Maritime English 1 Maritime English Maritime University of Constanta Faculty – Electromechanics Specialisation – Electromechanics 4-th year 1-st term Student’s Coursebook
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Maritime English
1
Maritime English
Maritime University of Constanta
Faculty – Electromechanics
Specialisation – Electromechanics
4-th year
1-st term
Student’s Coursebook
Maritime English
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Maritime English
Contents
Page
UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION TO JOB APPLICATION 4
Objectives of Unit 1 5
1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 Cover letter types and examples 6
1.3 English Tenses – Graphic Comparison 9
Self-assessment test 10
Progress test 11
Answers to self-assessment test 12
References 12
UNIT 2. WRITING A CV 13
Objectives of Unit 2 14
2.1 What is a CV? 14
2.2 Information a CV should include 14
2.3 How to make a winning CV 16
Self-assessment test 17
Progress test 17
Answers to self-assessment test 18
References 18
UNIT 3. PREPARING FOR INTERVIEWS 19
Objectives of Unit 3 20
3.1 Interview tips 20
3.2 Interview examples 22
Self-assessment test 23
Progress test 24
Answers to self-assessment test 24
References 25
UNIT 4. MAIN ENGINES 26
Objectives of Unit 4 27
4.1 Different types of marine engines 27
4.2 Causal verbs 28
4.3 Cause and effect 30
4.4 Terms relating to main engines 32
4.5 Measurements 32
Self-assessment test 34
Progress test 35
Answers to self-assessment test 35
References 36
UNIT 5. THE TWO-STROKE CROSSHEAD DIESEL ENGINE 37
Objectives of Unit 5 38
5.1 What is a crosshead 38
5.2 Characteristics 39
5.3 Reported speech 40
Self-assessment test 42
Progress test 42
Answers to self-assessment test 42
References 43
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UNIT 6. THE MEDIUM-SPEED 4-STROKE TRUNK PISTON ENGINE 44
Objectives of Unit 6 45
6.1 Introduction 45
6.2 The rocker gear and valves 46
6.3 Turbocharging 47
6.4 The cylinder head 49
6.5 The fuel pump 49
6.6 The piston 51
6.7 The cylindre liner 52
6.8 The camshaft 53
6.9 The connecting rod 54
Self-assessment test 56
Progress test 56
Answers to self-assessment test 56
References 57
UNIT 7. THE AIR START SYSTEM 58
Objectives of Unit 7 59
7.1 How an engine starts on air 59
7.2 Adverb clauses 61
Self-assessment test 62
Progress test 62
Answers to self-assessment test 63
References 63
UNIT 8. ENGINE ROOM WATCH-KEEPING DUTIES 65
Objectives of Unit 9 66
8.1 Watch arrangements 66
8.2 Handing/Taking over the watch 66
8.3 Getting in ‘touch‘ 67
Self-assessment test 68
Progress test 69
Answers to self-assessment test 69
References 69
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Unit 1
Introduction to Job Aplication
Objectives of Unit 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Cover letters and examples
1.3 English Tenses – Graphic Comparison
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answer to self-assessment test
References
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OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 1
The main objectives are:
demonstrate an understanding of the steps taken for a job
application;
understand the kind of information to be included in the
cover letters
use appropriate letter layouts
select appropriate vocabulary and use it appropriately
1.1 Introduction
Merchant seamen spend long periods away from home. Not only they, but their
families, must be aware of the potential effects of this separation. Although the job pays very
well, there is a long-standing joke among seafarers: "How do you spot the merchant seaman?
He has a Rolex on his wrist and divorce papers in his pocket."
Before you start applying for jobs online it's important to prepare to complete online
job applications and to gather all the information you'll need to apply. For instance, if you are
in the States, go to the nearest Coast Guard Center to pick up the application for a Merchant
Mariner Credential (MMC), the drug test forms and the medical forms.
In order to apply for a job online and to complete online job applications, you'll need
an email address to use for job searching, Internet access, an up-to-date resume, a cover letter
for some jobs, your employment history, and your availability to work if you're applying for a
part-time job.
In addition, as part of the job application process, you may need to take an online employment
test and provide employment references.
Here's advice and tips on how to apply for a job online.
Using a job search engine can save you a lot of online job search time. When you use
a job search engine, you can search for jobs all in one place, rather than having to visit all
these sites independently.
Company web sites are a good source of job listings, especially if you know what
companies you are interested in working for. You can go directly to the site and search for
and apply for jobs online directly on many company web sites. At most company sites, you
can apply for all level positions online - from part-time hourly jobs to top management
positions.
Before you start looking for jobs and completing online job applications, you'll need
an updated version of your resumé ready to upload. You may also need a cover letter to apply
for some jobs. Make sure your resume includes your current contact information and work
history. Have a basic cover letter ready that you can customize for each job you apply to.
Some sites let you upload an existing resume from Microsoft Word on your computer
with the click of a button. On other sites, you may need to copy and paste from your resume
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into an online profile or use a resume builder that is incorporated into the job application
system.
Download a sample job application form and complete it before you start your online
applications. Print and fill it out so you know exactly what information you will need to enter
when you apply for jobs online.
Use the completed sample job application as a guide when you're completing your
own job applications.
When applying for a job a cover letter should be sent or posted with your resume. If
you are not sure what to write, review these cover letter samples.
Your cover letter should be specific to the position you are applying for, relating your
skills and experience to those noted in the job posting. Your cover letter is your first (and
best) chance to make a good impression! Review cover letter tips to help ensure your cover
letter gets noticed.
Remember that your first job as an offshore crew member can be the beginning of an entire
career, so don't be discouraged if you are not making a great deal of money in the beginning.
If you are a good worker, you will continue to build a reputation and get future jobs, as well
as make more money.
1.2 Cover Letter Types and Examples
Types of cover letters, including application letters, inquiry letters, prospecting letters, and
other types of letters used to apply for jobs or inquire about jobs, plus examples of each type
of cover letter and when to use them.
Application Letters
An application letter is sent or uploaded with your resume when applying for jobs. The job
application letters you send explain to the employer why you are qualified for the position and
why you should be selected for an interview.
Samples:
1. This is an actual job application that a 17 year old boy submitted to McDonald‘s in
Florida… and they hired him because he was so honest and funny!
NAME: Greg Bulmash.
SEX: Not yet. Still waiting for the right person.
DESIRED POSITION: Company‘s President or Vice President. But seriously, whatever‘s
available. If I was in a position to be picky, I wouldn‘t be applying here in the first place.
DESIRED SALARY: $185,000 a year plus stock options. If that‘s not possible, make an offer
and we can haggle.
EDUCATION: Yes.
LAST POSITION HELD: Target for middle management hostility.
SALARY: Less than I‘m worth.
MOST NOTABLE ACHIEVEMENT: My incredible collection of stolen pens.
REASON FOR LEAVING: It sucked.
HOURS AVAILABLE TO WORK: Any.
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PREFERRED HOURS: 1:30-3:30 p.m., Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday.
DO YOU HAVE ANY SPECIAL SKILLS?: Yes, but they‘re better suited to a more intimate
environment.
MAY WE CONTACT YOUR CURRENT EMPLOYER?: If I had one, would I be here?
DO YOU HAVE A CAR?: I think the more appropriate question here would be ―Do you have
a car that runs?‖
DO YOU SMOKE?: On the job no, on my breaks yes.
WHAT WOULD YOU LIKE TO BE DOING IN FIVE YEARS?: Living in the Bahamas
with a fabulously wealthy dumb sexy blonde super model who thinks I‘m the greatest thing
since sliced bread. Actually, I‘d like to be doing that now.
DO YOU CERTIFY THAT THE ABOVE IS TRUE AND COMPLETE TO THE BEST OF
YOUR KNOWLEDGE?: Yes. Absolutely.
SIGN HERE: Aries.
Exercise. You have to send a cover letter to a crewing company. Make the necessary changes
in the following sample letter.
Name
Title
Company
Address
City, Zip Code
Date
Dear Mr./Ms. LastName,
I am writing to apply for the position of PR. ABCD is a fast-moving global institution and an
outstanding communications pioneer, now poised to guide the direction of print journalism.
As a recent graduate of University with significant experience in finance, administration and
media, I bring the energy and commitment to excellence necessary to thrive in ABCD's
innovative environment.
As the current Media Relations Coordinator of the XYZ company, I am a practiced business
liaison and an able administrator. These strengths, combined with deep and varied
employment and internship experience as a journalist and media consultant with FGH and
LMD, prepare me to make a strong and immediate impact at ABCD.
I am excited about the opportunity to join the ABCD team as it moves to the center of the
print media conversation. Thank you for your time and consideration.
Sincerely,
Your Signature
Your Typed Name
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1.3 English Tenses – Graphic Comparison
Legend
moment in time
action that takes place once, never or several times actions that happen one after another actions that suddenly take place
period of time
action that started before a certain moment and lasts beyond that moment
actions taking place at the same time
Result
action taking place before a certain moment in time puts emphasis on the result
Course /
Duration
action taking place before a certain moment in time puts emphasis on the course or duration of the action
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Self-assessment Test
Give the right order of the following paragraphs of cover letter:
Contact Name
Title
Company Name
Address
City, Zip Code
Dear Contact Person:
I'm writing to express my interest in the Web Content Specialist
position listed on Monster.com. I have experience building large,
consumer-focused health-based content sites. While much of my
experience has been in the business world, I understand the social value
of the non-profit sector and my business experience will be an asset to
your organization.
Experience has taught me how to build strong relationships with all
departments at an organization. I have the ability to work within a team
as well as cross-team. I can work with web engineers to resolve
technical issues and implement technical enhancements, work with the
development department to implement design and functional
enhancements, and monitor site statistics and conduct search engine
optimization.
My responsibilities included the development and management of the
site's editorial voice and style, the editorial calendar, and the daily
content programming and production of the web site. I worked closely
with health care professionals and medical editors to help them provide
the best possible information to a consumer audience of patients. In
addition, I helped physicians learn to utilize their medical content to
write user-friendly, readily comprehensible text.
Thank you for your consideration.
Your City, Zip Code
Your Phone Number
Your Email
Signature
FirstName LastName
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Progress tests
1. Write a cover letter and use the folowing layout:
Contact Information
The first section of your cover letter should include information on how
the employer can contact you. If you have contact information for the
employer, include that. Otherwise, just list your information.
Your Contact Information
Your Name
Your Address
Your City, State, Zip Code
Your Phone Number
Your Email Address
(space)
Date
(space)
Employer Contact Information
Name
Title
Company
Address
City, Zip Code
(space)
Salutation
(space)
Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name:
(space)
First Paragraph:
The first paragraph of your cover letter should include information on
the position you are applying for, including the job title.
(space between paragraphs)
Middle Paragraph(s):
The next section of your cover letter should describe what you have to
offer the employer. Mention why you are qualifed for the job and how
your skills and experience are a match for the position for which you
are applying.
(space between paragraphs)
Final Paragraph:
Conclude your cover letter by thanking the employer for considering
you for the position. Include information on how you will follow-up.
(space)
Closing:
(space)
Sincerely yours,
(double space)
Signature:
Handwritten Signature (for a mailed letter)
(double space)
Typed Signature
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2. Translate:
How to Get Offshore Jobs
The biggest hurdle you will face in trying to get offshore employment is
the absence of offshore work experience. Once you get your foot in the
door, it is like any other job: It's just a matter of sustaining your
employer's interest in the necessity of keeping you, based on their
experience with you.
Answers to Self-assessment Test
Your City, Zip Code
Your Phone Number Your Email
Contact Name Title
Company Name
Address City, Zip Code
Dear Contact Person:
I'm writing to express my interest in the Web Content Specialist position listed on Monster.com. I have
experience building large, consumer-focused health-based content sites. While much of my experience has been in the business world, I understand the social value of the non-profit sector and my business
experience will be an asset to your organization.
My responsibilities included the development and management of the site's editorial voice and style, the
editorial calendar, and the daily content programming and production of the web site. I worked closely with health care professionals and medical editors to help them provide the best possible information to a
consumer audience of patients. In addition, I helped physicians learn to utilize their medical content to
write user-friendly, readily comprehensible text.
Experience has taught me how to build strong relationships with all departments at an organization. I
have the ability to work within a team as well as cross-team. I can work with web engineers to resolve technical issues and implement technical enhancements, work with the development department to
implement design and functional enhancements, and monitor site statistics and conduct search engine
optimization.
Thank you for your consideration.
Signature
FirstName LastName
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Unit 2
Writing a CV
Objectives of Unit 2
2.1 What is a CV?
2.2 Information a CV should include
2.3 How to make a winning CV
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answer to self-assessment test
References
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OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 2
The main objectives are:
demonstrate an understanding of the relevance of a good CV;
understand the layout of a CV
use appropriate phrases accurately to describe one‘s
experience
select appropriate information and form of presentation
2.1 What is a CV?
Curriculum Vitae: an outline of a person's educational and professional history, usually
prepared for job applications (L, lit.: the course of one's life). Another name for a CV is a
résumé. A CV is the most flexible and convenient way to make applications. It conveys your
personal details in the way that presents you in the best possible light. A CV is a marketing
document in which you are marketing something: yourself! You need to "sell" your skills,
abilities, qualifications and experience to employers. It can be used to make multiple
applications to employers in a specific career area. For this reason, many large graduate
recruiters will not accept CVs and instead use their own application form.
An application form is designed to bring out the essential information and personal qualities
that the employer requires and does not allow you to gloss over your weaker points as a CV
does. In addition, the time needed to fill out these forms is seen as a reflection of your
commitment to the career.
There is no "one best way" to construct a CV; it is your document and can be structured as
you wish within the basic framework below. It can be on paper or on-line or even on a T-shirt
(a gimmicky approach that might work for "creative" jobs but not generally advised!).
When should a CV be used?
When an employer asks for applications to be received in this format
When an employer simply states "apply to ..." without specifying the format
When making speculative applications (when writing to an employer who has not
advertised a vacancy but who you hope may have one)
2.2 Information a CV should include
Personal details
Normally these would be your name, address, date of birth (although with age
discrimination laws now in force this isn't essential), telephone number and email.
Education and qualifications
Your degree subject and university, plus A levels. Mention grades unless poor!
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Work experience
Use action words such as developed, planned and organised.
Even work in a shop, bar or restaurant will involve working in a team, providing a quality
service to customers, and dealing tactfully with complaints. Don't mention the routine, non-
people tasks (cleaning the tables) unless you are applying for a casual summer job in a
restaurant or similar.
Try to relate the skills to the job. "All of my work experiences have involved working within a team-based culture. This
involved planning, organisation, co-ordination and commitment e.g., in retail, this ensured
daily sales targets were met, a fair distribution of tasks and effective communication amongst
all staff members."
Interests and achievements
Keep this section short and to the point. As you grow older, your employment record will
take precedence and interests will typically diminish greatly in length and importance.
Bullets can be used to separate interests into different types: sporting, creative etc.
Don't use the old boring cliches here: "socialising with friends".
Don't put many passive, solitary hobbies (reading, watching TV, stamp collecting) or you
may be perceived as lacking people skills. If you do put these, then say what you read or
watch: "I particularly enjoy Dickens, for the vivid insights you get into life in Victorian
times".
Show a range of interests to avoid coming across as narrow: if everything centres around
sport they may wonder if you could hold a conversation with a client who wasn't interested in
sport.
Hobbies that are a little out of the ordinary can help you to stand out from the crowd:
skydiving or mountaineering can show a sense of wanting to stretch yourself and an ability to
rely on yourself in demanding situations.
Anything showing evidence of employability skills such as teamworking, organising,
planning, persuading, negotiating etc.
Skills
The usual ones to mention are languages (good conversational French, basic Spanish),
computing (e.g. "good working knowledge of MS Access and Excel, plus basic web page design skills")
and driving ("clean driving licence").
If you are a mature candidate or have lots of relevant skills to offer, a skills-based
CV may work for you
You will also need a Covering Letter to accompany your CV.
2.3 How to make a winning CV
There is no single "correct" way to write and present a CV but the following general rules
apply:
It is targeted on the specific job or career area for which you are applying and brings
out
the relevant skills you have to offer
It is carefully and clearly laid out: logically ordered, easy to read and not cramped
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It is informative but concise
It is accurate in content, spelling and grammar. If you mention attention to detail as
a skill, make sure your spelling and grammar is perfect!
How long should a CV be?
There are no absolute rules but, in general, a new
graduate's CV should cover no more than two
sides of A4 paper. If you can summarise your career history comfortably on a single side, this is fine and has
advantages when you are making speculative applications and need to put yourself across
concisely. However, you should not leave out important items, or crowd your text too closely
together in order to fit it onto that single side. Academic and technical CVs may be much
longer: up to 4 or 5 sides.
Tips on presentation
Your CV should be carefully and clearly laid out - not too cramped but not with
large empty spaces either. Use bold and italic typefaces for headings and important
information
Never back a CV - each page should be on a separate sheet of paper. It's a good
idea to put your name in the footer area so that it appears on each sheet.
Be concise - a CV is an appetiser and should not give the reader indigestion. Don't feel
that you have to list every exam you have ever taken, or every activity you have ever
been involved in - consider which are the most relevant and/or impressive.
Be positive - put yourself over confidently and highlight your strong points. For
example, when listing your A-levels, put your highest grade first.
Be honest: although a CV does allow you to omit details (such as exam resits) which
you would prefer the employer not to know about, you should never give inaccurate or
misleading information.
CVs are not legal documents and you can't be held liable for anything within, but if a
recruiter picks up a suggestion of falsehoods you will be rapidly rejected. An application
form which you have signed to confirm that the contents are true is however a legal document
and forms part of your contract of employment if you are recruited.
The sweet spot of a CV is the area selectors tend to pay most attention to: this is typically
around
the upper middle of the first page, so make sure that this area contains essential information.
If you are posting your CV, don't fold it - put it in a full-size A4 envelope so that it doesn't
arrive creased.
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Self-assessment Test
True or false?
1. A CV should be word-processed and never handwritten.
2. A CV can be used for any application.
3. Your CV should be laid out in reverse chronological order (most
recent items first).
4. A CV should never be more than one side.
5. A bright orange CV will attract attention and improve your chances.
6. CVs should always be accompanied by a covering letter.
7. You should only include the most important and relevant information
about yourself on your CV.
8. You should compose a different CV for each employer.
9. Education and Qualifications should be separate sections on a CV.
10. You should only include education at secondary-school level or
above in the Education section.
Progress test
Exercise: Find the right place for the folowing words and phrases:
motivated /position / university/ organisational / assets / friendly /
management / administrative / own / prioritise
PROFILE
I am a ...(1), adaptable and responsible graduate seeking an entry-level
... (2) position in public relations which will utilise the ... (3) and
communication skills developed during ...(4). My reliability,
communication skills, responsibility and ... (5) nature are ... (6) I
would bring to the work. I have experience in project ... (7) and strong
organisational and ... (8) skills with the ability to work independently
and use my ... (9) initiative. I also have the ability to ... (10) whilst
under pressure meeting tight deadlines.
Answers to self-assessment test
1. TRUE
2. FALSE. Do not use a CV if the employer has specified that candidates should complete their own application form. Do not even attach the CV to the application form - nothing is more annoying to employers than a form with nothing written on it except "SEE CV". But CVs can be freely used when an employer asks for applications to be received in this format; when an employer simply states APPLY TO ... without specifying the format or when making speculative applications (i.e. when writing to an employer who has not actually advertised a vacancy but who you hope my have one.) 3. TRUE - IF you are going to use a chronological CV. 4. FALSE. One side is fine if you can manage it, but it is better to have two sides of well-laid-out, easy-to-read information than one side of cramped and crowded print. But not more than two sides, except in very exceptional circumstances! 5. FALSE. Yes it may attract attention but it will not necessarily help you to be considered for interview! Even the wacky employers prefer CVs that are plain, factual and informative. Paper should be white, cream or some other pale, neutral and businesslike colour. 6. TRUE. The covering letter will flesh out the CV and help you to relate it to the job.
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7. FALSE. Although such information should certainly be emphasised, it is important not to leave any glaring gaps in your career history or to give the impression that you have no work experience whatsoever. 8. TRUE, ideally, although this may not always be possible if you have very limited information on the employer. 9. FALSE. It is much easier for the reader if these are put together as follows rather than making them hop back and forth between different sections to find out what you studied where: 2006 - 2009 University of Kent at Canterbury BA (Hons) Economics, Class 2(1) 2004 - 2006 East Yorkshire College, Hull A-levels: History (B) Economics (B) French (C) 2001 - 20046 Spring Bank School, Hull 8 GCSEs including Maths and English Language at Grade A 10. TRUE. Education up to age 11 is not normally expected on a CV.
References
1. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. (1990), 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
2. Sweeney, S. (2004) English for Business Communication,
Cambridge University Press
3. http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/cvquiz.htm
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UNIT 3
Preparing for an Interview
Objectives of Unit 3
3.1 Interview tips
3.2 Interview examples
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
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OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 3
The main objectives are:
understand the importance of the interview guide lines
name steps of interview preparation
use the proper vocabulary fluently and accurately
apply the attitude tips
3.1 Interview tips
Preparation is essential for the interview. Know yourself, your strengths and
weaknesses, what motivates you and above all demonstrate your enthusiasm for the
position;
Spend some time looking at our website and any other sources of information so you
can learn about who we are and what we do;
Be on time - if you are running late please contact the interviewer as soon as possible;
Appearance – it is recommended to dress formally according to the position you have
applied for. How you dress often indicates how serious you are about the job and
yourself. But most importantly be comfortable;
Try to maintain good eye contact with the interviewers;
Be prepared to discuss your strengths, but just as importantly your areas for
development. We all have them so don‘t be afraid to discuss them.
Nerves - we are well aware that candidates can find interviews quite stressful and we
do make allowances for this. But take the time to relax beforehand, arrive in plenty of
time and prepare as much as possible;
Remember that the interview is a two way process, it‘s just as important for you to feel
comfortable about the role and the company. Ask us any questions so please consider
these in advance. You may wish to write these down and bring them in with you.
Your CV has impressed, your research and networking activities have paid off and you have
landed an Interview with your company of choice. Now to make sure you turn this Interview
into a pot of gold and secure the job of your dreams. Below are some general tips and
guidelines that should assist you through the Interview:
1. Research
Most of you will have researched your company of choice thoroughly in order to get to this
point. For those who haven't, it is essential that you do some background research on the
company and the job before you walk in that door. The Interviewer will expect you to know a
little about the industry and the company and will be very impressed if you are familiar with
specific events, news and concerns relating to the business. Newspapers, industry and trade
magazines, local libraries and the Internet are all a good source of information. Feel free to
pick up the phone and ask the company for their annual reports any marketing materials -
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most companies are more than happy to oblige. The very minimum information you will want
to know is what the company does, what job you are applying for and any well-known news
pertaining to the company e.g. Merger, big scandal, new CEO.
2. Be prepared
We would recommend you take with you a notebook and extra copies of your CV (in many
cases the employer will have misplaced it, have an unclear copy or simply expect you to
provide it). In many types of jobs, you may want to take with you examples of your work e.g.
past creative work if you are in advertising, design or similar roles, architectural plans you are
proud of if you are an architect, an example of something you have had published in a journal
etc. Employers are usually very impressed to see examples of your work - it shows you have
taken initiative and it makes their decision much easier.
3. Dress for success
Your first Interview is the first impression an employer will have of you and it is essential to
make a favorable first impact. You should always plan to dress conservatively for the first
Interview even if the job involves casual wear. You can always dress down in later meetings.
Men should wear dark suits, preferably in navy or charcoal grey. Pinstripes are fine. We
recommend you wear a white shirt which should be crisply ironed with a conservative
necktie. Socks and shoes should be dark, preferably black. Jewellery on men is usually not
favourably looked upon at the Interview.
Women are also advised to wear dark suits for that first Interview.
4. Be punctual
Make sure you arrive for the Interview a good 15 minutes early. Allow yourself plenty of time
for any potential mishaps e.g. traffic jams, unclear directions, public transportation difficulties
etc.
5. Attitude counts
This is the time to show off your interpersonal skills. Employers are looking for certain key
character traits and you need to demonstrate them at the Interview. Keep the following in
mind:
Listening skills. Make sure you let the Interviewer complete his sentences and you
don't interrupt. At the same time, show interest in what he is saying and encourage
him to talk and ask questions. Good listening skills and a friendly pleasant demeanor
are key attributes in any job.
Enthusiasm. In many cases, you will not be ideally qualified for the position, or you
may have a steep learning curve ahead of you. You need to demonstrate to the
Employer that you are extremely interested in the position and love what you do!
Enthusiasm is contagious and employers are always keen to add enthusiastic members
to their team. Your positive attitude will also rub off on the interviewer as long as it is
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genuine and not overplayed and he will leave the Interview with a favorable 'feel'
about you.
Eye contact. Maintain eye contact with the Interviewer. Looking away continuously
suggests distractibility and disinterest. Looking down suggests shyness and lack of
confidence. By all means though keep it natural and feel free to nod your head and
smile and even laugh where appropriate.
Flexibility. You need to demonstrate to the Interviewer that you are flexible, ie willing
and able to adapt readily to new environments, demands, people, work styles etc. The
Interview is a good place to demonstrate this. Be sensitive to the Interviewer's
personal style by paying attention to his general behavior, his demeanor, his office
space and the types of questions he asks and tailor your answers accordingly.
Professionalism. Above all, BE PROFESSIONAL! Respect the Interviewer-
Interviewee boundaries at all times and do not behave in an overly friendly or casual
fashion with the Interviewer. Avoid bringing up any of your personal life unless in a
directly relevant manner, do not comment on politics, religion or any other
controversial topics dear to your heart, do not stray from the Interview topics unless
you have a common interest such as golf, and keep your answers factual, honest and
professional.
6. Have the answers
There is no telling what style an Interviewer will take and what questions he will come up
with. Interviews range from the very structured and professional ones conducted by HR
departments in multinationals and banks, to ad hoc conversations in small outfits where the
employer may ask you to simply talk about yourself. In most large corporations however,
certain questions are very standard and we recommend you take the time to really think about
them, develop answers and find evidence to support your answers from past experiences and
qualifications.
3.2 Interview example
Here is an example interview that can give you ideas about how you can present yourself in
the best possible light. Greg is good at interviewing. He is likeable, and he is liable to get a
job offer after this interview. Pay attention!
(Greg arrives ten minutes early, checks in with the receptionist, and fills out his name card. He adjusts his tie,
buttons his suit jacket, and sits in the lobby. Five minutes later a secretary brings him into a conference room.
Several minutes later he stands to greet his interviewer.)
Interviewer: Hello, I am Robert Miller, a director of marketing at Gateway.
Greg: Hello, it's very nice to meet you.
(Greg shakes his hand firmly, smiles, and looks him in the eye with respect. As they take their seats, Greg sits
straight and pays close attention to his interviewer, and they chat briefly about the weather.)
Interviewer: So, why don't you tell me about yourself?
Greg: Okay. I grew up in Ohio and studied engineering at Georgia Tech. In my first job at
Compaq, I learned a great deal about managing the flexible assembly of computers. After that
I implemented improvements in the logistics department at Dell, where I also put a lot of
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effort into improving my writing skills. More recently, I've been negotiating with corporate
clients on large orders. It's been fascinating learning about the sales side of the business.
Outside of work I play basketball in several local leagues, and I also tutor adults in the local
library for Project Read.
Interviewer: Are you willing to relocate?
Greg: Yes, of course. I've enjoyed experiencing new environments in the past. I'm sure it
would be fun to see other parts of the country, or the world for that matter.
Interviewer: Do you have any questions for me?
Greg: Yes, actually. I often get a good feel about a company by learning from the people who
work there. Could you tell me why it was that you first accepted a job at Gateway? And how
has it been fun and challenging?
Self-assessment Test.Frequently Asked Questions
1. How should I dress?
2. What should I bring with me?
3. How much should I research the company?
4. Where can I find information on companies?
5. What is the best way to respond to a really difficult question?
6. What is the best way to talk about myself during an interview?
7. What is the best way to improve how I carry myself in an interview?
8. If during an interview I get a job offer I like, should I immediately
accept it?
9. How can I reduce my anxiety about the interview?
10.What is a good way to end an interview?
Progress test. Match the columns
1.Re-read your resume A. to arrive early. 2.Organize any paperwork B. but also to the receptionist. 3.Always follow up by sending the interviewer
C. you bring along.
4.Do whatever it takes D. there is no one just like you.
5.Use a firm handshake E. it is likely to be the basis of many questions.
6.Maintain F. a thank-you letter. 7.Believe in yourself G. a positive attitude. 8.Be polite: not only to the interviewer,
H. direct eye contact, and a friendly smile.
9.Dress for success I. about current or former employers.
10.Avoid saying anything negative J. preferably a bit more conservatively.
1-E 2- 3-
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Answers to self-assessment test
1. Dress to feel confident and to show respect. Wear clothes that you think you would wear to an
important meeting on the job at that company.
2. It is always a good idea to bring extra copies of your resume. Bring them in a nice folder. In this folder
bring a tablet of paper and a nice pen. The paper might be handy for taking notes. The pen shows that you care enough to be prepared.
3. You should research it enough to describe the following: their main products, their performance in the
past few years, their top competitor, trends in their industry. You should also have an idea about how you can help the company.
4. If you are a college student, there is often a good deal of recruiter information at your placement
office. Otherwise, the best place to go is online. The organization's website is the best place to start. Good summaries are often found in the "About" sections of the website. Sections for investors often include
annual reports. 5. Ask the interviewer to qualify the question, to explain it in more detail. This gives you a better chance
of coming up with a focused answer. It also gives you a little more time.
6. Always keep in minde two ideas: (1) Talk about your accomplishments, not about your duties. (2) Turn each statement about your past into a statement about how it will help you to do a good job working
for that company.
7. Role play. Make a deal with friends: they pretend to be an interviewer for you if you pretend to be an interviewer for them. Ideally, you should also role play with someone who is not a friend and who is
willing to give you candid criticism.
8. In general, no. Give yourself some time. Ask for a few days to consider it. Ideally talk awhile about the whole package - salary, equity, bonus, benefits, relocation. It shows maturity and interest. It also prepares
you for negotiations that might be needed in the near future.
9. Here are the two best ways: (1) Know more about the company than the interviewer knows about you. (2) Role play using difficult questions. If you do these two things you can be confident that you will be
better prepared than almost all other candidates.
10. Ask two questions: "What are the next steps in the process?" and then, "Is there anything I can do to facilitate the process?"
References
1. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
2. Sweeney, S. (2004) English for Business Communication,
Cambridge University Press
3. http://www.bdo.ro/interview-tips.html
land _something at = some place to bring a boat, ship to port at or near a place. The captain landed
the boat at a small island in hopes of finding a place to make repairs.
land at some place
1. [for a ship] to come to port at a place. The ship landed at the wharf and the passengers got off. We
landed at the island's main city and waited for customs to clear us.
2. [for an airplane] to return to earth at an airport. We landed at O'Hare at noon. We were to land at
Denver, but there was bad weather.
land a job = to find a job and be hired.
I managed to land a job at a factory.
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a never-never land
an imaginary place where everything is perfect in a way that it is not in the real world
The film is set in a pre-war English never-never land of roses and sunny days.
be in the land of the living (humorous)to be awake
She was partying till the early hours so I don't imagine she'll be in the land of the living
before lunchtime.
find out/see how the land lies= to get information about a situation before making decisions or
taking action
I thought I'd better call my mother and see how the land lies before inviting myself home for
the weekend.
land of milk and honey
an imaginary place where there is more than enough of everything She came to the United
States thinking it was the land of milk and honey.
land (up)on both feet and land (up)on one's feet
Fig. to come out of something well; to survive something satisfactorily. (Upon is formal and
less commonly used than on.) It was a rough period in his life, but when it was over he landed
on both feet.
live off the fat of the land
Fig. to live on stored-up resources or abundant resources. If I had a million dollars, I'd invest
it and live off the fat of the land. I'll be happy to retire soon and live off the fat of the land.
the promised land
a place that offers a lot of good opportunities
Usage notes: This phrase comes from the Bible.
America was the promised land for many immigrant families.
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Unit 4
Main Engines
Objectives of Unit 4
4.1 Different types of marine engines
4.2 Causal verbs
4.3 Cause and effect
4.4 Terms relating to main engines
4.5 Measurements
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
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OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 4
The main objectives are:
identifies different types of engine
names the characteristics of each type
understands the cause/ effect relationship
knows and uses different measurement units
uses terms related to main engines
4.1 Different types of marine engines
There are four main types of marine engine: the diesel engine, the steam turbine, the
gas turbine and the marine nuclear plant. Each type of engine has its own particular
application.
The diesel engine is a form of internal combustion engine similar to that used in a bus. Its
power is expressed as brake horsepower (bhp). This is the power put out by the engine.
Effective horsepower is the power developed by the piston in the cylinder, but some of t his is
lost by friction within the engine. The power output of a modern marine diesel engine is
about 40,000 brake horsepower. This is now expressed in kilowatts. By comparison the
engine of a small family car has an output of about 80 bhp. Large diesel engines, which have
cylinders nearly 3 ft in diameter, turn at the relatively slow speed of about 108 rpm. These
are known as slow-speed diesel engines. They can be connected directly to the propeller
without gearing. Although higher power could be produced by higher revolutions, this
would reduce the efficiency of the propeller, because a propeller is more efficient the larger
it is and the slower it turns. These large slow running engines are used in the larger merchant
ships, particularly in tankers and bulk carriers. The main reason is their low fuel consumption.
More and more of the larger merchant vessels are being powered by medium-speed diesel
engines. These operate between 150 and 450 rpm, therefore they are connected to the
propeller by gearing. This type of engine was once restricted to smaller cargo ships, but now
they are used in fast cargo liners as well as in tankers and bulk carriers. They are cheaper
than slow-speed diesel engines, and their smaller size and weight can result in a smaller,
cheaper ship. In steam turbines high pressure steam is directed into a series of blades or vanes
attached to a shaft, causing it to rotate. This rotary motion is transferred to the propeller shaft by gears. Steam is produced by boiling water in a boiler, which is fired by oil. Recent developments in steam turbines which have reduced fuel consumption and raised power output have made them more attractive as an alternative to diesel power in ships. They are 50 per cent lighter and on very large tankers some of the steam can be used to drive the large cargo oil pumps. Turbines are often used in container ships, which travel at high speeds.
Gas turbines differ from steam turbines in that gas rather than steam is used to turn a shaft. These have also become more suitable for use in ships. Many naval vessels are powered by gas turbines and several container ships are fitted with them. A gas turbine engine is very light and easily removed for maintenance. It is also suitable for complete automation.
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Nuclear power in ships has mainly been confined to naval vessels, particularly submarines. But this form of power will be used more in merchant ships as oil fuels become more expensive. A nuclear-powered ship differs from a conventional turbine ship in that it uses the energy released by the decay of radioactive fuel to generate steam. The steam is used to turn a shaft via a turbine in the conventional way.
Complete this diagram to form a summary of the basic types of marine engine.
4.2 Causal verbs
There are several verbs which can be used to express cause.
1. To have and to get
Study these examples:
He had the engines overhauled. He got the engines overhauled.
In these sentences the subject 'he' caused the action, but did not perform it himself. In the following sentences the person performing the actions is introduced. Note how the infinitive is used.
He had the Engine Department overhaul the engines.
He had the engines overhauled by the Engine Department.
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He got the Engine Department to overhaul the engines.
He got the engines overhauled by the Engine Department.
Exercise 1. Write out these notes using the verbs in brackets and the appropriate pattern above.
e.g. (had, to examine) The Master - the equipment - the electrician The Master had the equipment examined by the electrician.
(a) (got, to plot) The Second Mate - the cadet - the course (b) (had, to check) The First Mate - the cargo (c) (had, to lower) The Bosun - the boats - the apprentices (d) (got, to clean) The Carpenter - the bilges - the ratings (e) (got, to adjust) The Master - the compasses (f) (had, to supervise) The Chief Engineer - the Second Engineer - the work
(g) (got, to lubricate) The Second Engineer - the greasers - the machinery
(h) (had, to sweep) The Chief Steward - the saloon - the galley boy
2. -en Verbs
Verbs ending or beginning with -en mean to make something happen. The -en is usually attached to the adjective, but sometimes the noun is used, e.g. to make tight = to tighten; to make longer = to lengthen
Exercise 2. Rewrite these sentences using an -en verb:
(a) The carpenter made the plank shorter.
(b) The gap between the two vessels became wider.
(c) You need to make your pencil sharp before doing chartwork.
(d) Constant pressure makes a spring weak.
(e) Speed was reduced to make the load lighter on the engine.
(e) The ropes had to be made longer because they would not reach.
(f) He had great difficulty in making the nut loose,
(h) Adding carbon to steel makes it harder.
(i) Reducing the carbon content makes it softer.
(j) The hole had to be made larger before the bolt would fit.
(k) Friction is increased by making a surface rougher.
3. Causal verbs
(a) General causal verbs: to make, to cause
(how they are used is shown in Part (B) following)
(b) Specific causal verbs: to increase, to raise, to reduce, to lower, etc. (c) Verbs enabling something to happen: to permit, to allow, to let
e.g. The piston went down, permitting/allowing air to enter the cylinder. The piston went down, letting air enter the cylinder.
4.3 Cause and effect
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1. When both are nouns they are linked as follows:
cause > effect
sea water causes corrosion
Other links are: results in, leads to, gives rise to, produces, is the cause of, is one of the causes
of.
The effect may be put first:
effect < cause Corrosion is caused by sea water
Other links are: results from, is due to, arises from, is the result of
(Note: If this is not the only cause, the linking phrase must be modified by a
modal, e.g. may/can or a frequency adverb, e.g. often/sometimes.)
Exercise 1. These cause and effect pairs have been mixed up. Find the corresponding parts and join them together using any of the linking phrases above as appropriate.
(a) poor lubrication a reduction in power
(b) instability fuel economy
(c) overloading accidents
(d) efficiency breakdowns
(e) heat loss good management
(f) carelessness structural strain
(g) careful navigation bad loading
(h) lack of maintenance friction
2. When both are clauses they can be linked as follows: cause: The engines reduced speed.
effect: The ship slowed down.
(a) by using the general causal verbs to cause, to make
e.g. The engines reduced speed, causing the ship to slow down. The engines reduced speed,
making the ship slow down.
(b) by using -ing clauses
e.g. The engines reduced speed, slowing the ship down.
(c) by using connecting words, such as consequently
e.g. The engines reduced speed, consequently the ship slowed down.
(d) by using specific causal verbs e.g. to raise (to cause to rise)
cause: The piston rises.
effect: The pressure in the cylinder rises.
e.g. The piston rises, raising the pressure in the cylinder.
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Exercise 2. Study this diagram of an engine pressure indicator and complete the sentences below using any of the cause and effect links studied so far.
Drum
With the tap closed:
(a)The piston is driven downwards,... the flywheel to rotate.
(b)The flywheel rotates, the pin travel downwards.
(c)The pin travels downwards,the string.
(d)The string is attached to the drum in such a way that it ... the drum to rotate.
(e)When the piston travels upwards, the tension on the string is ,the drum to return to its
original position by means of a spring.
(f)Therefore each time the flywheel rotates, it the drum to rotate backwards and
forwards.
(g)The point of a pencil is held against the paper on the drum, the pencil marks the length
of the stroke on the paper each time the drum rotates.
With the tap open:
(h) The upward movement of the piston compression of the gas in the cylinder.
(i) The pressure of the gas the indicator piston.
(j) The indicator piston rises, the spring.
(k) The piston is attached to the arm holding the pencil, the pencil moves upwards ... the
rise on the paper.
Paper clip
Pencil
Control tap Spring
Indicator cylinder
and piston
Engine cylinder Flywheel
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4.4 Terms relating to main engines
Study this diagram of a two-stroke slow-speed diesel engine and learn the names of the principal parts.
4.5 Measurement
Basic units
Study the table below showing the six basic units of the SI system and their symbols, and the two supplementary symbols. Some have already been used in previous units.
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Quantity Unit Symbol
length metre m mass kilogramme kg time second s
electric current ampere A luminous intensity candela cd
temperature kelvin K plane angle radian r solid angle steradian sr
2. Derived units I
These are units expressed in terms of base and supplementary units only, e.g. unit of area = square metre = m2
Exercise 1. Complete the following table:
[Note: Per is expressed by a stroke (/) and indicates that the unit in front of the stroke is divided by the unit after the stroke.]
Quantity Unit Symbol
area square metre
volume cubic metre
velocity metre per second
angular velocity radian per second
acceleration metre per second second
density- kilogramme per cubic metre
momentum kilogramme metre per second
3. Derived units II
Some units have special names. These are shown in the table below.
frequency
force
work, energy, heat
power/ heat-flow rate
hertz
newton
joule
watt
Hz
N
J
W
4. Derived units III
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Some units are expressed in terms of other derived units only or other derived units and base-
units.
e.g. unit of stress = newton per square metre = N/m2
Exercise 2. Complete the table below.
Quantity Unit Symbol
torque
stress
newton metre
N/m2 pressure
intensity of heat flow rate
thermal conductivity
coefficient of heat transfer
heat capacity
specific heat capacity
newton per square metre W/m2
W/m2 °C
J/kg °C
watt per metre degree Celsius
joule per degree celsius
Self-assessment Test
T1. Complete the sentences below using the correct form of the verbs "let,"
"make," "have," and "get."
1.Professor ... each of her students write an essay describing their future
goals in life.
2.She ... her students use a dictionary while they were taking the test.
3.Mr Smith requested a copy of that expense report, so I ... the courier take
one over to him last week.
4.Diane thinks television is a waste of time, so she won't ... her children
watch TV.
5.My boss ... me get him coffee, and buy presents for his wife. He can't do
anything by himself!
6.The contract was very detailed, and it was essential that the wording be
absolutely correct. Therefore, I ... the agent recheck his work several times
to make sure there would be no misunderstandings.
T2. Change the follow sentences so as to use ‘causative have.’
Note: Causative verbs are often used with negative experiences
a. I asked somebody to clean my jacket yesterday.
b. Did you ask someone to fix your computer?
c. When will the report be ready? I'll ask somebody to do it by tomorrow
morning.
d. Somebody stole my wallet.
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e. Somebody smashed her window.
Progress test
Here is a diagram of a four-stroke medium-speed diesel engine. See if you
can name the parts 1-12 indicated.
1 .................................... 5 ....................................... 9 .....................................
2 .................................... 6 ....................................... 10 ...................................
3 ................................... 7 ....................................... 11. ..................................
4 ................................... 8 ....................................... 12 ....................................
Answers to self-assessment test
T1. Complete the sentences below using the correct form of the verbs "let," "make," "have," and "get,"
1.Professor Smith had each of her students write an essay describing their future goals in life. 2.She let her students use a dictionary while they were taking the test.
3.The captain requested a copy of that expense report, so I had the bosun take one over to him last week.
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4.How did you get the doctor to make a house call? 5.Diane thinks television is a waste of time, so she won't let her children watch TV.
6.My boss makes me get him coffee, and buy presents for his wife. He can't do anything by himself!
7.The contract was very detailed, and it was essential that the wording be absolutely correct. Therefore, I had the agent recheck his work several times to make sure there would be no misunderstandings.
8. The chief hates the opera. But after days of nagging, his wife finally got him to go see the new
production of La Boheme.
T2. Change the follow sentences and use ‗causative have.‘
Note: Causative verbs are often used with negative experiences
I had my jacket cleaned yesterday.
Did you have your computer fixed? When will the report be ready? I'll have it done by tomorrow morning.
I had my wallet stolen.
She had her window smashed.
References
1. Blakey, T.N. English For Maritime Studies. 2nd ed. Hemel
Hempstead, Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd, 1987 (ISBN 0 13
281379 3)
2. Logie, C., Vivers, E., Nisbet, A. Marlins Study Pack 2 (book and
two audio cassettes). Edinburgh, Marlins, 1998 (ISBN 09531748 1 6)
3. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
4. http://www.englishpage.com/minitutorials/letexercise.htm
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Unit 5
The Two-Stroke Crosshead Diesel Engine
Objectives of Unit 5
5.1 What is a crosshead
5.2 Characteristics
5.3 Reported speech
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
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OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 5
The main objectives are:
enumerate the advantages of 2-stroke engines
identify the parts of an engine
describe the work of 2 stroke diesel engines
use reported speech
5.1 What is a crosshead
A crosshead is a mechanism used in large reciprocating engines to eliminate sideways
pressure on the piston.
On smaller engines the connecting rod links the piston and the crankshaft directly, but this
transmits transverse forces to the piston, since the crankpin (and thus the direction the force is
applied) moves from side to side with the rotary motion of the crank. These transverse forces
are tolerable in a smaller engine; a larger engine's much greater forces would cause an
intolerable degree of wear on the piston and cylinder, as well as increasing overall friction in
the engine.
A piston rod is attached to the piston and links it to the crosshead, which is a large casting
sliding in crosshead guides (UK: slidebar), allowing it only to move in the same direction as
the piston travel. The crosshead also houses the gudgeon pin on which the small end of the
connecting rod pivots. In this way, the transverse forces are applied only to the crosshead and
its bearings, not to the piston itself.
Internal combustion engines using crossheads make for easier maintenance of the top end of
the engine, since the pistons can be easily removed. The piston rod is mounted on the
underside of the piston and connected to the crosshead by a single nut in double acting
engines.
Large diesel engines (such as those fitted to ships) are of this pattern; the vast majority of
steam engines are also built this way.
In the case of the steam engine, a crosshead is essential if the engine is to be double acting -
steam is applied to both sides of the piston, which requires a seal around the piston rod.
Large diesels often have a plunger oil pump directly attached to the crosshead to supply oil
under high pressure to the crosshead bearing.
In many 19th century marine steam engines, the crosshead was a strong metal bar attached to
the piston rod and perpendicular to it, which was sometimes used to eliminate transverse
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forces, as in a steeple engine, and at other times used as a linkage—to side-rods in a side-lever
engine or to connecting rods in a square engine.
5.2 Characteristics
The 2 stroke diesel crosshead engine works on exactly
the same principle and cycle as the 2 stroke diesel trunk piston engine.
The disadvantages of the two stroke diesel trunk piston engine are that although it has a low
overall height, lubricating oil splashed up from the crankcase to lubricate the liner can find
its way into the scavenge space, causing fouling and a risk of a scavenge fire. There is also
the likelihood of liner and piston skirt wear, allowing air into the crankcase. This can
supply the required oxygen for a crankcase explosion should a hot spot develop. The
crankcase oil must have additives which can cope with contamination from products of
combustion, and the acids formed during combustion due to the sulphur in the fuel.
The majority of 2 stroke engines encountered at sea are of the "crosshead" type. In this type
of engine the combustion space (formed by the cylinder liner, piston and cylinder head),
and the scavenge space are separated from the crankcase by the diaphragm plate.
The piston rod is bolted to the piston and passes through a stuffing box mounted in the
diaphragm plate. The stuffing box provides a seal between the two spaces, stopping oil
from being carried up to the scavenge space, and scavenge air leaking into the crankcase.
The foot of the piston rod is bolted to the crosshead pin. The top end of the connecting rod
swings about the crosshead pin, as the downward load from the expanding gas applies a
turning force to the crankshaft.
To ensure that the crosshead reciprocates in alignment with the piston in the cylinder, guide
shoes are attached either side of the crosshead pin. These shoes are lined with white metal, a
bearing material and they reciprocate against the crosshead guides, which are bolted to the
frame of the engine. The crosshead guides are located in between each cylinder.
Using the crosshead design of engine allows engines to be built with very long strokes -
which means the engine can burn a greater quantity of fuel/stroke and develop more
power. The fuel used can be of a lower grade than that used in a trunk piston engine, with a
higher sulphur content, whilst high alkalinity cylinder oils with a different specification to that
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of the crankcase oil are used to lubricate the cylinder liner and piston rings and combat the
effects of acid attack.
The most powerful diesel engines in the world are two stroke crosshead engines. Some of
these engines have cylinder bores approaching 1metre with a stroke of over 2.5 metres. The
crankshaft can weigh over 300 tons, with the engine weighing in excess of 2000 tons.
5.3 Reported speech
Statements
If we want to report what other people said, thought or felt, we can use the direct and
indirect speech (reported speech).
The direct speech: "I like it," he said. "Irene is late," he thought. "I will pass the exam," she
hoped.
The reported speech: He said he liked it. He thought that Irene was late. She hoped she
would pass the exam.
A) Verb tenses
We change the tenses in the following way:
1. Present - past
"I never understand you," she told me. - She told me she never understood me.
"We are exercising," he explained. - He explained that they were exercising.
2. Present perfect - past perfect
"I have broken the window," he admitted. - He admitted that he had broken the window.
3. Past - past perfect
"She went to Rome," I thought. - I thought that she had gone to Rome.
4. Will - conditional
Will changes into the conditional.
"I will come on Sunday," he reminded me. - He reminded me that he would come on Sunday.
Notes
I shall, we shall usually become would.
"I shall appreciate it," he said. - He said he would appreciate it.
I should, we should usually changes into would.
"We should be really glad," she told us. - She told us they would be really glad.
May becomes might.
"I may write to him," she promised. - She promised that she might write to him.
The verb forms remain the same the following cases.
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1. If the reporting verb is in the present tense.
Bill: "I am enjoying my holiday." - Bill says he is enjoying his holiday.
Sandy: "I will never go to work." - Sandy says she will never go to work.
2. When we report something that is still true.
Dan: "Asia is the largest continent." - Dan said Asia is the largest continent.
Emma: "People in Africa are starving." - Emma said people in Africa are starving.
3. When the speech is made and reported at the same time and the fact is still true.
Michael: "I am thirsty." - Michael said he is thirsty.
4. With modal verbs would, might, could, should, ought to, used to.
George: "I would try it." - George said he would try it.
Mimi: "I might come." - Mimi said she might come.
Steve: "I could fail." - Steve said he could fail.
Linda: "He should/ought to stay in bed." - Linda said he should/ought to stay in bed.
Mel: "I used to have a car." - Mel said he used to have a car.
5. After wish, would rather, had better, it is time.
Margo: "I wish they were in Greece." - Margo said she wished they were in Greece.
Matt: "I would rather fly." - Matt said he would rather fly.
Betty: "They had better go." - Betty said they had better go.
Paul: "It is time I got up." - Paul said it was time he got up.
6. In if-clauses.
Martha: "If I tidied my room, my dad would be happy." - Martha said that if she tidied her
room, her dad would be happy.
7. In time-clauses.
Joe: "When I was staying in Madrid I met my best friend." - He said that when he was staying
in Madrid he met his best friend.
8. We do not change the past tense in spoken English if it is clear from the situation when the
action happened.
"She did it on Sunday," I said. - I said she did it on Sunday.
We must change it, however, in the following sentence, otherwise it will not be clear whether
we are talking about the present or past feelings.
"I hated her," he said. - He said he had hated her.
9. We do not usually change the modal verbs must and needn't. But must can become had to
or would have to and needn't can become didn't have to or wouldn't have to if we want to
express an obligation.
Would/wouldn't have to are used to talk about future obligations.
"I must wash up." - He said he must wash up/he had to wash up.
"I needn't be at school today." - He said he needn't be/didn't have to be at school that day.
"We must do it in June." - He said they would have to do it in June.
If the modal verb must does not express obligation, we do not change it.
"We must relax for a while." (suggestion) - He said they must relax for a while.
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"You must be tired after such a trip." (certainty) - He said we must be tired after such a trip.
Self-assessment Test
scavenge space
stuffing box
crosshead guides
crosshead
diaphragm
piston rod
Progress test
Fill in the blanks with the following words:
fuels; stroke; operated; output; heat;
unit; steam; propulsive; burn; rose
The Two ... Crosshead Engine has long been the favoured main ...
power ... for most types of merchant vessels. As the price of oil ...,
developments in the design of these engines allowed them to ... the
poorer residual .... This combined with major improvements in
turbocharger design and waste ... recovery, raised their efficiency and
power ..., so they were able to supersede the ... turbine plants which ...
at much lower efficiencies.
Answers to self-assessment test
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References
1. Blakey, T.N. English For Maritime Studies. 2nd ed. Hemel
Hempstead, Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd, 1987 (ISBN 0 13
281379 3)
2. Logie, C., Vivers, E., Nisbet, A. Marlins Study Pack 2 (book and
two audio cassettes). Edinburgh, Marlins, 1998 (ISBN 09531748 1
6)
3. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
4. http://www.marinediesels.info/index.html
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Unit 6
The Medium Speed 4-Strokes Trunk Piston Engines
Objectives of Unit 6
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The rocker gear and valves
6.3 Turbocharging
6.4 The cylinder head
6.5 The fuel pump
6.6 The piston
6.7 The cylinder liner
6.8 The camshaft
6.9 The connecting rod
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
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OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 6
The main objectives are:
enumerate the advantages of 4-stroke engines
identify the parts of an engine
describe the work of 4 stroke diesel engines
use adverb clauses with expressions of cause and effect
6.1 Introduction
The medium speed 4 stroke trunk piston engine can be found on most medium to large
merchant vessels even if the main engine is either a steam turbine or a 2 stroke crosshead
engine. In these cases it will often be found that the electrical power is supplied by
alternators driven by medium speed 4 stroke engines.
They are the favoured method of propulsion on ships where head room is a minimum, for
instance, on ferries and passenger vessels, and where, as is the current trend for these ships,
diesel electric propulsion is utilised. Diesel electric propulsion allows the engines to be
placed wherever is most suitable, as they no longer have to be aligned with reduction
gearing and shafting as is the case with conventional installations.
Generally, medium speed engines run at between 250 - 850 RPM. Above this range they
are defined as high speed engines. Although not as powerful as their 2 stroke crosshead
cousins, the largest 4 stroke engines are delivering just over 2000kW per cylinder.
Advances in design and materials have led to an increase in efficiency, together with an
increase in turbocharger pressure ratios which allow a greater quantity of fuel to be burnt
per cycle. Medium speed engines have a higher power to weight ratio than the slow speed
two strokes, but due to the higher speeds tend to have reduced maintenance intervals. The
largest of these engines have a bore of 640mm and a stroke of 900mm (Wartsila 64),
although engines which are nearly "square" are more the norm. A square engine is one
where the bore is equal to the stroke.
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Wartsila 64
Sulzer ZA40
The name "Trunk Piston" refers to the piston skirt or trunk. The purpose of the skirt or
trunk in four-stroke cycle engines is to act in a similar manner to a crosshead. It takes the
thrust caused by connecting-rod angularity and transmits it to the side of the cylinder liner,
in the same way as the crosshead slipper transmits the thrust to the crosshead guide. With
such engines, which are termed trunk-piston engines, the engine height is considerably
reduced compared with that of a crosshead engine of similar power and speed. The engine-
manufacturing costs are also reduced. It means of course that there is no separation between
the crankcase and the liner and piston. This has its disadvantages, especially when
considering the choice of lubricating oils when burning high sulphur residual fuels.
6.2 Rocker Gear and Valves
The 4 stroke marine diesels used for main or auxiliary power on board ship will have
multiple inlet and exhaust valves fitted to the cylinder heads. On the medium speed engines
this normally takes the form of two inlet and two exhaust valves per unit. The reasons for
this are as follows:
The area of the valve openings must be large enough to provide for an efficient gas
exchange process. If the area is too small then not enough air will be pushed/drawn
into the cylinder during the induction stroke, and on the exhaust stroke the engine
will be doing work pushing the exhaust gas out of the cylinder.
The cylinder head must accommodate inlet and exhaust valves, so unlike a two
stroke engine, one large central exhaust valve is not possible.
If the valves are too large, then the strength of the cylinder head will be
compromised.
Keeping the exhaust valve temperature within acceptable limits is of paramount
importance. It is easier to cool a smaller valve.
The moving parts and springs are of smaller proportions reducing the inertia of the
parts and the power demand on the engine.
A symmetrically designed strong cylinder head is achieved.
Exhaust valves are subject to arduous conditions, and require regular overhaul. To aid this,
exhaust valves are often fitted in separate cages. This allows the exhaust valve to be changed
and overhauled without removing the cylinder head. The cages have water cooling passages
connected to the cylinder head cooling water.
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The cage is of cast steel. The cooled seats are made from a heat resistant molybdenum steel
which may be stellite faced. The exhaust valve may be of a similar material or of a nimonic
alloy.
Inlet valves are subject to much less arduous conditions and are not usually fitted in
separate cages.
Two different sized springs are fitted to aid positive closing of the valves. The reason for
fitting two springs are that if one fails, the other will prevent the valve dropping down into
the cylinder. The two springs have different vibration characteristics, so the incidence of
resonance is reduced. (resonance is where two items vibrate at the same frequency thus the
amplitude of the vibration is amplified.)
Most medium speed four strokes use push rods and rocker gear to open and shut the valves
at the correct time. Operated by cams, mechanically timed to the crankshaft, the pushrods
transmit the motion to the rocker gear, which pushes the valves open at the correct time.
Because there are two of each valve mounted in the cylinder head, the rocker gear must
operate both valves simultaneously. Various methods are used including master and slave
arrangements (Sulzer ZA40) and yoke (Fiat).
A hydraulic operating system was introduced in place of push rods and rocker gear on the
Sulzer ZA50. This had the advantage of being able to adjust the timing of the closing of the
valves to suit operating conditions.
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6.3 Turbocharging
By turbocharging an engine, the following advantages are obtained:
Increased power for an engine of the same size OR reduction in size for an engine
with the same power output.
Reduced specific fuel oil consumption - mechanical, thermal and scavenge
efficiencies are improved due to less cylinders, greater air supply and use of exhaust
gasses.
Thermal loading is reduced due to shorter more efficient burning period for the fuel
leading to less exacting cylinder conditions.
The turbocharger consists of a single stage impulse turbine connected to a centrifugal impeller
via a shaft.
The turbine is driven by the engine exhaust gas, which enters via the gas inlet casing. The gas
expands through a nozzle ring where the pressure energy of the gas is converted to kinetic
energy. This high velocity gas is directed onto the turbine blades where it drives the turbine
wheel, and thus the compressor at high speeds (10 -15000 rpm). The exhaust gas then passes
through the outlet casing to the exhaust uptakes.
On the air side air is drawn in through filters, and enters the compressor wheel axially
where it is accelerated to high velocity. The air exits the impeller radially and passes through
a diffuser, where some of the kinetic energy gets converted to pressure energy. The air
passes to the volute casing where a further energy conversion takes place. The air is cooled
before passing to the engine inlet manifold or scavenge air receiver.
The nozzle ring is where the energy in the exhaust gas is converted into kinetic energy. It is
fabricated from a creep resistant chromium nickel alloy, heat resisting moly-chrome nickel
steel or a nimonic alloy which will withstand the high temperatures and be resistant to
corrosion.
Turbine blades are usually a nickel chrome alloy or a nimonic material (a nickel alloy
containing chrome, titanium, aluminium, molybdenum and tungsten) which has good
resistance to creep, fatigue and corrosion. Manufactured using the investment casting process.
Blade roots are of fir tree shape which give positive fixing and minimum stress concentration
at the conjunction of root and blade. The root is usually a slack fit to allow for differential
expansion of the rotor and blade and to assist damping vibration. On small turbochargers and
the latest designs of modern turbochargers the blades are a tight fit in the wheel.
Lacing wire is used to dampen vibration, which can be a problem. The wire passes through
holes in the blades and damps the vibration due to friction between the wire and blade. It is
not fixed to each individual blade. The wire can pass through all the blades, crimped between
individual blades to keep it located, or it can be fitted in shorter sections, fixed at one end,
joining groups of about six blades. A problem with lacing wire is that it can be damaged by
foreign matter, it can be subject to corrosion, and can accelerate fouling by products of
combustion when burning residual fuels. Failure of blading due to cracks emanating from
lacing wire holes can also be a problem. All the above can cause imbalance of the rotor.
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The turbine casing is of cast iron. Some casings are water cooled which complicates the
casting. Water cooled casings are necessary for turbochargers with ball and roller bearings
with their own integral LO supply (to keep the LO cool). Modern turbochargers with
externally lubricated journal bearings have uncooled casings. This leads to greater overall
efficiency as less heat energy is rejected to cooling water and is available for the exhaust
gas boiler.
The compressor impeller is of aluminium alloy or the more expensive titanium.
Manufactured from a single casting it is located on the rotor shaft by splines. Aluminium
impellers have a limited life, due to creep, which is dictated by the final air temperature.
Often the temperature of air leaving the impeller can be as high as 200°C. The life of the
impeller under these circumstances may be limited to about 70000 hours. To extend the
life, air temperatures must be reduced. One way of achieving this is to draw the air from
outside where the ambient air temperature is below that of the engine room. Efficient
filtration and separation to remove water droplets is essential and the impeller will have to
be coated to prevent corrosion accelerated by the possible presence of salt water.
The air casing is also of aluminium alloy and is in two parts.
Bearings are either of the ball or roller type or plain white metal journals. The ball and
roller bearings are mounted in resilient mountings incorporating spring damping to prevent
damage due to vibration. These bearings have their own integral oil pumps and oil supply,
and have a limited life (8000 hrs). Plain journal bearings are lubricated from the main
engine oil supply or from a separate system incorporating drain tank, cooler and pumps. Oil
is supplied in sufficient quantity to cool as well as lubricate. The system may incorporate a
header tank arrangement to supply oil to the bearings whilst the turbocharger comes to rest
should the oil supply fail. A thrust arrangement is required to locate and hold the rotor
axially in the casing. In normal operation the thrust is towards the compressor end.
Labyrinth seals or glands are fitted to the shaft and casing to prevent the leakage of exhaust
gas into the turbine end bearing, or to prevent oil being drawn into the compressor. To
assist in the sealing effect, air from the compressor volute casing is led into a space within
the gland. A vent to atmosphere at the end of the labyrinth gives a guide to the efficiency of
the turbine end gland. Discoloring of the oil on a rotor fitted with a roller bearing will also
indicate a failure in the turbine end gland.
A labyrinth arrangement is also fitted to the back of the compressor impeller to restrict the
leakage of air to the gas side
6.4 Cylinder head
Cylinder heads for 4 stroke engines are of a complex design. They have to house the inlet and
exhaust valves, the fuel injector, the air start valve, relief valve and indicator cock. The
passages for the inlet air and exhaust gas are incorporated, as are the cooling water passages
and spaces.
Normally manufactured from spheroidal graphite or nodular cast iron which is easy to cast.
Although not as strong as cast steel, which is difficult to cast into complex shapes due to its
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poor fluidity, it maintains a reasonable strength under load. Adequate cooling is essential to
prevent thermal fatigue due to uneven expansion throughout the casting, and bore cooling has
been introduced along with cooling spaces to ensure effective cooling of the "flame plate"
(the underside of the cylinder head which forms the top of the combustion chamber).
Cracking of cylinder heads can occur due to poor cooling causing thermal fatigue. Poor
cooling can be the result of scale build up within the cooling spaces due to inadequate water
treatment. Overloading of the unit causing high peak pressures is also a cause as is incorrect
tightening down of the cylinder head. Cracking normally occurs between the valve pockets
and/or cooling water spaces. Cracked cylinder heads can be repaired by specialised welding;
but this must be done under the guidance and with authorisation from the classification
societies.
6.5 Fuel pumps
Medium speed four stroke engines are equipped with jerk type fuel pumps, one for each
cylinder. A plunger operated by a cam reciprocates in a barrel.
The plunger has a helix machined into it which also forms a vertical groove and an annular
groove at the base of the helix. The barrel is located in the pump body which has spill ports,
connected to the suction side of the pump, drilled so that they are above the top of the plunger
when the cam is on the base circle. The plunger is keyed to a sleeve which has a gearwheel
(pinion) machined into it. The pinion meshes with a rack which can rotate the plunger relative
to the barrel. The rack is connected to the engine governor.
As the plunger moves upwards in the barrel, injection will commence once the plunger has
closed off the spill ports and the pressure builds up. As soon as the helix or scroll passes the
spill ports the pressure above the plunger will immediately drop, even though the plunger is
still moving upwards. It should therefore be evident that the amount of fuel injected into the
cylinder is dependent on the position of the helix relative to the spill port. When the vertical
groove is lined up with the spill port, then no injection will take place and the engine will
stop.
The plunger is machined to very fine tolerances, as is the matched barrel in which it
reciprocates. Wear due to abrasive particles in the fuel will mean that the pump will take
longer to build up the injection pressure required. Wear due to erosion also takes place on the
top edge of the plunger and the edge of the helices and spill ports. This, together with the
wear in the plunger and barrel, will lead to the injection timing becoming retarded, for which
adjustment may have to be made.
On the scroll or helical fuel pump, although the end of injection can be varied, the start of
injection (i.e. when the top of the plunger covers the spill ports) is fixed. Fuels of different
qualities may require advancing or retarding the start of injection, in addition to which if the
injection timing is advanced when the engine is running at loads below the maximum
continuous rating, then a saving in fuel can be achieved.
Different engine manufacturers achieve this Variable Injection Timing (VIT) using different
methods.
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The Wartsila 64 engine uses a fuel pump with two plungers and two barrels with common
suction and discharge. The plunger for controlling the start of injection (timing) has a helix
in the top of the plunger, while the plunger for controlling the end of injection (metering) is a
conventional scroll type fuel pump plunger.
Both plungers are operated by the same cam. As they move upwards in their respective
barrels injection will not start until the helix on the timing plunger has covered the spill port.
This point is controlled by rotating the plunger in the barrel by means of a rack and pinion.
End of injection is controlled in the normal way, when the helix on the metering plunger
uncovers the spill ports. The MAN B&W 32/40 engine has a separate camshaft for the fuel
pumps that can be advanced or retarded as the engine is running. The final drive gear on the
timing gear train has an internal helically toothed sleeve bolted to it. The gear wheel and
sleeve can be moved axially by means of a hydraulic piston. The toothed sleeve meshes with
a matched helical gear fixed to the camshaft.
The camshaft is fixed so that it cannot move axially. Therefore as the sleeve moves up and
down controlled by the hydraulic piston, so the fuel pump timing is advanced or retarded.
The camshaft for the inlet and exhaust valves utilises two different profiles for economy and
full power operation. The camshaft can move axially from one set of cams to the other whilst
the engine is running similar to the method used for reversing the engine direction as shown
on the camshaft page.
6.6 The piston
Pistons for medium speed trunk piston engines which burn residual fuel are composite
pistons; i.e the crown and the skirt are made of different materials.
The crown is a heat resisting steel forging which may be alloyed with chromium,
molybdenum and nickel to maintain strength at high temperatures and resist corrosion. It is
dished to form a combustion chamber with cutouts to allow for the valves opening. The
topland (the space between the top ring and the top of the piston) may be tapered to allow for
expansion being greater where the piston is hottest.
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The skirt can either be a nodular cast iron or forged or cast silicon aluminium alloy.
Aluminium has the advantage of being light, with low inertia, reducing bearing loading.
However because aluminium has a higher coefficient of expansion than steel, increased
clearances must be allowed for during manufacture. This means that the piston skirt
clearance in the liner is greater than that for cast iron when running at low loads. The skirt
transmits the side thrust, caused by the varying angularity of the con rod, to the liner. Too
big a clearance will cause the piston to tilt.
The piston pin for the con rod small end bearing is located in the piston skirt. The piston pin
floats in the piston skirt and is located in place by circlips. Depending on the material used
for the skirt (esp. cast aluminium), a bushing may be used for the pin.
The piston rings may be located in the crown or in both crown and skirt. Normally, the rings
are chrome plated or plasma coated to resist wear. Because the liner is splash lubricated, an
oil scraper (oil control) ring is fitted to the piston skirt.
The piston is oil cooled. This is achieved by various means; The simplest is for a jet of oil to
be directed upwards from a hole in the top of the con rod onto the underside of the crown. A
more efficient method is to use an oil catcher as shown in the picture above. This directs oil
into the cooling spaces on the underside of the crown where the cocktail shaker effect of the
reciprocating piston ensures a positive cooling effect. It is unusual for the oil return
temperature to be monitored (unlike the 2 stroke slow speed crosshead engine, where both
temperature and quantity are monitored).
Some engines are fitted with one piece pistons manufactured from either cast iron or silicon
alloy aluminium . These cannot be used with residual fuel, because the higher temperatures
causes burning of the piston crown. Aluminium also suffers from carbon build up above
300º C. Ring grooves in aluminium pistons usually take the form of a chrome plated cast
iron insert.
The Rotating Piston
The Rotating piston. Instead of a
conventional piston pin and bearing, the top
end consists of a two part spherical bearing.
Inside the spherical top end of the con rod
are two spring loaded pawls. These pawls
engage with a ratchet ring which is
connected to the piston. The ratchet ring has
an uneven number of teeth.
As the con rod swings, the pawls engage
alternately with the ratchet ring, rotating the
piston.
The advantages of this system are
At each stroke a different part of the freshly oiled skirt is in contact with the part of the liner
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wall absorbing the side thrust. This reduces wear and the risk of seizure.
The rings rotate, so the ring gap is not always in the same position; this reduces local
overheating due to blowby.
Because the loading on the spherical bearing is symmetrical, and because the piston is
symmetrical (no hole for piston pin), the piston can be made with smaller clearances which
reduces piston rocking.
6.7 Cylinder liner
The cylinder liner is cast separately from the main cylinder frame for the same reasons as
given for the 2 stroke engine which are:
The liner can be manufactured using a superior material to the cylinder block. While
the cylinder block is made from a grey cast iron, the liner is manufactured from a
nodular cast iron alloyed with chromium, vanadium and molybdenum. (Cast iron
contains graphite, a lubricant. The alloying elements help resist corrosion and
improve the wear resistance at high temperatures.)
The cylinder liner will wear with use, and therefore may have to be replaced. The
cylinder jacket lasts the life of the engine.
At working temperature, the liner is a lot hotter than the jacket. The liner will expand
more and is free to expand diametrically and lengthwise. If they were cast as one
piece, then unacceptable thermal stresses would be set up, causing fracture of the
material.
Less risk of defects. The more complex the casting, the more difficult to produce a
homogenous casting with low residual stresses.
Modern liners employ bore cooling at the top
of the liner where the pressure stress is high
and therefore the liner wall thickness has to be
increased. This brings the cooling water close
to the liner surface to keep the liner wall
temperature within acceptable limits so that
there is not a breakdown in lubrication or
excessive thermal stressing. Although the liner
is splash lubricated from the revolving
crankshaft, cylinder lubricators may be
provided on the larger engines.
On the example shown opposite, the lubricator
drillings are bored from the bottom of the liner
circumferentially around the liner wall.
Another set of holes are drilled to meet up
with these vertically bored holes at the point
where the oil is required at the liner surface.
Other engines may utilise axial drillings as in a
two stroke engine.
Sulzer ZA40 Liner (vee engine; The straight engine is
similar)
Where the cooling water space is formed between the engine frame and the jacket, there is a
danger that water could leak down and contaminate the crankcase if the sealing O rings were
to fail. As a warning, "tell tale" holes are led from between the O rings to the outside of the
engine. modern engines tend not to use this space for cooling water. Instead a separate water
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jacket is mounted above the cylinder frame. This stops any risk of leakage of water from the
cooling space into the crankcase (or oil into the cooling water space), and provides the
cooling at the hottest part of the cylinder liner.
Note that the liner opposite is fitted with a fireband. This is sometimes known as an
antipolishing ring. It is slightly smaller in diameter than the liner, and its purpose is to remove
the carbon which builds up on the piston above the top ring. If this carbon is allowed to build
up it will eventually rub against the liner wall, polishing it and destroying its oil retention
properties.
The liner must be gauged regularly to establish the wear rate and check that it is within
manufacturers tolerances. The wear rate for a medium speed liner should be below
0.015mm/1000hrs. Excessive wear is caused by lack of lubrication, impurities in fuel air or
Lubricating oil, bad combustion and acid attack.
6.8 Camshaft
There are several different methods of manufacturing camshafts for medium speed 4 stroke
marine diesel engines. On the smaller engines, the camshaft may be a single forging
complete with cams.
Alternatively the camshaft can be built up in single cylinder elements, each element made
up of the fuel, inlet, and exhaust cam on a section of the camshaft with a flange on each
end. So that the element can be used on any unit in the engine, the number of holes for
fitted bolts in the flanges must be sufficient to allow the cam to be timed for any unit on the
engine. For example, on a six cylinder engine, the flanges must have 6 equi spaced holes or
a multiple thereof. The cams must be hard enough to resist the wear and abrasion due to
impurities in the lub. oil, yet they must be tough enough to resist shattering due to shock
loading. The cams are therefore surface hardened using the nitriding process.
On the larger engines it is usual to manufacture the camshaft and cams separately. The
nitrided alloy steel cams are then shrunk on to the steel shaft using heat or hydraulic means.
Because the cams are fitted progressively onto the shaft, if the bores in the cams were all
the same diameter, it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to fit the first cams all the
way along the length of the shaft to the correct position. To overcome this problem the
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camshaft is stepped, with the largest diameters at the end which has the cams fitted first.
The larger bored cams fit easily over the small diameter steps till they reach the correct
position on the camshaft.
Keys are not generally used to locate the cams as they would act as stress raisers.
Most medium speed engines are unidirectional (i.e. they only rotate one way). This is
because they either are driving an alternator, or because if they are used as direct main
propulsion they tend to be driving a controllable pitch propeller. In the case where the
engine is reversing, then the camshaft has two sets of cams, one for ahead operation, and
one for astern.
The camshaft is either chain or gear driven from the crankshaft. Because the engine is a
four stroke, the camshaft will rotate at half the speed of the crankshaft. (the valves and fuel
pump will only operate once for every two revolutions of the crankshaft).
In a case where the cams are shrunk on the camshaft, if a cam becomes damaged and has to
be replaced, then it can be cut off using a cutter grinder. Care must be exercised not to
damage the camshaft or adjacent cams during the operation. The replacement cam is fitted
in two halves which is then bolted on the camshaft in the correct position and the timing
rechecked.
5.8 The Connecting rod
The connecting rod in a medium speed 4 stroke engine is subject to an inertia whip loading
due to the mass of the con rod swinging about the piston pin. (Because of the lower speed
of a 2 stroke engine, the whip loading is not large enough to influence the design of the con
rod). Added to this, the inertia loads due to the mass of the reciprocating parts cause a stress
reversal from high compressive stress (during power and compression stroke) to a low
tensile stress between the exhaust and inlet strokes.
This loading of the rod influences its design, and to withstand the loading described above,
connecting rods are often forged from a manganese molybdenum steel in an I or H section
which reduces its mass from one made of round section steel (and thus reduces the whip
loading) while maintaining strength. This is not always the case, as can be seen from the
pictures shown, and often a round section rod is of sufficient strength.
Because of the large diameter of the crankpin to
increase bearing area and decrease bearing load, the
width of the bottom end of the con rod is greater than
the diameter of the cylinder liner.
So that the piston can be withdrawn from the liner, 3
different designs are used:
The con rod can be fitted with a marine palm as
in the photo above.
The con rod can be split in two parts as shown
opposite.
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The bottom end can be split obliquely.
Serrations are used to locate the two halves
relative to one another.
The advantage of using a vee engine is that the overall length of the engine is reduced for a
given power output.
If a normal bottom end arrangement is used then the con rods must be placed side by side
which means the opposite cylinders are offset. The crankpins must be long enough to
accommodate two bottom ends side by side, and of large enough diameter to resist bending.
The increased length of the crankshaft means a longer engine.
Two alternative arrangements are pictured (right). Both allow the cylinders to be opposite
one another. However, both arrangements restrict access to the crankcase, and because the
design of the bottom ends are different, more spares have to be carried.
Because of the stress reversal mentioned above, bottom end bolts have a limited life. This
varies from engine to engine, but is generally around 12-15000 hours. If a bottom end bolt
was to fail in operation, then the results would be disastrous.
Bottom end bolts should be treated with care when removed from the engine during
overhauls. They should be inspected for any damage to the surface from which a crack
could start. This damage could be due to corrosion (water in LO) or because of incorrect
handling.
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Self-assessment Test
O ring stud thrust piece oil catcher circlip piston pin
Progress test
Use all of the following expressions of cause and effect: because,
since, as long as, due to the fact that, as. Note that all of these expressions are synonyms of 'because'. Mind
the punctuation:
Example: Because he had to work late, we had dinner after nine o'clock.
We had dinner after nine o'clock because he had to work late.
1. They received a high mark on their exam ... they had studied
hard.
2. They had to leave early ... their train left at 8.30.
3. ... you have the time, why don't you come for dinner?
4. ... the test is difficult, you had better get some sleep.
5. We will be staying for an extra week ... we haven not yet
finished.
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Answers to self-assessment test
References
1. Blakey, T.N. English For Maritime Studies. 2nd ed. Hemel
Hempstead, Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd, 1987 (ISBN 0 13
281379 3)
2. Logie, C., Vivers, E., Nisbet, A. Marlins Study Pack 2 (book and
two audio cassettes). Edinburgh, Marlins, 1998 (ISBN 09531748 1 6)
3. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
4. http://www.marinediesels.info/
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Unit 7
The Air Start System
Objectives of Unit 7
7.1 How an engine starts on air
7.2 Adverb clauses
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
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OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 7
The main objectives are:
Understands the way of starting the engine
Uses the proper vocabulary to describe the process
Makes the difference between different adverb clauses
Uses the subordinating conjunctions properly and fluently
7.1 How an engine starts on air
Air start
Large Marine Diesel Engines are started using high pressure compressed air. The air is
admitted into the cylinder when the piston is just past TDC and continued until just before
the exhaust valve opens. There is always more than one air start valve open: - a situation
known as overlap. This ensures that the engine will start in any position. The opening of the
main air start valves is controlled by a set of pilot valves located in the air start distributor,
which in turn are timed to operate by a drive linked to the main camshaft. In the example
shown, a small camshaft is used to control the opening and closing of the air start pilot
valves.
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The drawing shows the principle of operation of an air start system. Large air receivers are
used to store the compressed air. The diagram shows the isolating valve open so air is being
allowed as far as the automatic valve and the air start control valve.
When the engine is required to start, a low pressure air signal is sent to the air start control
valve (which can also be hand operated in an emergency). The air pushes a piston down
which opens the valve and allows high pressure air to flow to the pilot valve and the
automatic valve operating pistons. The pilot valve is forced down onto the cam profile and
the automatic valve opens and high pressure air is led to the main air start valves and the
pilot valve. When the pilot valve cam follower is on the lowest point on the cam, air flows
to the operating piston of the main air start valve for that particular cylinder, opening the
valve and allowing high pressure air to flow into the cylinder.
When the pilot valve is lifted by the cam, the pilot valve vents and the main air start valve
closes. When the start air signal is taken off the air start control valve, the system vents and
the automatic valve shuts.
An interlock blocking valve will operate, for instance if the turning gear is left in, and this
will stop high pressure air from reaching the air start control valve and thus either the
automatic valve or the pilot valve.
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A slow turning valve is fitted. This will open instead of the main automatic valve if the
engine has been stopped for more than 30 minutes during manoeuvering. It will only supply
enough air to turn the engine over very slowly. This is a precaution in case a cylinder has
had oil or water leak into it which would cause damage to the engine when starting. If the
engine completes a full revolution on the slow turn, then the main automatic valve opens
and the engine will start. (note: The operating system for the slow turning has been omitted
for simplicity).
International Association of Classification Society rules state:
In order to protect starting air mains against explosion arising from improper functioning of
starting valves, the following devices must be fitted:
i. An isolation non-return valve or equivalent at the starting air supply connection to
each engine.
ii. A bursting disc or flame arrester in way of the starting valve of each cylinder for
direct reversing engines having a main starting manifold. OR
ii. At the supply inlet to the starting air manifold for non-reversing engines
Devices under (ii) above may be omitted for engines having a bore not exceeding 230 mm.
The system may also be provided with a relief valve.
7.2 Adverb Clauses
"He saw Mary when he was in New York" and "They studied hard because they had a test"
are adverb clauses. Adverb clauses express when, why, opposition and conditions and are
dependent clauses. This means that an adverb clause cannot stand by itself - in other words,
"When he went to New York." is not a complete sentence. It needs to be completed by an
independent clause. Example: He went to the Guggenheim museum when he was in New
York.
Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence, use a comma to separate the two
clauses. Example: As soon as he arrives, we will have some lunch. When the adverb clause
finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He gave me a call when he
arrived in town.
List of Words (subordinating conjunctions) Introducing Adverb Clauses
TIME
after, before, when, while, as, by the time (that), as soon as, since, until, whenever, the first
time (that), the next time (that), the last time (that), every time (that)
Examples:
He was talking on the phone when I arrived.
We will finish before he arrives.
We will finish after he comes.
She began cooking while I was finishing my homework.
By the time he finished, I had cooked dinner.
We waited until he finished his homework.
I have played tennis since I was a young boy.
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He will let us know as soon as he decides (or as soon as he has decided).
Whenever he comes, we go to have lunch at "Dick's".
The first time I went to New York, I was intimidated by the city.
CAUSE AND EFFECT
because, since, as, as long as, so long as, due to the fact that
OPPOSITION
although, even though, though, whereas, while
Examples:
He bought the car even though it was expensive.
Though he loves doughnuts, he has given them up for his diet.
Whereas you have lots of time to do your homework, I have very little time indeed.
Mary is rich, while I am poor.
CONDITION
if, only if, unless, whether (or not), even if, providing (that), in case (that), provided (that), in
the event (that)
Examples:
If he comes, we will have some lunch.
He would have invited me if he had known.
Even if she saves a lot, she won't be able to afford that house.
They won't be able to come whether or not they have enough money.
Unless she hurries up, we won't arrive in time.
In the case you need me, I'll be at Tom's.
Only if you do well on your exams will we give you your bicycle.
Self-assessment Test
Give the right from of the verbs in brackets:
If it rains, we (stay) at home.
He will arrive late unless he (hurry) up.
Peter will buy a new car, if he (get) his raise.
If he studied more, he (pass) the exam.
I would lower taxes if I (be) the President.
They would buy a new house if they (have) more money
If he (know) that, he would have decided differently.
Jane (find) a new job if she had stayed in Boston.
Progress test
Choose the phrase which best completes the conditional statement.
1. If he comes,
A. we will go to lunch. B. we would go to lunch. C. we went to lunch.
2. I would buy a yacht
if I have a lot of money. if I inherited a million dollars. if I win the
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lottery.
3. If he studies a lot,
A. he might pass the exam. B. he would pass the exam. C. he is going
to pass the exam.
4. I would get a new job
A. if I was you. B. if I am you. C. if I were you.
5. He will surely fail his exams
A. if he not work harder; B. unless he begins to study; C. if he weren't
serious.
6. I won‘t leave on Saturday
A. if she will come to visit; B. if she won't come to visit; C. if she
comes to visit
7. If this storm gets worse,
A. we will have to go inland. B. we must to go inland; C. we have to
get inland.
8. Watch out! If you touch that cable,
A. you will get a shock; B. you had a shock; C. you shocked.
9. I might have had time
A. if you needed my help. B. if you ask me for help. C. if you had
asked me for help.
10. I'm afraid I can't understand you
A. if you speak unclear. B. if you don't speak clear. C. unless you
speak more clearly.
Answers to self-assessment test
Give the right from of the verbs in brackets: If it rains, we will stay at home.
He will arrive late unless he hurries up. Peter will buy a new car, if he gets his raise.If he studied more, he would pass the exam.
I would lower taxes if I were the President.
They would buy a new house if they had more moneyIf he had known that, he would have decided differently.
Jane would have found a new job if she had stayed in Boston.
References
1. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
2. Logie, C., Vivers, E., Nisbet, A. Marlins Study Pack 2 (book and
two audio cassettes). Edinburgh, Marlins, 1998 (ISBN 09531748 1 6)3.
http://www.marinediesels.info/4_stroke_engine_parts/The_4_stroke_
4. http://esl.about.com/library/quiz/bl_conditionals1.htm
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Unit 8
Engine Room Watch-Keeping Duties
Objectives of Unit 9
9.1 Watch arragements
9.2 Handing/Taking over the watch
9.3 Getting in ‘touch‘
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
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OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 8
The main objectives are:
communicate effectively with others on engine room
watchkeeping arrangements, issues and associated
requirements
read, interpret and apply instructions, procedures and
information relevant to the role and responsibilities of an
engineer
identify and solve problems that may arise during
watchkeeping duties and report problems and issues
8.1 Watch arrangements
The chief engineer of every ship shall, in consultation with the master, ensure that
watchkeeping arrangements are adequate to maintain a safe engineering watch.
The term "engineering watch" means either a person or a group of personnel comprising the
watch or a period of responsibility for an officer during which the physical presence in the
machinery spaces of that officer may or may not be required.
The officer in charge of the engineering watch is the chief engineer officer's representative
and is primarily responsible at all times for the safe and efficient operation and upkeep of
machinery affecting the safety of the ship and is responsible for the inspection, operation and
testing, as required, of all machinery and equipment under the responsibility of the
engineering watch.
The composition of the engineering watch shall at all times be adequate to ensure the safe
operation of all machinery affecting the operation of the ship, in either automated or manual
mode, and be appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions.
When deciding the composition of the engineering watch, which may include appropriately
qualified ratings, the following criteria, inter alia, shall be taken into account:
(a) the type of ship and the type and condition of the machinery;
(b) the adequate supervision, at all times, of machinery affecting the safe operation of
the ship;
(c) any special modes of operation dictated by conditions such as weather, ice,
contaminated water, shallow water, emergency conditions, damage containment or
pollution abatement;
(d) the qualifications and experience of the engineering watch;
(e) the safety of life, ship, cargo and port, and protection of the marine environment;
(f) the observance of international, national and local regulations; and
(g) the maintenance of the normal operations of the ship.
8.2 Handing/Taking over the watch
The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall not hand over the watch to the relieving
officer if there is reason to believe that the latter is obviously not capable of carrying out the
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watchkeeping duties effectively, in which case the chief engineer officer shall be notified.
The relieving officer of the engineering watch shall ensure that the members of the relieving
engineering watch are apparently fully capable of performing their duties effectively.
Prior to taking over the engineering watch, relieving officers shall satisfy themselves
regarding at least the following-
(a) the standing orders and special instructions of the chief engineer officer relating
to the operation of the ship's systems and machinery;
(b) the nature of all work being performed on machinery and systems, the personnel
involved and potential hazards;
(c) the level and, where applicable, the condition of water or residues in bilges,
ballast tanks, slop tanks, reserve tanks, fresh water tanks, sewage tanks and any
special requirements for use or disposal of the contents thereof;
(d) the condition and level of fuel in the reserve tanks, settling tank, day tank and
other fuel storage facilities;
(e) any special requirements relating to sanitary system disposals;
(f) the condition and mode of operation of the various main and auxiliary systems,
including the electrical power distribution system;
(g) where applicable, the condition of monitoring and control console equipment, and
which equipment is being operated manually;
(h) where applicable, the condition and mode of operation of automatic boiler
controls such as flame safeguard control systems, limit control systems, combustion
control systems, fuel-supply control systems and other equipment related to the
operation of steam boilers;
(i) any potentially adverse conditions resulting from bad weather, ice, or
contaminated or shallow water;
(j) any special modes of operation dictated by equipment failure or adverse ship
conditions;
(k) the reports of engine room ratings relating to their assigned duties;
(l) the availability of fire-fighting appliances; and
(m) the state of completion of engine room log.
8.3 Getting in ’touch’
Engineers should not only depend on instruments to tell them the engines condition, but also
rely on the human sense of touch.
As they walk along the top plates they check for the relief valves and air start valves that they
are not leaking back by resting a hand on the connecting pipework. The reason for this action
is that if a relief valve is leaking back the pipework will be hot, due to hot combustion gases,
sometimes this is caused by the relief valve having lifted and not re-seating properly. A sharp
tap on the top of the valve with a hammer can reseat it. However if leaking for some other
reason, this will affect the efficiency of the combustion process and the valve should be
replaced.
Similarly if an air-start valve is leaking back, the pipework will be hot due to the combustion
gases. Here however the similarity ends! A leaking air-start valve can allow the gases to flow
back down the air supply pipework and into the air-start vessel, where it can combine with the
compressed air/oil vapour and cause the vessel to explode.
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To avoid the possibility of such an explosion involving compressed air, the individual air-
start isolating valves and compressed air vessel outlet valves should be shut at all times
except when manoeuvring. Any suspect air-start valves should be replaced, and compressed
air vessels drained of the mixture of air, water and oil, the oil having been carried forward by
the air compressor lubrication.
A hot crankcase door can be indicative of a bearing or other engine component running hot.
An oil mist forms on the inside of the crankcase and the crankcase gets progressively hotter
due to lube-oil overheating in an attempt to cool the bearing/s.
One sure-fire way of confirming this is by walking along the bottom plates of the engine room
and running a hand along the crankcase doors; any overheating problems will soon manifest
themselves through the skin on the back of a hand, much faster than relying on the oily-mist
detector or in the extreme situation of the crankcase explosion doors lifting.
Lastly let‘s look at the propeller drive shaft bearings and stern gland. The propeller shaft will
have been aligned to the main engine at the shipyard where the ship was built, and alignment
subsequently checked in dry dock during yearly survey. However, the larger ships of today
such as VLCC, LNG or Container ships have a lot of fore and aft movement, especially if
sailing light-ship or in ballast, so there is a lot of stress on the prop shaft which is transmitted
as torque to the shaft bearings.
Moving on down the tunnel the rest of the bearings are checked in the same manner, until we
reach the stern gland. The stern gland should always have a trickle of seawater running out of
it and this ensures not only a cool running gland but also that the gland packing and shaft are
being lubricated. Again laying a hand on the gland will tell if it is running hot – carefully
slackening off the gland adjusting nuts in sequence will increase the flow of seawater through
the packing and cool the whole stern gland down.
All this touching of pipes and components by hand to check for excessive heat soon becomes
second nature to the experienced watch-keeper.
Self-assessment Test
Give the right answer: It is the responsibility of the (a. master; b. chief mate; c. chief
engineer) to assign the engine room watch keeping assignments and
establish the watch keeping (a. standards; b. data; c. rules)
The watch stander‘s primary responsibility is to (a. watch; b. monitor;
c. check) the engine room from the ECR. The thruster rooms, motor
room and fan rooms should be checked at least once each (a. week; b.
year; c. watch). (a. relying; b. depending; c. based) on operations,
deck machinery should also be checked.
Watch standing is a science (a. also; b. well and good; c. as well as)
an art. Watch standers must keep aware of normal machinery sound,
temperatures and vibrations so they (a. can; b. may; c. must) be alert
to small changes form the normal running of the machinery and so (a.
head for; b. head off; c. head up) larger problems.
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Progress test
T1. Give the right phrasal verbs with 'up'
Jane and I want to ... up smoking.
Could you ... me up at 6 o'clock?
We must ... up or we will miss the bus.
Can you ... me up at the station?
I usually have to ... up at half past six.
I must ... up my cabin today.
Jane and I want to give up smoking.
Could you wake me up at 6 o'clock?
We must hurry up or we will miss the bus.
Can you pick me up at the station?
I usually have to get up at half past six.
I must tidy up my cabin today.
T2. Give the right phrasal verbs with 'on'
Please ... on your coat, it's cold outside.
Do you mind if I ... on the telly? I want to watch the news.
Excuse me. Where can I ... on the shirt?
Can I ... on reading now?
If you don't ... on the train now, it will leave without you.
Please put on your coat, it's cold outside.
Do you mind if I turn on the telly? I want to watch the news.
Excuse me. Where can I try on the shirt?
Can I carry on reading now?
If you don't get on the train now, it will leave without you.
Answers to self-assessment test
Give the right answer: It is the responsibility of the (a. master; b. chief mate; c. Chief Engineer) to assign the engine room watch
keeping assignments and establish the watch keeping (a. standards; b. data; c. rules) The watch stander‘s primary responsibility is to (a. watch; b. monitor; c. check) the engine room from the
ECR. The thruster rooms, motor room and fan rooms should be checked at least once each (a. week; b.
year; c. watch). (a. relying; b. depending; c. based) on operations, deck machinery should also be checked.
Watch standing is a science (a. also; b. well and good; c. as well as) an art. Watch standers must keep
aware of normal machinery sound, temperatures and vibrations so they (a. can; b. may; c. must) be alert to small changes form the normal running of the machinery and so (a. head for; b. head off; c. head up)
larger problems.
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