IT Controls Part I: Accounting Information Systems, 5 th edition James A. Hall COPYRIGHT © 2007 Thomson South-Western, a part of The Thomson Corporation.

IT Controls Part I:

Accounting Information Systems, 5th edition

James A. Hall

COPYRIGHT © 2007 Thomson South-Western, a part of The Thomson Corporation. Thomson, the Star logo,

and South-Western are trademarks used herein under license

IT Controls & Financial Reporting• Modern financial reporting is driven by

information technology (IT)• IT initiates, authorizes, records, and reports the

effects of financial transactions. – Financial reporting IC are inextricably integrated to IT.

• COSO identifies two groups of IT controls:– application controls – apply to specific applications

and programs, and ensure data validity, completeness and accuracy

– general controls – apply to all systems and address IT governance and infrastructure, security of operating systems and databases, and application and program acquisition and development

IT Controls & Financial Reporting

Types of Audit Tests

• Tests of controls – tests to determine if appropriate IC are in place and functioning effectively

• Substantive testing – detailed examination of account balances and transactions

Organizational Structure IC (Internal Control)

• Audit objective – verify that individuals in incompatible areas are segregated to minimize risk while promoting operational efficiency

• IC, especially segregation of duties, affected by which of two organizational structures applies:– Centralized model– Distributed model

President

VPMarketing

VP ComputerServices

VPOperations

VPFinance

SystemsDevelopment

DatabaseAdministration

DataProcessing

New SystemsDevelopment

SystemsMaintenance

DataControl

DataPreparation

ComputerOperations

DataLibrary

President

VPMarketing

VPFinance

VPOperations

IPU IPU IPU IPU IPU IPU

VPAdministration

Treasurer ControllerManagerPlant X

ManagerPlant Y

CENTRALIZED COMPUTER SERVICES FUNCTION

DISTRIBUTED ORGANIZATIONALSTRUCTURE

Segregation of Duties

• Transaction authorization is separate from transaction processing.

• Asset custody is separate from record-keeping responsibilities.

• The tasks needed to process the transactions are subdivided so that fraud requires collusion.

Segregation of Duties

Authorization

Authorization

Authorization

Processing

Custody Recording

Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4

Custody Recording

Control Objective 1

Control Objective 3

Control Objective 2

TRANSACTION

Centralized IT Structure• Critical to segregate:

– systems development from computer operations

– database administrator (DBA) from other computer service functions

• DBA’s authorizing and systems development’s processing

• DBA authorizes access

– maintenance from new systems development– data library from operations

Distributed IT Structure• Despite its many advantages,

important IC implications are present:– incompatible software among the

various work centers – data redundancy may result– consolidation of incompatible tasks– difficulty hiring qualified professionals– lack of standards

Organizational Structure IC• A corporate IT function alleviates potential

problems associated with distributed IT organizations by providing:– central testing of commercial hardware and

software– a user services staff– a standard-setting body – reviewing technical credentials of prospective

systems professionals

Audit Procedures• Review the corporate policy on computer security

– Verify that the security policy is communicated to employees

• Review documentation to determine if individuals or groups are performing incompatible functions

• Review systems documentation and maintenance records– Verify that maintenance programmers are not also design

programmers

• Observe if segregation policies are followed in practice. – E.g., check operations room access logs to determine if

programmers enter for reasons other than system failures

• Review user rights and privileges – Verify that programmers have access privileges consistent with

their job descriptions

Audit objectives:– physical security IC protects the computer

center from physical exposures– insurance coverage compensates the

organization for damage to the computer center

– operator documentation addresses routine operations as well as system failures

Computer Center IC

Computer Center ICConsiderations:• man-made threats and natural hazards• underground utility and communications lines• air conditioning and air filtration systems • access limited to operators and computer center

workers; others required to sign in and out• fire suppressions systems installed• fault tolerance

– Redundant disks and other system components– backup power supplies

Audit Procedures

• Review insurance coverage on hardware, software, and physical facility

• Review operator documentation, run manuals, for completeness and accuracy

• Verify that operational details of a system’s internal logic are not in the operator’s documentation

Disaster Recovery Planning

• Disaster recovery plans (DRP) identify:– actions before, during, and after the

disaster– disaster recovery team– priorities for restoring critical applications

• Audit objective – verify that DRP is adequate and feasible for dealing with disasters

Disaster Recovery Planning

• Major IC concerns: – second-site backups

– critical applications and databases• including supplies and documentation

– back-up and off-site storage procedures

– disaster recovery team

– testing the DRP regularly

Second-Site Backups• Empty shell - involves two or more user

organizations that buy or lease a building and remodel it into a computer site, but without computer equipment

• Recovery operations center - a completely equipped site; very costly and typically shared among many companies

• Internally provided backup - companies with multiple data processing centers may create internal excess capacity

Audit Procedures• Evaluate adequacy of second-site backup

arrangements• Review list of critical applications for

completeness and currency• Verify that procedures are in place for storing

off-site copies of applications and data– Check currency back-ups and copies

• Verify that documentation, supplies, etc., are stored off-site

• Verify that the disaster recovery team knows its responsibilities– Check frequency of testing the DRP

Audit Background Material

From Appendix

Attestation versus Assurance• Attestation:

– practitioner is engaged to issue a written communication that expresses a conclusion about the reliability of a written assertion that is the responsibility of another party.

• Assurance:– professional services that are designed to

improve the quality of information, both financial and non-financial, used by decision-makers

– includes, but is not limited to attestation

Attest and Assurance Services

What is an External Financial Audit?

• An independent attestation by a professional (CPA) regarding the faithful representation of the financial statements

• Three phases of a financial audit:– familiarization with client firm– evaluation and testing of internal controls– assessment of reliability of financial data

Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS)

Auditing Management’s Assertions

External versus Internal Auditing

• External auditors – represent the interests of third party stakeholders

• Internal auditors – serve an independent appraisal function within the organization– Often perform tasks which can reduce

external audit fees and help to achieve audit efficiency and reduce audit fees

What is an IT Audit?

Since most information systems employ IT, the IT audit is a critical component of all external and internal audits.

• IT audits: – focus on the computer-based aspects of

an organization’s information system – assess the proper implementation,

operation, and control of computer resources

Elements of an IT Audit• Systematic procedures are used

• Evidence is obtained – tests of internal controls– substantive tests

• Determination of materiality for weaknesses found

• Prepare audit report & audit opinion

Phases of an IT Audit

Audit Risk is... the probability the auditor will issue an

unqualified (clean) opinion when in fact the financial statements are materially misstated.

Three Components of Audit Risk• Inherent risk is associated with the unique

characteristics of the business or industry of the client.

• Control risk is the likelihood that the control structure is flawed because controls are either absent or inadequate to prevent or detect errors in the accounts.

• Detection risk is the risk that auditors are willing to take that errors not detected or prevented by the control structure will also not be detected by the auditor.

IT Controls Part II: Securityand Access

Accounting Information Systems, 5th edition

James A. Hall

COPYRIGHT © 2007 Thomson South-Western, a part of The Thomson Corporation. Thomson, the Star logo,

and South-Western are trademarks used herein under license

Operating Systems

• Perform three main tasks:– translates high-level languages into

the machine-level language

– allocates computer resources to user applications

– manages the tasks of job scheduling and multiprogramming

Requirements for Effective Operating Systems Performance

• Protect itself from tampering from users• Prevent users from tampering with the

programs of other users• Safeguard users’ applications from accidental

corruption• Safeguard its own programs from accidental

corruption• Protect itself from power failures and other

disasters

Operating Systems Security

• Log-On Procedure – first line of defense – user IDs and passwords

• Access Token– contains key information about the user

• Access Control List– defines access privileges of users

• Discretionary Access Control – allows user to grant access to another user

Operating Systems ControlsAccess Privileges

• Audit objectives: verify that access privileges are consistent with separation of incompatible functions and organization policies

• Audit procedures: review or verify…– policies for separating incompatible functions– a sample of user privileges, especially access to

data and programs– security clearance checks of privileged employees– formally acknowledgements to maintain

confidentiality of data– users’ log-on times

Operating Systems S ControlsPassword Control

• Audit objectives: ensure adequacy and effectiveness password policies for controlling access to the operating system

• Audit procedures: review or verify…– passwords required for all users– password instructions for new users– passwords changed regularly– password file for weak passwords– encryption of password file– password standards– account lockout policies

Operating Systems Controls

Malicious & Destructive Programs • Audit objectives: verify effectiveness of

procedures to protect against programs such as viruses, worms, back doors, logic bombs, and Trojan horses

• Audit procedures: review or verify…– training of operations personnel concerning

destructive programs– testing of new software prior to being implemented– currency of antiviral software and frequency of

upgrades

Operating System Controls

Audit Trail Controls • Audit objectives: whether used to (1) detect

unauthorized access, (2) facilitate event reconstruction, and (3) promote accountability

• Audit procedures: review or verify…– how long audit trails have been in place– archived log files for key indicators– monitoring and reporting of security violations

Database Management Controls

Two crucial database control issues:

Access controls • Audit objectives: (1) those authorized to use

databases are limited to data needed to perform their duties and (2) unauthorized individuals are denied access to data

Backup controls• Audit objectives: backup controls can adequately

recovery lost, destroyed, or corrupted data

Access Controls• User views - based on sub-schemas

• Database authorization table - allows greater authority to be specified

• User-defined procedures - user to create a personal security program or routine

• Data encryption - encoding algorithms

• Biometric devices - fingerprints, retina prints, or signature characteristics

Database Authorization Table

Resource

User

Employee Line Cash ReceiptsAR File File Printer Program

Read dataChangeAddDelete

No Access Use No Access

Read onlyRead code

No Access Use ModifyDelete

No Access Read only Use No Access

User 1

User 3

User 2

Access Controls

Audit procedures: verify…– responsibility for authority

tables & subschemas– granting appropriate access

authority– use or feasibility of biometric

controls– use of encryption

Subschema Restricting Access

Backup Controls• Database backup – automatic periodic

copy of data

• Transaction log – list of transactions which provides an audit trail

• Checkpoint features – suspends data during system reconciliation

• Recovery module – restarts the system after a failure

• Audit procedures: verify…– that production databases are copied

at regular intervals

– backup copies of the database are stored off site to support disaster recovery

Backup Controls

Internet and Intranet Risks• Communications is a unique aspect of the

computer networks:– different than processing (applications) or data

storage (databases)

• Network topologies – configurations of:– communications lines (twisted-pair wires, coaxial

cable, microwaves, fiber optics)– hardware components (modems, multiplexers,

servers, front-end processors)– software (protocols, network control systems)

Sources of Internet & Intranet RisksInternal and external subversive activities

Audit objectives: 1. prevent and detect illegal internal and Internet

network access2. render useless any data captured by a perpetrator3. preserve the integrity and physical security of data

connected to the network

Equipment failureAudit objective: the integrity of the electronic

commerce transactions by determining that controls are in place to detect and correct message loss due to equipment failure

Risks from Subversive Threats

• Include: – unauthorized interception of a message

– gaining unauthorized access to an organization’s network

– a denial-of-service attack from a remote location

IC for Subversive Threats Firewalls provide security by channeling all

network connections through a control gateway.• Network level firewalls

– Low cost and low security access control – Do not explicitly authenticate outside users– Filter junk or improperly routed messages – Experienced hackers can easily penetrate the system

• Application level firewalls – Customizable network security, but expensive – Sophisticated functions such as logging or user

authentication

Dual-Homed Firewall

• Denial-of-service (DOS) attacks

– Security software searches for connections which have been half-open for a period of time.

• Encryption

– Computer program transforms a clear message into a coded (cipher) text form using an algorithm.

IC for Subversive Threats

DOS Attack

Sender Receiver

Step 1: SYN messages

Step 2: SYN/ACK

Step 3: ACK packet code

In a DOS Attack, the sender sends hundreds of messages, receives the SYN/ACK packet, but does not response with an ACK packet. This leaves thereceiver with clogged transmission ports, and legitimate messages cannot be received.

Standard Data Encryption Technique

EncryptionProgram

EncryptionProgram

Ciphertext

Ciphertext

CommunicationSystem

CommunicationSystem

Key

Key

CleartextMessage

CleartextMessage

Public – Private Key Encryption

Public Key used for encoding messages

Message A Message B Message C Message D

Ciphertext Ciphertext Ciphertext Ciphertext

Multiple peoplemay have the public key

Private Key used fordecoding messages

Typically one person ora small number of peoplehave the private key

Message A Message DMessage CMessage B

Advanced Data Encryption Technique

• Digital signature – electronic authentication technique to ensure that…– transmitted message originated with the authorized

sender – message was not tampered with after the signature

was applied

• Digital certificate – like an electronic identification card used with a public key encryption system – Verifies the authenticity of the message sender

IC for Subversive Threats

Digital Signature

• Message sequence numbering – sequence number used to detect missing messages

• Message transaction log – listing of all incoming and outgoing messages to detect the efforts of hackers

• Request-response technique – random control messages are sent from the sender to ensure messages are received

• Call-back devices – receiver calls the sender back at a pre-authorized phone number before transmission is completed

IC for Subversive Threats

• Review firewall effectiveness in terms of flexibility, proxy services, filtering, segregation of systems, audit tools, and probing for weaknesses.

• Review data encryption security procedures• Verify encryption by testing• Review message transaction logs• Test procedures for preventing unauthorized

calls

Auditing Procedures for Subversive Threats

IC for Equipment Failure Line errors are data errors from

communications noise.

• Two techniques to detect and correct such data errors are:– echo check - the receiver returns the

message to the sender – parity checks - an extra bit is added onto each

byte of data similar to check digits

Vertical and Horizontal Parity

• Using a sample of a sample of messages from the transaction log:– examine them for garbled contents

caused by line noise

– verify that all corrupted messages were successfully retransmitted

Auditing Procedures for Equipment Failure

Electronic Data Interchange• Electronic data interchange (EDI) uses

computer-to-computer communications technologies to automate B2B purchases.

• Audit objectives: 1. Transactions are authorized, validated, and in

compliance with the trading partner agreement.2. No unauthorized organizations can gain access

to database3. Authorized trading partners have access only to

approved data.4. Adequate controls are in place to ensure a

complete audit trail.

EDI Risks

• Authorization – automated and absence of human

intervention

• Access– need to access EDI partner’s files

• Audit trail– paperless and transparent (automatic)

transactions

• Authorization– use of passwords and value added

networks (VAN) to ensure valid partner• Access

– software to specify what can be accessed and at what level

• Audit trail– control log records the transaction’s flow

through each phase of the transaction processing

EDI Controls

EDI System without Controls

PurchasesSystem

EDI TranslationSoftware

EDI TranslationSoftware

CommunicationsSoftware

CommunicationsSoftware

Sales OrderSystem

ApplicationSoftware

ApplicationSoftware

Direct Connection

Company A Company B (Vendor)

PurchasesSystem

EDI TranslationSoftware

EDI TranslationSoftware

CommunicationsSoftware

CommunicationsSoftware

OtherMailbox

OtherMailbox

CompanyA’s mailbox

CompanyB’s mailbox

Sales OrderSystem

ApplicationSoftware

ApplicationSoftware

VAN

Company A Company B (Vendor)

Transaction Log

Transaction Log

Audit trail oftransactions betweentrading partners

EDI System with Controls

Use of VAN to enforce use of passwords and valid partners

Software limits vendor’s (Company B) access to company A’s database

Auditing Procedures for EDI• Tests of Authorization and Validation Controls

– Review procedures for verifying trading partner identification codes

– Review agreements with VAN– Review trading partner files

• Tests of Access Controls– Verify limited access to vendor and customer files– Verify limited access of vendors to database– Test EDI controls by simulation

• Tests of Audit Trail Controls– Verify exists of transaction logs are key points– Review a sample of transactions