directly supplying load and having interconnection at low voltage with

distribution network. Moreover it is very often in the context of electrification of rural areas

including remote villages / hamlets. The above definitions do not specify any criterion or

classification of DG based on their capacity. Although, there is no generally accepted rule or

standard, the following ratings are used in different countries and situations:

1) The DOE considers distributed power systems to typically range from less than a kilowatt

(kW) to tens of megawatts (MW) in size as DG unit [4].

2) The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) considers small generation units from a few

kW up to 50 MW and/or energy storage devices typically sited near customer loads or

distribution and sub-transmission substations as distributed energy resources [6].

3) According to the Gas Research Institute, typically between 25 kW to 25 MW generation

units are considered as DG [5].

4) Swedish legislation treats generating units under 1500 kW differently from those unit

capacities higher than 1500 kW. Then, it can be considered that DG capacity in Sweden is

defined as those units under 1500 kW [7].

From the above discussion, it is evident that capacity specification for DG units is not

universally defined. Various generating schemes under completely diverse rating, behavior,

regulation, purpose and locations are currently being considered as DG in the power industry.

III. Indian power sector

India had an installed capacity of 2, 10,951.72 MW (Ministry of Power,) in the centralized

power utilities on 31st March2012. Of this 140976.18 MW is accounted for by thermal power

plants, 39,339.40MW of large hydro plants and 4,780.00 MW of nuclear, 25,856.14 MW of

renewable energy resources (Shown in Table 1). The focus of power planning has been to

extend the centralized grid throughout the country. However the capacity addition has not

been able to keep pace with the increasing demand for electricity. This is reflected by the

persistent energy and peak shortages in the country. This requires an average capacity addition

of more than 10,000MW per year. Centralized generation alone is unlikely to meet this target.

In this context DG is likely to be important. DG also has the advantage of improving tail-end

voltages, reducing distribution losses and improving system reliability. The present installed

capacity of DG is about 13,000MW (10,000MW diesel, 3000MW renewable). The majority of

this is accounted for by diesel engines that are used for back-up power (in the event of grid

failure) and operate at very low load factors. The share of the energy generation from DG is

marginal (about2–3% of the total generation). Apart from the diesel engines, the DG options

that have been promoted in India are modern renewable. India is probably the only country

with a separate Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES). The renewable energy

installed capacity was 205.5MW in 1993 (104.6MW small hydro, 39.9MW Wind). This

increased to 2978 MW in 2001 (as on 31st March2001) and accounted for almost 3% of

India’s installed power capacity (MNES, 2001; Annual Reports MNES, 2000, 2001, 2002).

The growth rate of installed renewable power capacity during the period 1993–2001 was 39%

per year. During the period January 2000–April 2001the installed capacity increased from

1600MW to 2978MW (an annual growth rate of 49%).. The major contributors are small

hydro 25MW which accounts for 1341MW (45%) and wind which accounts for 1267MW

(42%). The installed capacity in Biomass based power generation is 308MW (10.3%), with

most of it coming from biogases based cogeneration. Most of the installed capacity available

from renewable is accounted for by grid connected systems (wind, small hydro and biomass

cogeneration). These accounts for about 3% of India’s installed capacity contribute to about

1–2% of the total generation (due to low capacity factors on renewable). The growth rate has

been significant (above 30% per year). This has been facilitated by an enabling policy

environment and a supportive government. Despite the emphasis on extending the centralized

grid to the rural areas, 78 million rural households (Ministry of Power, 2003b) or 56.5% of

rural households are still un electrified. The recently passed Electricity Act (2003) has made it

a statutory obligation to supply electricity to all areas including villages and hamlets. The act

suggests a two pronged approach encompassing grid extension and through standalone

systems. The act provides for enabling mechanisms for service providers in rural areas and

exempts them from licensing obligations. MNES has been given the responsibility of

electrification of 18,000 remote villages through renewable. The ministry has set up an

ambitious target of meeting 10% of the power requirements of India from renewable by 2012.

In most cases, the areas to be electrified do not have sufficient paying capacity.. The main

recommendations of the Committee are as under :-

1. The concept of Distributed Generation (D.G.) has been taken as decentralized

generation and distribution of power especially in the rural areas. In India, the

deregulation of the power sector has not made much headway but the problem of T&D

losses, the unreliability of the grid and the problem of remote and inaccessible regions

have provoked the debate on the subject.

2. The D.G. technologies in India relate to turbines, micro turbines, wind turbines,

biomass, and gasification of biomass, solar photovoltaics and hybrid systems.

However, most of the decentralized plants are based on wind power, hydra power and

biomass and biomass gasification. The technology of solar photovoltaic is costly and

fuel cells are yet to be commercialized.

3. In so far as the 18,000 villages in remote and inaccessible areas are concerned, the

extension of grid power is not going to be economical. Decentralized plants based on

biomass, gasification of biomass, hydro power and solar thermal power and solar

photovoltaic are the appropriate solution for these areas. A decision with regard to the

available options will have to be taken depending on the feature of each site/village.

4. As regards the remaining un electrified villages, the responsibility should rest

primarily with the State Governments. The Govt. of India would, however, act as the

facilitator to them.

5. As people in many of the electrified villages are very much dissatisfied with the

quality of grid power, such villages also encouraged to go ahead with the Distributed

Generation Schemes. These should also be the responsibility of the State Governments.

6. Though India has made considerable progress in adopting technologies based on

renewable sources of energy these are not yet capable of commercial application on a

large scale.

Most systems are subsidized by the Government or the utility. The power sector has

significant losses and needs to ensure that the DG systems selected are likely to be

cost-effective. For a large and dispersed rural country, decentralized power generation

systems, where in electricity is generated at consumer end and thereby avoiding

transmission and distribution costs, offers a better solution. Gokak Committee had

gone into details about the concept of decentralized generation to meet the needs of

rural masses

IV. DG TECHNOLOGIES & CHALLENGES IN INDIAN SCENERIO

DG technologies are usually categorized as renewable or non-renewable technologies (shown

in table 2). Renewable technologies comprise solar either thermal or photovoltaic, wind,

geothermal or ocean. Usually the location and size of wind power generators is suitable for

connecting to the distribution network; therefore it can be considered as DG. However,

electricity generation from wind usually takes place in wind farms, owned by large power

generation companies; hence these types of generation are usually excluded from DG in the

literature and for the same reasons are also not considered here. The internal combustion

engines (ICE), combined cycles,

combustion turbines, micro turbines and fuel cells are all examples of non-renewable DG

technologies. Among all available technologies, combustion engines and turbines, micro

turbines,

fuel cells and photovoltaic play an important role in DG applications [1]. The Government of

India set up a Commission for Additional Sources of Energy in the Department of Science and

Technology on the lines of the Space Commission and the Atomic Energy Commission to

promote R & D activities in the area. In 1982, a separate department of Non Conventional

Energy Sources was created in the Smalls try of Energy. After a decade, the department was

elevated and converted into a full-fledged Smalls try. The mounting burden of subsidy has

also lead to the introduction of the new legislation referred to above. There are a number of

technologies for distributed generation, the details

of which are given below:

i. The Internal Combustion Engine.

ii. Biomass

iii. Turbines

iv. Micro-turbines

v. Wind Turbines

vi. Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)

vii. Photovoltaics

viii. Fuel Cells

ix. Small-Hydel.

The Internal Combustion Engine: The most important instrument of the D. G systems

around the world has been the Internal Combustion Engine. Hotels, tall buildings, hospitals,

all over the world use diesels as a backup. Though the diesel engine is efficient, starts up

relatively quickly, it is not environment friendly and has high O & M costs. Consequently its

use in the developed world is limited. In India, the diesel engine is used very widely on

account of the immediate need for power, especially in rural areas, without much concern

either for long-term economics or for environment.

i. Biomass: Biomass refers to renewable energy resources derived from organic

matter, such as forest residues, agricultural crops and wastes, wood, wood wastes

that are capable of being converted to energy. This was the only form of energy

that was usefully exploited till recently. The extraction of energy from biomass is

split into three distinct categories, solid biomass, biogas, and liquid bio fuels. Solid

biomass includes the use of trees, crop residues, household or industrial residues

for direct combustion to provide heat. Animal and human waste is also included in

the definition for the sakes of convenience. It undergoes physical processing such

as cutting and chipping, but retains its solid form. Biogas is obtained by an

aerobically digesting organic material to produce the combustible gas methane

There are two common technologies, one of fermentation of human and animal

waste in specially designed digesters, the other of capturing methane from

municipal waste landfill sites. Liquid bio fuels, which are used in place of

petroleum derived liquid fuels, are obtained by processing plants seeds or fruits of

different types like sugarcane, oilseeds or nuts using various chemical or physical

processes to produce a combustible liquid fuel. Pressing or fermentation is used to

produce oils or ethanol from industrial or commercial residues such as biogases or

from energy crops grown specifically for this purpose.

ii. Turbines: Turbines are a commercialized power technology with sizes ranging

between hundreds of kilowatts to several hundred megawatts. These are designed

to burn a wide range of liquid and gaseous fuels and are capable of duel fuel

operation. Turbines used in distributed generation

Vary in size between 1-30 MW and their operating efficiency is in the range of 24-35%. Their

ability to adjust output to demand and produce high quality waste heat makes them a popular

choice in combined heat and power applications.

iii. Micro-turbines: Micro turbines are installed commercially in many applications,

especially in landfills where the quality of natural gas is low. These are rugged and

long lasting and hold promise for Distributed Generation in India.

iv. Wind-turbines: Wind turbines extract energy from moving air and enable an

electric generator to produce electricity. These comprise the rotor (blade), the

electrical generator, a speed control system and a tower. These can be used in a

distributed generation in a hybrid mode with solar or other technologies. Research

on adaptation of wind turbines for remote and stand-alone applications is receiving

increasingly greater attention and hybrid power systems using 1-50-kilowatt (kW)

wind turbines are being developed for generating electricity off the grid system.

Wind turbines are also being used as grid connected distributed resources. Wind

turbines are commercially available in a variety of sizes and power ratings ranging

from one kW to over one MW. These typically require a Smallmum 9-mph average

wind speed sites.

v. Concentrating Solar Power: Various mirror configurations are used to

concentrate the heat of the sun to generate electricity for a variety of market

applications that range from remote power applications of up to 1- 2kW to grid

connected applications of 200MW or more. R & D efforts in the area of distributed

generation applications are focused on small,modular, and dish/ design systems.

vi. Photovoltaics: Photovoltaic power cells are solid state semi conductor devices that

convert sunlight into direct current electrical power and the amount of power

generated is directly related to the intensity of the light PV systems are most

commonly used for standalone applications and are commercially available with

capacities ranging between one kW to one MW. The systems are commonly used

in India and can contribute a great deal for rural areas, especially remote and

inaccessible areas. It can be of great help in grid connected applications where the

quality of power provided by the grid is low. This is yet to be proved. High initial

cost is a major constraint to large-scale application of SPV systems. R&D work has

been undertaken for cost reduction in SPV cells, modules, and systems besides

improvements in operational efficiency.

vii. Fuel Cells: Fuel cells produce direct current electricity using an electromechanical

process similar to battery as a result of which combustion and the associated

environmental side effects are avoided. Natural gas or coal gas is cleaned in a fuel

cell and converted to a hydrogen rich fuel by a processor or internal catalyst. The

gas and the air then flow over an anode and a cathode separated by an electrolyte

and thereby produces a constant supply of DC electricity, which is converted to

high quality AC power by a power conditioner. Fuel cells are combined into stacks

whose sizes can be varied (from one kW for mobile applications to 100MW plants

to add to base load capacity to utility plants) to meet customer needs.

viii. Biomass Based Schemes: This can be considered under three distinct heads,

National Project on Biogas Development, National Programmed on Bio-Mass

Power/Cogeneration and Bio-Mass Gasified Programmer. The gas is piped for use

as cooking and lighting fuel in especially designed stoves and lamps respectively

and can also be used for replacing diesel oil in fuel engines for generation of

motive power and electricity. The Floating Gas Holder Type, that is India or KVIC

model and Fixed Dome Type which is made of brick masonry structure i.e.

Deenabandhu model are among the indigenous designs of biogas plants. A Bag

Type Portable Digester made of rubberized nylon fabric, suitable for remote and

hilly areas, is being promoted. The recently developed methodology of on sight

construction of Deenabandhu model with Ferro cement, which costs about 10 to

15% less as compared to the model constructed with bricks and cement, is getting

popular in the Southern States.

The National Project on Biogas Development was started in 1981-82.About 33.68 lac

families have been benefited upto March 2002. The Community and Institutional Biogas

Plants Programme was initiated in 1992-93. In order to achieve recycling the cattle dung

available in the villages and institutions for the benefit of the weaker sections as well.

Biogas is generally used for motive power and generation of electricity under the

programme in addition to meet the cooking fuel requirement. A total of 3,901 plants,

including 600 night soil based Biogas plants had been installed up to March 2002.

National Programme on Biomass Power/Cogeneration: The Government of India has

initiated a National Programme on Biomass Power/Cogeneration. It aims at optimum

utilization of a variety of biomass materials such as agro-residues, agro-industrial residues,

and forestry based residues and dedicated energy plantations for power generation through

the adoption of latest conversion technologies. These include combustion, incineration,

pyrolysis, gasification etc. using gas turbine, steam turbine, dual fuel engine, gas engine or

a combination there of either for power generation alone or cogeneration of more than one

energy

National Biomass Gasifier Programme: Biomass gasification is the process by which solid

biomass materials are broken down using heat to produce a combustible gas, known as the

producer gas. Common feedstocks for combustion include wood, charcoal, rice husks and

coconut shells. The producer gas can be used directly in a burner to provide process heat or it

can be used in IC engines, but it requires cleaning and cooling for the latter application. It can

also be used as a substitute for diesel oil in duel fuel engines for mechanical and electrical

applications

Encouragement to technologies such as biomass briquetting and gasification for various

applications in rural and urban areas, and R and D on Biomass Production and Gasification,

are the important objectives of the programme. Biomass gasifier systems of up to 500 kW

capacity based on fuel wood have been indigenously developed and being manufactured in the

country. Technology for producing biomass briquettes from agricultural residues and forest

litter at both household and industry levels has been developed. A total capacity of 51.3 MW

has so far been installed, mainl for stand-alone applications.

ix. Wind Energy: The programme was initiated in the year 1983-84. A market-

oriented strategy has been adopted right from the beginning and hence commercial

development of the technology has been successfully achieved. Scientific

assessment of wind resources throughout the country and a series of other

systematic steps have facilitated the emergence of a cost effective technology. The

wind power potential of the country was initially assessed at 20000 MW and

reassessed at 45000 MW subsequently assuming 1% of land availability for wind

power generation in potential areas. The technical potential has been assessed at

13000MW assuming 20% grid penetration, which will go up with the

augmentation of grid capacity in potential States. The Centre for wind energy

technology (C- WET) is coordinating the Wind Resource Assessment Programme

with the States and Nodal Agencies. Wind diesel projects are being taken up in

Island regions and remote areas which are dependent on costly diesel for power

generation .Two machines of 50 kW capacity each have been installed in the first

phase of the project at Sagar Islands in West Bengal. Similar projects are being

considered for Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Solar Power Programme: The solar power programme comprises Solar Photovoltaic Power

Programme and Solar Thermal Power Programmes.

Under the Solar Photovoltaic Programme:, 27 grid interactive SPV projects have been

installed, with an aggregate capacity of 2.0 MW in Andhra Pradesh, Chandigarh, Karnataka,

Punjab, Kerala, Lakshadweep, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and

Uttar Pradesh. These are meant for voltage support applications in remote sections of weak

grids, peak shaving applications in public buildings in urban centers and for saving diesel use

in islands. These are expected to generate and feed over 2.6 million units of electricity

annually to the respective grids. In addition, ten projects of 900 kW capacity, are under

different stages of implementation. The solar photovoltaic systems can be used for a variety of

applications, such as rural telecommunications, battery charging, road and railway signaling

which are non subsidized. Only 3 MW out of the total aggregate capacity of 96 MW (9,80,000

systems) is used by the power plants. In so far as rural areas are concerned.

However, the technology is not yet ripe for being considered for DG application in India, as it

is very expensive, and has not yet been commercially tried on a large scale even in the U. S.A.

The technologies referred to above are applied under various schemes for generation of

electricity from renewable sources of energy in the country. A bird’s eye view of the schemes

would give a good insight into the status of Distributed Generation based on renewable

sources of energy.

V. Benefits of distributed generation

Use of distributed generation is one of the many strategies electric utilities are considering to

operate their systems in the deregulated environment. Several DG technologies are showing

promise for this application. Inclusion of DG at the distribution level results in several

benefits, among which are congestion relief, loss reduction, voltage support, peak shaving, and

an overall improvement of energy efficiency, reliability, and power quality[16]. The benefits

obtained by the introduction of DG should be weighed against the costs involved before

deciding on the use

of DG(shown in Table 3). As DG technologies improve and cost decrease, their use is

expected to rise

Installing small-scale distributed DGs instead of an aggregated large-scale DG can improve

the system reliability indices, depending on the locations of DGs, the number of customers

and the sizes of the loads. The index improves if the DGs are located closer to the end of line.

However, the reliability indices improve the most when the aggregated DG is placed at the

end of the line [17].

• Most of the benefits of employing DG in existing distribution networks have both economic

and technical implications and they are interrelated.

The major technical benefits are:

• reduced line losses.

• Voltage profile improvement.

• reduced emissions of pollutants.

• increased overall energy efficiency.

• enhanced system reliability and security.

• improved power quality.

• relieved T&D congestion.

� The major economic benefits are:

• deferred investments for upgrades of facilities.

• reduced O&M costs of some DG technologies.

• enhanced productivity.

• reduced health care costs due to improved environment.

• reduced fuel costs due to increased overall efficiency.

• reduced reserve requirements and the associated costs.

• lower operating costs due to peak shaving.

• increased security for critical loads.

� . Compared to traditional centralized generation, DG possesses advantages as follows

[18].

• Reducing the transmission and distribution costs, thus reducing energy loss.

• Providing black start capability and spinning reserves, thus improving power reliability.

• Providing improved security of supply.

•Enabling development of sustainable and green electricity thus reducing environmental

resources used by central generation Easy and quicker installation on account of prefabricated

standardized components.

• Lowering of cost by avoiding long distance high voltage transmission

• Environment friendly where renewable sources are used .

• Running cost more or less constant over the period of time with the use of renewable sources

.

• Possibility of user-operator participation due to lesser complexity more dependability with

simple construction, and consequent easy operation and maintenance [19].

VI. Distributed Power Application

Distributed power technologies are typically installed for one or more of the following

purposes:

(i)Overall load reduction – Use of energy efficiency and other energy saving measures for

reducing total consumption of electricity, sometimes with supplemental power generation.

(ii) Independence from the grid – Power is generated locally to meet all local energy needs by

ensuring reliable and quality power under two different models.

a. Grid Connected – Grid power is used only as a back up during failure of maintenance of the

onsite generator.

b. Off grid – This is in the nature of stand-alone power generation. In order to attain self-

sufficiency it usually includes energy saving approaches and an energy storage device for

back-up power. This includes most village power applications in developing countries.

(iii) Supplemental Power- Under this model, power generated by the grid is augmented with

distributed generation for the following reasons: -

a. Standby Power- Under this arrangement power availability is assured during grid outages.

b. Peak shaving – Under this model the power that is locally generated is used fro reducing the

demand for grid electricity during the peak periods to avoid the peak demand charges imposed

on big electricity users.

(iv) Net energy sales – Individual homeowners and entrepreneurs can generate more

electricity than they need and sell their surplus to the grid. Co-generation could fall into this

category.

(v) Combined heat and power - Under this model waste heat from a power generator is

captured and used in manufacturing process for space heating, water heating etc. in order to

enhance the efficiency of fuel utilization.

(vi) Grid support – Power companies resort to distributed generation for a wide variety of

reasons. The emphasis is on meeting higher peak loads without having to invest in

infrastructure (line and sub-station upgrades).

Most of the early adopters of distributed power wanted to stay connected to the grid, which

they used either as a backup or for selling their surplus power to the power companies[ 17 ]

VII. CONCLUSION

India is on right track to pursue development of Distributed Generation with the unbundling of

power sector utilizing captive and co-generation, besides putting all out effort in harnessing

various forms of new and renewable energy. Collective participation of industries, private

entrepreneurs, giant Corporations hitherto engaged in conventional power development is the

essence of such venture. Liberalization of Government policy vis-à-vis support as well as

regulatory mechanism in place is helping to create conducive atmosphere to achieve target set

in this direction.

VIII.ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

For the accomplishment of this thesis work, expression and words run short to convey my

gratitude to many individuals. This research work is an outcome of moral support and

persuasive interest dedicated from many individuals directly or indirectly involved. Though

the idea of the thesis started from characterizing a curricular obligation, never the less it has

taken the interest of learning to ever-new heights for us. I am indebted to MANIT, Bhopal.

I would like to take this opportunity in expressing immense gratitude to my guide Dr. Ganga

Agnihotri, Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, MANIT, Bhopal, for her constant

inspiration, useful criticism and immense support throughout the work. I am indebted for the

hard work she has put in to produce this report in the best possible form.

I would like to extend my honour to Dr. Appu Kuttan K.K. Director, MANIT, Bhopal,

Dr. R.K. Nema Head of Electrical Department, MANIT, Bhopal, for their blessings and

encouragement.

I am thankful to the Staff Members of Department of Electrical Engineering, MANIT, Bhopal,

for their co-operation in my work. Last but not least I would like to express my sincere thanks

to all of my friends for their valuable support.

Finally, my special thanks to my parents for their moral support and encouragement.

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