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Conference Proceedings
July 24-26, 2019 Bali, Indonesia
ISEAS International Symposium on Engineering and Applied Science
ICSSB
International Conference on Social Science and Business
ISEAS
International Symposium on Engineering and Applied Science
ISBN 978-986-5654-28-3
ICSSB
International Conference on Social Science and Business
ISBN 978-986-87417-7-5
Content
Welcome Message ............................................................................................................................. 3
General Information for Participants ......................................................................................... 4
International Committees of Natural Sciences ........................................................................ 6
International Committees of Social Sciences ............................................................................ 9
Special Thanks to Session Chairs ............................................................................................... 12
Conference Venue Information ................................................................................................... 13
Conference Schedule ....................................................................................................................... 15
Natural Sciences Keynote Address ........................................................................................... 17
Social Sciences Keynote Address .............................................................................................. 18
Oral Sessions..................................................................................................................................... 19
Civil Engineering/ Environmental Sciences / Fundamental & Applied
Sciences/ Chemical Engineering ...................................................................................... 19
ISEAS-267 ........................................................................................................................ 21
ISEAS-268 ........................................................................................................................ 36
ISEAS-265 ........................................................................................................................ 51
ISEAS-257 ........................................................................................................................ 53
ISEAS-253 ........................................................................................................................ 69
Social Studies / Psychology/ Business Management ................................................ 72
ICSSB-241 ........................................................................................................................ 74
ICSSB-223 ........................................................................................................................ 88
ICSSB-253 ........................................................................................................................ 99
ICSSB-264 ..................................................................................................................... 100
ICSSB-260 ..................................................................................................................... 115
ICSSB-250 ..................................................................................................................... 123
Finance/ Economics ........................................................................................................... 125
ICSSB-219 ..................................................................................................................... 126
ICSSB-239 ..................................................................................................................... 127
ICSSB-216 ..................................................................................................................... 139
ICSSB-247 ..................................................................................................................... 153
Humanities and Culture Studies/ Literature and Linguistics ............................. 155
ICSSB-215 ..................................................................................................................... 156
ICSSB-212 ..................................................................................................................... 170
ICSSB-254 ..................................................................................................................... 180
ICSSB-255 ..................................................................................................................... 193
Education ............................................................................................................................... 203
ICSSB-265 ..................................................................................................................... 204
ICSSB-230 ..................................................................................................................... 206
ICSSB-221 ..................................................................................................................... 208
ICSSB-231 ..................................................................................................................... 210
Poster Session ................................................................................................................................ 212
Electrical & Electronic Engineering/ Chemical Engineering/ Biomedical
Engineering/ Electrical & Electronic Engineering/ Environmental Sciences/
Material Science Engineering/ Mechanical Engineering ...................................... 212
ISEAS-235 ..................................................................................................................... 214
ISEAS-233 ..................................................................................................................... 216
ISEAS-242 ..................................................................................................................... 219
ISEAS-255 ..................................................................................................................... 221
ISEAS-241 ..................................................................................................................... 227
ISEAS-249 ..................................................................................................................... 229
ISEAS-250 ..................................................................................................................... 241
ISEAS-251 ..................................................................................................................... 250
ISEAS-131 ..................................................................................................................... 252
Psychology/ Education/ Fundamental & Applied Sciences ................................. 253
ICSSB-234 ..................................................................................................................... 255
ICSSB-235 ..................................................................................................................... 256
ICSSB-237 ..................................................................................................................... 258
ICSSB-256 ..................................................................................................................... 260
ISEAS-273 ..................................................................................................................... 262
ISEAS-274 ..................................................................................................................... 269
ISEAS-275 ..................................................................................................................... 271
ISEAS-276 ..................................................................................................................... 273
3
Welcome Message
Local Host
Dr. Yonik Meilawati Yustiani
Department of Environmental Engineering
Pasundan University
Distinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen,
Scientific meetings between researchers are important events in order to improve
research performance in all aspects, especially when research results will be applied in
society or real life. Various fields of science should be involved in the discussion of the
implementation of those research results.
HEF in recent years has held scientific meetings which not only have one specific field,
but we combine with other fields. One of the goals is to bring together researchers
between various fields so that they can provide input from a complete perspective.
The Joint Conference of ISEAS and ICSSB is an international platform for scholars,
researchers and practitioners to discuss interdisciplinary research and practices in the
fields of Engineering and Applied Science. It also provides an interdisciplinary platform
for policymakers, top managers, researchers, practitioners and educators to present and
discuss the most recent innovations, trends, and concerns as well as practical challenges
encountered and solutions adopted in the fields of Engineering and Applied Science.
From these meetings, we are expecting a useful discussion and continuous collaboration
between participants. From the 5th ISEAS meeting, it is also hoped that several
collaborations will be formed to expand the network of researchers on an international
scale to jointly improve the welfare of the humankind.
The ISEAS & ICSSB meeting takes place in Bali, Indonesia which has a lot of tourist areas
with natural beauty and rich traditional cultural art. I invited guests to enjoy also these
famous Bali’s beautiful nature and arts.
Thank you.
Dr. Yonik Meilawati Yustiani
4
General Information for Participants
Registration
The registration desk will be situated on the 2nd
Floor at the The Stones Hotel - Legian Bali
during the following time:
09:00-11:00 Wednesday, July 24
08:45-14:00 Thursday, July 25
08:45-14:00 Friday, July 26
A Polite Request to All Participants
Participants are requested to arrive in a timely fashion for all addresses. Presenters are reminded
that the time slots should be divided fairly and equally by the number of presentations, and that
they should not overrun. The session chair is asked to assume this timekeeping role and to
summarize key issues in each topic.
Certificate
Certificate of Presentation or Certificate of Attendance
A certificate of attendance includes participant’s name and affiliation, certifying the participation
in the conference. A certificate of presentation indicates a presenter’s name, affiliation and the
paper title that is presented in the scheduled session.
Certificate Distribution
Oral presenters will receive a certificate of presentation from the session chair after their
presentations or at the end of the session. Poster presenters will receive a certificate of
presentation from the conference staff at the end of their poster session.
The certificate of presentation will not be issued, either at or after the conference, to authors
whose papers are registered but not presented. Instead, the certificate of attendance will be
provided after the conference.
5
Preparation for Oral Presentations
All presentation rooms are equipped with a screen, an LCD projector, and a laptop computer
installed with Microsoft PowerPoint. You will be able to insert your USB flash drive into the
computer and double check your file in PowerPoint. We recommend you to bring two copies of
the file in case that one fails. You may also connect your own laptop to the provided projector;
however please ensure you have the requisite connector.
Preparation for Poster Presentation
Materials Provided by the Conference Organizer:
1. X-frame display & base fabric canvases (60cm×160cm)
2. Adhesive tapes or binder clips
Materials Prepared by the Presenters:
3. Home-made poster(s)
4. Material: not limited, can be posted on the canvases
5. Recommended poster size: 60cm*160cm
A 60cm*160cm poster illustrates
the research findings.
1. Wider than 60cm (left)
2. Copy of PowerPoint slides in A4 papers (right)
6
International Committees of Natural Sciences
Abhishek Shukla R.D. Engineering College Technical Campus India
Ahmad Salihin Bin
Samsudin Universiti Malaysia Pahang Malaysia
Ahmad Zahedi James Cook University Australia
Akshaya Kumar Rout KIIT University India
Alexander M. Korsunsky Trinity College, Oxford UK
Almacen Philippine Association of Maritime Training Centers Philippines
Amel L. Magallanes Capiz State University Philippines
Amimul Ahsan Universiti Putra Malaysia Malaysia
Amran Bin Ahmed University Malaysia Perlis Malaysia
Anthony D. Johnson Seoul National University of Science & Technology UK
Ashley Love A.T. Still University USA
Asif Mahmood King Saud University, Riyadh Saudi
Arabia
Asmida Ismail University Technology Mara Malaysia
Baolin Wang University of Western Sydney
Chang Ping-Chuan Kun Shan University Taiwan
Chee Fah Wong Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Malaysia
Chee-Ming Chan Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Malaysia
Cheng-I Chen National Central University Taiwan
Cheng-Min Feng National Chiao Tung University Taiwan
Cheuk-Ming Mak The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hong Kong
Chia-Ray Lin Academia Sinica Taiwan
Chih-Wei Chiu National Taiwan University of Science and
Technology Taiwan
Chi-Ming Lai National Cheng-Kung University Taiwan
Ching-An Peng University of Idaho USA
Chin-Tung Cheng National Kaohsiung University of Science and
Technology Taiwan
Christoph Lindenberger Friedrich-Alexander University Germany
Daniel W. M. Chan The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hong Kong
Din Yuen Chan National Chiayi University Taiwan
Don Liu Louisiana University USA
Edward J. Smaglik Northen Arizona University USA
Farhad Memarzadeh National Institutes of Health USA
Fatchiyah M.Kes. Universitas Brawijaya Indonesia
Gwo-Jiun Horng Southern Taiwan University of Science and Taiwan
7
Technology
Hairul Azman Roslan Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Hamed M El-Shora Mansoura University Egypt
Hanmin Jung Convergence Technology Research Planning South Korea
Hasmawi Bin Khalid University Teknologi Mara Malaysia
Hedayat Omidvar National Iranian Gas Company (NIGC) Iran
Hikyoo Koh Lamar University USA
Hiroshi Uechi Osaka Gakuin University Japan
Hsien Hua Lee National Sun Yat-Sen University Taiwan
Hung-Yuan Chung National Central University Taiwan
Hyoungseop Kim Kyushu Insititute of Techonogy Japan
Ivica Veza University of Split Croatia
Jeril Kuriakose Manipal University India
Jieh-Shian Young National Changhua University of Education Taiwan
Jivika Govil Zion Bancorporation India
Kazuaki Maeda Chubu Univeristy Japan
TaeSoo Kim Hanbat National University South Korea
Kuang-Hui Peng National Taipei University of Technology Taiwan
Kun-Li Wen Chienkuo Technology University Taiwan
Lai Mun Kou SEGi University Malaysia
M. Chandra Sekhar National Institute of Technology India
Mahadev Sakri College of Engineering and Technology India
Michael Pillay Vaal University of Technology South Africa
Michiko Miyamoto Akita Prefectural University Japan
Milan Dordevic College of Engineering and Technology Kuwait
Norizzah Abd Rashid Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia
Onder Turan Anadolu University Turkey
Osman Adiguzel Firat University Turkey
P. Sivaprakash A.S.L. Pauls College of Engineering & Technology India
P.Sanjeevikumar University of Bologna India
Panayotis S. Tremante M. Universidad Central de Venezuela Venezuela
Patrick S.K. Chua Singapore Institute of Technology Singapore
Pei-Jeng Kuo National Chengchi University Taiwan
Phongsak Phakamach North Eastern University Thailand
Rainer Buchholz Friedrich-Alexander University Germany
Rajeev Kaula Missouri State University USA
Ransinchung R.N. Indian Institute of Technology India
Roslan Zainal Abidin Infrastructure University Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
S. Ahmed John Jamal Mohamed College India
8
Saji Baby Kuwait University Kuwait
Seok Kim Pusan National University South Korea
Seong Min Kim Chonbuk National University South Korea
Sergei Gorlatch University of Muenster Germany
Shen-Long Tsai National Taiwan University of Science and
Technology Taiwan
Sittisak Uparivong Khon Kaen University Thailand
Sudhir C.V. Caledonian College of Engineering Oman
Suresh. B. Gholse. Rtm Nagpur University India
Tan Lit Ken Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Malaysia
Teerapot Wessapan Eastern Asia University Thailand
The Nan Chang Tatung University Taiwan
Thippayarat Chahomchuen Kasetsart University Thailand
Vivian Louis Forbes Wuhan University China
Wei Gao IXIA Inc. USA
Wen-Hua Tarng National Tsing Hua University Taiwan
William L. Baker Indiana State University USA
Wong Hai Ming The University of Hong Kong Hong Kong
Wong Tsun Tat The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hong Kong
Yasuhiko Koike Tokyo University of Agriculture Japan
Yee-Wen Yen National Taiwan University of Science and
Technology Taiwan
Yung-Chih Kuo Natinoal Chung Cheng University Taiwan
9
International Committees of Social Sciences
Adeeb Jarrah United Arab Emirates University UAE
Ahrar Husain Jamia Millia Islamia Indian
Alex Yao Tang National Cheng Kung University Taiwan
Amol Gore
Thailand
Ashish Pareek Maharshi Dayanand Saraswati University,
Ajmer India
Atefeh Ferdosipour Azad University Iran
Azidah Abu Ziden Universiti Sains Malaysia Malaysia
Azilawati Nanyang Technological University Singapore
Aziz Bin Ahmad University Malaysia Terengganu Malaysia
B. Suresh Lal Kakatiya University India
Badar Alam Iqbal Aligarh Muslim University India
Bayram Akarsu Erciyes University Turkey
Bor-Tyng Wang Feng Chia University Taiwan
Brian Hunt Mahidol University Thailand
Cathine G. Scott Morris College in Sumter USA
Chen-Yi Lin National Taichung University of Science and
Technology Taiwan
Chia-Hwan Chen National Taipei University of Education Taiwan
Chia-Ming Chang National Chia-Yi University Taiwan
Chib Datta Meghe Institute of Management Studies India
Chih-Wei Peng Taipei Medical University and Hospital Taiwan
Ching-Yi Tien I-Shou University Taiwan
Chi-Ying Chen Asia University Taiwan
Concepcion C. Libuit City University of Pasay Philippines
Darshan kaur Narang University of Rajasthan, Jaipur India
David Yoon Universitaire Léonard de Vinci France
Dharam Vir Mahajan CCS university, Meerut India
Donald L. Amoroso Auburn University at Montgomery USA
Donghun Lee Sungkyunkwan University South Korea
Eddy K.W. Li The Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong
Edward Hwang Chung Hua University Taiwan
Eric Santos Parilla University of Asia and the Pacific Philippines
Frank S.C. Tseng National Kaohsiung First University of Science
and Technology Taiwan
Funda Varnaci Uzun Aksaray University Turkey
10
Gajendra Singh Satyawati College, University of Delhi India
Hamzeh Dodeen United Arab Emirates University UAE
Intan Soliha Binti Ibrahim Universiti Malaysia Sabah Malaysia
Irene Guatno Toribio Philippine Christian University Philippines
Jalil Safaei University of Northern British Columbia Canada
Jamie Halsall University of Huddersfield UK
Jeffrey Trambley Musashino Gakuin University Japan
Jian-Horng Chen Chung Shan Medical University Taiwan
John Christian S. Jardin Palawan State University Philippines
John Erinorio Perez University of the Philippines Los Baños Philippines
Jonas Chao-Pen Yu Takming University of Science and Technology Taiwan
Joseph Lau The University of Hong Kong Hong Kong
Joyce Zhou Emporia State University USA
Junaid M. Shaikh Curtin University Sarawak Malaysia Malaysia
Kaedsiri Jaroenwisan Silpakorn Univesity Thailand
Kanokphon Chantanarungpak Srinakharinwirot University Thailand
Karen Miranda Fernandez Imus Institute Philippines
Karendra Devroop University of South Africa South Africa
Kyung Hee Kim Mokpo National University South Korea
Kim Sangho Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University Japan
Deok Man Kim Baekseok University South Korea
Krishna Govender AAA School of Advertising South Africa
Hsiao-Tseng Lin Meiho University Taiwan
Linda Oshita University of Hwaii USA
Margaret Sanapo Ritsumeikan University Japan
Maria Cristina M. De los
Santos Kyungdong University-Global Campus South Korea
Marie Paz E. Morales Philippine Normal University Philippines
Mehryar Nooriafshar University of Southern Queensland Australia
Michael Kao Chang Gung University Taiwan
Micheal Kon Aletheia University Taiwan
Michelle M. Mukherjee Queensland University of Technology Australia
Mindy Suzanne Andino Bloomsburg University USA
Ming-Chang Chih National Chung Hsing University Taiwan
Mingchu Luo Emporia State University USA
Mohamad Hafis Amat Simin University Sultan Zainal Abdin Malaysia
Mohamed Ahmed El Khouli Sadat Academy for Management Science Egypt
Mohamed Hammad Hendy Beni-Suef University Egypt
N. S. Ravishankar Axis Bank India
11
Nadir Memmedli
Azerbaijan
Naim Uzun Aksaray University Turkey
Nezaket Memmedli Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences Azerbaijan
Ng Woon Lam Nanyang Technological University Singapore
Nukshi Esther Imsong Institution of Psychology Counselling and
Educational Research India
Obydullah Al Marjuk Independent University, Bangladesh Bangladesh
Ozgul Keles Aksaray University Turkey
Prasong Tanpichai Kasetsart University Thailand
Ramayah Thurasamy Universiti Sains Malaysia Malaysia
Reem Abed Almotaleb
Abuiyada Dhofar University Palestine
Ricky Ng Vocational Training Council Hong Kong
Ronald Griffin Florida Agricultural & Mechanical University USA
Rotaru Ioan-Gheorghe Timotheus Brethren Theological Insititute of
Bucharest Romania
Ruby Ann L. Ayo Bicol University Philippines
Sadiq Abdulwahed Ahmed
Ismail United Arab Emirates University UAE
Sally dhruva' Stephenson Frosterburg State University USA
Shaik. Feroz Caledonian College of Engineering Oman
Shiv Prasad Maharshi Dayanand Saraswati University India
Shujen Lee Asia University Taiwan
Shun-Hsing Chen Oriental Institute of Technology Taiwan
Soon SONG Wonkwang University South Korea
Stacey Jocoy Texas Tech University USA
Sunil Kumar Alliance University India
T.S.Devaraja University of Mysore, Hemagangothri Campus India
Tan Khay Boon SIM Global Education Singapore
Theeraphab Phetmalaikul Srinakharinwirot University Thailand
Vijayaletchumy Subramaniam Universitas Putra Malaysia Malaysia
Wang Yu-Shan National Kaohsiung First University of Science
and Technology Taiwan
Wei-Cheng Mau Wichita State University USA
Yong-Ho Kim Pukyong National University South Korea
Yong-Taek Rhim Namseoul University South Korea
12
Special Thanks to Session Chairs
Noel Yee-Man Siu Hong Kong Baptist University Hong Kong
Guoqin Chen Harbin Institute of technology China
Jing, Victor Li The Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong
Joana Grant Cooplem Idiomas Brazil
Bob Barrett American Public University USA
Yonik Meilawati Yustiani Pasundan University Indonesia
13
Conference Venue Information
The Stones Hotel - Legian Bali
Address: Jl. Raya Pantai Kuta Banjar Legian Kelod Legian Bali, Bali 80361 Indonesia
Telephone number: +62 361 3005888
Transportation
*By Car- Driving directions
Head South on Jl. Ngurah Rai, turn right towards Jl, Kemayoran as well as the first right onto Jl.
Kemayoran, take the 1st left onto Jl. Kemayoran, continue onto Jl. Dewi Sartika, turn left onto Jl.
Kartika Plaza, turn right to stay on Jl. Kartika Plaza, continue straight onto Jl. Bakungsari, turn
left onto Jl. Pantai Kuta, continue straight for 0.5 miles destination on the right- Stones
Entertainment centre & hotel.
*By Taxi
Estimated taxi fare: 15 USD (one way)
* This hotel does not provide shuttle service.
14
Floor Plan
The Stones Hotel - Legian Bali (2nd Floor)
Registration: Pre-Function Area, 2nd
Floor
Oral Session: Meeting Room 1 & 2, 2nd
Floor
Poster Session: Pre-Function Area, 2nd Floor
Tea Break & Networking: Pre-Function Area, 2nd
Floor
Lunch: Stones Kitchen, Lobby Floor
Poster
Reg
istr
ati
on
Oral
15
Conference Schedule
Wednesday, July 24, 2019
Time Schedule Venue
07:45-08:00 Gathering for Socializing Event (Optional) Pre-Function Area, 2F
08:00-19:30 Socializing Event (Optional)
09:00-11:00 Pre-Registration Pre-Function Area, 2F
Thursday, July 25, 2019
Oral Session
Time Schedule Venue
08:45-14:00 Registration Pre-Function Area, 2F
09:00-10:30
Civil Engineering/ Environmental Sciences/
Fundamental & Applied Sciences/ Chemical
Engineering
Meeting Room 1, 2F
Social Studies/ Psychology / Business
Management Meeting Room 2, 2F
10:30-10:45 Tea Break & Networking Pre-Function Area, 2F
10:45-12:15
Natural Sciences Keynote Address
Dr. Yonik Meilawati Yustiani
Topic: The Effect of Traffic Density on Ambient SO2
and NO2 Concentration in Cipagalo Settlement
Area, Bandung City, Indonesia
Social Science Keynote Address
Dr. Bob Barrett
Topic: Challenge 2020: Educators United for MICI2
Implementation – The Synergy of the Teaching
Profession
Meeting Room 1, 2F
12:15-13:15 Lunch Time Stones Kitchen, LF
13:15-14:45 Finance/ Economics Meeting Room 2, 2F
16
Friday, July 26, 2019
Oral Session
Time Schedule Venue
08:45-14:00 Registration Pre-Function Area, 2F
09:00-10:30 Humanities and Culture Studies/ Literature and
Linguistics Meeting Room 1, 2F
10:30-10:45 Tea Break & Networking Pre-Function Area, 2F
10:45- 12:15 Education Meeting Room 1, 2F
12:15-13:15 Lunch Time Stones Kitchen, LF
Thursday, July 25, 2019
Poster Session
Time Schedule Venue
13:00-14:00
Electrical & Electronic Engineering/ Chemical
Engineering/ Biomedical Engineering/ Electrical
& Electronic Engineering/ Environmental
Sciences/ Material Science Engineering
Pre-Function Area, 2F
Friday, July 26, 2019
Poster Session
Time Schedule Venue
9:00-10:00 Psychology/ Education/ Fundamental & Applied
Sciences Pre-Function Area, 2F
17
Natural Sciences Keynote Address
Meeting Room 1
10:45-12:15, Thursday, July 25, 2019
Topic: The Effect of Traffic Density on Ambient SO2 and NO2 Concentration
in Cipagalo Settlement Area, Bandung City, Indonesia
Dr. Yonik Meilawati Yustiani
Associate Professor
Department of Environmental Engineering, Pasundan University
Abstract
Air quality in an area can be affected by emissions from traffic activities. This research was
directed to measure the level of ambient SO2 and NO2 concentration, and how much influence
the traffic density had on ambient SO2 and NO2 concentrations in the Cipagalo area, Bandung
City, Indonesia. Sampling was carried out at 2 sampling points which were considered to
represent air conditions in the study area. The method used in this study is CSIRO passive
diffusion. The traffic density calculation is carried out on Jalan Terusan Buah Batu, which passes
in the study area. The results of this study show fluctuations in ambient SO2 and NO2
concentrations for 5 months of monitoring. In addition, the relationship of traffic density to the
concentration of SO2 ambient in the linear regression equation was obtained with a correlation
coefficient of 0.5357 for the range from morning to evening. While for the average measurement
of each month for 5 months of research, the correlation coefficient was 0.4336. The relationship
of traffic density to ambient NO2 concentration in the linear regression equation obtained a
correlation coefficient of 0.6885 for the morning to evening range. While for the average
measurement of each month for 5 months of research, a very strong correlation coefficient was
obtained which was equal to 0.9051.
18
Social Sciences Keynote Address
Meeting Room 1
10:45-12:15, Thursday, July 25, 2019
Topic:
Challenge 2020: Educators United for MICI2 Implementation –
The Synergy of the Teaching Profession
Prof. Bob Barrett
American Public University
Abstract
Time for a change and change happens with educators. We are innovators, creators, change agents,
facilitators, and finally the ultimate teaching resource to help enable, motivate, and support adult learners
who want to make a change not only in their lives – but with others. Yes, adult leaders do not return back
to education just for one purpose only, but for a variety of reasons. As Malcom Knowles (1980) noted
that adults return back to education for a variety of reasons, especially to help better themselves and
others. Therefore, we as educators and leaders need to recognize an urgent need to add more synergy to
the teaching profession and reclaim our rightful spot as the subject-matter experts in the creation,
development, and inspiration of better business, political, strategic, social, and ethical leaders for today
and tomorrow. It is easy to plan for just today’s lesson plan, but can one expect that daily lesson plans
will affect the needed changes for tomorrow? Consequently, we can no longer sit back and expect
learning to just happen, but rather we need to address the current and future challenges, issues, and
expectations of all stakeholders to help serve as an example to all that we care and understand what
“needs to happen” to make a better tomorrow for everyone. We need to become the “New Shepherds of
Educational Change” and show leaders in all of our countries that education can make change happen and
create our new world leaders. Further, we are the leaders, teachers, facilitators, mentors, and coaches of
the future – and we are able, willing, and ready to set the new parameters and design the new strategic
plans for changes to be created, implemented, and evaluated for more change. During this presentation,
the audience will learn more about the MICI2 Model for Change. The MICI2 Models stands for: M –
Motivation, I – Innovation, C – Creativity, and I – Implementation (Phase 2). We can learn from each
other, if we are more open-minded and interact with our international colleagues in terms of academic
discourse, leadership, and scholarship. We are the “Guardians of the Future”. As we all serve many roles
and wear many different hats, we need to keep in mind that our learners look to our guidance and wisdom
to help them formulate and develop their own skills and knowledge. We have the chance to make an
even more historical and memorable change for all learners, but this opportunity lies within each of us
and whether we are up for a good challenge to demonstrate that teachers make learning and change
happen – despite many obstacles, challenges, and issues.
19
Oral Sessions
Civil Engineering/ Environmental Sciences / Fundamental &
Applied Sciences/ Chemical Engineering
Thursday, July 25, 2019 09:00-10:30 Meeting Room 1
Session Chair: Dr. Yonik Meilawati Yustiani
ISEAS-0267
Behavior of Compressed Steel or Glass-Reinforced Plastic Shelled Concrete
Anatoly L. Krishan︱Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University
Evgeniya A. Troshkina︱Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University
Elvira P. Chernyshova︱Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University
Vladislav E. Chernyshov︱Saint-Petersburg Mining University
ISEAS-0268
Deformation Calculation of Flexible Concrete-filled Steel Tube Columns Load-bearing
Capacity
Anatoly L. Krishan︱Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University
Rustam R. Sabirov︱Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University
Elvira P. Chernyshova︱Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University
Vladislav E. Chernyshov︱Saint-Petersburg Mining University
ISEAS-0265
Application of Pulsed Electromagnetic Field and Ganoderma Tsugae in Aging Caused
Sarcopenia
Chia-Yi Tseng︱Chung Yuan Christian University
Jian-We Gao︱Chung Yuan Christian University
Yu-Lun Liu︱Chung Yuan Christian University
Jhih-Hao Yang︱Chung Yuan Christian University
Ming-Wei Chao︱Chung Yuan Christian University
Chiung-Cheng Chuang︱Chung Yuan Christian University
20
ISEAS-0257
Hydraulic Analysis of Automatic Sprinkler System - Take a Shopping Mall as an example
Chen-Wei Chiu︱National Taiwan Police College
Chun-Hsun Chen︱National Chiao Tung University
Wun-Sian Huang︱National Chiao Tung University
ISEAS-0253
Optimal Design for Freshwater Production through Heat Integration of Solar Heated
Membrane Distillation and Fuel Cell System
Yu-Hsin Liu︱National Chung Hsing University
Vincentius Surya Kurnia Adi︱National Chung Hsing University
Shing-Yi Suen︱National Chung Hsing University
21
ISEAS-267
Behavior of Compressed Steel or Glass-Reinforced Plastic Shelled Concrete
Anatoly L. Krishana, Evgeniya A. Troshkina
b, Elvira P. Chernyshova
c,*,
Vladislav E. Chernyshovd
a Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, Magnitogorsk, Russia
E-mail address: [email protected]
b Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, Magnitogorsk, Russia
E-mail address: [email protected]
c Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, Magnitogorsk, Russia
E-mail address: [email protected]
d Saint-Petersburg Mining University, Saint-Petersburg, Russia
E-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract
The goal of this work was to compare the strength, deformability, and destruction of concrete
samples in steel and glass-reinforced plastic shells. To attain the goal, the researchers have
experimental and theoretical studies the strength of laboratory samples of various designs.
Samples had different shells and also differed in the original concrete strength class. Experiments
have revealed the dependency of strength and limit deformability on the original concrete class
and reinforcement ratio; samples in glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) shells were found to have more
brittle destruction. The deformation method is proposed for calculating the strength of shelled
concrete. In general, the analysis of the obtained experimental and theoretical data suggests that
using either steel or GRP shells of similar strength results in the similar improvement in the
strength of similar elements.
Keywords: concrete filled steel tube, glass-reinforced plastic shelled concrete, central
compression, strength, deformability
1. Background / Objectives and Goals
Steel-concrete (CFST) structures and glass-reinforced plastic shelled concrete (СGRP) structures
are quite attractive for practical application in construction. Steel or glass-reinforced plastic shell
in compressed elements simultaneously serves as permanent form and longitudinal and lateral
reinforcement that can significantly improve the strength of the concrete core.
CFST structures have been used in consruction from 1930s. Having numerous positive attributes,
the most important of which is high load-bearing capacity, they are usually used as columns and
22
supports during the construction of high-rise buildings and bridgeworks (Chen, 2008; Han et al.,
2014; Mu et al., 2007; Nishiyama et al., 2002). CGRP structures began to be investigated in
detail relatively recently (Fam and Rizkalla, 2001; De Lorenzis et al., 2002; Mirmiran and
Shahawy, 1997; Nanni and Bradfor, 1995). The main useful properties of glass-reinforced plastic
are high strength, low bulk density and high corrosion resistance. The last property ensures the
considerable advantage of СGRP elements when compared to CFST structures under aggressive
operating conditions. However, GRP shell also has some obvious disadvantages. First of all, it is
more difficult to attach other load-bearing or enclosing structures. Secondly, GRP has relatively
low initial modulus of elasticity and, therefore, is notably less involved in cooperation with
concrete if compared to steel. Besides, the long-term degradation behavior of mechanical
properties of GRP materials, which must be considered during the structural design, is
understudied yet.
At the same time, the construction practice supports significant savings of labor, material and
money resources that can be attained with rational usage of both CFST and СGRP structures. As
a result, they have lately gained a lot more attention. Comprehensive studies which include
strength properties of CFST and СGRP elements are actively carried on up to the present
moment (Berthet et al., 2005; Bhure and Tiwari, 2018; Jayasooriya et al., 2014; Hassanein et al.,
2017; Krishan et al., 2017; Li et al., 2016; Liao et al., 2016; Al-Obaidi et al., 2018; Wang C. et al.,
2018; Ye et al., 2017). Research is mainly carried out on short laboratory samples with circular
cross-section and 100-219 mm diameter. Heavy-weight concretes and external shells of different
strength with compressive strength grade of C25 to C80 were used for preparing the samples.
However, no one conducted any comparative analysis of load resistance and strength properties of
compressed CFST and СGRP structures.
The purpose of the research was to compare the performance of samples with shells of different
materials, different in terms of strength, deformability and fracture pattern. To better understand
the specifics of the operation of these structures, the experimental results are supplemented with
the theoretical calculations done by the authors-proposed method.
2. Methods of Experimental Research
Experimental research of the strength of short centrally compressed laboratory samples was
carried out to achieve the set goal. The samples represented models of CFST and СGRP columns
and had similar geometric parameters. Six series of laboratory samples were prepared and tested.
Every series included 3 twin samples. The series were different in terms of outer shell parameters
and compressive strength grade of initial concrete:
– samples from CS.1.40 and CS.1.80 series had outer shell made of a steel tube manufactured in
Germany, with 112 mm diameter and 1.2 mm wall thickness and were produced from concrete of
23
С40 and С80 strength grades respectively;
– samples from CS.2.40 and CS.2.80 series had outer shell made of a steel electrically welded
tube in accordance with GOST 10704, with 108 mm diameter and 5 mm wall thickness and were
produced from concrete of С40 and С80 strength grades respectively;
– samples from GP.40 and GP.80 series had outer shell made of a glass-reinforced plastic tube in
accordance with TU 2296-001-26757545-2008, with 113 mm diameter and 6.1 mm wall
thickness and were produced from concrete of С40 and С80 strength grades respectively.
Geometric parameters and design features of outer shells of the studied samples are presented in
Table 1. The ASTM Test Method for Apparent Hoop Tensile Strength of Reinforced Plastic Pipe
by Split Disk Method (D2290) was applied for determining Young’s modulus and ultimate
tensile strength of the glass-reinforced plastic tube (Pando et al., 2000).
Outer shell diameter and thickness for samples from different series were selected on the
following basis. The steel tube 112×1.2 had approximately the same weight as the
glass-reinforced plastic tube 113×6.1 at practically equal overall dimensions. The steel tube
108×5 was only slightly different from the glass-reinforced plastic tube in terms of diameter and
wall thickness. Samples produced from tubes 108×5 and 113×6.1 had similar “reinforcement”
ratios ,p pA A where Ap was the cross-section area of the shell and A was the total
cross-section area of the studied sample.
Table 1: Outer shell parameters of laboratory samples
Parameter
Series name
CS.1
.40,
CS.1
.80
CS.2
.40,
CS.2
.80
GP.
40,
GP.
80
Cross-sectional diameter d, mm 112 108 113
Wall thickness t, mm 1.2 5.0 6.1
Young’s modulus at axial compression Epc, hPa 210 205 27.
5
Young’s modulus at circumferential tension Ept, hPa 210 205 23.
0
Yield point or axial tensile strength σyp, МPа 303 265 27
7
24
Yield point or circumferential tensile strength σop, МPа − − 29
8
Specific weight γp, kN/m3
78.5 78.5 18.
4
Initial Poisson’s ratio υpо 0.3 0.3 0.2
1
The laboratory samples had 10 mm thick metallic plates at the side ends, whose position was
fixed with glue-and-cement mortar. The length of all the samples together with the plates was the
same and it was equal to 560 mm.
Heavy-weight concretes were used to produce the samples. Self-stressing concretes of Sp2 grade
in accordance with Russian GOST 32803 were used to improve the strength of the contact
between the concrete core and the outer shell. Expansion modifier Embelit 8-100 (ТU
5870-176-46854090-04) – representing organo-mineral based multicomponent product with
multipurpose effect – was added into the concrete mixture to provide autostressing.
Self-compacting concrete mixtures were used to ensure quality concreting of laboratory samples
without vibration. The required concrete mix consistency was ensured by means of using
polycarboxylate ether-based superplasticizer Sika ViscoCrete 5-600.
Three samples from different series were simultaneously formed from the same batch of concrete
mixture to obtain more objective data when comparing their strength.
The age of the experimental samples at the time of the test was 28 days. Testing was carried out
at a 500 ton hydraulic press by means of short-time compressive load. The laboratory structures
were mounted at the press upright and centered along the physical axis. Short-time compressive
load was transmitted to the entire cross-section of the structures. Articulated joints were accepted
to connect the side ends of the sample with the bedplates of the press. Before testing the samples,
steel bandages were fixed to reinforce near-side end zones where stresses were normally
concentrated.
The deformed state of the laboratory structures was studied by using strain-gauge method.
Strain-gauge sensors with 20 mm base were glued onto the middle part of the sample outer shell.
Strain-gauge sensor arrangement was accepted as vertical (for measuring axial shortening
deformations) and horizontal (for measuring circumferential elongation deformations).
Measurements of the steel shell longitudinal deformations were reproduced by the readings of
mechanical Aistov-type strain-gauges and electronic indicators with 0.001 mm division value.
Overall, the testing method was standard and conformed to the requirements of Russian GOST
8829. The general view of the sample during the test is shown in Figure 1.
25
3. Experimental Results and Discussion
Experimental values of loads corresponding to the elastic behavior limit exp
elN , rupture loads expuN
and ultimate axial shortening deformations expu of the studied samples are presented in Table 2.
All these values are given as arithmetic means for each series. The values of the prism strength of
the initial concrete fc, the relative elastic behavior limit exp exp
el el un N N and the coefficient of outer
shell performance meff are also provided here. Coefficient meff is found as the quotient of dividing
expuN by the maximum load cpN that could be carried by the sample provided that the concrete
and the outer tubular shell are behaving under the conditions of uniaxial compression.
Evident results of the conducted experiments represent clearly traceable relationships between
the strength of the studied samples and the strength grade of initial concrete and the
“reinforcement” percentage p . The strength grade of initial concrete had more influence on the
strength of steel-concrete samples with outer shell made of a tube with dimensions 112×1.2.
With almost double increase in fc the strength of these samples increased by 62%. For
steel-concrete samples with p =17.7% the equivalent increase in strength was 36% and for the
GRP-shelled samples it was 28%. These results should be recognized as regular since in the
samples with low reinforcement percentage the contribution of concrete to taking up the
compressive forces applied by external load is much higher.
The reinforcement percentage also had observable effect on the absolute values of sample
strength. For example, the average strength of the samples from СS2.40 series was 38% higher
when compared to the samples from СS1.40 series.
Fig. 1: Sample from CS.2.40 series during the test
26
Table 2: Main results of laboratory sample testing
Series µp ,
%
fc ,
MPa
exp ,elN
kN
,expuN
kN
nel ,cpN
kN meff
expu ,
%
СS1.40 4.2 42.0 430 700 0.61 507 1.38 0.50
СS1.80 4.2 82.9 725 1133 0.64 893 1.27 0.35
СS2.40 17.7 42.0 570 967 0.59 746 1.30 1.15
СS2.80 17.7 82.9 830 1320 0.63 1054 1.25 0.60
GP.40 20.4 42.0 680 1000 0.68 476 2.10 1.20
GP.80 20.
4
82.
9
900 1283 0.70 802 1.60 0.77
The results of comparing meff coefficients indicate greater confinement effect in the samples from
GP.40 and GP.80 series, where their values are notably higher that those for the steel-concrete
samples. The main reason for that is relatively low (compared to steel) modulus of elasticity of
GRP-shell, which prevents the shell from taking great axial compressive forces under the
conditions of combined action with concrete. However, the shell quite effectively performs as a
confining element that constrains lateral deformations and improves the strength of the concrete
core. Therefore, the exp
u cpN N ratio is always higher when compared to steel-concrete elements
with similar geometric parameters.
The reduction of confinement effect in the studied samples was observed with the increase of
concrete strength. Researchers are aware of this trend (Krishan et al., 2018).
Experiments have shown that СGRP structures have higher relative elastic behavior limit eln . On
average, it is 10% higher than that of the studied steel-concrete samples. This is clearly observed
from the comparison of relationships presented in Figure 2.
27
Fig. 2: Relationships between deformations and the loading level for the samples from different
series
Maximum recorded values of longitudinal deformations expu of the studied samples mainly
depended on the strength grade of initial concrete and the “reinforcement” percentage p . In the
samples from СS1.80 series, produced from the concrete of С80 grade and having p =4.2%, the
average values of such deformations were expu =0.35%, which was approximately 30% higher
than the corresponding deformations of uniaxially compressed concrete. In the samples from
СS2.80 series expu =0.6%, which is 1.7 times greater. The deformability of the samples
increased with the reduction of concrete strength. For instance, the value of deformations expu
in the samples from СS2.40 series reached 1.15%.
The fracture pattern of the studied samples varied. The fracture of all the steel-concrete samples
produced from concrete of С40 strength grade was ductile. The appearance of buckles on the
surface of their steel shell, which were arranged perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
sample, was observed immediately before achieving the limit load. This was preceded by the
process of breaking up of the concrete core located in the buckle formation zone where the
adhesion between the concrete core and the outer shell was deteriorated. After that the concrete
could no longer protect the walls of the steel shell against buckling.
28
The fracture of the samples from CS2.80 series also had ductile pattern (Figure 3, b), which
practically fitted the above description. Such fracture pattern was ensured by the thick steel shell.
In the samples from CS1.80 series the relatively thin shell was unable to maintain sufficient
resistance to the internal stress applied by the high-strength concrete core for as long as the
fracture occured. Brittle concrete fracture accompanied by distinctive sound was observed at this
point. The fracture occured from the shearing of the concrete core parts at an angle of about
30÷35ᵒ to the longitudinal axis of the samples. The steel shell was significantly deformed in the
areas bordering the shear surface (Figure 3, а). Any further increase in load was becoming
impossible.
The fracture pattern of the samples from GP.40 and GP.80 series was also brittle but in this case,
unlike with the steel-concrete samples, the outer shell breakage was observed after the beginning
of the concrete core shearing and slight buckling of the outer shell (Figure 3, c).
a) b) c)
Fig. 3: Fracture pattern of the samples from series: а – СS1.80; b – СS2.80; c – GP.80
The results of the conducted experimental research show that steel and glass-reinforced plastic
shells with similar values of geometric and strength properties allow improving the strength of
the concrete core and the compressed element, as a whole, approximately to the same extent.
However, let us review these results in more detail in order to clarify, which shell is more
effective.
The steel-concrete samples from CS2.40 and CS2.80 series not only have the lowest
reinforcement percentage but also slightly lower strength properties of the shell. Therefore, it can
be suggested that the samples with steel shell, having the same geometric and strength
parameters as the samples with glass-reinforced plastic shell, must have higher load bearing
capacity.
29
The higher relative elastic behavior limit eln should be referred to the advantages of СGRP
structures. At the same time, the values of eln =0.68÷0.70 indicate that under operation loads
such structures behave at the quasi-elastic stage which promotes the increase in their reliability
and durability.
It should be noted that the relative elastic behavior limit is also sufficiently high in the studied
steel-concrete samples. For such structures made of heavy-weight concrete the eln values are
usually in the range from 0.5 to 0.55. In the studied samples eln =0.59÷0.64. In this case the
positive role was played by the self-stressing concrete. It provided transverse pretension of the
steel shell which allowed creating the conditions of volumetric compression for the concrete core
immediately after applying external compressive load to it. This increased the lower limit of
concrete microfracturing and resulted in higher elastic behavior limit of the sample. Even higher
values of eln for СGRP samples were ensured by the Poisson’s ratio υpо=0.21 of their shell
material, which was very close to the corresponding ratio υcо 0.2 of concrete. Due to this reason,
the GRP shell was quickly engaged into action and served as a confining element that
constrained lateral deformations of the concrete core more effectively in comparison to the steel
shell.
By the time of fracture longitudinal deformations of the samples significantly exceeded
deformations of structures behaving under the conditions of uniaxial compression. The notably
higher deformability of the samples from СS2.40 and СS2.80 series in comparison to the
samples from СS1.40 and СS1.80 series is explained by the higher value of p (4.2 times). The
relatively thick outer shell exerted greater lateral stress сr on the concrete core. As a result,
strength and deformability of the concrete core proved to be significantly higher. The established
fact of higher deformability of the samples produced from the concrete of С40 strength grade is
explained by the notably higher value of relative lateral stress cr cf in the limit state of these
samples. This value has direct influence on the deformability of volumetrically compressed
concrete (Krishan et al., 2017).
Deformability of the samples from GP.40 and GP.80 series is only slightly higher when
compared to the samples from СS2.40 and СS2.80 series that have very similar geometric
parameters and are produced from the same (for each grade of concrete) concrete mixtures. Since
the strengths of the samples from GP.40 and СS2.40 series and GP.80 and СS2.80 series are very
close, the most probable reason for slightly smaller deformability of CFST elements is the higher
modulus of steel elasticity.
Overall, the experiments have shown that both CFST and CGRP structures can have very high
compressive strength and high level of axial deformation. The comparison of the obtained
30
experimental data indicate that the use of steel shell allows attaining higher strength of short
centrally compressed elements while the use of GRP shell allows attaining higher elastic
behavior limit.
4. Calculating the Bearing Capacity
There are two approaches to calculating the bearing capacity of CFST and CGRP elements. The
first one is based on the breaking stress method that uses empirical dependencies (Nishiyama et al.,
2002; Fam and Rizkalla, 2001). However, these dependencies are obtained for specific conditions
and have limited applicability. The second approach is based on numerical finite-element analysis
of structures. It is becoming ever more popular thanks to modern software such as ANSYS,
ABAQUS, etc. (Abdelkarim and EIGawady, 2015; Ahmed et al., 2019; Wang and Han, 2018;
Wang, G. et al., 2018). Note that the existing software does not give the user an option to adjust the
lateral-strain coefficients to a growing stress in the materials. These changes would not affect the
stress-strain state of most bearing structures, be it steel, reinforced concrete, wooden structures, etc.
But when using a structures with external shell, it is the ratio between the lateral-strain ratios of
concrete and steel that mainly determines the magnitude of the lateral compression of the concrete
core, on which its strength and bearing capacity of the structure as a whole depends. Gradual
loading increases the lateral-strain coefficients of concrete and steel; continuous changes in their
ratio increase the lateral compression of concrete. Ignoring this crucial specific features of
steel-shelled concrete behavior will inevitably corrupt the calculation results. For instance,
designers usually use strain curves for bulk-compressed concrete in the limit equilibrium of the
structure when running finite-element analyses. The result is an overestimated bearing capacity of
the structure.
We propose using the deformation method to determine the bearing capacity of the structures
under analysis. Aside from finding the bearing capacity, it can be used to estimate the stress-strain
state of structures at various loads. We will briefly show how this method works when used to
calculate the normal-section strength of a short compressed CFST element, see Figure 4.
Geometric and structural characteristics of the element are known. The initial eccentricity 0e of
the compressive force N is assumed to be no less than the random value found as proposed in
(Krishan et al., 2018). The calculation essence is about incrementally increasing the axial
deformation of the most compressed concrete fiber ,maxcz in the normal section of the element by a
small value cz . At each step, the Bernoulli hypothesis is used to construct the deformations plot
so that the internal forces in the section and the external load forces be in equilibrium. To find the
internal forces, divide the normal section into a number of small segments, each having the
concrete area сjА and the steel shell area pkА . The distance from the center of each such segment
to the geometric center of the section is сjZ and pkZ , respectively.
31
The stresses in the concrete core czj and the steel shell pzk are dependent on the corresponding
axial deformations czj and pzk . The deformation diagrams of the concrete core czcz and the
steel shell pz pz are pre-constructed. These curves are obtained by the multipoint method based
on computing the array of numerical data linking the relative strain and stress in the materials of a
short centrally compressed CFST or CGRP element. The method thereby takes into account the
gradual increase in the lateral pressure cr , which is associated with the increasing concrete and
steel stresses, and results from changes in the lateral-strain coefficients. Curve plotting guidelines
and basic dependencies are given in (Krishan et al., 2018).
The transition from the concrete ( czj ) and steel ( pzk ) stress curves to the internal forces is done
by the numerical integration of stresses for all the small segments that the concrete core and the
steel shell are divided into. For short elements, the effect of lateral bending can be neglected. Then
the system of equations to ensure the equilibrium of the normal section is written as follows:
0 zсzj сj сj p k pk pk
j k
N e A Z A Z ; (1)
czj cj pzk pk
j k
N A A . (2)
As soon as the left side equals the right side in the equations (1) and (2), the compressive
external-load force is fixed and then the process of increasing the strain ,maxcz continues. The
calculation procedure continues until reaching the peak compressive force I
uN , see Figure 5.
The elements under consideration can have very significant axial strain. However, excessive
columnar deformation may render the bearing frame of a building unserviceable. The strain
method enables using an additional limit state criterion. For instance, one can specify the
maximum permissible axial strain ,cz u , reach which stops the calculation. In this case, the
estimated bearing capacity II
uN might be somewhat lower than the maximum compressive
strength I
uN , see Figure 5.
32
Fig. 4: (a) Loading scheme; (b) section division;
(c) axial deformations curve
Fig. 5: N–,maxcz dependencies
5. Theory vs Experimental Data
The proposed deformation method was used as the basis for software CFST 3.3, an application
registered with the Russian Agency for Patents and Trademarks (Certificate of Registration No.
2014614664). The software was used to estimate the stress-strain state and the bearing capacity
calculation of compressed CFST and CGRP elements. Table 3 compares the theoretical estimates
against the experimental data (averaged for each series) on the strength and limit axial strain of the
samples. It also specifies the reinforcement ratio µp, the estimated strength of bulk-compressed
concrete th
ccf , as well as the estimated lateral pressure on concrete th
cr . The comparison leads to
a finding that the developed software returns reliable estimates of strength and deformability of the
studied elements. The difference between experimental and theoretical values of strength peaked
at 10%. Differences between similar experimental and theoretical deformation are within
+19%/-21%, which is satisfactory result.
Table 3: Comparison of experimental data with calculation results
Series
µp ,
%
cf ,
MPa
th
cr ,
MPa
th
ccf ,
MPa
th
ccс
c
f
f
,th
uN
kN
exp
u
th
u
N
N
th
u ,
%
exp
u
th
u
СS1.40 4.2 42.0 3.9 72.2 1.72 660 1.06 0.53 0.94
СS1.80 4.2 82.9 3.3 115.1 1.39 1030 1.10 0.44 0.79
СS2.40 17.7 42.0 15.3 117.2 2.79 945 1.02 1.04 1.11
СS2.80 17.7 82.9 9.2 149.1 1.80 1263 1.05 0.61 0.98
GP.40 20.4 42.0 14.9 115.5 2.75 989 1.02 1.02 1.18
GP.80 20.4 82.9 11.6 159.4 1.92 1316 0.97 0.66 1.17
Analysis of the data shows why the laboratory samples had increased strength. Using an external
casing resulted in a lateral pressure of 3.3 to 15.3 MPa, which led to a 1.4x (for CS1.80) to 2.8x
33
(for CS2.40) increase in strength.
6. Conclusions
1. The results of the conducted experimental research show significantly positive influence of
the outer shell on the strength of short centrally compressed CFST and СGRP elements. Besides,
the deformability of the concrete acting together with strong shell is extended considerably
increased.
2. Using either steel or GRP shells of similar strength results in the similar strength of the
compressed elements. Therefore, when choosing the shell material, it is necessary to take into
account other physical and mechanical properties (deformability, weldability, corrosion
resistance, specific weight, etc.), which are especially important for the designed structure.
3. The fracture pattern of СGRP elements produced from concrete of C40 and C80 strength
grades is brittle. The steel shell can ensure ductile fracture pattern even for the structures made of
high-strength concrete.
4. The proposed deformation calculation method returns reliable strength and deformability
values for the compressed elements of the structures under analysis.
7. Acknowledgment
This article was prepared from the results of the implementation of a scientific project within the
state task of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation No.
7.3379.2017/4.6.
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36
ISEAS-268
Deformation Calculation of Flexible Concrete-filled Steel Tube Columns
Load-bearing Capacity
Anatoly L. Krishana, Elvira P. Chernyshova
b, Rustam R. Sabirov
c, Vladislav E.
Chernyshovd
a Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, Magnitogorsk, Russia
E-mail address: [email protected] b Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, Magnitogorsk, Russia
E-mail address: [email protected] c Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, Magnitogorsk, Russia
E-mail address: [email protected] d Saint-Petersburg Mining University, Saint-Petersburg, Russia
E-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract
The paper considers the deformation calculation of the bearing capacity of flexible
concrete-filled steel tube columns (CSTC). The proposed method allows to take into account the
flexibility in strength calculations from common positions and determine possible loss of
stability. The feature of the proposed calculation is the consideration of interdependence between
internal forces and the movements for a compressed rod. The calculation method is implemented
as a computer program. The results of bearing capacity theoretical values comparison with the
published experimental data of various researchers indicate that their coincidence is quite
satisfactory. The maximum discrepancy between the individual results was +22% and -15% at
the variation coefficient of 0.08. There is no need for a formula to determine a critical force in
the practical application of this method.
Keywords: concrete-filled steel tube columns, load-bearing capacity, flexibility, deformation
calculation
1. Introduction
Due to a complex nature of concrete-filled steel tube columns (CSTC) resistance (Fattah, 2012;
Han and An, 2014; Jayasooriya et al., 2014; Krishan and Krishan, 2014; Pattel, 2013; Xiamuxi
and Hasegawa, 2012), they use, as a rule, simplified methods in design practice to calculate their
bearing capacity (AIJ-1997, 1997; ACI-318, 2002; CR 266.1325800.2016, 2016; EN 1994-1-1,
2004; GB 50396-2014, 2014). At that, flexibility is usually taken into account by the coefficient
of longitudinal bending, determined according to empirical relationships (Kikin et al., 1977;
Nishiyama et al., 2002; Pattel, 2013; Tsuda et al., 2000; De Oliveira et al., 2009). However, it
should be remembered that any empirical dependencies have a limited scope. And in the case of
37
CSTC use with other types of concrete (Krishan et al., 2016) or improved versions of an outer
steel shell, these dependencies will be unacceptable.
In this paper they consider the deformation calculation of concrete-filled steel tube column
bearing capacity (CSTC). The main theoretical assumptions are made in accordance with the
generally known provisions of structural mechanics and the theory of reinforced concrete force
resistance.
A rod of a circular cross-section with a constant length, loaded by a compressive force N
applied to the ends with the same initial eccentricity 0e and hinged at its ends is regarded as a
basic case. The deformation scheme of such a rod is shown on Fig. 1.
At that it is known that the transition from a base case to other conditions of rod end fixing is
carried out quite accurately using the factor of the calculated length ( ll 0 ), the values of
which are established in the classical theory of material resistance and are given in the normative
documents.
2. General Information on the Calculation of Compressed Element Bearing Capacity
According to the known positions of structural mechanics, if we apply force N along the axis
that coincides with the physical gravity center of an elastic rod cross-section, the rod will remain
a rectilinear one until the force reaches the value of the critical load crN corresponding to the
moment of stability loss. Only after that the middle part of the rod will receive the corresponding
deflection crf .
However, it is almost impossible to realize the condition of a steel-concrete rod central loading
for known reasons. The operation of real building structures is considerably influenced by
random eccentricities in addition to axial loads, conditioned by inaccurate installation, an initial
curvature of a longitudinal axis, random lateral loads, etc. In this regard, the current design
standards (CR 266.1325800.2016, 2016; EN 1994-1-1, 2004) at the determination of compressed
element load-bearing capacity regulate the need to take into account a random eccentricity ae at
least.
If there is a calculated 0e or accidental aee 0 eccentricity of the longitudinal compressive
force N , a bending moment will appear in any cross section along the length of the rod
,0 yeNM z (1)
where y is the horizontal displacement value of the cross-section in question.
38
Fig. 1: The scheme of a compressed
rod deformation
Fig. 2: The dependence of compressive force
on deflection
With the increase of the bending moment, the strength of a compressed rod normal section
decreases, which must be taken into account during the calculation. On the other hand, the axial
load increase to a critical value in the columns of great flexibility can lead to a very significant
increase of transverse deformations – the loss of stability of the second kind. At the same time,
the strength properties of materials from which the column is made will not be implemented
fully.
The loss of stability of the second kind is characterized by the following main features:
- with the beginning of compressive load growth, the compressed rod receives a longitudinal
bend. At that, it has a uniform curvilinear form of equilibrium, and the numerical parameters of
the deformation curve vary with the load change and in time;
- with a certain transverse deflection, the compressive load reaches a maximum value, after
which its decrease is observed with a further deflection increase (Fig. 2).
Modern advances in solid mechanics make it possible to perform a deformation calculation of
flexible CSTC carrying capacity. Moreover, the solution is possible taking into account the
geometric and physical nonlinearity of a structure. The possibility of such an approach
application was considered earlier (Gvozdev, 1971; Kozachek et al., 1977; Solomin and
Khomyak, 2013), but only for the calculation of uniaxially compressed reinforced concrete
structures.
39
The reason for the exhaustion of a flexible CSTC load-carrying capacity (the achievement of a
normal section strength or the loss of stability of the second kind) is determined according to the
results of performed calculation.
An enlarged algorithm for load-carrying capacity determination of an eccentrically loaded
compressed element can be considered using a specific example. A pipe-shaped column of a
circular cross-section, loaded with a longitudinal force N with initial eccentricity 0e , was
taken for calculation. The column is hingedly supported at the ends. The concrete core of the
column with the strength cf and the cross-section area сA has a longitudinal reinforcement
with the yield point syf , and with the cross-sectional area sA . The cross-sectional area of the
steel pipe is pA , its yield point is pyf , .
The main assumptions that are directly relevant to this study are the following ones:
- the calculation is based on the theory of small displacements;
- the shear deformations are neglected in comparison with the bending deformations of the rod
axis;
- the distribution of deformations along a cross section corresponds to the hypothesis of plane
cross sections.
3. Verification of the Need for Flexibility Consideration
The flexibility of the column is determined for the reduced cross-section. For the base case under
consideration, this flexibility can be approximated by the following formula:
eff
effeff
EI
EAl , (2)
in which l – the estimated length of the rod; effEI , effEA – effective stiffness of the most
loaded reduced section for bending and compression.
It is recommended to calculate the stiffness effEI and effEA in the first approximation by
the following formula:
ssppссeff IEIEIEEI 5,05,0 ; (3)
ssppссeff AEAEAEEA 5,05,0 , (4)
40
where spс III ,, are the moments of a concrete core, a steel shell and a longitudinal
reinforcement inertia; spс EEE ,, the moduli of concrete, steel case and longitudinal
reinforcement elasticity.
Flexibility can have a significant effect on the load capacity of compressed elements when the
condition 0 eff is performed, in which the threshold value of flexibility 0 is calculated by
the following formula
,01,0 00 ueff NEA (5)
where 0uN is the strength of a short, centrally compressed CSTC, defined by following
formula
.0 ssppzccсu AAAfN (6)
The following notations are adopted in the formula (6):
ccf − the strength of a volume-compressed concrete core; pz − the compressive stress along the
direction of the longitudinal axis, which occurs in a steel shell at the time of a column strength
loss; s − the compressive stress in longitudinal reinforcement.
In order to determine the strength of a volume-compressed concrete core ccf and the stress in a
steel shell pz it is recommended to use the formulas obtained in (Krishan et al., 2016):
10
4
2
4
25,01
2
ccc ff ; (7)
,322
c
pcpz
A
Af (8)
where is the relative value of the lateral pressure on the concrete from a steel shell side;
– the constructive coefficient of CSTC.
A relative value of the lateral pressure in the limiting state of CSTC, made of heavy concrete,
can be calculated by the following formula:
8.0144,048,0 e . (9)
The value of the constructive coefficient is calculated by the following formula:
.,
cc
ppy
Af
Af (10)
41
The compressive stress in the longitudinal reinforcement is determined from the condition of its
joint deformation with the concrete core. This takes into account the limitation .,sys f
4. The First Stage of Calculation
The deformation calculation involves the use of material deformation diagrams from which a
column is made in the direction of its longitudinal axis. The accuracy of calculations largely
depends on the reliability of the adopted diagrams. At that, the diagrams contained in the
regulatory documents are not suitable to evaluate the strength resistance of a concrete core and a
steel shell. Volumetric stress-strain state of concrete and steel with the loading level increase is
changing constantly. This fact complicates the construction of the most reliable diagrams of
material deformation significantly. In this regard, the determination of CSTC carrying capacity
should be carried out in two stages.
At the first stage, the numerical development of the concrete core « czcz » and a steel shell «
pzpz » deformation diagram is performed. For this they perform a deformation calculation of
the normal cross section strength for a short, centrally compressed CSTC without the
reinforcement in a concrete core. The calculation is based on the step-iteration method. The
longitudinal deformations of the sample are increased incrementally. At each step the
stress-strain state of the materials is calculated taking into account the joint work of concrete and
steel. The parameters of this state are in significant dependence on the lateral pressure value on
concrete from a steel shell side.
Taking into account the theoretical studies (Krishan et al., 2016), the relative value of lateral
pressure ccr f ( cr – lateral pressure) with a known relative longitudinal deformation of
the concrete core cz is calculated by the following formula
,
2
c
cz
cp
zrp
fKK
d
d
(11)
in which p and zr are the coefficients of transverse deformations of steel and concrete; d
and − the outer diameter and wall thickness of a steel shell; pK and cK − the parametric
functions of a steel shell and a concrete core.
The values pK , cK , and the values of the coefficient p and zr are determined by the
formulas given in (Krishan, 2011).
42
With the known they calculate the coordinates of the curvilinear "current" diagram vertex of
the concrete deformation (Fig. 3). The concrete core of CSTC is regarded as a transversely
isotropic body. The strength (maximum stress) of a volumetrically-compressed concrete
corresponding to the obtained lateral pressure is determined by the formula (7). The relative
deformation of concrete at the maximum compressive stress is calculated by the following
formula
,15,15,111
c
c
cссссс
E
f (12)
where 1c − compressive strain in the concrete at the peak stress cf ; сE − of the initial
modulus of elasticity of pressed concrete; c − coefficient of growth of strength of concrete due
to volume compression ( cccc ff ).
Using the found parameters of the concrete diagram by the formulas obtained in (Krishan et al.,
2016), the elasticity coefficient c is determined and the coefficient of transverse deformation
zr is clarified. Then they find the stress in the concrete cz , corresponding to the accepted
deformation cz , using the equation from the generalized Hook's law
.2 czrczcccz fE (13)
Here and below, the compressive stresses are taken with the plus sign.
It should be noted that in the process of gradual build-up of longitudinal deformations cz the
lateral pressure of concrete does not remain constant. It increases from the values close to zero,
to a certain maximum value, which depends on constructive and geometric parameters of CSTC.
Therefore, the result of this calculation is a set of diagrams « czcz » (see Fig. 3), the number of
which depends on the number of steps for cz deformation increase. Consequently, at each step the
stress сz should be found from the corresponding deformation diagram, developed depending on
the lateral pressure found (see Fig. 3).
A steel shell is represented as an isotropic body. It uses the hypothesis of a single curve by A.A.
Ilyushin (Ilyushin, 1948). According to this hypothesis, the relationship between stresses p and
deformations p , obtained by a uniaxial tension of a steel shell is replaced by a similar
relationship between stress pi and strain pi intensity.
The initial diagram « pp » is recommended to be taken as a tri-linear one according to the
recommendations (CR 266.1325800.2016). However, during the modeling of steel section
operation under the conditions of a complex stress state, it is expedient to replace an initial
deformation diagram by the calculated one in the following generalized parameters
yppipi f and ypppipi fE (Fig. 4). The values of the characteristic point coordinates
43
of the calculated generalized diagram can be taken from Table 1. The comparison of this table
data with the coordinates of the uniaxial tension diagram given in (CR 266.1325800.2016)
testifies that the limit of elastic work el increases during the passing to the relative stress
intensity pi . Thus, for steel grades C390 and higher, an original three-line diagram is upgraded
to a two-line diagram.
Let's note that the stresses and deformations are for the main areas of a steel shell considered points.
This assumption is confirmed by the directions of Chernov-Luders lines, which are manifested in the
course of numerous experiments (Krishan et al., 2014). The slope of these lines to the longitudinal
axis of CFTC was usually about 45°. Consequently, the tangential stresses and shear strains are zero
for the considered longitudinal direction. Taking into account this remark, the stress pz for the
taken value of the longitudinal deformation is calculated according to the following formula
,prppppzpppz E (14)
in which p and pr are the transverse stresses of the circumferential and radial directions.
Fig. 3: The diagrams of a concrete core longitudinal deformation with the incremental growth of
axial deformations
44
Fig. 4: Generalized design diagram of a steel shell
Table 1: Characteristic point coordinates of a steel shell deformation diagram
Diagram
parameter
Classes of steels according to the code of rules SP 16.13330.2011
S245,
S255
S285 S345,
S345К,
S375
S390 S440 S590,
S590К
el 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.90 0.90 0.90
elp 0.92 0.92 0.92 1.00 1.00 1.00
op 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70
yp 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
p2 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 17.0 18.0
Circular p and radial pr stresses can be calculated by the following formulas:
cb
p fd
5,0
; (15)
cpr f 5,0 . (16)
The coefficient of elasticity p is determined according to the accepted steel shell deformation
diagram. The value of transverse deformation coefficient p is calculated depending on the
obtained p according to the formula proposed in (Krishan, 2011).
The longitudinal deformations of a short, centrally compressed CSTC are increased until they
reach the maximum compressive stress perceived by a concrete core and a steel sheath. The
result of this decision is the arrays of numerical data that relate the relative deformations, stresses
45
and concrete and steel elasticity coefficients ciсziсzi and pkpzkpzk . This
data is used during the second stage of calculation.
5. The Second Calculation Stage
During the second stage, an eccentrically loaded compressed element is divided along its length
into n equal segments, at that 6n (Fig. 5). Normal sections at the end of each segment are
divided into small sections conventionally with the areas of concrete ciA and steel pkA shell.
The area of one rod of longitudinal reinforcement is sjA . Then the calculation process is
performed in the following sequence.
Fig. 5: The design scheme of a flexible concrete-filled steel tube column: a – the decomposition
of the compressed rod along the length; b – diagrams of concrete relative deformations in section
2 and 3
First, only one normal cross-section of a rod is considered, in which the maximum bending
moment arises. This cross section is located in the middle of the column height for the articulated
column loaded by a compressive force N with the initial eccentricity 0e . The strain of the most
compressed fiber of the concrete core maxcz is increased stepwise in this section (starting from
zero).
At each step, the relative deformation of the least compressed (stretched) fiber mincz is
determined, corresponding to the conditions of equilibrium cross section. The equilibrium conditions
are written in the form of the following equation system:
46
;0effEAN (17)
,1
0r
EIfeN eff (18)
where N is the longitudinal compressive force corresponding to the accepted deformation
diagram; 0 – a fiber relative deformation located at the gravity center of calculated section; f
– the deflection at the point of maximum bending moment; r
1 the curvature of the
longitudinal axis in the considered cross-section, determined by the following formula
.2
1 minmax
dr
czcz (19)
The stiffness characteristics of the cross section effEA and effEI are found by the following
formulas at this stage of calculation:
;
j
sjssjpk
k
ppkсi
i
сbieff AEAEAEEA (20)
,222 sjsjssjpkpk
k
ppkсiсi
i
ссieff ZAEZAEZAEEI (21)
where sjpkсi ,, – the coefficients of elasticity for the selected sections of a concrete core, a
steel shell and longitudinal reinforcement rods; sjpkсi ZZZ ,, the distances from the center of a
cross section gravity to the geometric center of the i-th section of concrete, the p-th section of the
steel shell and the j-th rod of the longitudinal reinforcement.
The coefficients of elasticity сi and pk are taken according to the results of the first stage
calculations, depending on the corresponding relative deformations of the materials in the middle
of each i-th concrete section and the k-th section of a steel shell. The elasticity coefficient of a
rod reinforcement sj is determined according to the following formula:
,ssj
sjsj
E
(22)
where sj is the relative deformation of a fiber located at the center of gravity of the j-th
reinforcing rod; sj – the stress in a given rod is determined by the following formula
.,syssjsj fE (23)
47
The effect of longitudinal bending is taken into account via the eccentricity of the longitudinal
force increase by the amount of rod deflection f in the calculated section. In the first
approximation, the deflection value is determined depending on the curvature of the calculated
normal section. Taking into account the dependence (19), we can write the following formula
,2
minmax
2
2
d
lf czcz (24)
where l is the estimated length of the considered rod.
An improved deflection value f should be found at each calculation step for a more reliable
calculation of a compressed rod longitudinal bending. This can only be done by adjusting the
stiffness along a rod length.
It is known (Golyshev et al., 1985) that the numerical solution of a rod deflection problem is
analogous to that considered in this paper. The result of this solution is written as the following
formula
,1
231
261
212
15,0
1 max02
2
n
i i rn
ri
rn
lf (25)
where
0
1
r is the curvature of the element on the upper (lower) supports;
ir
1 is the curvature
of the element in the i-th section;
max
1
r is the curvature in the middle of the height; 6n –
an even number of equal segments, into which an element length is divided.
The problem under consideration is solved as follows. The deviations y of the longitudinal axis
of the compressed rod from the vertical are calculated in the sections at the boundaries of each
segment into which an element is divided with the deflection found in the first approximation
according to the following formula
lzfy sin . (26)
Then the distribution of the relative deformations is established for these cross-sections, using
the formulas (17) and (18) and by the replacement of f into y . Moreover, during the
determination of maxcz and mincz for each section, it is necessary to satisfy two conditions:
- the equilibrium of the normal section, i.e. the observance of equalities by the equation (17) and
(18);
- the constancy of the longitudinal force value, which is assumed to be the same as for the mean most
stressed section.
Let's note that the stiffness characteristics effEA and effEI depend on the parameters of the
strain diagram. Therefore, they will be different for each section.
48
After the determination of maxcz and mincz according to the formula (19), the curvatures in
the support and intermediate sections of the rod are found, and by the formula (25) the deflection
f is specified. The process of deflection refinement can be repeated until a predetermined
calculation accuracy is achieved.
They record the value of the compressive longitudinal force N for the assumed value of the
relative strain of the most compressed fiber of the concrete core maxcz of the average
cross-sectional rod and the refined deflection f . Then the strain of the most compressed fiber of
the concrete core maxcz is increased and the whole procedure of calculations is repeated. Thus, the
dependence « fN » is developed (see Fig. 2). The maximum value of the longitudinal force uN ,
perceived by the rod, is taken as the bearing capacity.
6. Discussion
From the point of view of modern concepts of solid mechanics, steel-reinforced concrete
structures refer to nonlinear and non-equilibrium deformable systems. The feature of such
system calculation is the need to refine the values of the existing forces and displacements
consistently, since the internal forces and the rigidity of the structures are interdependent.
The proposed method of CSTC load capacity calculation allows to take into account these
features. At the same time, the higher stiffness of the compressed rod is taken into account at the
sites located closer to its supports. In this regard, it is obvious that the correct implementation of
this method in practice will allow to obtain more reliable calculation results in comparison with
the currently used semi-empirical approach.
Besides, this method makes it possible to perform the calculations of normal cross section and
stability strength from a unified point of view. During the calculation, it is possible to track (in
terms of longitudinal deformation value) the completeness of concrete and steel strength
property use. If the material deformations reach the maximum permissible values, it can be
concluded that the strength of the structures is lost. If this is not observed in the loss of the
load-bearing capacity of the structure, a conclusion can be made about the loss of stability of the
second kind.
The proposed calculation method is implemented in the form of an algorithm and a computer
program. The theoretical values of CSTC load capacity, determined by this program, are
compared with the experimental data of various researchers (Kikin et al., 1977; De Oliveira et al.,
2009; Krishan et al., 2014; Kusyabgaliev, 1980; Marakutsa, 1970; Storozhenko, 1984). The
flexibility of the calculated columns is in the range from 36 to 196.
The obtained results indicate a quite satisfactory agreement between theory and practice. The
maximum discrepancy between the individual results made + 22% and -15% at the variation
coefficient 0.08. It is especially important that the theoretical values of destructive loads are
49
close to the experimental values also for the elements of large diameters, including those made
of high-strength concrete. Therefore, the proposed method can be used in the design of CSTC for
high-rise buildings. Besides, with an appropriate refinement, it can be used to calculate
compressed structures made from different structural materials.
7. Conclusions
Thus, the proposed method for CSTC carrying capacity determination, the algorithm of which is
implemented in the corresponding computer program, allows to solve this problem with a
sufficient accuracy for practical purposes. The versatility of this method should be emphasized
separately. It allows to perform the combined calculation of CSTC strength, taking into account
their flexibility and the calculation of possible stability loss. There is no need for an empirical
formula to determine the critical force proposed by modern design standards for steel-concrete
composite structures in the practical application of the method.
8. Acknowledgments
This article was prepared according to the results of the scientific project within the framework
of RF Ministry of Education and Science state task 7.3379.2017/4.6.
9. References
ACI-318. (2002). Building Code Requirements for Reinforced concrete. ACI, Detroit, MI, USA.
AIJ-1997. (1997). Recommendations for design and construction of concrete filled steel tubular
structures. Architectural Institute of Japan.
CR 266.1325800.2016. (2016). Composite steel and concrete structures. Design rules. Ministry
of Construction, Housing and Utilities of the Russian Federation.
De Oliveira, W. L. A., de Nardin, S. D., & de Cresce El Debs, S. L. H. (2009). Influence of
concrete strength and length/diameter on the axial capacity of CFT columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 65, 2103-2110.
EN 1994-1-1. (2004). Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures. European
Committee for Standardization, Brussels.
Fattah, A. M. (2012). Behavior of concrete columns under various confinement effects
(Dissertation, College of Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas).
GB 50396-2014. (2014). Technical code for concrete filled steel tubular structures. Ministry of
House and Urban-Rural Development of People’s Republic of China.
Golyshev, А. B., Bachinsky, V. Ya., Polishchuk, V. P. et al. (1985). Design of reinforced
concrete structures. Kiev: Budivelnik.
Gvozdev, A. A. (1971). Calculation of reinforced concrete rod structures according to a
deformable scheme. Construction mechanics and the calculation of structures, 4, 25-26.
Han, L. H., & An, Y. H. (2014). Performance of concrete-encased CFST stub columns under
axial compression. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 93, 76-92.
50
Ilyushin, A. A. (1948). Plastic. Moscow: Gostekhizdat.
Jayasooriya, R., Thambiratnam, D. P., & Perera, N. J. (2014). Blast response and safety
evaluation of a composite column for use as key element in structural systems. Engineering
Structures, 61 (1), 31-43.
Kikin, A. I., Trull, V. A., & Sanzharovsky, R. S. (1977). On the Problem of the Concrete-Filled
Steel Pipe Strength. University Bulletin. Construction and Architecture, 6, 3-7.
Kozachek, V. G., Petzold, T. M., & Lapchinsky, A. S. (1977). The calculation of flexible
compressed-bent reinforced concrete racks according to the deformed scheme. Minsk:
Building structures.
Krishan, A.L. (2011). Concrete tubular columns with pre-crushed core. Rostov-on-Don: Rost.
state build. University.
Krishan, A. L., Astafieva, M. A., & Sabirov, R. R. (2016). Calculation and construction of
concrete filled steel tube columns. Saarbrucken, Deutschland: Palmarium Academic
Publishing.
Krishan, A. L., & Krishan, M. A. (2014). Strength of axially loaded concrete-filled steel tubular
columns with circular cross-section. Advances of Environmental Biology, 8 (6), 1991-1994.
Krishan, A. L., Sabirov, R. R., & Surovtsov, M. M. (2014). Studying the Strength of Flexible
Concrete-Filled Steel Pipe Columns. Magnitogorsk: Nosov State Technical University
Publishing House.
Kusyabgaliev, S. G. (1980). The study of some issues of steel pipe bearing capacity filled with
concrete for short-term and long-term loading (Dissertation, LISI, Leningrad).
Marakutsa, V. I. (1970). The strength and the stability of pipe-concrete elements for short-term
and long-term loading (Dissertation, KISI, Kiev).
Nishiyama, I., Morino, S., Sakino, K. et al. (2002). Summary of Research on Concrete-Filled
Structural Steel Tube Column System Carried Out Under The US-JAPAN Cooperative
Research Program on Composite and Hybrid Structures. Japan.
Pattel, V. I. (2013). Nonlinearing Inelastic Analysis of Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular Slender
Beam-Columns (Dissertation, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia).
Solomin, V. I., & Khomyak, V. P. (2013). Stress-strain state and the strength of reinforced
concrete column. Construction mechanics and the calculation of structures, 2, 11-17.
Storozhenko, L. I. (1984). Volumetric stress-strain state of reinforced concrete with indirect
reinforcement (Dissertation, Krivoy Rog).
Tsuda, K., Matsui, C., & Fujinaga, T. (2000). Simplified Design Formula of Slender
Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular Beam-Columns. Proceedings, 6th ASCCS Conference on
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51
ISEAS-265
Application of Pulsed Electromagnetic Field and Ganoderma Tsugae in Aging
Caused Sarcopenia
Chia-Yi Tseng1,3,4
*, Jian-We Gao1, Yu-Lun Liu
1, Jhih-Hao Yang
1, Ming-Wei Chao
2,3,
Chiung-Cheng Chuang1
1Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan;
2Department of Bioscience Technology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan;
3International Master Program of Biomedical Material and Technology,
Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan;
4Center for Nano-Technology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan;
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
Sarcopenia is a disease of skeletal muscle loss, in general, the body's muscle mass after the age
of 30, each year will be reduced by 1 to 2 percent. The prevalence of sarcopenia increased with
age, with about 10% of the 60-70 years of age suffering from sarcopenia, while the prevalence
rate was as high as 30% for older persons over 80 years of age. Among which the development
of healthy food and physical therapy is the most popular: Ganoderma tsugae is quite common for
health food, and it contains, such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, adenosine, small molecular
proteins. The leading utility of Ganoderma tsugae is anticancer, regulation of blood sugar,
antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral and liver protection. The conventional and widely used
physical treatment is the pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMF), which is a pulsating
electromagnetic field. Low-frequency electromagnetic radiation quickly penetrates through the
skin the reaches deep tissue, which activates the target cells and promotes the repair mechanism
of the cells. It has been widely used in the treatment of fractures, muscle pain, and other diseases.
Therefore, we assess whether Ganoderma tsugae and PEMF can prevent and slow down the
sarcopenia caused by aging.
2. Methods
D-galactose (100 mg/kg/day) is used to induce aging. Ganoderma tsugae is given orally or/and
PEMF is adopted in aging rats. The evaluation of muscle strength is done by behavioral testing
(rearing count, tight rope, open field test) and electromyography.
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
The results show that both Ganoderma tsugae and PEMF can inhibit the occurrence of
sarcopenia by increasing the standing time in rearing count and the period on the tight rope,
slightly increase the frequency of locomotion in the open field test and improvement in the
52
performance of electromyography. Furthermore, it shows a degree of summation positive effect
for Ganoderma tsugae and PEMF. Ultimately, this study provides a healthy and effective
treatment for the aging-induced sarcopenia in order to benefit the quality of life of the elderly.
Keyword: sarcopenia, aging, Ganoderma tsugae, pulsed electromagnetic field
53
ISEAS-257
Hydraulic Analysis of Automatic Sprinkler System - Take a Shopping Mall as
an Example
Chen-Wei Chiu1, Wun-Sian Huang
2, Chun-Hsun Chen
3
Abstract
In Taiwan, shopping malls’s commodities have become diversified, the fire load（in shopping malls）
is high. It is difficult for people to rescue and escape from fire if a fire occurs. The automatic
sprinkler system plays a key role in fire protection in large shopping malls.
Specifications of Taiwan’s automatic sprinkler system mainly originated from Japan, the design
process, calculating formula as well as parameters were different from those of the USA during the
design stage. Nowadays, hydraulic calculation by computer software is adopted by most countries of
the world. Calculations and designs are produced through the simulation software developed by
engineering theories. However, hand calculation is still used in Taiwan, which is quite different from
that of Europe and the USA.
Taken shopping malls as an example, the application of the KYPIPE computer hydraulic calculation
software and the results of hand calculations are simulated and compared. From the calculation
results of this study, the minimum energy requirement by Taiwan’s hand calculation is equivalent to
that of hydraulic calculation software simulation. In addition, the minimum demand calculated by
hydraulic calculation through computer software simulation is lower than by hand calculation. The
calculated hydraulic performance of the pump in the US hydraulic calculation method is more
stringent than that of the hydraulic calculation software.
In this study, the comparison of the treed pipe, the grid pipe, and the loop pipe would be
conducted. Under the same conditions of pump setting, sprinkler spacing and pipe, in terms of
water release or radiation pressure the performance of water supply of grid pipe is optimum,
followed by loop pipe. Treed pipe is the weakest, which resulted in the incensement of delivered
density. If the same sprinkler spacing and delivered density is maintained, the grid pipe and the
loop pipe could be used to pump with smaller specifications.
Keyword：Automatic Sprinkler System, Hydraulic Analysis, Comparison of Standard
1 Professor; Department of Fire Safety, Taiwan Police College; [email protected]
2 Industrial Safety and Risk Management Program, National Chiao Tung University; [email protected]
3 Senior Vice President; National Chiao Tung University; [email protected]
54
Glossary of symbols
Symbol Name Unit Notes
H(h) Hydraulic head m or ft
d (dj) (D) Pipe diameter mm, cm or in
ℓ Pipe length m or ft
𝑓 Darcy friction factor (non-dimensional
coefficient)
𝑔 Gravitational acceleration m/sec2 or ft/sec
2
𝑣 Flow velocity m/sec or ft/sec
휀 Relative roughness ft or mm Colebrook equation
𝑅𝑒 Reynolds number (non-dimensional
coefficient) Colebrook equation
k Conversion coefficient m1/3
/s Manning-Strickler
formula
n Manning's coefficient (non-dimensional
coefficient)
Manning-Strickler
formula
Rh Hydraulic radius M Manning-Strickler
formula
S Slope of hydraulic grade line or
linear hydraulic head loss L/L
Manning-Strickler
formula
i Pressure loss per unit length of a
pipe MPa/m Sheveliev formula
p Loss of hydraulic head per meter
(inch) bar/m or bf/in
Hazen-Williams
formula
Q Flow rate L/min, L/s, m3/min
C Pipe friction loss coefficient (non-dimensional
coefficient)
Hazen-Williams
formula
L Total length of straight pipes m Hazen-Williams
formula (Taiwan)
L′ Total length of nipples, values,
and other equivalent pipes m
Hazen-Williams
formula (Taiwan)
P Pressure Mpa or kgf/cm2
K Flow rate constant of sprinkler
head gpm/psi
1/2、L/min/bar1/2
55
Symbol Name Unit Notes
D Delivered density L/min・m2
Ad Hypothetical area of sprinkler
operation m
2 or ft
2
R Sprinkler head spacing m or ft
As Area of sprinkler operation of a
single sprinkler head m
2 or ft
2
L Length of hypothetical area of
sprinkler operation m or ft
W Width of hypothetical area of
sprinkler operation m or ft
N Number of discharging sprinkler
heads -
1. Introduction
1.1 Research motivation
Automatic sprinkler systems function to lower temperature levels and to limit and extinguish
fires, and are recognized as reliable fire extinguishing devices by firefighting authorities and
insurance industries around the world4.
Taiwan's sprinkler regulations are based on those of Japan. These regulations differ from those
found in the US and European countries, where fire regulations for designing automatic
sprinklers mostly call for the use of hydraulic calculations and computer simulations, such that
designers can obtain simulation results in advance and utilize them during the planning process
for firefighting equipment. In addition, the calculation methods found in Taiwan's regulations
cover only tree pipe configurations. Thus, it is hoped that a comparison of the differences
between the designs of sprinkler systems in the US and Taiwan will help provide more options
with respect to the design of firefighting equipment4.
1.2. Research objectives
Hydraulic calculations of automatic sprinklers were performed through software simulations in
order to achieve the following objectives:
(1) Exploration of pipe configurations for automatic sprinklers, with the hydraulic
4 Tsung-Chieh Chen, A comparison of the grid and tree pipe configurations for automatic sprinkler systems, NAFE
Fire Technology Special Issue, National Association of Fire Protection Engineer R.O.C., 2015.
56
calculation software being used to compare and verify the differences between various
pipe configurations.
(2) Simulation comparisons of the differences between the US and Taiwan's automatic
sprinkler designs, so as to facilitate future designs.
(3) Reconciliation of the US and Taiwan's regulations, such that Taiwan's firefighting
authorities can refer to this study for recommendations on the revisions required in the
future.
1.3. Research scope and limitations
(1) Research scope
This study examined a closed, wet-pipe automatic sprinkler system that was installed in a
single-purpose shopping mall. The system's sprinkler pump was located two floors underground
and its pipes reached the fourth floor.
Figure 1 Floor plan for the tree pipe configuration on the fourth floor
(2) Research limitations
This study did not consider the effects of smoke control systems or other firefighting
equipment.
This study only examined square-based sprinkler head configurations.
This study did not consider how the position of fire sources and the magnitude of
fire loads affect the discharge of water by automatic sprinklers.
This study did not consider fires involving two or more fire zones, or fires caused by
arson.
2. Literature review
2.1. Automatic sprinkler system design principles used in various countries
(1) Taiwan's automatic sprinkler system design principles
Designs in Taiwan conform primarily to the Installation Standards of Fire Protection
57
Equipment and the Approval Directions for Close Sprinkler Head5.
(2) NFPA's automatic sprinkler system design principles
The NFPA13: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems 2013 is an important set of
regulations in the US. In Taiwan, special facilities such as high-tech factories, power plants,
and petrochemical plants often comply not only with the relevant fire regulations in Taiwan,
but also other regulations such as the FM Guide and NFPA regulations.
2.2. Formula for calculating pipe friction loss
In a piping system, the surface friction loss of a straight pipe is referred to as major loss, while
the friction loss of a non-straight pipe is referred to as minor loss. The formula for calculating
approximate hydraulic power is shown in the table below6,7,8,9, but given the inconsistencies with
regard to the experimental data, theories, steps, and design parameters that were used, the
hydraulic power results were different. In particular, the material quality of the pipes had a major
impact on their friction loss. In Taiwan, hydraulic power is obtained by performing conversions
using galvanized iron pipes with a C value of 120.
2.3. Automatic sprinkler system pipe configuration model
NFPA 13 categorizes the pipe configurations of automatic sprinkler systems into three types,
namely the tree, loop, and grid pipe configurations10. In contrast, the different types of pipe
configurations are not clearly defined in Taiwan.
(1) Tree pipe configuration model
Figure 2 Tree pipe configuration Source: NFPA13
(2) Grid pipe configuration model
5 National Fire Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Approval Directions for Close Sprinkler Heads, 2017
6 Jung-Tai Chang, Calculation of water resistance in pipes (1) & (2), Chinese Water, Electrical, Refrigeration and
Air-Conditioning Monthly, 2006 7 Manning, Francis S.; Thompson, Richard E. Oilfield Processing of Petroleum. Vol. 1: Natural Gas. PennWell Books,
1991 8 People's Republic of China, Design specifications for automatic sprinkler systems GB50084-2001, 2001.
9 National Fire Protection Association, NFPA13 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, 2016
10 National Fire Protection Association, NFPA13 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems 2016
58
Figure 3 Grid pipe configuration model Source: NFPA13
In a grid pipe configuration model, the main pipes are connected to each other and water can
flow from all four directions. Assuming that the pipe diameter and water pressure do not change,
this configuration's water supply capacity is 1.5 to 2 times that of the tree pipe configuration11.
An automatic sprinkler system provides a more reliable form of fire protection for buildings. In
the event of a fire, this system enables functions such as fire suppression, fire extinguishment,
exposure protection, and fire control12:
The ability of a sprinkler system to extinguish fires quickly is generally assessed using three
parameters13, namely the response time index (RTI), actual delivered density (ADD), and
required delivered density (RDD). With regard to ADD, the factors that affect it are as follows14:
the heat release rate, sprinkler head K value, discharge pressure, number of heads activated
during initial discharge, area of sprinkler operation, and configuration type
This study examined discharge pressure, the number of discharging sprinkler heads, and the area
of sprinkler operation to determine whether the design-related regulations of various countries
allow them to achieve their respective legally required targets for delivered density and delivery
performance. The differences between these countries in terms of the designs they use were also
explored. Furthermore, the application of various pipe configuration models in the designs was
also examined.
3. Research design and method
3.1. KYPIPE15
hydraulic calculation software
The Pipe 2018 version of the KYPIPE software was used in this study. A KYPIPE pipe network
system is formed primarily from basic line and node elements. Through the application of
various hydraulic analysis systems (such as required capacity and available capacity), a
11
Tung-Lin Lee, The study of piping layout for fire protection automatic sprinkler system, Department of Civil Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, 2005 12
Wen-Hsing Lin, Kun-Tseng Lin, Water and Chemical System Fire Safety Equipment Third Edition, Tingmao Publishing, 2016 13
Puchovsky,Milosh T., Automatic Sprinkler System Handbook, Seventh Edition. 14
Carey., William, Early Suppression Fast Response Sprinklers - A New Technology, LabData, 1985. 15
Cheng-Hsiung Wang, Application of performance regulations for automatic sprinkler equipment - A study of pipe configurations and hydraulic calculation for CPVC pipes, Fire Science Research Institute, Central Police University, 2001
59
comparison of delivery performance, required pumping capacity, and other parameters can be
carried out.
3.2 Calculation of design parameters
Under NFPA's hydraulic calculation method, the minimum discharge pressure for a sprinkler
head is 7 psi (0.5 kgf/cm2), and the volume delivered by a single sprinkler head can be
determined using the area vs. delivered density curve as shown below. The shopping mall is an
Ordinary 2 building, hence its minimum delivered density is 0.2gpm/ft2. It is also assumed that
its area of sprinkler operation is 1500 ft2. Based on the NFPA13, the maximum area of sprinkler
operation and spacing for a single sprinkler head are 12.1 m2 (130ft2) and 4.6 m (15ft),
respectively.
Figure 4 Relationship between fire hazard classification and density/area of buildings under
NFPA 13 hydraulic calculation method Source: NFPA13
Taiwan's regulations do not cover the delivered density and maximum area of sprinkler operation,
but instead require for the number of activated sprinkler heads to be calculated directly. A square
configuration, with a maximum horizontal distance of 2.6 m between any point and the sprinkler
head, was used in the calculations. The estimated maximum spacing for the sprinkler heads was
√2R=3.68m; the estimated maximum area of sprinkler operation for a single sprinkler head was
2R2=13.52m2; the estimated minimum delivered density was 80 (L/min)/13.52 (m2)=5.92 (L/min
・m2); and the hypothetical area of sprinkler operation was 13.52 (m2)✕12 sprinkler heads＝
162.24 (m2)
The following table compares Taiwan's regulations with the NFPA's by presenting the relevant
design parameters:
60
Table 1 Country-specific design parameters for shopping malls
Regulated item Taiwan
US - Hydraulic
calculation
method
Risk rating Class A4 Ordinary 2
Sprinkler head’s minimum discharge volume
(L/min) 80
Sprinkler head’s minimum delivery pressure
(kgf/cm2)
1 0.5 (7psi)
Minimum delivered density (L/min・m2) 5.92 8.1 (0.2gpm/ft
2)
System pump discharge volume (L/min) 1080
Hypothetical area of sprinkler operation (m2) 162.24 (12 sprinkler heads) 139 (1500ft
2)
Sprinkler head’s maximum area of sprinkler
operation (m2)
13.52 12.1 (130ft2)
Sprinkler spacing in maximum area of sprinkler
operation (m) 3.68 4.6 (15ft)
Source: The table was compiled for this study.
3.3 Research model settings
The C value of the pipes in this study was set to 120. The K value of the sprinkler heads that
were used was 80 L/min/bar1/2 (5.6gpm/psi1/2) and set to 0.1333L/second /KPa1/2 in the
KYPIPE software. The sprinklers' height was 27.7m.
Figure 5 Tree model (for the shopping mall) built using the hydraulic calculation software
Source: Built for this study using KYPIPE
61
Figure 6 Loop model (for the shopping mall) built using the hydraulic calculation software
Source: Built for this study using KYPIPE
Figure 7 Grid model (for the shopping mall) built using the hydraulic calculation software
Source: Built for this study using KYPIPE
4. Results and Discussions
4.1. Taiwan-US comparison using manual calculation models
The calculation results produced under minimum design requirement conditions and Taiwanese
and US regulations were compared. The items compared were the number of discharging
sprinkler heads, delivery volume and discharge pressure of the sprinkler head at the furthest end,
and the pump's delivered volume and hydraulic head. The hydraulic calculations were as
follows:
4.1.1 Scenario 1: Manual calculation under Taiwanese regulations
(1) Pipe friction loss = 5.59m (see Appendix 1)
(2) Total loss (pipe friction loss and flow detection devices) 𝐻1 = ∑ 𝐻𝑛 + 5𝑁𝑛=1 =
10.59m
(3) Required hydraulic head for pump: H=H1+H2+10m=10.59+27.7+10=48.3m
(4) Required discharge volume for pump: Ｑ=90 L/min × 12 = 1080 L/min
4.1.2 Scenario 2 – Manual calculation under NFPA regulations
62
(1) Delivered density D = 0.2 gpm/ft2=8.1 Lpm/m2
(2) K value of sprinkler head = 5.6 gpm/psi1/2=80 L/min/bar1/2
(3) Minimum hypothetical area of sprinkler operation Ad min = 1500 ft2 = 139 m2
(4) C value of pipe = 120
(5) Maximum spacing for area of sprinkler operation (single sprinkler head) Rmax = 15 ft =
4.6 m
(6) Discharge area of a single sprinkler head As = 130 ft2 = 12.1 m2
(7) Length of hypothetical area of sprinkler operation L = 1.2（Ad）1/246.4ft (set as 47 ft
for calculations)
(8) Width of hypothetical area of sprinkler operation W = 1500/47 = 31.9 (set as 32 ft
for calculations)
(9) Hypothetical area of sprinkler operation Ad = 47x32 = 1504 ft2 = 139.7 m2
(10) Number of discharging sprinkler heads Ｎ=Ad/As=1504/130=11.5 (set as 12 for
calculations)
(11) Number of sprinkler heads needed for branch pipes =47/9.84=4.7 (set as 5 for
calculations)
(12) Hydraulic calculation for pipe friction loss (see Appendix 2）
Pipe friction loss 45.1psi=3.1kgf/cm2
Delivery pressure at furthest end 21.6psi=1.489kgf/cm2
(13) Required hydraulic head for pump: H=H1+H2+10m=31+27.7+14.89=73.59m
(14) Required discharge volume for pump: Ｑ=345.74gpm=1522.94 L/min
4.2. Taiwan-US comparison using hydraulic calculation software
The pump values were set according to the manually calculated results and entered into the
hydraulic calculation software. The Taiwan-related parameters were based on the Standards for
Fire Pump Pressurized Water Supply Devices and Calculation of Pipe Friction Loss, which
requires the total hydraulic head to reach 100% to 110% of the rated hydraulic head when the
discharge volume is at the rated level. When the discharge volume is at 150% of the rated level,
the total hydraulic head should reach at least 65% of the level achieved when the discharge
volume is at the rated level. When the discharge volume is at 0, the total hydraulic head should
be no more than 140% of the total hydraulic head, as indicated on the performance curve.
Table 2 Country-specific parameters used by hydraulic calculation software
Scenario 3 - Taiwan Scenario 4 - US hydraulic
calculation method
C value of pipe 120
K value of sprinkler head (L/min/bar1/2
) 80 （Constant=0.133）
Sprinkler height (m) 27.7
63
Hydraulic calculation formula Hazen Willams
Minimum deliver density (L/s・m2) 0.0987 0.135
Maximum area of sprinkler operation
and spacing for a single sprinkler head (m
2)
13.52 12.1
Maximum sprinkler head spacing (m) 3.68 4.6
Maximum branch pipe spacing (m) 3.68 4.6
Hypothetical area of sprinkler operation (m
2)
162.24 139
Length-to-width ratio of hypothetical
area of sprinkler operation 1.2
Pump settings
(Unit for flow rate: L/s)
(Unit for hydraulic head: m)
Hydraulic head Flow rate Hydraulic head Flow rate
67.6 0 88.3 0
48.3 18 73.59 25.383
31.4 27 47.83 38.074
Figure 8 Simulation of sprinkler heads activation using the hydraulic calculation software
(Source: Image from KYPIPE)
4.3. Scenario 3 - Hydraulic calculation software simulation using manually calculated results
under Taiwanese regulations (Scenario 1 results)
(1) Simulated activation of 12 sprinkler heads
64
Table 3 Scenario 3 results for simulated activation of 12 sprinkler heads
Sprinkler head no. Delivery pressure Discharge volume
(KPa) (kgf/cm2) (L/s) (L/min)
S-8 114.27 1.17 1.45 87
S-9 102.77 1.05 1.38 82.8
S-10 103.32 1.05 1.38 82.8
S-11 114.87 1.17 1.46 87.6
S-18 114.35 1.17 1.45 87
S-19 102.85 1.05 1.38 82.8
S-20 114.49 1.17 1.45 87
S-22 102.97 1.05 1.38 82.8
S-29 138.32 1.41 1.6 96
S-30 139.04 1.42 1.6 96
S-39 139.27 1.42 1.6 96
S-40 139.76 1.43 1.61 96.6
Pump output 477.7 4.87 17.75 1064.4
(2) Simulated activation of sprinkler head at the furthest end (S9)
Table 4 Scenario 3 results for simulated activation of a single sprinkler head
Sprinkler head no. Delivery pressure Discharge volume
(KPa) (kgf/cm2) (L/s) (KPa)
S-9 307.93 3.14 2.39 143.4
Pump output 654.7 6.68 2.39 143.4
4.4. Scenario 4 Hydraulic calculation software simulation using manually calculated results
under NFPA regulations (Scenario 2 results)
(1) Simulated activation of 12 sprinkler heads
Table 5 Scenario 4 results for simulated activation of 12 sprinkler heads
Sprinkler head no. Delivery pressure Discharge volume
(KPa) (kgf/cm2) (L/s) (KPa)
S-9 288.96 2.95 2.31 138.6
S-10 289.46 2.95 2.31 138.6
S-19 289.03 2.95 2.31 138.6
S-22 289.14 2.95 2.31 138.6
S-28 240.17 2.45 2.11 126.6
65
Sprinkler head no. Delivery pressure Discharge volume
(KPa) (kgf/cm2) (L/s) (KPa)
S-29 216.96 2.21 2 120
S-30 218.74 2.23 2.01 120.6
S-31 242.13 2.47 2.12 127.2
S-39 290.44 2.96 2.32 139.2
S-40 291.14 2.97 2.32 139.2
S-48 292.9 2.99 2.33 139.8
S-55 295.57 3.01 2.34 140.4
Pump output 701 7.15 26.78 1606.8
(2) Simulated activation of sprinkler head at the furthest end (S9)
Table 6 Scenario 4 results for simulated activation of a single sprinkler head
Sprinkler head no. Delivery pressure Discharge volume
(KPa) (kgf/cm2) (L/s) (L/min)
S-9 479.35 4.89 2.98 178.8
Pump output 865.3 8.82 2.98 178.8
4.5. Taiwan-US comparison using manual calculation models
This section compares the manually calculated results (Scenarios 1 and 2) produced under the
minimum design requirement conditions and Taiwanese and US regulations. The items compared
were the number of discharging sprinklers, the delivery volume and discharge pressure of the
sprinkler head at the furthest end, and the pump's delivered volume and hydraulic head. The
calculation results are as follows:
Table 7 Comparison of results for Scenarios 1 and 2
Scenario 1 Scenario 2
Taiwan US hydraulic calculation
Number of discharging sprinkler heads 12 12
Discharge pressure at the furthest end
(kgf/cm2) 1 1.489
Delivery volume of the sprinkler head at
the furthest end (L/min) 80 98.42
Rated discharge volume of the pump
(L/min) 1080 1522.94
Rated hydraulic head of the pump (m) 48.3 73.59
(1) Number of discharging sprinkler heads
Under Taiwanese regulations, the number of sprinkler heads is determined by the
response time of the sprinkler heads being used (quick response or general response types)
66
and the classification of the site in question, and only eight options are provided (8, 10,
12, 15, 16, 20, 24, or 30 sprinkler heads). Under the NFPA 13 hydraulic calculation
method, designs can be developed by referring to a density-area chart and selecting the
appropriate hypothetical area of sprinkler operation and corresponding delivered density.
(2) Discharge pressure at the furthest end
For Scenario 1, the discharge pressure at the furthest end was assumed to be constant, in
which case the discharge pressure of the sprinkler head had to be set between 1 kgf/cm2
and 10kgf/cm2, as required by Taiwan's Installation Standards of Fire Protection
Equipment.
In Scenario 2, the NFPA 13 hydraulic calculation method determines the delivered
density by determining the appropriate curve on the density-area chart based on the fire
hazard classification of the site in question. Since a hypothetical area of sprinkler
operation corresponds to different delivered densities, the number of combinations is
infinite. While Taiwanese regulations do not provide designers with as much freedom,
they are simpler and easier to understand.
(3) Delivery volume of the sprinkler head at the furthest end
The delivery volume of the sprinkler head at the furthest end was determined by the
discharge pressure and K value of the sprinkler head. Under Taiwanese regulations, the
discharge pressure at the furthest end is set to 1 kgf/cm2 in most designs, implying a
delivered volume of 80 L/min. The Installation Standards of Fire Protection Equipment
also clearly state that the delivered volume must be 80L/min or higher and do not
incorporate the concept of K values, which prevents designers from altering the delivery
pressure and flow rate in their designs.
(4) Rated discharge volume of the pump
In Scenario 1, and under the Taiwanese regulations, the discharge volume was
determined by multiplying the number of discharging sprinkler heads by 90L/min,
meaning that only eight different sets of results could be obtained. If the discharge
volume for Scenario 1 is 1080 L/min (the effect of discharge pressure and K value are not
considered), and the delivered volume is 80L/min (1kgf/cm2), then directly increasing
said volume to 90L/min for the hydraulic calculations would go against the principles of
hydraulic engineering. Under Scenario 2 and the NFPA 13 hydraulic calculation method,
the flow rate of each sprinkler head was calculated using Q=K√P.
(5) Rated hydraulic head of the pump
In Scenario 1, and under the Taiwanese regulations, the calculation of the pressurized
water supply device’s total hydraulic head was carried out by directly adding 10m (1
kgf/cm2). If a design follows this approach, the pump’s performance may become
inadequate when the discharge pressure strays from 1 kgf/cm2.
67
5. Conclusion
The following conclusions were formed based on the comparisons of the different sprinkler
models:
5.1. Taiwan-US comparison using manual calculation models
(1) Delivered density and hypothetical area of sprinkler operation
The delivered density and hypothetical area of sprinkler operation are important
indicators in determining the effectiveness of fire extinguishment and control, and when
compared to the US, the Taiwanese standards for settings are simpler. Under Taiwanese
regulations, the hypothetical area of sprinkler operation is directly determined using the
number of discharging sprinkler heads and the spacing between sprinkler heads. From the
perspective of design practicality, this approach lacks flexibility and makes it difficult to
factor site purpose and hazard classification into the planning and determination of
delivered density.
(2) Sprinkler head discharge pressure and delivery volume
The sprinkler head discharge pressure and delivery volume are not important indicators
under US standards for hydraulic calculation and design. Instead, designs are developed
based on delivered density, the area of sprinkler operation of a single sprinkler head, the
K value of sprinkler heads, and the hypothetical area of sprinkler operation.
(3) Calculation method
Under NFPA 13's hydraulic calculation method, the delivery volume of the sprinkler head
at the furthest end is determined by the discharge pressure and K value of sprinkler heads.
In comparison, Taiwan's calculation method is simpler and more loosely defined.
5.2. Taiwan-US comparison using hydraulic calculation software
(1) In terms of pump output pressure and discharge volume, the manually calculated results
under Taiwanese regulations were comparable to the minimum demands determined by
the hydraulic calculation software, indicating that the manual calculations performed
under Taiwanese regulations were able to meet the legal requirements for basic values.
When the calculation of delivery volume was performed in accordance with legal
requirements, 90L/min was used in the hydraulic calculations. Even though the effects
of sprinkler head delivery pressure and K value on flow rate were not considered,
which goes against the principles of hydraulic engineering, it was still possible to use
the legal requirement of 90L/min as a basis for the examined scenarios' hydraulic
calculations.
(2) With respect to the US hydraulic calculation method, the manually calculated results for
the rated discharge volume and rated pressure of pumps under Scenario 2 were higher
than the minimum legally required capacity in the hydraulic calculation software
simulation, indicating that the manually calculated results for the rated performance
values of pumps were more stringent than the hydraulic calculation software
simulation results.
5.3. Comparison of pipe configuration models with respect to Taiwan
68
(1) When pump settings, sprinkler head spacing, and pipe diameter remain constant:
In terms of water supply performance (such as delivery volume and discharge pressure),
the grid pipe configuration achieved the best results, followed by the loop and tree pipe
configurations. Although both the grid and loop pipe configurations increased delivered
density, they also led to an increase in pump output that exceeded the rated operational
values.
(2) When sprinkler head spacing and deliver density remain constant:
The tree pipe configuration required the highest hydraulic head and discharge volume for
its pump, followed by the loop pipe configuration and grid pipe configuration. In other
words, under these conditions, the grid and loop pipe configurations allow for the use of
pumps with lower specifications.
(3) The discharge pressure standard deviation results show that the grid pipe configuration’s
delivery pressure was the most consistent, while the tree pipe configuration’s results
were the most dispersed. As for delivery volume, the loop pipe configuration produced
the most concentrated results, while the tree pipe configuration’s results were, again,
the most dispersed.
Reference
Tsung-Chieh Chen, A comparison of the grid and tree pipe configurations for automatic sprinkler
systems, NAFE Fire Technology Special Issue, National Association of Fire Protection
Engineer R.O.C., 2015.
National Fire Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Approval Directions for Close Sprinkler Heads,
2017
Kuo-Pao Tsai, A Study of Hydraulic Calculations for Automatic Sprinkler Systems, Central
Police University, 2000
Jung-Tai Chang, Calculation of water resistance in pipes (1) & (2), Chinese Water, Electrical,
Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Monthly, 2006
Manning, Francis S.; Thompson, Richard E. Oilfield Processing of Petroleum. Vol. 1: Natural
Gas. PennWell Books, 1991
People's Republic of China, Design specifications for automatic sprinkler systems
GB50084-2001, 2001.
National Fire Protection Association, NFPA13 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems,
2016
Tung-Lin Lee, The study of piping layout for fire protection automatic sprinkler system,
Department of Civil Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, 2005
Wen-Hsing Lin, Kun-Tseng Lin, Water and Chemical System Fire Safety Equipment Third
Edition, Tingmao Publishing, 2016
Puchovsky,Milosh T., Automatic Sprinkler System Handbook, Seventh Edition.
Carey., William, Early Suppression Fast Response Sprinklers - A New Technology, LabData,
1985.
Cheng-Hsiung Wang, Application of performance regulations for automatic sprinkler equipment
- A study of pipe configurations and hydraulic calculation for CPVC pipes, Fire Science
Research Institute, Central Police University, 2001
69
ISEAS-253
Optimal Design for Freshwater Production through Heat Integration of Solar
Heated Membrane Distillation and Fuel Cell System
Yu-Hsin Liu, Vincentius Surya Kurnia Adi and Shing-Yi Suen Department of Chemical Engineering
National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
Background/ Objectives and Goals
In this study, the heat integration feasibility of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
coupled with solar heated direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) module is addressed.
Traditionally, DCMD system’s main thermal source is from the solar collector. Due to unstable
supply of solar radiation, the additional waste heat from PEMFC is coupled into the original
configuration to increase the DCMD system’s operability to produce fresh water and, at the same
time, electricity. Besides, the operating temperature of PEMFC usually set between 70 °C and
90 °C, which exactly satisfies the inlet temperature requirement of feed flow in DCMD system.
Further evaluation on the proposed configuration is ongoing, where the optimal condition will be
optimized for better unit water production cost (UPC) while considering solar radiation
uncertainties.
Methods
This study is focused on evaluating two major modules for subsequent economic analysis
comparisons. The first module in consideration is the solar heated direct contact membrane
distillation (DCMD) module. The module is a closed-loop system mainly consists of a solar
collector, a heat storage tank, and a DCMD unit. On the other hand, the second module to be
evaluated is an of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) coupled into the original
DCMD configuration.
Figure 1. (A) DCMD and (B) PEMFC-coupled DCMD module configuration
70
MATLAB/Simulink platform is used to build the mathematical model of each unit operation.
The two different module configurations are evaluated and compared with those shown in the
literature. The parameters accuracy in the mathematical model is first verified using
experimental data from the literature. To simulate realistic operation condition, environmental
data of Taichung, Taiwan is adopted in this study. For the first module, the appropriate size of
the solar collector area and the heat storage tank are evaluated in term of annual total distillate
production (TPD). A suitable solar collector area and heat storage tank will ensure the optimal
operating temperature of the overall module. Moreover, it is deemed necessary to find the
appropriate initial water temperature so that the overall module performance can be optimized.
Therefore, the relationship between the solar collector area, the heat storage tank correspond to
TPD at different initial water temperatures of the closed-loop system is evaluated accordingly.
Under the circumstances where the inlet temperature of DCMD unit could not achieve 40 °C, the
possibility of utilizing the PEMFC waste heat is worth to be evaluated as the second module
configuration. The cost analysis and design evaluation for minimum UPC is subsequently
implemented. The overall evaluation for both module configurations is depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Design evaluation flowchart
Expected Results/Conclusion/Contribution
In this study, the relationship between the TAC and TPD which correspond to initial water
temperature in the heat storage tank is evaluated for the same size of DCMD unit. The size of
solar collector (SC) and heat storage tank (HST) is designed to maximize TPD with the given
initial water temperature while at the same time satisfy the operating temperature limits and
continuity for day-to-day operation. Due to the unstable supply of solar radiation, the water
production consistency of the first module is difficult to maintain because the initial water
temperature in the heat storage tank is assumed to be 25 °C. The module performance is then
evaluated further in term of TPD by increasing the initial water temperature to 40, 55, and 70 °C.
Interesting enough that at 40 oC, the TPD is lower due to the corresponding size ratio of solar
collector and heat storage tank to satisfy temperature limits but unable to exceed the TPD of the
one with 25 oC. At higher initial temperature, the overall temperature limits allows bigger solar
absorber area and heat storage tank that corresponds to higher TAC but more desirable UPC at
70 oC. Further evaluation on the second module is ongoing where PEMFC unit is expected to
provide more benefits.
71
Figure 3. The TAC, TPD, and UPC at different initial water temperatures on the first module
Keywords: solar heated direct contact membrane distillation, proton exchange membrane fuel
cell, heat integration, optimization
72
Social Studies / Psychology/ Business Management
Thursday, July 25, 2019 09:00-10:30 Meeting Room 2
Session Chair: Dr. Noel Yee-Man Siu
ICSSB-241
The roles of Customer Engagement on Disconfirmation: A Comparison of Museum Visits
between Hong Kong and the United Kingdom
Noel Yee-Man Siu︱Hong Kong Baptist University
Ho-Yan Kwan︱Hong Kong Baptist University
Xia Zhu︱The Open University
ICSSB-0223
The Abolishment of Military Law’s System Based on the ”Knowledge/ Power” Theory of
Michel Foucault
Te-Fu Chou︱ National Chi Nan University
ICSSB-0253
A Case Study on Positive Behavior Support Plan
Christian Jordan︱ Baliuag University
ICSSB-0264
Social Kiaughs through Lambasting (SKL): The Influence of Twitter Drama to the Bonds
of Grade 9 Students
Edrian Luis B. Jusi︱Dr. Yanga's Colleges Inc.
Paula Ronette S. Milano︱Dr. Yanga's Colleges Inc.
Anna Katrina P. Licaros︱Dr. Yanga's Colleges Inc.
Kerz Alexandra R. Efe︱Dr. Yanga's Colleges Inc.
Vincent Joebert S. Macaspac︱Dr. Yanga's Colleges Inc.
Ellyssa P. Talbenito︱Dr. Yanga's Colleges Inc.
73
ICSSB-260
Will International Students be Loyal to Higher Education or Tourism Sector? A
Destination Image & Value Approach
Jason M. S. Lam︱Multimedia University
Shamsubaridah Ramlee︱Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Ling Suan Choo︱University of Bahrain
ICSSB-250
Entrepreneurial Orientation in Indigenous African Family Businesses: A Multiple Case
Study Approach
Tony M Matchaba-Hove︱Nelson Mandela University
SM Farrington︱Nelson Mandela University
E Venter︱Nelson Mandela University
74
ICSSB-241
The roles of Customer Engagement on Disconfirmation: A Comparison of
Museum Visits between Hong Kong and the United Kingdom
Noel Yee-Man Siua,, Ho-Yan Kwan
b and Xia Zhu
c
a Professor and
bLecturer, Department of Marketing, School of Business, Hong Kong Baptist
University, Hong Kong, E-mail addresses: a [email protected] and
c Lecturer in Marketing, Faculty of Business and Law, The Open University, United Kingdom,
E-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract
The classic expectancy-disconfirmation paradigm posits that disconfirmation (the level of desire
fulfilment) is the function of difference between perception and expectation towards a product or
service experience. How disconfirmation relates to expectation/perceived performance needs
further investigation. At the same time, it is unclear how multi-dimensional customer
engagement may impact the model. It is also unclear whether or not similar manifestation is
applicable across different cultural contexts. Thus, this study attempts to fill the research gap by
investigating the moderating impact of customer engagement (i.e. cognitive-affective and
behavioral dimensions) on the expectancy-disconfirmation model in the UK and Hong Kong
cultural tourism contexts, with particular reference to museum visits. A two-stage (pre-visit and
post-visit) survey with 465 valid samples from Hong Kong and 344 from the United Kingdom
was used for analysis. Findings indicate that both knowledge and entertainment expectations of
customers determine their perceived knowledge and entertainment performance of cultural
organizations interchangeably. Multi-dimensional engagement serves as moderating role in the
UK context. However, only cognitive-affective engagement exhibits moderating role in the
entertainment performance-disconfirmation link. Implications are discussed in the paper.
Keywords: Customer engagement, disconfirmation, museum, cross-culture
1. Background and Objectives
Customer satisfaction has been pivotal for firms in managing customer relationship.
Expectancy-disconfirmation theory (EDT) is one of the most popular theories that explains
satisfaction based on the difference (i.e. disconfirmation) between the expectation and perceived
performance of an offering, subjectively perceived by consumers (Oliver 1980). The direction
and magnitude of any disconfirmation largely determines the customer’s level of satisfaction
(Oliver 1997). The expectancy-disconfirmation paradigm set out by Oliver (1997) posits that
happy feelings can arise from the comparison between prior expectations and perceptions of
performance. Specifically, customer satisfaction arises when perceived performance matches or
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exceeds the customer’s prior expectations; whilst dissatisfaction occurs when performance falls
below the expectations.
Customer engagement research is nascent, yet there is a growing body of published work which
has shed light on the significant role of engagement in impacting customer perceptions and
behavior in different contexts. Engagement has been explored extensively in psychology (Mor et
al. 1995; Smith 1999), sociology (Berger 2009; Uslaner and Conley 2003), political science
(Resnick 2001), and organizational behavior (Rich et al. 2010; Salanova et al. 2005). Marketing
scholars suggest that customer engagement is closely linked with corporate performance (Bolton
2011), competitive advantage (Hoyer et al. 2010), and customer value management (Verhoef et
al. 2007). Recent research in tourism especially has highlighted the important role of engagement
to tourists’ behavioral intention and called for advancing an understanding on visitor engagement
in a tourism-related context (Taheri et al. 2014). This study is a response to this call by
examining the role of engagement in the formation and fulfillment of visitor desire. Extending
the expectancy-disconfirmation paradigm, this study aims at examining the moderating role of
visitor engagement (both cognitive-affective and behavioral engagements) in predicting and
explaining visitors’ disconfirmation. In this paper, cognitive-affective engagement is defined as a
state of being absorbed in and committed to the focal engagement objects. Behavioral
engagement refers to a two-way interaction between an observer and an object (So et al. 2014).
The underlying intuition was that multi-dimensional engagement should play some moderating
role in the relationship between perceived performance and disconfirmation. In particular,
high-performing activities may stimulate visitors’ interest, involvement and interaction with
offerings. Engaged customers are likely to derive more pleasure and enjoyment from their
experience (van Doorn et al. 2010) and subsequently result in more favorable performance
evaluations.
1.1. Visitor engagement
Despite the growing attention and study on customer engagement, academics have not reached
an agreement on the concept of engagement and its dimensions. There are two main schools:
Sprott, Czellar and Spangenberg (2009) and van Doorn et al. (2010) suggest a single dimension
of engagement focusing on behavior; while Bowden (2009), Brodie’s group (Brodie et al. 2011)
and Hollebeek (2011) take a broader view, encompassing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral
dimensions of customer engagement.
van Doorn’s group (2010, p.254) defines engagement from a behavioral perspective as “…[a]
customer’s behavioral manifestations that have a brand or firm focus, beyond purchase, resulting
from motivational drivers”. In contrast, Higgins and Scholer (2009, p.102) refer engagement to a
“state of being involved, occupied, fully absorbed, or engrossed in something—sustained
attention”. In this paper, we conceptualize visitor engagement with two dimensions:
76
cognitive-affective dimension and behavioral dimension. Cognitive-affective engagement is
defined as a state of being absorbed in and committed to the focal engagement objects. In
particular, cognitive-affective engagement involves vigor (the level of energy and mental
resilience involved in an interaction), absorption (concentrating and being deeply engrossed),
and dedication (a sense of enthusiasm, inspiration and pride) (Schaufeli et al. 2002). Behavioral
engagement refers to a two-way interaction between an observer and an object (So et al. 2014).
1.2. Expectation and perception of performance
In the expectancy-disconfirmation paradigm (Oliver 1980), individuals’ pre-purchase
expectations and their perceptions of actual performance are considered the predominant
predictors of disconfirmation. Expectations are a set of beliefs about the attributes or
performance of a product or service sometime in the future. They are derived from an
individual’s prior experiences, advertising and other information, such as word of mouth
referrals (Kotler et al. 2002; Oliver 1980).
Customer preferences and desires are normally classified as either utilitarian or hedonic (Chitturi
et al. 2008; Dhar and Wertenbroch 2000). In the context of nonprofit entities such as museums,
visitor expectations can similarly be classified as either utilitarian (i.e. knowledge-based) or
hedonic (i.e. entertainment-based). Knowledge-based expectation covers the functionality, and
instrumental or practical utility. Entertainment-based expectation concerns aesthetic, experiential,
and enjoyment-related benefits (Holbrook 1999). In other words, a visitor may expect to acquire
knowledge and information, as well as aesthetic and enjoyment from their museum visits.
Customer expectation is closely connected to their subsequent perceptions (especially perceived
quality) and behavior (e.g. repurchase intentions) (de Rojas and Camarero 2008). Perceived
quality is based on the extent that the product or experience meets or fulfills the desires and
needs motivating the consumption (Cadotte et al. 1987). Perception plays a significant role in
determining disconfirmation (Churchill and Surprenant 1982). Expectation sets a benchmark and
has a positive relation with subsequent evaluations (Yi and La 2003). Studies have found that
people feel uncomfortable to “…acknowledge perceived performance that deviates from their
expectations” (Yi and La 2003, p. 28). Rather, expectations at both information and system
levels were found to contribute to web-customers’ performance perceptions (McKinney, Yoon
and Zahedi 2002). In museum contexts, visitors may evaluate their experience conforming to
their expectations from both the knowledge and entertainment aspects. In other words, a high
level of knowledge expectation is associated with perceptions of having gained more knowledge
from a cultural organization, and similarly for the entertainment dimension. Both knowledge and
entertainment expectations may contribute simultaneously to perceptions of knowledge gained
and entertainment enjoyed, as entertainment evokes optimal conditions for learning and
instrumental and hedonic experiences coexist and complement each other (Packer and
Ballantyne 2004). In the museum context, visitors may enjoy both educational and entertaining
77
experiences simultaneously where a playful approach to learning is applicable. Knowledge
seeking is enjoyable and intrinsically satisfying when learning is motivated without any
conscious effort and control (Krapp 1999).
H1: Visitor’s knowledge expectation is positively associated with their perceived (a) knowledge
performance, and (b) entertainment performance of a cultural organization
H2: Visitor’s entertainment expectation is positively associated with their perceived (a)
knowledge performance, and (b) entertainment performance of a cultural organization.
1.3. The moderating role of visitor engagements in the expectancy-disconfirmation model
In cultural consumption, disconfirmation is considered an important determinant of visitors’
satisfaction and revisit intentions (e.g., Bigné et al. 2008; Hui et al. 2007). Although marketing
scholars have identified a relationship among expectations, perceived performance and
disconfirmation, little attention has been given to the boundary conditions that link expectations
and performance with disconfirmation. Given the fact that customer engagement has been shown
to influence consumption experience (Brodie et al. 2011; Higgins and Scholer 2009), customer
engagement may also play a role in relation to disconfirmation.
Building on regulatory engagement theory (Higgins 2006), Higgins and Scholer (2009, p.102)
contend that “engagement is a state of being involved, occupied, fully absorbed, or engrossed in
something—sustained attention” and further argue that the perceived expectancy of something
being desirable produces stronger engagement with the belief as the motivating force. Museums
provide opportunities for visitors to involve, absorb and contemplate in the environment. Prior
research suggests that engaging with an event provides emotional benefits such as feelings of
enjoyment and positive affect (van Doorn et al. 2010). Compared to those who are less engaged,
museum visitors who exhibit more cognitive-affective engagement will perceive higher level of
performance. This may strengthen the perceived performance- disconfirmation link.
H3: Cognitive-affective engagement strengthens the magnitude of the effect of perceived
performance on disconfirmation.
Behavioral engagement refers to a two-way interaction between an observer and an object
(Brodie et al. 2011, So et al. 2014). This may include customer-firm interaction,
customer-to-customer communication, and exchanging information or thoughts about
experiences with an organization or a brand (van Doorn et al. 2010; So et al. 2014; Verhoef et al.
2010). Various scholars have highlighted the importance of social interaction for customer
experience (e.g., Choo and Petrick 2014; Davies et al. 1999). Choo and Petrick (2014) suggest
that customers’ interpersonal interactions with service providers, companions or other customers
can contribute positively to their overall experience and enhance their revisit intention. Moreover,
78
activity participation leads to positive evaluations of service offerings (e.g., So et al. 2016). In
the museum context, social interaction may arise among visitors verbally and/or physically (vom
Lehn 2006). The extent of such behavioral engagement may associate with the
performance-disconfirmation link. Visitors who are more engaged in interactions and activities
in museums will perceive higher level of performance and thus a greater impact of perceived
performance on disconfirmation.
H4: Behavioral engagement strengthens the magnitude of the effect of perceived performance on
disconfirmation.
2. Method
2.1. Samples and Data Collection
Hong Kong has been a colony of the British Empire since 1842 and it was transferred back to
China in 1997. It is well known for its status as an international financial center. Over 90% of
residents are Chinese. Although Hong Kong has been under the influence of the UK system and
culture for a long time, its museum development is non-comparable with those in the UK. This
study was carried out in both Hong Kong and the UK for the comparative purpose.
A two-stage (pre-visit and post-visit), self-administered survey was undertaken to test the
hypotheses. Using museums as the research context, museum visitors aged over 15 were
surveyed using convenience sampling. At the first stage, participants who entered the museum’s
entrance hall were asked to complete a questionnaire before visiting the exhibits. Their
expectations were measured in this stage. Those who participated in the survey were then asked
to fill in another questionnaire upon their departure. Perceived performance, disconfirmation,
and engagement were measured. Participants who completed the two questionnaires were
rewarded with a coffee coupon as a token of appreciation. In Hong Kong, target respondents
were intercepted at the Hong Kong Museum of Art (HKMA). Established in 1962, the HKMA is
the Hong Kong’s main art museum, attracting more than 413,000 visitors in 2014–15 (HKMA
2015). With the museum’s consent, museum visitors were surveyed inside the museum between
October and December 2014. To minimize cultural confounding, responses were collected only
from Hong Kong residents. Of 700 museum visitors approached, a total of 580 were qualified
and agreed to participate in this research. A total of 509 sets of questionnaires were received. 44
were deleted because of substantial missing data. The final sample for analysis consisted of 465
response sets.
The same research method was used in the UK. Weston Park Museum and Millennium Gallery
in North England agreed to grant the access for data collection. Data collection was conducted
between December 2015 and January 2017. 640 visitors participated in the pre-visit survey and
79
468 of them participated in the post-visit survey. Missing data was found in 124 questionnaires
and were therefore discarded. 344 sets of data were regarded as valid for analysis.
Table 1 summarizes the sample’s demographics in both Hong Kong and UK. In Hong Kong
context, males accounted for 42% of the sample. More than 50% of the respondents were aged
between 16 and 35. In terms of education level, 56.6% had an undergraduate degree. While, for
UK, 43.7% were male, and 50% were aged between 26 and 55.
Table 1. Sample Demographics
Demographic Variable(s)
Hong Kong (N=465) United Kingdom (N=344)
Frequency Percent
(%) Frequency
Percent
(%)
Gender
Male 195 42 150 43.7
Female 269 58 193 56.3
Age
16 – 25 171 36.8 104 30.2
26 – 35 123 26.5 67 19.5
36 – 45 57 12.3 46 13.4
46 – 55 57 12.3 59 17.1
56 – 65 48 10.3 51 14.8
66 or above 9 1.9 17 4.9
Education Level
Primary School 7 1.5 0 0
Secondary School 133 28.6 75 21.8
Undergraduate or Equivalent 263 56.6 154 44.8
Postgraduate or Above 62 13.3 115 33.4
2.2. Measures
For the questionnaire used in Hong Kong, it was first prepared in English and then translated into
Chinese by means of standard back-translation methods suggested by Brislin (1980). All
constructs were measured using multi-item scales adapted from previously studies which are
further explained below. Minor wording modifications were made to suit the context of this
study.
In the pre-visit survey, the visitors’ knowledge expectations were measured using a four-item
scale adapted from the work of Othman, Petrie and Power (2011). Entertainment expectations
were assessed using five items with reference to the work of Sheng and Chen (2012) and of
80
Othman (2012). The responses were on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1, “strongly
disagree” to 7, “strongly agree”.
In the post-visit questionnaire, perceptions of exhibits in terms of knowledge and entertainment
value were measured using items from the work of Othman (Othman et al. 2011; Othman 2012)
and Sheng and Chen (2012). Cognitive-affective engagement was assessed using items adapted
from work reported by Salanova (Salanova et al. 2005), which include vigor, dedication and
absorption. Behavioral engagement was measured in terms of visitor interaction, as suggested by
So et al. (2014).
Disconfirmation is discrepancy as subjectively perceived by an individual (Spreng and Page
2003). Instead of subtracting expectations from perceived performance, the subjective
disconfirmation approach (i.e., direct measurement of disconfirmation) was adapted here as it
has become the better-established approach in applying the expectancy-disconfirmation
paradigm to predicting customer satisfaction (Churchill and Surprenant 1982; Cronin and Taylor
1992; Oliver 1980; Spreng et al. 1996; Spreng and Page 2003). Two items measuring
disconfirmation were adapted from the work of Yi and La (2003). One asked the respondents to
evaluate their visit on a 7-point scale (-3 to +3) anchored by “much worse than I expected” and
“much better than I expected”, with “exactly as I expected” as the midpoint.
Reliability of measures was first assessed using reliability tests. Moderated regression analysis
was carried out to test the moderating role of cognitive-affective and behavioral engagements on
performance-disconfirmation relationship.
3. Results and Conclusion
Results from reliability tests demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency for all of the
constructs, with all Cronbach’s alpha coefficients greater than the acceptable level of 0.7. The
proposed direct relationships between expectation and perceived performance were first
examined to test H1 and H2. In Hong Kong context (pl. see Figure 1), visitors’ knowledge
expectation proved to be a significant predictor of perceived knowledge performance (β = 0.29, p
< 0.01); similarly, entertainment expectation was found to be predictor of both perceived
knowledge performance (β = 0.16, p < 0.01) and entertainment performance (β = 0.41, p < 0.01).
81
For UK (pl. see Figure 2), knowledge expectation was found to be positively related to both
perceived knowledge performance (β = 0.29, p < 0.01) and entertainment performance (β = 0.16,
p < 0.05). Entertainment expectation was significantly associated with perceived entertainment
performance (β = 0.30, p < 0.01). Therefore, H1 and H2 were partially supported. The results
indicate that museum visitor expectations are positively related to their perceptions of
performance, both knowledge and entertainment performance, in general. In other words, higher
levels of knowledge (entertainment) expectations lead to better perceptions of visitors’
educational and entertaining experiences in their visits.
H3 and H4 proposed a relationship of the interaction between performance and visitor
engagement with disconfirmation. To test for interaction effect, moderated regression analysis
was performed (pl. see Table 2 for details). Findings resulted from moderated regression analysis
revealed that UK museum visitors’ engagement (both cognitive-affective and behavioral
dimensions) plays a significant moderating role in the expectancy-disconfirmation model. In
particular, the interaction between knowledge (entertainment) performance and
cognitive-affective engagement demonstrated significant power for predicting disconfirmation, β
= -0.18 (β = 0.22), p < 0.05, in support of H3 (pl. see Figure 2). One counter-intuitive finding is
Pre-Visit Expectation Post-Visit Perception
Figure 1. Expectancy-Disconfirmation Link: Hong Kong Museum Context
Knowledge Expectation
Perceived Entertainment Performance
Perceived Knowledge Performance
Entertainment Expectation
Disconfirmation
BE
CAE
CAE = Cognitive-affective Engagement, BE = Behavioral Engagement Note: ** = Significant at the 0.01 level; * = Significant at the 0.05 level.
.12*
-.06
-.001 -.06
.29**
.16**
.00
.41**
Pre-Visit Expectation Post-Visit Perception
Figure 2. Expectancy-Disconfirmation Link: UK Museum Context
Knowledge Expectation
Perceived Entertainment Performance
Perceived Knowledge Performance
Entertainment Expectation
Disconfirmation
BE
CAE
.22**
-.18*
-.21** .14*
.29**
.12
.16*
.30**
82
that the UK museum visitors with lower levels of cognitive-affective and behavioral
engagements have a greater effect of disconfirmation on perceived knowledge performance, i.e.
MHighKP = 4.59 (5.07) versus MLowKP = 3.54 (3.96) and simple slope b = 0.46 (0.48), p < 0.05 in
comparison to those with higher levels of engagement, MHighKP = 5.23 (4.75) versus MLowKP =
4.89 (4.47) (pl. see Fig. 3 and 4). This could possibly be explained that passive visitors are
unexpectedly exposed to much new information and learning over their museum visits. At the
same time, UK visitors with higher cognitive-affective and behavioral engagements in their
museum visits seem to have a greater positive disconfirmation associated with perceived
entertainment performance, MHighEP = 5.36 (4.84) versus MLowEP = 4.75 (4.37) and simple slope b
= 0.29 (0.22), p < 0.05; in comparison to those with lower levels of those engagement, MHighEP =
3.98 (4.50) versus MLowEP = 4.14 (4.52) (pl. see Fig. 5 and 6). This could possibly be explained
that beyond being passive information receivers, visitors’ active and high engagements are
needed in order to make their museum visits more enjoyable. The results demonstrated the
contribution of visitor engagement to attitude and their evaluations of their consumption
experience.
Figure 3 and 4. Interaction between Knowledge Performance and Customer Engagement
on Visitor Disconfirmation (UK Museum Context)
Figure 5 and 6. Interaction between Entertainment Performance and Customer
Engagement on Visitor Disconfirmation
However, in Hong Kong museum context, customer engagement mainly plays a direct
independent role in the expectancy-disconfirmation link, while its moderating effect only works
in the relation between perceived entertainment performance and disconfirmation (β = 0.12, p <
0.05) (pl. see Figure 2). Hong Kong visitors with higher cognitive-affective engagement during
83
their visits exhibited to have a greater positive disconfirmation associated with perceived
entertainment performance, MHighEP = 5.33 versus MLowEP = 4.32 and simple slope b = 0.46, p <
0.05; in comparison to those with lower levels of engagement, MHighEP = 4.47 versus MLowEP =
3.88 (pl. see Fig. 7). Hong Kong museum visitors seem to be more entertainment-oriented in
comparison to the UK counterparts.
Figure 7. Interaction between Entertainment Performance and Customer Engagement on
Visitor Disconfirmation (HK Museum Context)
4. Implications
Our findings support that pre-visit expectations have an impact on post-visit perceptions in
consensus with some previous literature (e.g. de Rojas and Camarero 2008; Yi and La 2003).
Specifically, entertainment expectation influences perceptions of both knowledge performance
and entertainment performance in HK; whilst knowledge expectation influences perceptions of
knowledge and entertainment performance in the UK context. The difference may be due to
museum visitors’ background and the nature of exhibits. Further investigation is warranted.
Customer engagement is an important factor in understanding visitor behavior intention and post
consumption evaluation. Theoretically, this study has extended the traditional
expectancy-disconfirmation paradigm by investigating the role of customer engagement in the
expectancy-disconfirmation model. More specifically, both cognitive-affective engagement and
behavior engagement have been studied to examine their impact on perceived performance and
disconfirmation. Visitors’ being involved, occupied and having two-way interactions during a
museum visit seems to play a moderating role in the relationship between perceived performance
and disconfirmation. To some extent, customer engagement can enhance visitor experience
which is crucial for satisfaction. Managerially, regular research needs to be carried out by
practitioners in the museum sector so as to understand target visitors’ expectations. Moreover,
they need to pay attention to the necessity and importance of stimulating visitors’ interest, and
involving customers as well as providing opportunities for customer-to-customer interactions
84
over their visits. The customer engagement concept may also need to be infused into the design
and servicescape of museum exhibitions.
5. Acknowledgments
The research project was supported by Faculty Research Grants from the Hong Kong Baptist
University. The authors wish to thank the Hong Kong Museum of Art, Weston Park Museum
and Millennium Gallery for providing access to carrying out this project.
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87
Appendix
Table 2. Regression Analysis Results
Hong Kong Museum UK Museum
Dependent variable(s) Dependent variable(s)
Control
variable(s)
Percei
ved
KP
Perceive
d EP
Disconfirmatio
n
Perceived
KP
Perceive
d EP
Disconfir
mation
Gender .030 .017 .021 .006 .026 -.004 -.013 .031
Age -.068 -.005 -.004 .014 -.088 -.031 .027 .000
Education
Level
.015 .052 -.004 -.002 .139* .045 -.016 -.037
Independent
Variables
Knowledge
Expectation
.285*
*
.000 .294** .155**
Entertainmen
t Expectation
.157*
*
.409** .121 .298**
Perceived
KP
.256** .256** .389** .286**
Perceived EP .362** .362** .339** .100
CAE .291** .458**
BE -.072 .046
Interaction
Term(s)
KP x CAE -.060 -.176*
KP x BE -.001 -.208**
EP x CAE .118* .220**
EP x BE -.056 .137*
Adjusted R2 .135*
*
.161** .541** .573** .128** .132** .442** .598**
Notes: CAE = Cognitive-affective Engagement, BE = Behavioral Engagement; Perceived
KP (EP) = Perceived Knowledge (Entertainment) Performance
** = Significant at the 0.01 level; * = Significant at the 0.05 level.
88
ICSSB-223
The Abolishment of Military Law’s System Based on the “Knowledge/
Power” Theory of Michel Foucault
Te-Fu Chou
Public Policy and Administration, National Chi Nan University, Taiwan
Email Address：[email protected]
Abstract
In July 2013, military broke out the Hong Zhong-Qiu event of improper discipline and death
by mistreatment. This caused Hong’s family and the public thought existence of military law
that could bring about officials shielding one another, disvalued human right, and which gave
rise to truth of event that couldn’t return to the original condition. Therefore, they advocated
to abolish military law’s system replaced by judicial system, then, government abolished
military law by huge pressure of public opinion. However, after abolishing military law,
which occurred of violating the law and discipline worse than before. For instance, military
recently occurred soldier of private didn’t want to attend assembly, but heckled lieutenant
colonel battalion commander, and soldier of private first class assaulted Lieutenant because
of his inspection of internal affairs. This article uses Michel Foucault’ theory of
“knowledge/power” to discuss abolishment of military law’s system. Foucault deems that
“knowledge” is divided history as a series of “cognition”, this “cognition” defined as a
certain form of power distribution in a culture. He didn’t regard power as a form, but
expressing a truth by using social institution that perform one kind of purpose in the society.
The “Truth” (in fact, that is on a specific environment of history as real thing) is a result of
manipulated power, and people are just a tool of using power. If we say that truth is a good
institution of establishment (as knowledge of source); thus, an institution of establishment is
good or bad, which affects military long reign of peace and stability. Furthermore, it affects
national security (as power of operation).
Keywords: Pension reform, legitimate expectation, power, knowledge, truth
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
In July 2013, military broke out the Hong Zhong-Qiu event of improper discipline and death
by mistreatment. It caused 250,000 people for protest at Ketagalan Boulevard (presidential
palace), then, which impelled Legislation Yuan amended “Military Justice Act” within 3 days.
Military case of Judicial power in peace-time wholly handed over to Judicial unit to hear of
non-period of declaring war or non-period of martial law by president (Military, 2018：
89
Wikipedia). Military is a close society, and which has a tradition of unwilling situation
broaden the scope of event. This trying to hide it makes it more conspicuous, which brought
about military made a big rectification by the Hong Zhong-Qiu event. Court martial was full
shadow of ignored human right and officials shielded one another, therefore, which abolished
military law’s system replaced by judicial system. However, can judicial system substitute for
military law’s function? Military give first place to battle, which stress to observe strict
discipline and absolute obedience.
Michel Foucault deems archaeology is not an otherwise thing, but just a creation.16
His
research indicated that each thought of formation was regarded as a form of progressive
revision. Foucault’s analysis didn’t outline rational progress, but outlined existed mode of
things, and presented these modes were divided into mode of order before human
understanding of the change. Apparently, the feature of coherent and common of Foucault’s
works expressed dislike of rational progressive concept. Foucault’s viewpoint that power is
through “self of knowledge” and “self of technology” to attain it.17
Power operates in the
outside become a truth, the truth attaches to a power system of circulative relation, and then
produce and maintain it, which become power effect of occurrence and broaden its
extent—becoming a regime of truth. This system is not only ideology or super-structure, but
also a sort of constituted condition and developed capital.18
Military law and military discipline are a strength to maintain military existence and stable of
development. When military was happened of discipline’s event, which was involved
problems of cadre’s quality and leadership. After the Hong Zhong-Qiu event was happening,
military was giving every effort to cover up, shirking fault, ignoring right and officials
shielding one another. However, after military law was abolished, the military discipline was
obliterated. For instance, the private openly jeered battalion commander with lieutenant
colonel because he didn’t want to attend muster. This wasn’t heard before of abolishment of
military law (Zhuang Chu-Wen, 2018：China Times). Military occurred violating the law and
discipline of event, was it an institution or individual case of problem of the whys and the
wherefores? In case the problem come from institution, that rectify from institution. But in
case is individual, that must review from individual case. After abolishing military law’s
system, military overvalue reasonable discipline and place importance to human right. They
worry about improper discipline of case again. However, that appeared many disciplinary
16 Michel Foucault. (1999). Xie -Q. & Ma -Ue. trans. (2003). The Archaeology of Knowledge. Peking：Song-Uan Press Co., Ltd. Pp.148-154. 17 Adrienne S. Chambon, Allan Irving & Laure Epstein. (1998). Wang Z. -Y. & Fan Y. -Y. & Guan C – Y. & Liao R -H. trans. (1986). Michel Foucault and social work. Peking：Cultural Art Press. Pp.109-
133. 18
Michel Foucault, (1980). “Power/Knowledge”. US: The Harvester Press, Limited., pp.109-133.
90
slack of phenomenon. For instance, they can’t drill while temperature is too high, target
shooting having awnings, Air Force of Qing Quan-Gang camp collectively taking drugs, and
private heckled lieutenant colonel of battalion commander’s case. This also absolutely can’t
be good fortune for a country and military.
2. Methods
Foucault deems that action of power relation is through meticulous calculation and
sophisticated manipulation, then, that is affected and acted. But action of antagonistic relation
is totally bipartisan reaction behind event, therefore, revolt is existent requisition of power
relation and power relation is relative restriction existing in antagonistic relation. It is a
victory of defeating opponent that can’t allow subject has any action or moral behavior’s
freedom. His viewing of power operation, that is a series of critique of power
conceptualization that derives from national machine, such as watching this problem from
nation perspective, which denotes that watch the perspective from sovereign and suzerainty
that is watching from the law.
2.1 The archaeology of knowledge
Archaeology is one kind of focusing on thought or discourse system that engage in historical
analysis of way. Archaeology wants to do that is describing the file. Foucault denotes for file
that exist on specific society and specific period of general discourse construction and
transforming system. Archaeology is not similar to history. Its premise is non-continuity, gap,
rupture and new form of empirical emergence. Therefore, they are created a characteristic of
difference, rejected to reduce them.19
Relation between history and archaeology as figure 1：
Figure 1：Relation between history and archaeology
Source: Barry Smart, Tsai C.-X. trans., Michel Foucault, 1998, Pp.95-99.
19 Barry Smart. (1998). Tsai C.-X. trans. (1989). Michel Foucault. Taipei：Ju-Liu Book Co., Ltd. Pp.95-99.
Historical analysis
(develop、paradox、
description、transition)
Archaeology
(non-continuity,
gap, and rupture)
History (origin,
continuity, and
wholeness)
91
Scientific emergence is not only hypothesis truth of linear accumulated effect, or rational
evolution of symbol; meanwhile, it also must be analyzed by special discursive practice of
constituted element. Science is constituted on this discourse. The major purpose of “The
archaeology of knowledge” is to discuss another research mode—archaeology. That is
without linking to conformed grammar of sentence, and psychological level, but linking to
discursive level only.
2.2 The power of genealogy
Genealogy namely was descent and emergence of relative analysis, which was quite different
to traditional history, but it and the latter also had quite important relation. Firstly, it wanted
to expose quality and feature of historical characteristic, which was regarded either lacking of
history or was neglected lastly (e.g. physical physiology emotion, sense, morality, and so on.).
Secondly, it confirmed that knowledge is a perspective; on the other hand, people who
understood that was based on specific time and specific venue, and more paradoxical that
based on historian preference and identity. Finally, traditional history intended to give up the
event, or on externally historical structure and process. Genealogical analysis that attempted
focus deposited on their uniformity, in order to find out an event of composed factor of
diversity, thus it possessed the characteristic of anthropology of attribution or used historical
constant that was born to be evident of characteristic was interrupted. In the book of “The
birth of the clinic” was mentioned：observation can’t be confused with experiment on the
result or effect, but observation bring to experiment naturally. Relationship between
traditional history and genealogy as figure 2：
Figure 2：Relation between traditional history and genealogy
Source: Barry Smart, Tsai C.-X. trans., Michel Foucault, 1998, Pp.105-114.
Historical power (asymmetry、diversity、
spread)
Genealogy (complicity、
fragment、
contingency)
Traditional history (continuity、
inevitability、
domination)
92
2.3 From archeology to genealogy
Power originates a direct productive action, come from interior, is to give a time and give a
social dynamic relation of general source. And knowledge is not located in the superstructure
of power relation; it is industrial and technical society of route and further developing of
basic condition. For Foucault, knowledge and power are mutual and inevitable dependence
together. Where power is operated where is produced of knowledge. We must be very clear
this formula. If a person describes this power of phenomenon that is based on national
machine that means that their aggregations are basically oppressive：military is a power of
death, police and justice stand for punitive position, etc. Thus, prison form of production, it
gives rise of confined criminal recognized that are completely restricted under rule.
Reflecting their guilty and conformity to society, that could be fulfilled of comprehensive
education. Power controls of time：it causes the imprisonment to become possible of
condition--from archaeology to genealogy. Systematic relation from archaeology to
genealogy as figure 3
environment environment
demand decision
support
or policy
feedback
Figure 3：Systematic relation from archaeology to genealogy
Source: Hubert L. Dreyfus & Paul Rabinow., Qian -J. trans., 1995, Michel
Foucault—Transcend structuralism and Hermeneutics, Pp.69-126.
Truth usually is coincided with fact or actuality. However, that didn’t have any one
truth of definition that could be generally accepted by scholars. Many different truths
of definition are widespread of discussion, and many relevant issues about truth
couldn’t also obtain consensus. Universal value and absolute truth are two of
equivalent concept incompletely, although which often was confused by people (truth,
2018: Wikipedia).
archeology
(knowledge
)
「power /
knowledge」system
genealogy
(power)
93
3. Results
Compulsory corporal Hong Zhong-Qiu before retirement of eve, he carried camera with
equipped cell-phone and MP3 (USB flash drive) entered military camp that was accused of
violating military information of security rule. Penalized case of Hong Zhong-Qiu went
through “sergeant disciplinary board of regents” (SDBR), which brought to confinement cell
for repentance. Improper training by confinement cell of unit, which caused Hong Zhong-Qiu
of heatstroke and heat exhaustion that initiated death by disseminated intravascular
coagulation.
3.1 Agenda setting
The Hong Zhong-Qiu event breaks out military’s internal management that appear big flaw.
Hence, the military commit crime from court martial transferring to the judiciary for
investigation and prosecution. The question is that if this is a problem causing of internal
management, but which abolish military law of system that quit eating for fear of choking.
On the contrary, which will produce more managerial problems. Even though social of
committing cases are fantastic oddities of every description, whether is it only a judicial
reform or not that resolve all of legal case?
--- Operation of military decision-making：Military was due to corporal Hong bad
performance before retirement of eve, that besides committed to do fitness test of record
without authorization. He was unwilling on duty for the week of squad leader, and violated
military information of security law, that was incompatible with military culture (as source of
knowledge). Hence, cadres of company decided him to confinement cell for punishment.
Ministry of Defense (MOD) published the administrative survey on July 15th
,2013, which
indicated that relevant of military units all have faults and confinement procedure that
appeared flaws (as operation of power).
--- Operation of Hong’s family members (including the masses)：Why corporal brought to
confinement cell for repentance that queried of Hong’s family members? Moreover, the
process of transferring was unsuited of due process. The case was happened to death, which
was a consequence of improper discipline and mistreatment (as source of knowledge). They
went through elected representatives and media opinion demanded military to publish the
truth, which carried out protest continually (as operation of power).
---Outcome：Military couldn’t give society and Hong’s family members an explanation, on
the contrary, which aroused more popular grievance and discontent. The result of operation
between military and Hong’s family (including mass) as Willian Dunn of simple model of
choice points out that factual and value premises are present in all choice situations. It is as
94
figure 4 (Dunn, 2014:192)：
A1--------------------------> O1
A2---------------------------> O2
O1˂O2 => A2
Figure 4：simple model of choice
Source：Willian Dunn, The Process of Policy Analysis, 2014, pp. 192
The result between government and government employees was as figure 5：
A1 O1
A2 O2
O1˂O2 => A2(hope to give society and Hong’s family members an explanation)
Figure 5：Outcome --- Agenda setting
3.2 Policy formulation
Military investigated and prosecuted case of Hong Zhong-Qiu of manipulated procedure that
caused of controversial provoking unsatisfied of social opinion. On August. 6th
, 2013,
Legislative Yuan rapidly amended and passed “Military Justice Act” (MJA) of partial clause.
New amendment of MJA of article 1 and 237 of regulate that military wartime commit
“Criminal Code of Army, Navy and Air force” (CCANA) or it’s special law of crime, which
still are according to MJA of prosecution and penalty.
--- Operation of military decision-making：Military of National Defense (MOD) formed a
project panel to publish investigation report, and responded social of doubtful point (as
source of knowledge). They also directed against related persons neglected of duty, that was
penalized or brought to justice (as operation of power).
--- Operation of Hong’s family members (including the masses)：They continually queried
military of Hong’s death of doubtful points, and called in question of military law’s reliability,
too. They thought that officials shielded one another, that didn’t publish truth (as source of
1.fitness test of record without authorization. 2. violated military information of security law.
1. confinement procedure that appeared flaws. 2.improper training for corporal Hong.
1. why corporal brought to confinement cell for repentance?
1. They went through elected representatives and demanded military to publish the truth
95
knowledge). The Hong Zhong-Qiu event gave rise to Taiwan society of high paying attention,
which helped forward “1985 civil action
coalition” and “August snowing of movement” of “civil educational re-assembly of
movement” of two protests “common term, white-shirt-army of movement”. They requested
of military socialization, which judgment of military crime was by Judiciary (as operation of
power).
--- Outcome：The Hong Zhong-Qiu event impelled government to set into act to revise
“Military Justice Act” in the peaceful period (non-war), which military law of organization
transferred to judicial authorities finally, “Military Justice Act” formally revised to pass
within 3 days, which in the peaceful period (non-war) transferred to judicial authorities as
figure 6：
A1 O1
A2 O2
O1˂O2 => A2 (“Military Justice Act” formally revised to pass within 3 days, which peaceful period (non-war) transferred to
judicial authorities)
Figure 6：Outcome --- Policy formulation
3.3 Policy adaptation and Policy implementation
This case involved with human right, and military prosecutor’s office whether possessed
exclusive jurisdiction, which gave rise to Taiwan society of highly paying attention. This
helped forward “1985 civil action coalition” and “August snowing movement” of two
protests (common term, white-shirt-army movement), that requested military socialization.
Finally, they promoted “Military Justice Act” that amended the law within 3 days hurriedly.
In the peaceful period (non-declaration of war by president), military judgment transferred
from military law’s system of “Martial Court” to judicial system of “Court of Law”. However,
after the event that “Court of Law” didn’t understand military feature, which brought many
excessive judgment (The Hong Zhong-Qiu Event, 2013: Wikipedia).
1. MOD formed a project panel to publish investigation report.
1. against related persons neglected of duty, penalized or brought to justice.
1.They continually queried military of Hong’s death of doubtful points.
1. They helped forward two protests and requested of military socialization.
96
--- Operation of military decision-making：The “Military Justice Act” was accomplished to
launch legal reforms (as source of knowledge), in the peace-time (non-declaration of war by
president), which military judgment transferred from “Martial Court” to “Court of Law” (as
operation of power).
--- Operation of Hong’s family members (including the masses)：Military judgment partially
transferred from “Martial Court” to “Court of Law” (as source of knowledge), that Hong’s
family members and public opinion were pacified up until now. They requested to give
indispensable penalty (as operation of power).
--- Outcome：In the peaceful period (non-declaration of war by president), which military
judgment transferred from military law of system of “Martial Court” to judicial system of
“Court of Law”. However, after the event that “Court of Law” didn’t understand military
feature, which brought many of excessive judgment as figure 7：
A1 O1
A2 O2
O1˂O2 => A2 (“Court of Law” didn’t understand military feature, which brought many of
excessive judgment)
Figure 7：Outcome --- Policy adaptation
3.4 Policy assessment, policy change and policy termination
In non-wartime military commit CCANA or it’s special law of crime, which are according to
“Criminal procedure of Code” (CPC)of prosecution and penalty; military commit among
CCANA of article 44-46 (the crime of maltreated subordinate, not giving punishment but
punishment and obstructing subordinate petition) and article 76 of section 1 of these crimes
(criminal malpractice, murder, sexual offenses, etc.). Military in the peaceful period commit
CCANA or it’s special law of crime, that transfer to CPC of prosecution and penalty (Zhao
Xi-Hua & Liu Kong-Zhong, 2014: National Policy of Research foundation).
1 The “Military Justice Act” was accomplished to launch legal reforms.
1. in the peace-time, judgment transferred from“ Martial Court” to “Court of Law”.
1. military judgment transferred from “Martial Court” to “Court of Law” partially.
1 They requested to give indispensable penalty.
97
--- Operation of military decision-making：Military judgment transferred from military law’s
system of “Martial Court” to judicial system of “Court of Law”, which lawmaking was
passed and published for implementation (as source of knowledge). It is except that judicial
judgment can’t deal with military of the crime’s cases; otherwise, it must make policy
assessment, policy change and policy termination again, which get “Martial Court” of
judgment back again (as operation of power).
--- Operation of Hong’s family members (including the masses)：Public opinion thinks that
could ensure judgment of justice by only judicial system of “Court of Law”, which could
prevent officials shields one another and protects rights and interests of military (as source of
knowledge). It is except that judicial judgment can’t deal with military of the crime’s cases;
otherwise, it must make policy assessment, policy change and policy termination again,
which get “Martial Court” of judgment back again (as operation of power).
--- Outcome：In the peaceful period (non-declaration of war by president), military judgment
transferred from military law’s system of “Martial Court” to judicial system of “Court of
Law”. Otherwise, military is happened a chain of events, which judiciary can’t remain the
justice that causes military utterly defeated. That will be under public opinion of pressure to
get “Martial Court” of judgment back as figure 8：
A1 O1
A2 O2
O1˂O2 => A2 (“Court of Law” didn’t understand military feature, which brought many of
excessive judgment)
Figure 8：Outcome --- Policy adaptation
4. References
Barry Smart. Tsai C.-X. trans.(1998). Michel Foucault. Taipei：Ju-Liu Book Co., Ltd. Hubert
L. Dreyfus & Paul Rabinow. Qian -J. trans.(1995). Michel Foucault—Transcend
structuralism and Hermeneutics. Taipei：Gui-Guan Book Co., Ltd.
1 “Martial Court” of lawmaking was passed and published for implementation.
1. It make policy assessment, change and termination again because of difficulty.
1. Public opinion thinks that could ensure judgment of justice by court of law
1 It make policy assessment, change and termination again because of difficulty.
98
Adrienne S. Chambon, Allan Irving & Laure Epstein. Wang Z. -Y. & Fan Y. -Y. &
Guan C -Y. & Liao R -H. trans.(1998). Michel Foucault and social work. Peking：Cultural Art
Press.
Wang M.-A. & Chen T.-T. & Ma H.-L.(2001). The face of Michel Foucault. Taipei：
Psychology Press.
Michel Foucault. Xie -Q. & Ma -Ue. trans.(2003). The Archaeology of Knowledge. Peking：
Song-Uan Press Co., Ltd.
Hans Albert. Zhu G.-S. trans.(2016). Criticism of Rationalism. Hang Zhou：Zhe-Jiang
University Press.
Michel Foucault. Chen X.-G. trans.(2016). Punitive Society. Peking：Shang-Hai Citizen Press.
Willian N. Dunn, (2014). “The Process of Policy Analysis,” US: Person Educated Limited.
Michel Foucault, (2003). “ The Birth of the Clinic：An archaeology of medical perception,”
Great Britain: Tj international Ltd.
Michel Foucault,(1997). “The Archaeology of Knowledge,” Great Britain: J.W. Arrowsmith
Ltd.
Michel Foucault,(1980). “Power /Knowledge,” US: The Harvester Press, Limited. Wikipedia.
(2014). The Hong Zhong-Qiu Event, Oct. 10, 2018：https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki.
Liu Kong-Zhong.(2014). Military Law Return to Judicial, and Then? Oct. 13, 2013：
https://www.chinatimes.com/newspapers.
Wikipedia.(2014). The Hong Zhong-Qiu Event. Oct. 10, 2018：https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki.
99
ICSSB-253
A Case Study on Positive Behavior Support Plan
Christian E. Jordan
Center for Career and Counseling, Baliuag University, Philippines
Abstract
Challenging behavior in the preschool years is clearly evident. It is a persistent behavior that
causes difficulties in the life of an individual which limits her to have a good life. In this case
study, it is the intention of the researcher to find out how to address the challenging behavior
of one of the preschoolers of Baliuag University, The said preschooler has been reported by
her parent and teacher to have a challenging behavior inside the classroom. Moreover, with
the use of Positive Behavior Support or PBS, it aims to lessen the challenging behavior and
be able to adapt a new and positive behavior. A functional assessment interview was done in
order to get a multiple baseline of facts. Likewise, a 10-s continuous partial interval system
recording was used. Finally, to make sure that the case study is wholistic, a psychodiagnostic
assessment was also employed to look for the mental status and personality dynamics of the
preschooler. Based on the findings, a positive support plan is drawn: (1) consistent discipline
is necessary, (2), offering choices on activities and materials, (3) using visual cues or
modeling to teach her to engage in a structured activity, (4) constant routine at home and in
school to minimize restlessness, (5) tutorial sessions that focus on developing basic skills,
and (6) consultation to psychologist/therapist is essential to deal with some behavioral and
psychological concerns.
Keywords: positive behavior support, case study, challenging behavior, psychodiagnostic,
assessment
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ICSSB-264
Social Kiaughs through Lambasting (SKL): The Influence of Twitter
Drama to the Bonds of Grade 9 Students
1Edrian Luis B. Jusi,
2Paula Ronette S. Milano,
3Anna Katrina P. Licaros
4Kerz Alexandra R. Efe,
5Vincent Joebert S. Macaspac,
6Ellyssa P. Talbenito
1-6
Junior High School, Students, Philippines
[email protected] [email protected]
Abstract
Social media is used for connecting with friends and family, to catch up on current events, and
to entertain (Keith, 2019). One of the heavily utilized social media heavily is Twitter, an open
platform for all 13 years old and above on which the trend is about intrapersonal
communication: this is evident when someone wanted to rant or provide his or her inner
thoughts. The researchers wanted to know why Twitter dramas happen and how long it will last.
More so, the researchers wanted to find out how these affect the individual. The researchers
used purposive sampling with the following criteria: a) Grade 9 students from Dr. Yanga’s
Colleges, Inc; b) with an active Twitter account, private or public; c) any gender is allowed;
and, d) the “beef” is presented. A semi-structured interview is utilized with 10 questions that
the six informants answered. Content validity is done by five language experts in assessing the
inquiries. The interviews lasted for 25 minutes and recorded through audio. In contextualizing,
multiple case analysis is purported by the researchers in order to find one common goal in
between the cases. Upon finding, four emergent themes came across abbreviated into SKLT –
Sentiments: the researchers chose this theme because it correlates with the formulated
meanings in the table which talks about the opinions and feelings expressed in Twitter; Kanka:
the good side of this theme is that when they cannot tell everything to someone, they cannot
harm them by accidental slip of painful words; Lopputulos: the researchers used this word for
their third theme because it explains how did the Twitter drama progressed, if it ended in a
manner that there is remorse in the minds of the people involved or it continued in a way that
the drama still lingered on Twitter; and, Tilefni: the researchers chose this for the last theme
because of the informants’ explanation of their perspective on why they preferred to use
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Twitter to express themselves rather than speaking out loud personally. In conclusion, the
researchers found out that the effect of the Twitter drama varies to the time frame – longer
fights bring more negative effect and they also found out that the “beefs” are ceaseless. These
arguments affect the individual intrapersonally (added frustration) and interpersonally (the
change of perspective to people). Also, there is no end to the dramas. It is because it always
ripples and starts another beef that can be bigger than the past drama. The researchers also
concluded that women are more prone to resolving the arguments than men but women are
more involved in such. More importantly, the bonds are affected into two ways: on one hand,
when the arguments are solved quickly, it helped the informants to befriend the affected. On
the other hand, if the arguments continue, these deteriorate the quality of individuality as they
cannot open themselves more to the affected. This research can provide verifiable information
to the society about the neo-millennials and their psyche.
Keywords: arguments, freedom of expression, friendship, neo-millennial, social media
Background / Objectives and Goals
In this harsh and unfair world, social media became an escape place to many. Posting,
tweeting, and scrolling became a common thing for people. But all of that has led to many
things like continuous dramas and fights which is what this research will be tackling.
According to the values of Twitter, they are dedicated to making Twitter a safe place for free
expression. Truly, to articulate one’s self without the worry of hate speech is a great relief for
the 335 million users of Twitter. The feature of replying to tweets is a very important factor
in expressing oneself and of communication. However, some Twitter users still receive hate
speech. The more saddening part is that another hate speech comes from people who they
may know or even from close friends. Sometimes, it may not be on the reply section of the
tweets, or it might not be addressed to the person involved, but the fact that fights like this
break out between a group of friends is quite distressing.
In response to this problem, this study proposes to scrutinize the experiences of the people
involved in such dramas. The researchers plan to search for Grade 9 students who have
Twitter accounts and those who will give permission to use their tweets as the basis of
research. The researchers will also consider the tweets or replies of the people that they have
a feud with, whether they take part in the drama or they chose to ignore those tweets.
Statement of the Problem
The primary objective of this research is to find beefs among Grade 9 students in Dr. Yanga’s
Colleges Inc. Specifically, it wanted to answer the following:
1. What are the views of grade 9 students on Twitter drama?
2. What is the cause of the drama?
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3. Why does that student/ group of students is/ are involved in such drama?
4. How does the drama affect the mindset of a student involved in one?
5. Is there an end to these dramas?
Objectives:
At the end of the study, the researchers will be able to:
identify what kind of influence Twitter has on its users and their interpersonal and
intrapersonal relationship;
distinguish the weight of the influence of Twitter when it comes to arguments and/or
quarrels; and,
evaluate how the beefs affected the informants’ individuality.
Goals:
The purpose of this research is to be a catalyst in reshaping the mindset of the neo-millennials
through introspection such as why they became involved in online dramas and how these
actions affect their behavior and the people around them. Lastly, the researchers aim to have
a breakthrough about Twitter’s involvement on its users and the sway when it comes to the
cybernetic dispute.
Methods
Research Design
The researchers selected qualitative research. According to Dawson (2009) “qualitative
research explores attitude and experience and attempts to get an in-depth outlook from
selected participants.” More so, qualitative study indicates the perspectives toward a suitable
understanding (Gustafason, 2017) of the Twitter drama since it is considered more personal.
Under this, the researchers utilized a case-study type on which intensive analyses are
conducted on multiple students to provide in-depth viewpoints toward the issue circling
Twitter, intrapersonality, and interpersonality. Furthermore, case study is considered a
holistic approach (Sandelowski, 1996) for different sides are being able to cater to the cases
needed.
Research Locale
The research locale is in Dr.Yanga's Colleges, Inc. It is located at McArthur Highway, Wakas,
Bocaue, Bulacan. Dr. Yanga's Colleges, Inc. (DYCI) started as a non-sectarian secondary
institution. It was established in 1950 as the Francisco Balagtas Academy (FBA) by the
former owners, the late Gerardo Samson Sr. In January 1974, the Yanga family purchased the
FBA from its owners and Dr. Ismael E. Yanga, Sr. became its first President. During the SY
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2018-2019, the locale has a total of 711 Grade 9 students, an indication that there are lots of
neo-millennials.
Research Informants
Researchers will conduct their research through non-probability sampling. Grade 9 students
are the stakeholders and hence, they are the ones involved in identifying the cases. Purposive
sampling is used for to distinctly select who are suited for the research. The criteria are a) the
students must study in the chosen locale; b) they have active Twitter accounts; and, c) they
have been involved in an argumentative experience. Likewise, snowball sampling is practiced
to provide quicker search for informants. However, they must still pass the criteria set by the
researchers. These narrowed down on 9 informants on which the data reached saturation on
the 5th
.
Research Instruments
The researchers conducted interviews with their informants. Semi-structured interview design
was the primary instrument that was utilized by the researchers in leading this study. It is the
mix of the other two types of interview, the organized interview and the unstructured
interview, making it adaptable and organized. Essential questions are readied and upon
replying, secondary questions take after to influence the informants to expound further their
answers (Rubin 2012). An up close and personal information gathering technique was led.
The instruments that were used included with a guide question and a video recorder in order
to get information to the informants and capture expressions upon answering the guide
questions. The interview questions were also translated to Filipino so that the informants can
express well their thoughts about the topic. Content validity is done on which five language
experts scrutinized the inquiries. This is done to lessen the bias of the questions and also, to
become integrative on the goals of the research. This interview can be useful for the
researchers to help the Grade 9 DYCIans to know what Twitter drama is, the influence of
Twitter drama towards them, and some more information about it.
Data Analysis
In this study, the researchers decided to use a multiple-case study design. According to
methods.sagepub.com, a multiple-case study is a case study research where the researchers
use more than one case to create a more in-depth explanation or understanding of a certain
phenomenon. Among the nine informants the researchers have interviewed, a few answers
displayed the same underlying themes. The researchers then narrowed down themes that are
related to the topic of the research. Then, the researchers took into account the subproblems
that were presented earlier. The researchers also looked if the themes and sub-themes have
enough evidence to be presented. A cross-site analyst can use this method to make sure that
the summaries of researches really go well with the theme of the cross-analysis.
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Results
Cases are created to give a world on how Twitter affected differently the individuals.
Through these, the researchers analyzed each on which themes are utilized to indicate how
the cases uprooted the notion of the research. Interviews were transcribed to corroborate the
cases, thus, bringing four emergent themes: Sentiments (specific views of the users and the
audience), Kanka (a Japanese word which means influence that weighs on how Twitter affect
the individuals in emotions and reflections), Lopputulos (a Finnish word which underscores
“results” wherein the outcomes of the beefs because of the tweets are indicated), and Tilefni
(an Icelandic word which states “reason” that zeroes in on the why’s like using Twitter as the
platform and the emotions the informants had during the incident).
Informant’s Background
Lack of Independence
SKL Informant #1 is a Grade 9 student in DYCI who started using Twitter between October
and November 2018. She said that during her first few months on Twitter. She was enticed to
use Twitter because of her classmate during elementary that was more active on Twitter than
Facebook. She also said that she became active because of the interconnection of the
controversies to personal problems.
She said that Twitter helps her clear her emotions. She admitted that she was able to release
her anger through Twitter. She preferred Twitter out of many social media platforms. The
first reason being Twitter a more private place than Facebook because she has fewer
acquaintances on Twitter that might judge her when she expresses herself. Secondly, when it
comes to Instagram, she said that it was more on pictures that is why she cannot use it duly.
She also claims that she tweets things like picture or quotes that can make one smile. She said
that with all the negativities in this world, what she was doing is helping her to have a good
vibe.
Lastly, she believes that there can be a good and a bad thing Twitter drama brings. The good
one is that other people who see the tweet might get encouraged to express them self while
the bad one is that the people who see the Twitter drama may adopt bad language it uses.
Also, the effect of her doings to her image in real life are various because some people were
curious about how different she is on social media and in person.
“It is fine (Twitter drama) because in a way, even if they can’t say something to a person
(they can say it), it also helps to prevent mental issues that can put risk to their very own
emotions.”
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Being an Introvert on a Party
SKL Informant #2 started using Twitter when she is 14 years old back in July 2017. She was
influenced by her friends and pushed by her curiosity to start using Twitter. She said that her
first impression on Twitter is that, it is boring to use, but in the end, she was already getting
attached to it.
She is using Twitter to post tweets that can somehow motivate other people such as her
friends to be tough especially in facing this thing called depression. She also thinks that the
limitation of the number of words in Twitter is a good thing because she thinks that by that,
people will think of what are they going to tweet and will realize that the words they are
using can hurt others. She also added that her friends are very important especially in the
modern days because most are shy to open up their difficulties to their family especially that
most of them cannot relate to it. She said that her friends can comfort her and somehow
lessens her feelings from having those such problems.
She said that people must limit the use of these kinds of platforms and rather choose to
communicate about it personally because people cannot use Twitter to run away from their
personal life.
“For me (Twitter drama) is embarrassing because it reflects your personality.”
The Impartial Gal
A 14yr. old who likes photography and an aspiring dancer, that simply describes SKL
informant #3. A student of Dr. Yanga’s Colleges Inc. and currently on her 9th
grade. She is an
active member of the Council of Student Leaders and also a consistent member of the dance
troupe. It is no wonder that a lot of people can be jealous of her talents and beauty.
She has a large circle of friends whether be it in real life or social media. She said that when
she talks to her internet friends, she does not feel like those people are faking their
personality. She also said that it is hard to trust people on the internet but sometimes those
people just want someone to talk to.
She started using Twitter on December 2, 2017, because of a rumor about her that was on
Twitter. She did not specify what the rumor was about but the rumor was eventually taken
care of. She also shared a very positive outlook about Twitter, saying that Twitter is very
powerful and it reaches a wider range of users who can see and reply to tweets. She said that
posting a lot of stuff on Twitter can lead to a bad thing because of people who might use it
against an individual.
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She also said that in Twitter besides the tweets from people, she also sees a lot of news unlike
in other social media platforms. She shared that she does not recommend Twitter as a mean
of communication. Although there is a lot of people who use Twitter there are still people
who do not use it.
“For me, it is annoying that I see fights through Twitter (when) we can just talk in person”
Twitter: A Crying Shoulder
SKL Informant #4 is a fourteen-year-old, female Grade 9 student who is currently studying at
Dr. Yanga’s Colleges Inc. She believes that friends are important because they are the ones
whom you always hang-out with and whom you can tell stuff you cannot tell your family.
She was influenced by her older sister to use Twitter and started using it in the year 2015. She
usually posts rants about her friends and school works to somehow lessen her anger and
annoyance towards them.
After experiencing some painful moments, she preferred to use Twitter and tweet whatever is
on her mind than using Messenger wherein your message will only be seen. The reason why
she rants on Twitter is that her friends and school works, however, she felt guilty afterward.
She shared that she sometimes thinks that other people feel like they are the one being
attacked by her rants. She also believes that fights on social media are annoying,
unprofessional and impersonally.
“That (Twitter drama) is unprofessional because we can just talk personally”
The Indomitable Lad
SKL Informant #5 is a fifteen-year-old male grade 9 student that studies in Dr. Yanga’s
Colleges Inc. He was influenced by his friends to use Twitter last January 2018. According to
him, friendship is very important because they are the people that he can lean on especially if
his family is not there to comfort him. He added that he can share his problems with his
friends without any hesitations comparing to his family because of the difference of the
generation of him and his family.
He finds Twitter diverting to use mainly because it helps him to release his emotions by just
posting tweets and reading the tweets of other people. He is tweeting things about friends and
his problems that can help him to express himself and lessen his discomfort in his personal
life. He also stated that he much preferred to express his feelings on Twitter than to other
social media platforms because he can freely post his tweets without being noticed by others
including his family. He also admitted that he was once involved in a Twitter drama and that
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he sometimes tweets stuffs like alluding and rants. He also said that he does that because he
cannot confront the person that says those things about him. This is also the reason why he
prefers to keep his feelings in his Twitter account way more than in real life because he is too
afraid to do it in person.
“They fight because… It is fine to release your emotions on Twitter but to the point that there
will be… arguments among you and other people, it’s not… I will not… I will not start
(Twitter drama)”
After the cases, the researchers created emergent themes that will analyze the overall
premises of the informants’ perspectives.
Table 1 Sentiments
Emergent Theme Theme Cluster Formulated Meaning
Sentiments
Susceptible Kingpin
People can be inspired from dramas to be
careful of what they say.
It can inspire them to consider others feelings.
When people express themselves, they can
somewhat inspire others to be true to
themselves and to express what they actually
feel.
Locution and Trigger
Some are irritated because they don’t want to
see others fight.
Some people think that all the drama is staged.
Some of the tweets are offensive when it
comes to other culture, race, gender, etc.
The researchers chose this theme because it correlates with the formulated meanings in the
table which talks about the opinions and feelings expressed on Twitter.
First, how does it give a positive effect? As what stated in Line 217 by SKL Informant #2,
“Du’n mo kasi na-e-express yung nararamdaman mo.” Or “That’s where you can express
your emotions.” And expressing what you are feeling can give you a lot of benefits which
forbes.com can agree on. One of their articles said that being honest and authentic about what
people are feeling creates powerful personal connections (Whitener, 2018).
It does not just create a connection with other people, kidshelpline.com.au said that talking
about feelings can help one stay in good mental health and help one cope when they are
feeling upset.
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It does not just talk about expression at the positive side of this theme, it can also show
inspiration. As said by SKL Informant #1, based on Lines 171 to 174, “Isipin na kailangang
ganito yung gawin ko kasi yung tao na yung nangyari na sa kaniya na dapat maging
inspirational ako sa kaniya.” Or “(I) think that I should do this thing because he already went
through this and I should be inspirational to that person.”
And it matters so much, like what hbr.org said inspiration leads us to new possibilities and
transform people’s perception of one’s abilities (Kaufman, 2011). People can be better
because of inspiration.
For its negative effect, it may irritate someone. One of the informants said that her Twitter
account is full of rants and complaints, see Lines 191-193 which may affect others who will
read it.
Emotions can be contagious, according to Sherrie Carter of psychologytoday.com,
“Researchers have studied the tendency for people to unconsciously and automatically mimic
the emotional expressions of others.” Which means that those rants and complaints netizen
sees in Twitter may make them feel upset.
Table 2 Kanka
Emergent Theme Theme Cluster Formulated Meaning
Kanka
Stay Kicked
People who read the tweets will be
motivated to not be involved in Twitter
dramas.
People can be motivated to be steadfast in
times of hardship.
Some can be motivated to release stress, the
stress that builds up inside them.
Left Traces
People who read can adapt to the use of
inappropriate words.
People who are involved can start more
fights in real life because they have been
involved in digital fights
People sometimes attain the negative or
positive mindsets they see or read on the
internet.
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This is a theme talking about the emotions kept and its influence. The good side of this theme
is that when they cannot tell everything to someone, they cannot harm them by an accidental
slip of painful words.
According to SKL Informant #2 in Line 214-215, “Kasi yung iba du’n, nakakasakit na.”
There are times when words left said can hurt you. Simply put, language holds massive,
colossal power to manifest change, whether it is good or bad (M. Mayberry, 2015).
On the other side keeping everything to yourself can also cause negative and bad things, one
of them is reacting badly to something. To support that is a phrase from the site
psychologytoday.com, People can react inappropriately because the emotions are pulling us
in a different direction from where we really want or need to go (Goldsmith, 2013).
Keeping things to yourself can be good and bad at the same time but limitation will always
help people to measure something if it is enough.
Table 3 Lopputulos
Emergent Theme Theme Cluster Formulated Meaning
Lopputulos
Settled Knots
Short term Twitter dramas usually end in
forgiveness and deletion of tweets.
People usually just ignore the aftermath of
the drama.
They can still go back to their normal
lives as if nothing happened and without
any pretension.
Lasting Troubles
Longer dramas do not cease immediately.
Because of the longer time frame of this
kind of drama, what they saw in the drama
will stick in their minds even after the
drama and it might also get amplified as
the drama goes on.
The stress after the drama will take a
greater toll in the minds of the people
involved.
The researchers used this word for their third theme because it explains how did the Twitter
drama progress if it ended in a manner that there is remorse in the minds of the people
involved or it continued in a way that the drama still lingers on Twitter.
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According to what informant 5 said in line 798-801 “Hindi naman masyadong matagal yung
away after nung ano nagka-ayos din naman tas dinelete rin yung mga tweets” which
translates to “the fight is not that long, after it, we made amends and deleted the tweets”. This
shows that people can overcome dramas and successfully forgive each other. In which Mr.
Eric Turner agrees as he showed the importance of forgiveness in one of his articles.
According to Mr. Turner, forgiveness can give us freedom and relief.
Informant 3 said in line 495-497 “Doon ba lumalaki yung problem and hindi tumitigil yung
problem” which translates to “That (Twitter drama) is where the problems grew bigger”. To
know what happens in dealing with a lot of stress, Mr. Mills, Ms. Reiss, and Mr. Dombeck
made an article about the effects of stress. They said that stress can lead to other worse
mental illness like depression, bipolar disorder, multiple personality disorder, anxiety
disorders, and more.
Informant 2 said in line 257-259 “Para sa akin nakakahiya yung ganun kasi sa pagkatao mo
yun magre-reflect,” which then translates to “For me, that thing [pertains to Twitter drama] is
embarrassing because it reflects in your personality”. Mr. Cole said in his article that when
people change how they see things it can also change their life.
Table 4 Tilefni
Emergent Theme Theme Cluster Formulated Meaning
Tilefni
Small-scale Kens
The informants preferred not to talk to older
people because of the difference of the ways
back in their generation.
They believe that older people cannot
understand their feelings.
They feel like older people think differently
because of the difference in the environment
and societal prejudice.
Loose Thoughts
People cannot say what they want to say
because they are afraid of the judgment people
will give them.
Some of the informants said that they are just
generally shy around other people.
The informants said that they do not want to
talk to people in person.
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The researchers chose this for the last theme because of the informants’ explanation of their
perspective on why they preferred to use Twitter to express themselves rather than speaking
out loud personally.
Different aspects of life can change people. According to Jeffrey A. Kotler, there is a
minority of people who would say that the change they experienced is from what happened
inside a classroom, therapy session or formal seminars and the vast majority said that they
changed because of a traumatic experience but some also said that change came from what
they read, heard or watched.
For example, Informant 2 said in line 224, “Matatag siya kaya dapat ako din” which
translates to “That person is strong so I should be strong too”. According to Mr. Kumar,
when people are motivated people can do twice what they are expected to do.
According to Goldsmith, negative and positive changes caused by adaptation is both helpful
however, negative changes needs to be lessened by filtering it as soon as you feel that you are
changing. Informant 1 said in line 98-99 “Pala mura which na-adapt ko,” that translates to
“they curse so much which I adapted” and
Informant 1 said in line 164-167 “May halong halos puro mura or parang bad… hindi
magandang impluwensiya na kayang i-adapt namin, na kaya kong i-adapt” which then
translates to “Tere’s a mix of swear words or bad[…] [It’s], not a great influence [to others
because] we could adapt, we can adapt”
Just like what Mr. James said when people release and cleanse their emotions people not only
experience healing mentally but also physically. To further prove that statement, Informant 1
said in line 29, “Nakakaluwag ng loob,” which translates to “Burden is being lifted off from
my chest [when I tweet]” and Informant 6 in line 874-875 said, “Nailalabas ko yung feelings
ko,” that translates to “I can release what I’m feeling”.
Just like what informant 1 said in line 136 “May misunderstanding lang,” which translates to
“there is just a misunderstanding” and informant 1in line 140-141 said, “Di nila naiintidihan
yung isa’t-isa,” that translates to “they can’t understand each other”. Just like what Ms.
Ostman said, being misunderstood is painful but in the end, people do not need to explain
themselves to everyone especially if that person knows the truth.
Conclusions
- It is concluded that Twitter is being used by the Grade 9 DYCIans for them to somehow
lessen the discomfort that they feel.
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- Most of the tweets are circling around the idea of “expressing one’s self” and the way the
informants wanted to talk about their lives without any personal interactions with other
people.
- A tweet can either be positive or negative, depending on what the users are thinking. That
is why the researchers concluded that it has something to do with the social life of the
users.
- Women are more prone to resolving the arguments than men but women are more
involved in such.
- Twitter dramas helped the informants to realize that the misunderstandings that occurred
are just their assumptions and is not proven yet.
- The researchers concluded that Twitter is not a medium of communication but rather a
tool for expressing one’s intrapersonal life.
- Conflicts that occurred in Twitter are resolved by amending personally and not on the
said platform.
- The informants resorted into Twitter rather than Facebook when it comes to expressing
themselves because they can avoid those that they want to avoid that can track them on
Facebook.
- Most users of Twitter also preferred this platform because Twitter has a feature that
allows its users to make their tweets private and only visible to those who followed their
account.
Acknowledgment and Legal Responsibility
Here is the list of whom the researchers want to extend their gratitude:
First, the researchers thank God for the strength and knowledge to start and finish this
research.
The researchers also want to express gratitude to Sir Jethro Kenneth Tan for the
guidance during the making of this research, without his help, it will be a tough time
for the researchers to conduct the research
To Sir Renen Bantillo, for giving suggestion during pre-defense.
To the classmates who helped in little ways, academically and morally.
To the families for the support while conducting this research.
To Dr. Yanga’s Colleges Inc. for permission to conduct interviews inside their
institution.
To the informants the data that were need for the research.
Lastly, to the members who shared the hardships and spend sleepless nights just to
finish the research.
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ICSSB-260
Will International Students Be Loyal To Higher Education Or Tourism
Sector? A Destination Image & Value Approach
Jason M. S. Lama, Shamshubaridah Ramlee
b, Ling Suan Choo
c
aFaculty of Business, Multimedia University (Malacca campus), Malaysia.
Email: [email protected]
bCentre for Entrepreneurship and SMEs Development (CESMED), Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia (UKM), Malaysia.
Email: [email protected].
cCollege of Business, University of Bahrain, Kingdom of Bahrain.
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Most research in higher education hasexamined the academic factors that influence
international students’ choices of selecting a destination to study overseas (pre-purchase
behaviour). Studies on how non-academic factors affect current academic value, and future
behavioural intention (post-purchase behaviour) remains scant despite its importance. This
conceptual paper closes the research gap by introducing a research model to determine the
influence of cognitive and affective travel destination image (TDI) on international students’
academic value and future tourism intention. This study could be a useful, informative tool
for the host country, higher education administrators, and tourism marketers to rebrand their
marketing efforts and develop strategies to woo current and future international students.
.
Keywords: International students, travel destination image, higher education, perceived
value, loyalty
1. Background
In tourism studies, many scholars have investigated the influence of travel destination image
(TDI) on the choice of tourism destination as well as how this image affects tourists’ travel
experience and future behaviour (Chaulagain, Wiitala, & Fu, 2019; Gong & Tung, 2017;
Palau-Saumell, Forgas-Coll, Amaya-Molinar & Sánchez-García, 2016; Park, Hsieh & Lee,
2017; Zhang, Xu, Leung & Cai, 2016). In higher education studies, however, the focus
tended to be on the influence of travel specific motivations on the selection of overseas study,
particularly student exchange programmes (Arredondo, Zapatero, Naranjo & López-Guzmán,
2018; Choi, Slaubaugh & Kim, 2012; Daly, 2011; Lesjak et al., 2015). Only recently scholars
116
started to consider these motivations from the perspective of full-time students (Bae & Song,
2017; Gardiner & Kwek, 2017; Lee & King, 2016; Macionis, Walters & Kwok, 2018). We
argue that travel destination image does not only motivate students to select a higher
education destination overseas, but it could also add more value to their academic experience
as well as future behavioural intention (post-purchase behaviour) to either further their
education to a higher level or revisit the host country. Brown and Aktas (2011) argued that it
is essential to study international students’ travelling behaviour to instigate changes in their
decision-making toward ahost destination.
From an economic perspective, international students bring more revenue to the host country
(López, Fernández,&Incera, 2016). They contribute through the institution fees, living
expenses as well as travel expenditures. For instance, an economic report revealed that
international students generated AUD222 million to the Australian economy, accounting for
higher education and additional tourism expenditure (Deloitte Access Economics, 2016, p.
41). Using the Solow’s economic growth model, Matahir and Tang (2017) found that the
international student market, directly and indirectly, contributed to the Malaysian coffer. The
economic justification strengthens our viewpoint that loyal students are important to the host
country or the institution since they are likely to return and recommend the destination to
other students in the future.
In the Malaysian higher education context, existing studies have explored the motivational
factors (academic and non-academic attributes) to select Malaysia as the host destination
(Asgari & Borzooei, 2014; Lam, Arrifin & Ahmad, 2011; Lam, Yeo, Tan, Chong, & Oh,
2014; Ndanusa, Harada, Romle, & Olanrewaju, 2015; Padlee, Kamaruddin, & Baharun,
2010). However, these studies did not extend their focus on the current academic experience
and future behavioural intention of international students. Thus, our study closes the
research gap by exploring whether TDI affects international students’ academic value and
future behavioural intention towards a host country. That is, this study asks ‘Does TDI affect
international students’ academic value?” If the answer is “yes”, then the next question is
“Are they loyal to the Malaysian higher education and/or tourism destination?”
In our study, we include travel destination image and perceived value as the antecedents of
international students’ loyalty. The loyalty concept will be separately measured by higher
education and tourism components.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Travel Destination Image (TDI)
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Image is defined as the total impression an entity makes on the minds of others (Dichter,
1985). In marketing, Keller (1993) suggested that image is an expression of customers’
beliefs about a product or brand. TDI has been conceptualised differently, but the common
definition comprises attitudes, beliefs, emotions, feelings, and impressionpeople possess of a
destination (Baloglu&Brinberg, 1997; Crompton, 1979). Based on past studies (e.g., Baloglu
& Brinberg, 1997; Baloglu&McCleary, 1999; Beerli& Martin, 2004), image is a concept
formed by a consumer’s reasoned and emotional interpretation as a consequence of two
closely interrelated components: perceptive/cognitive evaluations and affective appraisals
relating to a person’s emotion towards an entity. While cognitive image refers to the beliefs
or knowledge about a destination’s attributes, the affective components refer to how visitors
feel about the destination (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). Previous literature concludes that a
travel destination image is complex, multiple, relativistic, and dynamic; that is, different
countries have unique travel destination attractions.
Russell and Pratt (1980) suggested that affective travel images comprise both positive
(arousing, pleasant, exciting and relaxing) and negative (sleepy, unpleasant, gloomy and
distressing) dimensions. Nevertheless, the affective components of travel image tend to be
overlooked in tourism studies (Ekinci & Hosany, 2006; Pike & Ryan, 2004). Even Glover
(2011), who pioneered the integration between education and tourism, did not discuss the
affective element. A recent study in Malaysia conducted by Lam and Ariffin (2019) explored
international students’ perceptions of destination image by considering the cognitive and
affective appraisals. Hence, this study considers the importance of travel destination’s
cognitive and affective images in influencing international students’ value perceptions of
their academic experience. We postulate that if an international student views Malaysia as a
positive TDI, he or she is likely to be happy with the destination. Thus, we propose that:
H1: Cognitive TDI will positively influence affective TDI.
2.2 Perceived Value
Zeithaml and Bitner (2000) defined perceived value as a customer’s overall evaluation of a
service utility and the benefits to be received compared to the cost spent. Customer value is
extensively discussed in the marketing literature because it is a crucial factor for companies
to gain a competitive advantage. Kotler and Armstrong (2014, pp.34-35) stated that the key to
building lasting customer relationships is to create superior customer value. Satisfied
customers are more likely to be loyal customers and give the company a larger share of their
business. Froma tourism perspective, perceived value is conceptualised as whether a tourist
perceives the benefits gained is worth the financial sacrifices paid (Carlson, Rosenberger III,
& Rahman, 2016). In this study, we define perceived value as a trade-off between the price
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an international student pays and what he or she will receive in return for the academic
experience.
Past tourism studies have empirically investigated the relationship between TDI and
perceived value (Dedeoğlu, 2019; Kim, Holland, & Han, 2013; Kim & Park, 2017; Moon &
Han, 2019). We propose that if international students have a positive cognitive and affective
perception of TDI (i.e., host country), they are likely to experience better academic value.
The following hypotheses are developed to explore these relationships.
H2: Cognitive TDI will positively influence international student’s perceived value.
H3: Affective TDI will positively influence international student’s perceived value.
2.3 Student Loyalty
The study of brand loyalty or customer loyalty has more than 40 years of history. Brand or
customer loyalty is an important concept in marketing because it could increase repeat
patronage and save marketing costs through positive word-of-mouth (Oppermann, 2000).
Lban, Kaşli, and Bezirgan (2015) found that TDI positively influenced the perceived value of
the destination and subsequently word-of-mouth of the host destination. From the heritage
tourism perspective, tourists perceive that the value (higher beta) received of the heritage
tourism will influence their revisiting intention even though tourism services are provided at
the host destination (lower beta) (López, Virto, Manzano, & García-Madariaga, 2019).
Although loyalty is a common measurable construct in marketing studies, very little attention
has been paidto link loyalty to higher education and tourism. By developing loyalty, a host
country can generate repeated visitations of loyal tourists and potential students to its higher
educational institutions via positive word-of-mouth promotion and recommendation from
others (Yeong, Aziz & Bojei, 2018). Hence, we wish to explore the association between
higher education and tourism sectors. If such a relationship exists, then marketers in higher
education and tourism sectors should offer an inclusive package that contains both higher
education as the primary value and tourism. Thus, we suggest that:
H4: Perceived value will positively influence international student’s loyalty in higher
education.
H5: Perceived value will positively influence international student’s loyalty in tourism.
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Figure 1: The Development of the Conceptual Framework
3. Conclusion
This study proposes that either one or both TDI elements could lead to better
students’experience in studying abroad. A good experience will make studentsfeel satisfied
and increase their loyalty to the host institution or the host country’s higher educationand
tourism in the long run. However, there is limited research conducted on how TDI affects
international students’ perceived value and their future behaviour towards the host country.
The proposed framework outlined in this paper offers an opportunity to fill a void in our
understanding of how higher education and tourism could attract customer-international
students and which TDI element(s) provide them with better value. We expect that the
outcome of the study will benefit the host country, tourism marketers as well as higher
education administrators for the possible rebranding of their marketing efforts and designing
holistic strategies.
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123
ICSSB-250
Entrepreneurial Orientation in Indigenous African Family Businesses: A
Multiple Case Study Approach
TM Matchaba-Hove, SM Farrington & E Venter
Department of Business Management, Nelson Mandela University, South Africa
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background and Purpose
As far as can be established, very little research has been conducted on indigenous African
family businesses. According to Acquaah and Eshun (2016:43) research on family businesses
in Africa is scarce. Furthermore, the research that has been conducted lacks depth in terms of
the topics addressed and breadth in terms of the countries covered. The richness, complexity
and diversity of entrepreneurial activity in Africa has created the need to explore a broader set
of African nations. There is also a need for in-depth research to expand the available
knowledge on family businesses in Africa (Khavul et al. 2009:1234-1235). The majority of
studies on family businesses have been undertaken in a European, American and Asian
setting (Sieger, Calabrò, Colombo, Matser, Parada, Ramirez-Pasillas, Randerson &
Rautiainen 2017; Nordqvist & Zellweger 2010). Against this background, it is imperative to
gain deeper insight into, and an increased understanding of, the practices implemented among
indigenous African family businesses that have survived across generations. Therefore the
purpose of this paper is to establish the entrepreneurial methods and practices that exist
within successful indigenous African family businesses.
2. Methods
This study adopted an interpretivist research paradigm, a qualitative research approach and a
multiple case study methodology. By using a multiple case study methodology, insights will
be gained into the topic of interest. Yin (2014:46) promotes using multiple case studies
because “the evidence from multiple cases is often considered more compelling and the
overall study is therefore regarded as being more robust”. Three indigenous African family
businesses from South Africa, Zimbabwe and Botswana were selected to participate in the
study. The three cases were systematically selected, using purposive sampling, to ensure that
a credible and indicative sample was obtained (Ritchie & Lewis 2003:77). The three family
businesses participating in the study are of indigenous African heritage and have shown
sustained growth and success since their establishment. The reason for these selection criteria
is to ensure that the study appropriately addresses the defined research objectives and the gap
in the body of knowledge on entrepreneurial orientation in the indigenous African context.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather the data from the selected participants.
124
In order to make sense of the data, a content analysis was conducted. This analysis is aimed
at drawing inferences from the texts within their context to unmask the insights and deeper
meanings revealed by the research participants (Vaismoradi, Jones, Turunen & Snelgrove
2016:100-111). Thereafter, explanation building was used to explain the data in the context of
the family business that has been investigated.
3. Expected Results and Contribution
From the empirical findings it was apparent that the indigenous African family businesses
investigated exhibited innovativeness in two distinct scenarios, namely in response to
challenges and threats in the macro business (economic) environment and when engaging in
expansion activities. Furthermore, the empirical findings show that the innovation activities
undertaken by the participating family businesses relate to the enhancements of existing
processes and systems rather than technological innovation. The indigenous African family
businesses participating in this study also exhibited proactiveness in anticipation of
challenges and changes in the macro business environment. Furthermore, it is also noted that
in all three indigenous African family businesses, the second generation CEOs are the drivers
of proactive behaviour within their businesses. It was also apparent that all three indigenous
African family businesses demonstrated some degree of being risk adverse but showed that
they are willing to take risks when the perceived financial rewards are worth it or when the
need arises. It was also evident that all the participants promote and encourage autonomy
among their employees as well as in their businesses.
Based on these findings, various practices associated adopted by successful transgenerational
family businesses operating in the African context are highlighted. In conclusion, this study
contributes to a greater understanding of successful indigenous African family businesses and
their best practices
Keywords: Entrepreneurial orientation; Indigenous African family business
125
Finance/ Economics
Thursday, July 25, 2019 13:15-14:45 Meeting Room 2
Session Chair: Dr. Jing, Victor Li
ICSSB-219
Evaluating Housing Affordability in Hong Kong: A Dynamic Approach
Jing, Victor Li︱The Chinese University of Hong Kong
ICSSB-239
The Relationship between Macroeconomic Variables and Stock Prices in Mongolia
Unyong Pyo︱Brock University
Yong Jae Shin︱Hankyong National University
Orgilbold Battuul︱Talkh Chikher JSC
ICSSB-216
Impact of Assortative Matching on Default Rates in a Microcredit Market: An
Empirical Analysis
Saswatee Mukherjee︱Presidency University
ICSSB-247
Thailand Development Initiatives in ASEAN
Suthikorn Kingkaew︱Thammasat Business School
126
ICSSB-219
Evaluating Housing Affordability in Hong Kong: A Dynamic Approach
Li Jing Victor
Assistant Professor, Department of Geography and Resource Management
Deputy Director, Center of Land Resource and Housing Policy, Institute of Future Cities
CUHK
Abstract
This paper applies panel data from 1997 to 2016 of Hong Kong to devise a new dynamic
approach for measuring housing affordability, taking into account of total owner cost to
re-measure housing affordability in the private sector. Specifically, we analyze three housing
sizes and three levels of household income to explore homeownership affordability. With
measures of dynamic housing affordability index, it shows that small sized housing (40-69.9
square meters) experienced changes in a wide margin no matter of the payment proportion on
housing annually. Based on the empirical observation, it applies multi-variables regression
analysis to make a profound exploration on the impact factors which affect affordability
curves. Through the regression, it reveals that the three most influential variables are existing
stocks, new completion, and migration. Based on the results, the paper discusses the housing
policy including subsidized housing programs in Hong Kong. It provides policy implications
for both private and public housing sectors.
Keywords: dynamic housing affordability, transaction cost, private sector, Hong Kong
127
ICSSB-239
The Relationship between Macroeconomic Variables
and Stock Prices in Mongolia
Yong Jae Shina, Orgilbold Battuul
b, Unyong Pyo
c
aHankyong National University, Anseong, South Korea
bTalkh Chikher Jsc, Brock University
cMongolia St., Catharines, ON Canada
Abstract
This study examines the relationship between stock prices and macroeconomic variables in
Mongolia and helps understand one of newly emerging markets: Mongolian stock market.
Using monthly data from January 2000 to December 2016, we analyse the causal relationship
between the stock market index and macroeconomic variables in Mongolia. The study
employs unit root test, impulse response analysis, variance decomposition analysis, and the
Granger causality test based on the VAR model approach. We find that money supply has
positive impacts on the stock market index and suggest that the money supply leads to stock
market index in terms of the Granger causality. The results of the study imply that the global
financial crisis triggered in the U.S. in 2008 has significant impacts on the relation between
the stock market and macroeconomic variables in emerging markets.
KeyWords: Macroeconomic variables, VAR model, Unit root test, Granger causality
test
1. Introduction
Numerous studies on the stock market attempts to determine whether the efficient market
hypothesis (EMH) holds. Fama (1970) argues that current stock prices reflect all available
information in an efficient market and that no investor can obtain abnormal returns in the stock
market. That is, it is difficult to realize abnormal returns in developed markets due to the high
efficiency of information. Studies such as Robert (2008) and Mayasami et al. (2004)
employing more powerful tools also support the Fama's arguments. While EMH is commonly
accepted in developed countries, it is not in emerging markets, where stock market history is
short or immature. The Mongolian stock market does not necessarily provide investors with
important information, which could affect the stock prices of individual firms (Damdindorj,
Rhee, and Choi, 2016). They suggest that government agencies in Mongolia still crack down
on listed companies and that risks affecting the market are not being efficiently evaluated.
While some of recent studies examine implications on capital markets in emerging countries,
few studies investigate those in the Mongolian capital market. Thus, the study exploring the
128
relationship between stock prices and macroeconomic variables in Mongolia can contribute to
the literature with understanding a newly emerging capital market in Mongolia. This study
employs unit root test, impulse response analysis, variance decomposition analysis, and the
Granger causality test based on VAR model approach. The study examines the monthly data in
Mongolia for the entire period from January 2000 to December 2016 and for two sub-periods,
pre-crisis and post-crisis period, based on the time of global financial crisis to investigate how
the crisis affects the relationship between stock prices and macroeconomic variables.
We find that there are positive effects of money supply on the stock price index. The finding
suggests that money supply positively affects equity markets because the increase in money
supply would shift money from non-interest-bearing assets such as bank notes to financial
assets such as equities. Comparing results for the entire period with those for the two
sub-periods, we show that while the results of the post-crisis period are similar to those of full
period, they are very different from those of the pre-crisis period. In particular, following the
global financial crisis, the significant impacts of macroeconomic variables such as money
supply on the stock market are observed in Mongolia. The results imply that the global
financial crisis exert significant effects on the relationship between stock prices and
macroeconomic variables. The results of the study extend the existing literature by providing
important insights to researchers in emerging markets and provide valuable guidance to
investors and policy makers, who are active in capital markets and economy in Mongolia and
other developing countries.
The paper is presented as follows: In Section 2 we briefly survey a literature review.
Methodology and empirical results are provided in Section 3 and 4, respectively. We
conclude this article in Section 5.
2. Literature Review
The impact of macroeconomic variables on stock returns has long been controversial among
academics and practitioners. Arbitrage pricing theory (APT) provides a theoretical framework
for linkages between stock prices and macroeconomic variables (Ross, 1976; Chen et al.,
1986). Several empirical studies have shown that stock prices are related to macroeconomic
conditions. Chen et al. (1986) explore whether macroeconomic variables impact on stock
market returns by modeling stock returns as a function of macroeconomic variables and
non-property wealth returns in the US. They empirically find that macroeconomic variables
are heavily abused by stock returns.
Mookerjee and Yu (1997) investigate the relationship between Singapore's stock prices and
four macroeconomic variables like money supply volume, extensive money volume,
exchange rate and foreign exchange reserves and report that narrow and wide currency and
129
foreign exchange reserves show a long-term share price unlike the exchange rate. Gan et al.
(2006) explore the connection between the New Zealand stock market index and seven
macroeconomic variables ranging from January 1990 to January 2003 using the Granger
causality test and co-integration. The analysis finds a long-term relationship between the New
Zealand stock market index and macroeconomic variables.
Asaolu and Ognumuyiwa (2011) examine the effect of macroeconomic variables on the
average Nigerian stock price from 1986 to 2007. The results of their causal tests show that
Granger did not trigger one of Nigeria's nine macroeconomic variables during the sample
period. However, the Johansen Co-integration test confirms that there is a long-term
relationship among the average share price and macroeconomic variables. Akbar et al. (2012)
examine the link between the Karachi stock exchange index and macroeconomic factors from
January 1999 to June 2008 and find that there is a long-term balanced connection between
stock markets and macroeconomic factors. Their results reveal that stock prices are
negatively related to currency supply and short-term interest rates, inflation and foreign
exchange reserves.
However, Ray and Vani (2003) examine the relationship between stock market movement
and actual economic factors in the Indian stock market and show that interest rate, money
supply, gross inflation rate, industrial production and exchange rate have a significant effect
on stock prices. Using Johansen's joint integration approach and the Toda-Yamamoto Granger
causality test, Ahmed (2008) investigate the relationship between stock prices and
macroeconomic variables and shows that there is a long-term connection between stock
prices and FDI, money supply, and industrial production index. Pal and Mittal (2011) use
Johansen's integrated framework to examine the relationship between Indian stock markets
and macroeconomic variables using quarterly data and report that there is a long-term
connection between stock market index and macroeconomic variables
3. Data and Methodology
3.1 Data
We collect monthly data on stock price indices and macroeconomic variables during 2000 –
2016 (192 monthly observations) from the Mongolian Stock Exchange, Bank of Mongolia, and
Mongolian Statistical Information Service. MSE-all-index and MSE Top20 are named as stock
price index 1 (SPI1) and stock price index 2 (SPI2), respectively. In addition, this study selects
four macroeconomic variables based on previous studies such as exchange rate of MNT to one
US dollar (ER), money supply in terms of M2 (MS), interest rate of one-year savings (INT),
and gross industrial output (GIO).
130
The MSE provides the capitalization weighted index, which is a market value-weighted index.
MSE-all-index is comprised of all firms that listed on the MSE. The index is calculated
according to index calculation regulated by the MSE. MSE Top20 consists of securities from
the top 20 firms listed on the MSE. The basket of the MSE Top20 index is updated once every
six months. As in most small economies, foreign exchange rates play an important role in
economic growth in Mongolia. We choose exchange rates of MNT in terms of one US dollar.
Descriptive statistics for stock price indices and four macroeconomic variables are presented in
Table 1. Based on skewness and kurtosis, we observe that the distributions of some variables
are far from being normal.
3.2 Methodology
We conduct statistical tests for time series data to ensure that results are robust. The unit root
tests provide the order of integration of the time series variables. In a multivariate context if
the variable under discussion are found to be I (1). That is, they are non-stationary at levels,
but stationary at first differences. However, if the linear combination of the integrated
variables is I (0), the variables are said to be co-integrated (Enders, 2004). The Augmented
Dickey Fuller (ADF) is performed to confirm the stationary nature of the series. The
complete model with deterministic terms is shown in Equation (1).
∆𝑦𝑡 = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝑡 + 𝛾𝑦𝑡−1 + ⋯ + 𝛿1∆𝑦𝑡−1 + ⋯ + 𝛿𝑝−1∆𝑦𝑡−𝑝+1 + 휀𝑡, (1)
The Vector Autoregression (VAR) approach resolves requirements for structural modeling by
treating every endogenous variable in the system as a function of the lagged values of all the
endogenous variables in the system. The mathematical representation of a VAR is
𝑌𝑡 = 𝑐 + 𝐴1𝑌𝑡−1 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑝𝑌𝑡−𝑝 + 휀𝑡 (2)
where, Yt is a n vector of endogenous variables, and A(L) is lag operator. However, since the
VAR model does not have many variables to be used, there is a weak point that results may
vary depending on the number of variables in an analysis, and the order of arrangement of
variables, sample period, and parallax length.
The impulse response functions trace the effects of a shock or an impulse to one endogenous
variable on the other endogenous variables in the VAR system of equations. We generate an
impulse as a one standard deviation innovation to the VAR residuals and observe the resulting
effects over a period of five months. The impulse response function analysis will help us
determine whether shocks are transmitted from a macroeconomic variable to another and how
long the impact of such shocks remain in the stock price index Furthermore, we perform the
variance decomposition of the VAR model, which separates the variation in each endogenous
variable into the four random innovations affecting the model. The analysis will help us
131
determine how important each random shock is in affecting the variables of the model.
Finally, we conduct the Granger causality test (Engel and Granger, 1987), which is employed
to examine the direction of causality between the variables. To test for Granger causality, the
following bi-variate regression model can be used.
𝑌𝑡 = 𝛼0 + ∑ 𝛼𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑌𝑡−𝑖 + ∑ 𝛽𝑗
𝑚
𝑗=1
𝑋𝑡−𝑗 + 휀𝑡 (3)
𝑋𝑡 = 𝜔0 + ∑ 𝛾𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑌𝑡−𝑖 + ∑ 𝜃𝑗
𝑚
𝑗=1
𝑋𝑡−𝑗 + 휀𝑡 (4)
where, Xt and Yt denote the macroeconomic variables and SPI1 (or SPI2) respectively. With
Equation (3) and (4), we test Ho: ∑ 𝛽𝑗𝑚𝑗=1 = 0 and ∑ 𝛾𝑖
𝑛𝑖=1 = 0, respectively. Rejecting the
Ho in equation (3) implies that the chosen macroeconomic variables Granger-causes SPI1 (or
SPI2) and that past values of those significantly predict market indices. Similarly, rejecting
Ho in equation (4) implies that SPI1 (or SPI2) Granger-causes the selected macroeconomic
variables as such past values of the index could be used to predict the macroeconomic
variables in question.
4. Empirical Results
4.1 Unit Root Test
The ADF test results show that in full period, LNSPI1, LNSPI2, LNER, LNMS, and LNGIO
are non-stationary, while LNINT is stationary. In pre-crisis period, LNSPI1, LNSPI2, LNER,
and LNMS are non-stationary, while LNGIO and LNINT are stationary. The results are close
to those of unit root test for post-crisis period. However, all the variables at first differences
become stationary at 1% level of significance in both full period and two sub-periods.
4.2 VAR Estimation
We choose a lag length of 1 in the general VAR model in estimation according to AIC
(Akaike information criteria) for both full period and two sub-periods. Table 2 provides the
results of VAR estimation for the full period. To save space, we only show results for SPI1. In
Panel A the coefficients of VAR model suggest that the lagged variable of money supply have
a positive impact as 0.53 on stock price index. Other macroeconomic variables have no
significant effect on the stock price index. On the other hand, the lagged coefficients of
DLNSPI1 on macroeconomic variables are insignificant. It implies that stock price index has
no significant impact on macroeconomic variables. Reviewing the lagged coefficients of
macroeconomic variables, we cannot find significant relations among different
macroeconomic variables.
132
Panel B of Table 2 shows the results estimated by using VAR model with macroeconomic
variables and DLNSPI2 instead of DLNSPI1 as stock price index. The coefficients of the
lagged variable in money supply have a positive impact as 0.58 on stock price index
(DLNSPI2). Other macroeconomic variables have no significant effect on the stock price
index (DLNSPI2). On the other hand, the coefficient of lagged variable of DLNSPI2 on
DLNER is significantly negative at -0.03. This means stock price index (DLNSPI2) has a
significant impact on exchange rate. There are no significant relations among different
macroeconomic variables as in Panel A.
Panel A of Table 3 shows results estimated by the VAR model with macroeconomic variables
and stock price index (DLNSPI1) for pre-crisis period. The coefficients of VAR model
estimated suggest that there is no significant effect on the stock price index (DLNSPI1). On
the other hand, the lagged coefficients of DLNSPI1 on macroeconomic variables gross
industrial output (DLNGIO) is significantly negative. It means stock price index (DLNSPI1)
has only one significant impact on macroeconomic variable.
Panel B of Table 3 shows results estimated by the VAR model with macroeconomic variables
and DLNSPI2 as stock price index. The coefficients suggest that there is no significant effect
on the stock price index. Other macroeconomic variables have no significant effect on the
stock price index. On the other hand, the coefficient of lagged variable of stock price index
have no significant impact. This means stock price index have no significant impact other
macroeconomic variables. In summary, the results from Table 3 suggest that there are no
macroeconomic variables lead both stock price indices: SPI1 and SPI2.
Panel A of Table 4 shows the results estimated by using VAR model with macroeconomic
variables and stock price index (DLNSPI1) for the post-period. The coefficients of VAR
model estimated suggest that the lagged variable of money supply have a positive impact on
stock price index. Other macroeconomic variables have no significant effect on the stock
price index. On the other hand, the coefficient of lagged variable of DLNSPI1 on DLNER is
significantly negative. This implies that stock price index has a significant impact on
exchange rate.
Panel B of Table 4 shows the results estimated by using VAR model with macroeconomic
variables and DLNSPI2 as stock price index. The coefficients of the lagged variable of
money supply have a positive impact on stock price index (DLNSPI2). Other macroeconomic
variables have no significant effect on the stock price index (DLNSPI2). On the other hand,
the coefficient of lagged variable of DLNSPI2 on DLNER is significantly negative. It
suggests that stock price index has a significant impact on exchange rate.
133
4.3 Variance Decomposition Analysis
Table 5 reports variance decomposition with SPI1 in Panel A, C, E and SPI2 in Panel B, D, F
for the full (A and B), pre-crisis (C and D), and post-crisis period (E and F). To save space,
we only show Panel A. While we conduct the test for 10 month-periods, we report results for
1, 2, 5, and 10 for brevity. For the full period, Panel A shows that variations in the stock price
index (DLNSPI1) is predominantly attributed to its own variations for 97.08% followed by
money supply of 1.78%, gross industrial output 0.79%, exchange rate 0.64%, and interest rate
0.01%. In Panel B variations in the stock price index (DLNSPI2) is predominantly attributed
to its own variations for 96.31% followed by money supply of 3.50%, gross industrial output
0.17%, exchange rate 0.15%, and interest rate 0.13%.
For the pre-crisis period in Panel C, variations in the stock price index (DLNSPI1) is
predominantly attributed to its own variations for 99.24% followed by gross industrial output
0.45%, interest rate 0.26%, money supply of 0.042%, and exchange rate 0.003%. In Panel D
variations in the stock price index (DLNSPI2) is predominantly attributed to its own
variations for 98.28% followed by interest rate 1.36%, money supply 0.29%, gross industrial
output 0.20%, and exchange rate 0.017%.
For the post-crisis period in Panel E, variations in the stock price index (DLNSPI1) is
predominantly attributed to its own variations for 92.47% followed by money supply 5.72%,
exchange rate 0.49%, gross industrial output 0.68%, and interest rate 0.39%. In Panel F,
variations in the stock price index (DLNSPI2) is predominantly attributed to its own
variations for 87.82% followed by money supply 10.56%, interest rate 2.10%, gross
industrial output 1.39%, and exchange rate 0.61%.
4.4 Granger Causality Test
We present the results of the test on causality for the full period in Table 6. The causality is
found from the macroeconomic variables to the stock price index (DLNSPI1). The money
supply Granger-causes to stock price index at 4.16. Among the macroeconomic variables
gross industrial output Granger-causes to interest rate at 3.02. From the panel B money
supply Granger-causes to stock price index (DLNSPI2) at 7.49. on the other hand stock price
index (DLNSPI2) Granger-causes to exchange rate at 3.19. It implies that the DLNSPI1 is not
a leading indicator for any macroeconomic variables in Mongolia. A rational explanation is
that the capital market of Mongolia is smaller than other international capital markets.
Therefore, the impact of capital markets on the overall economy is low.
The results of the test on causality for the pre-crisis period are presented in Table 7. The
results in Panel A show that stock price index (DLNSPI1) Granger-causes to gross industrial
134
output at 4.44. Among the macroeconomic variables, money supply Granger-causes to gross
industrial output at 4.45. In Panel B for DLNSPI2 there were not any causality between stock
price and macroeconomic variables. Among the macroeconomic variables, money supply
Granger-causes to gross industrial output at 4.50, which Granger-causes to interest rate at
3.07.
The results of the test on causality for the post-crisis period are presented in Table 8. The
money supply Granger-causes to stock price index (DLNSPI1) in Panel A. Among the
macroeconomic variables, interest rate Granger-causes to money supply. In Panel B for SPI2.
The money supply Granger-causes to stock price index (DLNSPI2) at 14.73. In addition,
stock price index (DLNSPI2) Granger-causes to exchange rate at 3.98. Among the
macroeconomic variables, interest rate Granger-causes to exchange rate at 6.93.
5. Conclusion
Using the data during 2000 – 2016, we conduct unit root test, impulse response analysis,
variance decomposition analysis, and Granger causality test based on VAR model approach.
The study analyze monthly data in Mongolia for the entire period and the two sub-periods:
the pre-crisis and the post-crisis period divided by the global financial crisis to examine how
the crisis affects the relationship between stock prices and macroeconomic variables.
The key results of this study are as follows. First, the coefficients of the lagged variable of
money supply have a positive impact on stock price index. Other macroeconomic variables
except for money supply have no significant effect on the stock price index. It suggests that
money supply leads stock price index in Mongolia. Second, in the Granger causality test for
full period, the money supply Granger-causes to stock price index. On the other hand, stock
price index Granger-causes to exchange rate. Third, both VAR estimation and Granger
causality test for pre-crisis period show that there are no macroeconomic variables which
have a significant impact on the stock market index.
Finally, VAR estimation for post-crisis period shows money supply has a positive impact on
stock price index. Granger causality test also confirms that money supply has a positive
impact on stock price index. Stock price index has a significant effect on exchange rate. The
effect of a shock to money supply on stock price index is found to be positive throughout the
next 6 – 7 months time horizon in impulse response analysis for post-period. Money supply is
the most important one of four macroeconomic variables to be considered in explaining the
forecast error variance in the stock price index.
135
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136
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics
A: Full Period
LNSPI1 LNSPI2 LNER LNMS LNINT LNGIO
Mean 12.58 8.22 7.20 7.64 2.37 12.21
Median 13.28 8.77 7.10 7.76 2.43 12.36
Max 15.07 10.28 7.82 9.39 2.82 13.91
Min 10.21 5.62 6.93 5.34 1.29 10.24
S.D 1.65 1.43 0.21 1.26 0.34 1.08
Skewness -0.21 -0.27 1.15 -0.23 -1.27 -0.32
Kurtosis 1.28 1.41 3.23 1.76 4.25 1.87
Table 2. VAR Estimation for Full Period
A: VAR Estimation with SPI1 as Stock Price Index
DLNSPI1 DLNER DLNMS DLNINT DLNGIO
DLNSPI1(-1) 0.165539 -0.012297 0.001865 -0.038987 -0.147928
[ 2.37157]** [-0.97431] [ 0.09599] [-0.36550] [-1.41525]
DLNER(-1) -0.370716 0.170642 -0.178109 0.130725) -0.180038
[-0.94579] [ 2.40770]** [-1.63248] [ 0.21824] [-0.30674]
DLNMS(-1) 0.535904 -2.71E-05 -0.093629 -0.477178 0.460035
[ 2.03965]** [-0.00057] [-1.28023] [-1.18843] [ 1.16925]
DLNINT(-1) 0.010002 -0.005633 0.004968 -0.024713 0.092869
[ 0.21253] [-0.66196] [ 0.37925] [-0.34363] [ 1.31783]
DLNGIO(-1) -0.057908 -0.008726 0.006463 0.115321 -0.422776
[-1.33424] [-1.11198] [ 0.53499] [ 1.73874] [-6.50514]***
C 0.006725 0.003777 0.022495 0.008854 0.019796
[ 0.66550] [ 2.06686] [ 7.99722] [ 0.57334] [ 1.30817]
Table 3. VAR Estimation for Pre-Crisis Period
A: VAR Estimation with SPI1 as Stock Price Index
DLNSPI1 DLNER DLNMS DLNINT DLNGIO
DLNSPI1(-1) 0.143349 0.008411 0.009004 -0.05709 -0.26786
[ 1.35685] [ 1.39427] [ 0.36057] [-0.28366] [-2.10821]**
DLNER(-1) 0.097987 0.249044 -0.81821 -3.11348 1.014478
[ 0.05434] [ 2.41859]** [-1.91973]** [-0.90633] [ 0.46779]
DLNMS(-1) 0.075982 -0.01221 -0.26044 -1.01721 1.143014
[ 0.16879] [-0.47511] [-2.44789]** [-1.18618] [ 2.11135]**
DLNINT(-1) 0.032621 0.000901 0.013385 -0.04151 0.069095
[ 0.57409] [ 0.27754] [ 0.99670] [-0.38346] [ 1.01113]
DLNGIO(-1) -0.05829 0.001405 0.006069 0.213424 -0.57063
[-0.83514] [ 0.35254] [ 0.36787] [ 1.60513] [-6.79823]***
C 0.025752 0.000564 0.032927 0.023325 0.015823
[ 1.39422] [ 0.53519] [ 7.54246] [ 0.66289] [ 0.71235]
137
Table 4. VAR Estimation for Post-Crisis Period
A: VAR Estimation with SPI1 as Stock Price Index
DLNSPI1 DLNER DLNMS DLNINT DLNGIO
DLNSPI1(-1) 0.145129 -0.04386 -0.02183 -0.02798 0.087363
[ 1.49561] [-1.72013]* [-0.72485] [-0.51102] [ 0.51218]
DLNER(-1) -0.29233 0.15859 -0.08505 0.261686 -0.17793
[-0.79968] [ 1.65104] [-0.74974] [ 1.26855] [-0.27690]
DLNMS(-1) 0.905584 5.79E-02 0.048625 -0.08254 -0.18446
[ 2.73722]** [ 0.66557] [ 0.47361] [-0.44210] [-0.31718]
DLNINT(-1) -0.07846 -0.10971 -0.05543 0.422647 0.250525
[-0.48144] [-2.56210]** [-1.09600] [ 4.59602]*** [ 0.87458]
DLNGIO(-1) -0.04882 -0.01505 0.007751 -0.01185 -0.27054
[-0.87138] [-1.02244] [ 0.44585] [-0.37481] [-2.74732]***
C -0.00621 0.006024 0.015158 0.000548 0.022618
[-0.52717] [ 1.94542]* [ 4.14505]*** [ 0.08234] [ 1.09194]
Table 5. Variance Decomposition Analysis
A: DLNSPI1 for Full Period
Period S.E. DLNSPI1 DLNER DLNMS DLNINT DLNGIO
1 0.1190 100 0 0 0 0
2 0.1232 97.0805 0.4716 1.7752 0.0074 0.6654
5 0.1235 96.7792 0.6448 1.7761 0.0104 0.7894
10 0.1235 96.7778 0.6448 1.7762 0.0105 0.7907
Table 6. Granger Causality Test for Full Period
A: Granger causality test with SPI1 as Stock Price Index
DLNSP1 DLNER DLNMS DLNINT DLNGIO
DLNSPI1 chi-sq
0.949 0.009 0.134 2.003
prob.
0.330 0.924 0.715 0.157
DLNER chi-sq 0.895
2.665 0.048 0.094
prob. 0.344
0.103 0.827 0.759
DLNMS chi-sq 4.160 0.000
1.412 1.367
prob. 0.041 1.000
0.235 0.242
DLNINT chi-sq 0.045 0.438 0.144
1.737
prob. 0.832 0.508 0.705
0.188
DLNGIO chi-sq 1.780 1.236 0.286 3.023
prob. 0.182 0.266 0.593 0.082
138
Table 7. Granger Causality Test for Pre-Crisis Period
A: Granger causality test with SPI1 as Stock Price Index
DLNSP1 DLNER DLNMS DLNINT DLNGIO
DLNSPI1 chi-sq
1.944 0.130 0.080 4.445
prob.
0.163 0.718 0.777 0.035
DLNER chi-sq 0.003
3.685 0.821 0.219
prob. 0.957
0.055 0.365 0.640
DLNMS chi-sq 0.028 0.226
1.407 4.458
prob. 0.866 0.635
0.236 0.035
DLNINT chi-sq 0.330 0.077 0.993
1.022
prob. 0.566 0.781 0.319
0.312
DLNGIO chi-sq 0.697 0.124 0.135 2.576
prob. 0.404 0.724 0.713 0.109
Table 8. Granger Causality Test for Post-Crisis Period
A: Granger causality test with SPI1 as Stock Price Index
DLNSP1 DLNER DLNMS DLNINT DLNGIO
DLNSPI1 chi-sq
2.959 0.525 0.261 0.262
prob.
0.085 0.469 0.609 0.609
DLNER chi-sq 0.639
0.562 1.609 0.077
prob. 0.424
0.453 0.205 0.782
DLNMS chi-sq 7.492 0.443
0.195 0.101
prob. 0.006 0.506
0.658 0.751
DLNINT chi-sq 0.232 6.564 1.201
0.765
prob. 0.630 0.010 0.273
0.382
DLNGIO chi-sq 0.759 1.045 0.199 0.140
prob. 0.384 0.307 0.656 0.708
139
ICSSB-216
Impact of Assortative Matching on Default Rates in a Microcredit Market:
An Empirical Analysis
Saswatee Mukherjee
Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Presidency University
[email protected], [email protected]
Current Draft: September 2018
(Please do not quote)
Abstract
The paper tries to empirically test the hypothesis that positive assortative matching among
group members in MFI (Microfinance Institution) lending leads to implicit group liability
even though credit is provided individually. Implicit group liability is found to reduce the
probability of default of the borrowers since group members often bail out one another in
situations of cash flow shortage of another fellow group member. In this paper two social
parameter, religion and caste, are considered and their impact on default rates are tested using
primary data. It is found that borrowers of same religion often bail out one another thereby
significantly reducing borrower delinquency. However, caste difference among borrowers
belonging to the same group has little impact.
Keywords: Group lending; Microfinance
JEL classification: G21; O12; D4
1. Introduction
The rapid growth of the microfinance movement led by socially committed, non-profit
institutions has proved that poor are bankable. Realizing this fact, profit maximizing, formal
lending institutions started to enter this market. Today, non-profit organizations are facing
competition from profit driven lenders across the world. This has made the socially motivated
non-profit lenders re-think their strategies of reaching the poor. Aggressive competition in the
microfinance sector started in the first decade of this century in some countries such as
Bolivia, Bangladesh and Uganda [Rhyne and Otero (2006)]. In other developing countries
such as India, it has started more recently. However, increased competition has aggravated he
problem of default among the borrowers. Various policy makers and practitioners have come
up with various tools and techniques to address the problem of default. Among them the
strategy of positive assortative matching of the borrowers while forming the MFI group is
found to be effective.
140
This paper focuses on the impact of certain social parameters like religion and caste of the
borrowers while forming the MFI groups on the default rate of the borrowers. The data used
in the analysis supports the fact that if majority of the individual borrowers in a group
belongs to the same religion or caste, then the probability of loan default gradually decreases.
There are many other significant variables that are found to affect the default rate, but the
central question of this paper revolves around the idea and efficacy of positive assortative
matching to tackle the problem of borrower default.
Prior to microfinance revolution, the access to credit opportunities for poor people were
extremely limited due to lack of collateral, high cost of monitoring and strict enforcement
rules. Moreover, the improper monitoring results in poor repayment rates due to default
which further leads to higher costs and sometimes failure of the entire project. In order to
solve these problems, method of group lending was introduced in1970s by Muhammad
Yunus through his Grameen Bank. Group lending pertains to a situation where a group of
financially challenged individuals are formed and these people are given loans that are to be
paid in a given period (usually a year or two). All members are not given loan at a time,
rather a single individual is allotted first and the next loan allotment will depend on the credit
records of the first borrower. The factors like group size and frequency of repayments along
with presence of social ties also has substantial impact on the repayment rate but some of
them will be relaxed in this analysis. This group lending phenomenon has close links to
various concepts like enforcing joint liability20
, peer monitoring21
, active screening22
etc.
Though microcredit has achieved huge appreciations, mostly in urban and semi-urban areas,
its progress in rural areas has relatively been slow because the MFIs face an operational
trade-off between financial returns and poor client outreach. The infrastructural needs like
communications, transport, irrigation, power, storage facilities etc. are not crucial for the
non-agricultural micro entrepreneurs but these are the prime requirements of agricultural
micro enterprises. Hence, the government also has a crucial role in the development of this
sector. The prime advantage of group lending over individual lending is the joint liability
20
Ghatak & Guinnane, 1999 show that when joint liability contract is enforced on the borrowers in group
lending contracts each and every borrower accepts the threat of non-access to future credit from the lender if
their group does not repay its loan fully.
21 Banerjee et al. (1994) claim that arguments based on peer monitoring are much more successful in explaining
the progress of group lending schemes than other explanations. Besley and Coate (1995) show that successful
members of the group possess the incentive to repay the dues of the less successful ones along with the effect of
social collateral in repayment guarantee. 22
Hoff and Stiglitz (1990) show that active screening helps in tracking down the activities of the group
members by the MFI in order to identify its potential customers.
141
contract because in a combination of risky and safe borrowers, if the return realized by a safe
borrower is high and sufficient in a good state of nature to compensate the payment of a
defaulting member, then this group contract can decrease the interest rate and induce much
higher repayment compared to individual lending (Armendairiz de Aghion & Gollier, 2000).
In Coleman (1988), there is a significant role of trust worthiness, mutual obligation,
expectations, social sanctions and norms, and the information transmission among the
borrowers. Van Tassel (1999) stated that presence of self-selection and joint liability will
induce screening out of risky borrowers and the group will comprise only the safe borrowers.
Despite the several advantages of microfinance, several economists have pointed many
criticisms regarding the operational strategy of micro-lending. This includes adverse selection,
ambiguity in frequency of loan repayment, flexibility and sustainability of the products,
efficiency issues, and failure to support social capital which gives birth to moral hazards.
Though there has been immense research on repayment frequency and assortative matching
in microfinance but the research on impact of certain social parameters like caste and religion
remains neglected. This paper in this regard expects to shade light on some of this uncharted
water. In section 1 the paper introduces the theory of Microfinance with an emphasis on
group lending scheme and discusses the concept of assortative matching between social
parameters. Section 2 explores the existing literature on this field. Section 3 & 4 mentions the
research objective and the research methodology of the paper respectively. Section 5
emphasizes on the data used and section 6 focuses on the empirical analysis part of the paper.
Finally section 7 concludes the paper.
2. Data and Methodology
The data that has been used in this study was collected from a primary survey conducted at
two semi-urban localities of West Bengal from September 2012 to November 2012. All the
respondents are the clients of Bandhan, the largest MFI of Eastern India, which has been
practicing group lending contracts without group-liability in various parts of West Bengal
since 2001. Bandhan has been chosen as the preferred MFI/NBFC, since it is one of the
largest NBFC in India and the largest in Eastern India registered under the Reserve Bank of
India [Forbes, 2008] operating since 2001. Bandhan till April 2013 has expanded its
operation to 18 states and union territories with 1803 branches with 200,281 groups and
3,968,326 active borrowers in all over India. It has around 11,450 staff members working at
field and office levels. The total loan outstanding of Bandhan as on 30th
April 2013 is Rs.
4420 crores. Currently, Bandhan has over 792 branches in West Bengal catering to over
4,433,885 active borrowers. The loan duration of Bandhan is 52 weeks or 104 weeks
depending on the loan size and in the fiscal year 2012-2013, around 47 percent of the
borrowers had loan terms of 52 weeks while the remaining 53 percent had 104 weeks.
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Among the semi-urban localities in West Bengal, Madhyagram in North 24 Paraganas is an
area which is catered by the largest number of MFIs. Hence, for the purpose of our study it is
a suitable sample area. Demographically, Madhyamgram is dominated by Hindu households
and thus, to counteract that impact, Akra in South 24 Paraganas is also selected, which is a
Muslim household dominated semi-urban locality with equally large number of operative
MFIs. In both Akra and Madhyamgram, Bandhan started its operation in 2006 in the months
of January and February respectively. Apart from Bandhan, Madhyamgram is catered by
twelve other MFIs and NBFCs, like Asha, Ujjiban, Sahara, MPS, SKS, Arohon, Ushmita,
Bikash, Puja, Mangaldeep, Anjali and, Village Financial Services Pvt. Ltd. (VFSPL). In
Madhyamgram the oldest player is Sahara which started its operation in 1998. That apart,
SKS entered the market in 2005, Asha, Arohan and VFSPL in 2006, while the remaining
joined around 2010. In Akra, on the other hand, Bandhan faces competition from seven other
MFIs and NBFCs like, Asha, Ujjiban, Sahara, SKS, Arohon, Anjali and, Village Financial
Services Pvt. Ltd. (VFSPL). In Akra, SKS is the oldest player that started its operation in
2003. Ujjivan, Arohon and Sahara started in 2006, while the remaining others started 4 years
back.
The survey comprises of 820 borrowers belonging to 42 groups formed by Bandhan in these
two localities taking loans either under the Suchana scheme or Srishti scheme23
. In the dataset,
it has been found that almost 73 percent of borrowers attend their weekly meetings regularly
and around 9 percent of the borrowers failed to make their weekly repayment at least once in
the last one year. In case of absence from weekly meetings due to familial reasons, illness,
etc., many borrowers make their scheduled weekly repayment to the MFI’s credit officer
through some family member, or another group member. From the lender’s point of view,
then, there is technically, no default in such cases. In rare cases we see complete default.24
Hence, from the lenders’ point of view, rising competition, whatever else it may have done,
has not affected the default rates. We believe, that this phase of increasing competition is of
fairly recent vintage and, therefore, double dipping and outright defaults are not ubiquitous.
However, there may be some early signals that need to be explored. In particular, if we think
of irregularity of actual scheduled repayment as an early signal of repayment difficulties that
a borrower is facing, then in an extended sense, we can think of this as a form of default, even
though the lender remains unaffected. What strengthens our hunch is that one of our results
says that people who double dip are more likely to default in this extended sense.
23
Suchana loans are given to women only who organize themselves in groups of 10-30 members. Loan size
ranges from Rs. 1000-15000 and loan term is 52 weeks. Srishti loans are larger loans of sizes between Rs.
16000-50000 and the loan term is 104 weeks. 24
In our survey, we came across just two such instances.
143
Also, some of the borrowers have borrowed from two or more MFIs, apart from Bandhan,
even though as per the 2012 Malegam Committee report on Microfinance, borrowers are
debarred from borrowing from more than two MFIs or NBFCs at the same time.25
From the
data set it has been found that, out of 820 respondents around 684 have borrowed from
Bandhan only, 134 from two sources and 2 from three sources in total, both inclusive of
Bandhan. None of the respondents borrowed from more than three sources even though they
have access to twelve other MFI lenders in and around Madhyamgram locality and seven
other in Akra.
The field survey was conducted primarily to capture the impact of religion and caste of the
group members of the MFIs and NBFCs on the rate of default of the borrowers. The data that
has been collected through field surveys and interviews of the borrowers.
3. Religion of member borrowers and its impact on loan default
In this section, the primary motive is to test the hypothesis that the probability of loan default
by any borrower reduces if he or she belongs to a group which comprises more homogeneous
religion mix. However, the literature suggests that there are various other explanatory
variables, apart from religious mix of the group members, which may have some significant
impact on the borrower’s incentive to default on his loan repayment [Cassar, Crowley &
Wydick, (2007)]. We present these with brief theoretical justifications for each below.
Number of Loan Sources
With increased competition among the MFIs and NBFCs in a given locality, a borrower can
avail loans from multiple sources to invest them into various productive activities [Jappelli
and Pagano (2000), Vogelgesang (2001), Newsom (2002), Rhyne and Christen (1999)].
Nature of Primary Occupation of the borrower’s household
While collecting the primary data it has been observed that borrower households earning their
living out of business ventures are expected to borrow more as compared to fixed income
salaried households. A possible theoretical explanation of this could be that business
households are typically more dependent on trade-related credit than salaried households for
whom the business if there is any is an insignificant part of livelihood which probably they
25
After the Microfinance crisis in Andhra Pradesh in 2010, borrower vetting and information sharing at the
individual borrower level through credit bureaus became mandatory, although it is not clear how
well-entrenched this is in day to day practice. In our survey data, we find two violations of the prudential norm
that no borrower can have outstanding loans from more than two MFIs at the same time. Diligent use of
information from credit bureaus would have ruled out this possibility. However, it is also possible that credit
bureaus do not have all the information they require because MFIs are tardy about passing on individual level
information.
144
can finance themselves. As a result households involved with business-related activities are
found to default more.
Per capita income (PCI) of a household
The higher is the PCI of any particular household, the more will be the credit worthiness of
that borrower and, the higher will be his incentive to borrow from multiple sources to invest
in various productive activities. However, lack of lucrative ventures in these areas, makes it
difficult for the borrower to yield good returns from the projects. This increases the
borrower’s probability of default. On the other hand, with higher PCI, the borrower will be
better placed in terms of loan repayment on time and avoid credit default. Hence, there are
two opposing forces that affect the borrower’s incentive to default with respect to his PCI and
it is the relative strength of the two opposing effects that explains the net impact of PCI on
the borrower’s probability of default26
[Armendariz de Aghion and Morduch (2004)].
Dependency ratio
The Dependency Ratio is given by the ratio of the sum of children below 15 years of age and
the number of senior citizens above 60 years of age to the number of adults in the family aged
between 16 to 60 years. Inspection of the data set shows that larger is the number of
dependants in a particular household, the greater will be the requirement of credit in order to
satisfy various livelihood necessities, and thereby the greater is the tendency to default on
loan repayment.
Total Land Value
Families with high valuation of assets have greater credibility to borrow from multiple
sources27
[Armendariz de Aghion and Morduch (2004)].
Group size
Even though literature suggests that the idea of peer pressure and social sanction as a
substitute of physical collateral helps to mitigate the problem of moral hazard in joint liability
group lending contracts, yet it is found effective in order to resolve the problem of moral
hazard, to some extent, in cases of individual lending contracts in absence of physical
collateral. In this case, when borrowers belonging to a same locality or social strata comprise
26
Armendariz de Aghion and Morduch (2004) argue that since borrower’s source of income is a key factor
while approving the loan to a borrower, most of the poor households miss out the benefits of microcredit scheme
on grounds of low incomes. Even though it is mainly targeted for the poor clientele yet they do not reach the
poorest of the poor due to lack of steady income flows of the poor households which make their repayment
capabilities uncertain. 27
Armendariz de Aghion and Morduch (2004) discuss that MFIs/NBFCs sometimes accept collateral which
may not have equivalent market valuation as compared to the loan size, yet the collateral may have some high
intrinsic value to the borrower due to emotional or social reasons. Hence, these types of collateral which are
unacceptable to formal sector banks are readily accepted as collaterals by the MFIs and NBFCs.
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a group, the repayment default by any borrower results in social stigma of that borrower in
front of his/her peer members. This reputational disgrace in situation of repayment default
compels the borrower to repay his/her individual loan when arranged in groups. Thus, the
larger is the group size, the more intensive will be the reputational threat within the group,
which in turn lowers the chance of loan default by a borrower [Armendariz de Aghion and
Morduch (2004)].
Length of business ties between the borrower and the MFI
The older is the borrower’s relation with the MFI, the stronger is the borrower’s credit history
with the MFI. Hence, the sanctioned loan size of any disciplined borrower keeps on
increasing over time. In this case, the borrower does not require credit from multiple sources
since, a large volume of credit can be granted by the single MFI itself, ceteris paribus. As a
result, the borrow defaults less28
[Fehr and Zehnder (2006)].
Age of the group
An older group is supposed to be more credit worthy because the valuation of individual and
group reputations is higher as compared to a relatively newer group. With time, the older
group develops a strong credit history with the MFI and its members are found to default less
[Fehr and Zehnder (2006)].
Size of the loan taken from the MFI
If the lender, whom the borrower approaches first, is readily approving the required loan
amount asked for by the borrower, then he does not need to seek for other lenders to avail the
required credit amount. Hence, the larger is the sanctioned loan of any borrower with
Bandhan (the first lender approached by the borrower in our study), the lesser will be his
incentive to approach other lenders for credit [Armendariz de Aghion and Morduch (2004)].
On the basis of these insights, we can frame the following model29
.
iiiiiiiii GANMFIPCITLVNPOGSDRRELDefault 87654321 ln
iiiii uNAinBLSLTMBB 1211109 ln
(1)
where, iDefault is the binary dependant variable such that,
28
Fehr and Zehnder (2006) shows that in absence of third party enforcement of debt repayment, the parties
involved in a credit contract establish a bilateral credit relation which is efficient given the reputational concern
of the borrower. However, in presence of third parties borrowers choose relatively inefficient contracts which
are not the best market outcome. 29 In the model default is the dependent variable which is binary in nature. So the appropriate regression model
in this case will be logit or probit model. Here both the cases are shown to increase the robustness of the
analysis.
146
iDefault � = {1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
iREL is the religion dummy where,
iREL � = {1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
iDR is the dependency ratio of the ith
borrower household.
iGS is the size (number of members) of the ith
borrower of any particular group.
iNPO is the dummy variable indicating the nature of the primary occupation of the family of
the ith
borrower where,
iNPO � = {1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
iTLVln is the logarithmic transformation of total land value of the household.
iPCI is the per capita income of an ith
Bandhan member household.
iNMFI is the number of MFIS and NBFCs operating in the locality of the survey.
iGA is the age of the of the ith
borrower of a particular group with Bandhan.
iTMBB is the length of business ties between the ith
borrower and the MFI .
inL is the logarithmic transformation of the total loan that any ith
borrower owes to all
lenders.
iBLSln is the logarithmic transformation of the size of the outstanding loan of the ith
borrower with Bandhan.
iNA is the ratio of the number of adults to the total family size in the household of the ith
borrower.
The results of regression analysis are given below:
Table 1: Empirical results under Logistic regression analysis.
Explanatory variables Coefficients Odds Ratio dy/dx P >|z|
Religion -1.90141*** 0.1493579 -0.19638 0.000
Dep_ratio 0.8068834 2.240913 0.051112 0.216
Gr_size -0.15954*** 0.8525357 -0.01011 0.000
NPO -0.33397 0.7160721 -0.02272 0.224
Lntlv -0.549256*** 0.5773792 -0.03479 0.004
LnPCI -0.1452903 0.8647712 -0.0092 0.585
NMFI 0.2596562*** 1.296484 0.016448 0.004
Gr_age 0.0075552*** 1.007584 0.000479 0.009
TBB -0.0021038 0.9978984 -0.00013 0.388
Lntotloan 1.530452*** 4.620263 0.096946 0.002
147
Lnbls -1.55764*** 0.2106319 -0.09867 0.007
Noofadults 1.747011 5.73743 0.110664 0.305
_cons 6.373726* 586.2382
0.090
(*** implies significance at 1 %, ** implies significance at 5% and * implies significance at 10%
level)
[Number of observations = 782, Wald ~chi2(12) = 88.91, Prob>chi2 = 0.0000, Pseudo R2 =
0.1850, Log pseudolikelihood = -225.87878, y = Pr (default) (predict) = 0.06796399.]
Table 2: Empirical results under Probit regression analysis.
Explanatory variables Coefficients dy/dx P >|z|
Religion -1.04595*** -0.21182 0.000
Dep_ratio 0.387749 0.05277 0.264
Gr_size -0.08107*** -0.01103 0.000
NPO -0.17004 -0.02457 0.248
Lntlv -0.28088*** -0.03823 0.005
LnPCI -0.09654 -0.01314 0.479
NMFI 0.13067*** 0.017783 0.002
Gr_age 0.003871*** 0.000527 0.006
TBB -0.00107 -0.00015 0.376
Lntotloan 0.913342*** 0.1243 0.000
Lnbls -0.96148*** -0.13085 0.002
Noofadults 0.86586 0.117838 0.337
_cons 3.718068* 0.067
(*** implies significance at 1 %, ** implies significance at 5% and * implies significance at
10% level of confidence)
[Number of observations = 782, Wald ~chi2(12) = 91.16, Prob>chi2 = 0.0000, Pseudo R2 =
0.1853, Log pseudolikelihood = -225. 79066, y = Pr (default) (predict) = 0. 07124111]
After analysis the results, it can be said that both logit and probit regressions yield identical
results with different coefficient values. In the logit model, it can be seen that the variables
religion, gr_size, lntlv, NMFI, gr_age, lntotloan and lnbls are statistically significant at 1%
level of significance in explaining the tendency of delinquency by an individual. The
coefficient implies that, if the religion of the individual is same as the majority of the group
members (i.e. religion =1) then the log odds in favour of delinquency decreases by 1.90141
units. Similarly if the variables gr_size, lntlv and lnbls increases by 1 unit, the log odds in
favor of delinquency decreases by 0.15954, 0.549256 and 1.55764 units respectively. In case
of other significant variables like NMFI, gr_size and lntotloan, if they increase by one unit
148
then the log odds in favor of delinquency increases by 0.2596562, 0.0075552 and 1.530452
respectively. The odds ratios of the variables religion, gr_size, lntlv and lnbls are less than 1
and their corresponding marginal effects are negative. This implies that if religion = 1, then
the probability of delinquency reduces by 19.64 percentage points whereas, if the gr_size
increases by 1 unit from its mean level then the probability of delinquency reduces by 1.01
percentage points. Similar interpretation goes for the variables lntlv and lnbls. On the other
hand, the odds ratios of the variables NMFI, gr_age and lntotloan are greater than 1 and their
corresponding marginal effects are positive. This implies that if NMFI increases by 1 unit
from its mean level then the probability of delinquency increases by 1.6 percentage points.
Similar explanations pertain to the variables gr_age and lntotloan.
4. Caste of member borrowers and its impact on loan default
In this section the hypothesis is to test the impact of caste of any member borrower on the
probability of his or her default. For this section of analysis only the borrowers of
Madhyamgram have been considered since in Akra the groups are formed mostly with
Muslim members which makes the issue of caste redundant there. The following regression
model is tested in this section.
iiiiiiii GAPCITLVNPOGSDRCASDefault 7654321 ln
iiiii uNABLSLTMBB 111098 lnln
(2)
where, iCAS is the caste dummy where,
iCAS � = {1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
The results of regression analysis are given below: -
Table 3: Empirical results under Logistic regression analysis.
Explanatory variables Coefficients Odds Ratio dy/dx P >|z|
Caste -0.62358* 0.536021 -0.04997 0.072
Dep_ratio 1.65369* 5.226228 0.120502 0.077
Gr_size -0.11658*** 0.889961 -0.00849 0.014
NPO -0.0796 0.923488 -0.00586 0.824
Lntlv -0.49741 0.608101 -0.03625 0.118
LnPCI -0.76949** 0.46325 -0.05607 0.051
Gr_age 0.007984** 1.008016 0.000582 0.023
TBB -0.00308 0.996922 -0.00022 0.261
Lntotloan -0.08324 0.920133 -0.00607 0.916
149
Lnbls -0.32814 0.720263 -0.02391 0.734
Noofadults 4.656607** 105.2782 0.33932 0.044
_cons 12.54023* 279353.2 0.059
(*** implies significance at 1 %, ** implies significance at 5% and * implies significance at
10% level)
[Number of observations = 396, Wald ~chi2(12) = 25.82, Prob>chi2 = 0.0000, Pseudo R2 =
0.0069,Log pseudolikelihood = -121.96901, y = Pr (default) (predict) = 0.07913014]
Table 4: Empirical results under Probit regression analysis.
Explanatory variables Coefficients dy/dx P >|z|
Caste -0.35721** -0.0597 0.049
Dep_ratio 0.903409* 0.138756 0.085
Gr_size -0.05584*** -0.00858 0.008
NPO -0.01192 -0.00184 0.948
Lntlv -0.22583 -0.03469 0.217
LnPCI -0.37676* -0.05787 0.081
Gr_age 0.004029** 0.000619 0.018
TBB -0.00159 -0.00024 0.266
Lntotloan -0.12695 -0.0195 0.745
Lnbls -0.1207 -0.01854 0.795
Noofadults 2.456509** 0.3773 0.055
_cons 5.966589* 0.100
(*** implies significance at 1 %, ** implies significance at 5% and * implies significance at
10% level of confidence)
[Number of observations = 396, Wald ~chi2(12) = 26.08, Prob>chi2 = 0.0063, Pseudo R2 =
0.1012, Log pseudolikelihood = -122.28295, y = Pr (default) (predict) = 0.08353528]
Both the above models yield more or less identical results with different coefficient values
except that of caste variable which is highly significant in probit model as compared to logit
model. In this analysis, the variables caste and dep_ratio are significant at 10% level of
significance whereas, lnpci, gr_age and noofadults are significant at 1% level of significance.
The result shows that if caste of an individual is same as majority of the group members (i.e.
Caste = 1) then the log odds in favor of delinquency decreases by 0.62358 units. That is
borrowers belonging to groups with identical caste distribution are found to default less as
150
compared to those belonging to relatively heterogeneous groups with respect to caste.
Similarly, if the variables gr_size and lnpci increases by 1 unit, then the log odds in favour of
delinquency decreases by 0.11658 and 0.76949 units respectively. In case of other variables
like dep_ratio, gr_age and noofadults, if they increase by one unit then the log odds in favor
of delinquency increases by 1.6539, 0.007984 and 4.656607 units respectively. The odd
ratios of the variables caste, gr_size and lnpci are less than 1 and their corresponding
marginal effects are negative. This implies that if caste = 1, then the probability of
delinquency reduces by 4.99 percentage point whereas if the gr_size increases by 1 unit from
its mean level then the probability of delinquency reduces by 0.85 percentage points. Similar
interpretation goes for the variable lnpci. Also, the odd ratios of the variables dep_ratio,
gr_age and noofadults are greater than 1 and their corresponding marginal effects are positive.
This implies that if dep_ratio increases by 1 unit from its mean level then the probability of
delinquency increases by 12.05 percentage points. Similar explanation pertains to the
variables gr_age and noofadults.
5. Conclusion
Thus from the analysis it can be concluded that the social parameters like religion and caste
have crucial impact on our outcome variable of credit default and thus positive assortative
matching with respect to religious mix and caste distribution is highly recommended in group
formation in microfinance. This can be explained by the fact that individuals prefer to trust
co-borrowers of their own social domain i.e. those who belong to the same religion or caste,
follows the same language and ethnicity, as compared to those from other religion or caste.
Among the other variables most interesting is that of an inverse relationship between age of a
borrower group with the MFI and probability of default of the members of that group. A
probable explanation for this may be that as the age of the group increases, the bonding
among the members themselves as well as the members and the MFI becomes stronger and a
relationship of trust develops. This makes it more difficult to pressurize the fellow members
to repay their debts (Wydick, 1999). Also higher total loan size as well as number of greater
number adult members in a borrower family raises the probability of credit default. It can be
said that if a borrower's total loan outstanding increases, then he may fall into a debt trap
which eventually leads to default. Similarly, if the number of adults in a family becomes
large, the overall consumption expenditure of the household rises and thereby default
happens. Additionally, if the number of MFIs operating in the area increases, it would ease
the supply of credit in the given locality. This induces the borrowers to take loans from
multiple sources (double dipping) and eventually they fall into debt trap and fail to repay the
due instalments. Finally, total land value is the indicator of economic health of the any
borrower family and it is expected that borrowers with high valued assets are relatively in a
better position to repay their loans as compared to the landless ones.
151
Hence, from the analysis, it is safe to assert that positive assortative matching, with respect to
social parameters like religion and caste, among the borrower members of a MFI group,
significantly reduce the chances of credit default by the borrowers. This implies that in-group
favouritism is more inclined towards similar religion. That apart, there is also in-group bias
among the borrowers of similar caste, especially among the minorities. This factor is also
evident in religion variable (Gupta et. al., 2013). Thus it is recommended to form the groups
while keeping in mind the positive assortative matching among these social parameters.
References
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Financial Development and Economic Growth, pp 135-148, Springer.
Armendariz de Aghion, B. and Morduch, J. (2004). Microfinance: Where do we Stand? The
Economics of Transition, 8(2), pp.401-420.
Banerjee, A. V., Besley, T. and Guinnane, T. W. (1994). Thy Neighbor's Keeper: The Design
of a Credit Cooperative with Theory and a Test. The Quarterly Journal of Economics,
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Collateral. Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 46 (1), pp. 1-18.
Cassar, A., Crowley, L. and Wydick, B. (2007). The effect of social capital on group loan
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Coleman, B. E. (1999). The impact of group lending in Northeast Thailand. Journal of
Development Economics, Vol. 60 (1), pp. 105-141.
Fehr, E., and C. Zehnder. (2006). Reputation and Credit market Formation. Mimeo,
University of Zurich.
Ghatak, M. and Guinnane, T. (1999). The economics of lending with joint liability: theory
and practice. Journal of Development Economics, 60(1), pp.195-228.
Hoff, K and Stiglitz, J. E. (1990). Imperfect Information and Rural Credit Markets: Puzzles and
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Information and Rural Credit Markets, pp. 235-250
Jappelli, T., and Pagano, M. (2002). Information sharing, lending and defaults: Cross-country
evidence. Journal of Banking & Finance, 26(10), pp 2017-2045
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Newsom, J. (2002). Bougainville microfinance: Rebuilding rural communities after the crisis.
Development Bulletin no. 57, pp. 85-88.
Rhyne, E., and R. P. Christen. (1999). Microfinance Enters Marketplace. USAID.
http://www.mip.org/pdfs/usaid/microfinanceenters.pdf.
Rhyne, E and, M. Otero. (2006). Microfinance through the Next Decade: Visioning the Who,
What, Where, When and How. ACCION International. A paper Commissioned by the
Global Microcredit Sumit 2006.
Van Tassel, E. (1999). Group Lending under Asymmetric Information. Journal of
Development Economics, 60(1), pp.3-25.
Vogelgesang, U. (2001). Microfinance in Times of Crisis: The Effects of Competition, Rising
Indebtedness, and Economic Crisis on Repayment Behaviour. World Development, Vol.
31 (12), pp. 2085-2114.
Wydick, B. (1999). The Effect of Microenterprise Lending on Child Schooling in Guatemala.
Economic Development and Cultural Change, 47(6), pp 853-869.
153
ICSSB-247
Thailand Development Initiatives in ASEAN
Suthikorn Kingkaew
Thammasat Business School, Thailand
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
As one of the five founding members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN), Thailand has continuously played an active role in promoting international
development cooperation and coordination with other ASEAN countries, especially new
members, namely Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam, or widely known as CLMV. The
objective of this paper is to discuss important development initiatives that Thailand, both
public and private sectors, have helped to address various ASEAN development issues and
contributed to narrowing the development gap in the region. The paper will outline how
Thailand helped address two major issues for better ASEAN including infrastructure and
education development.
2. Methods
This study uses secondary sources of information to outline the topic of interest, Thailand
Development Initiatives in ASEAN. This is supplemented by semi- structured interviews
with local and international experts from leading organizations in the region. It examines
cases of various development initiatives of Thailand towards ASEAN. This is to explain and
characterize actions of Thai government on the development assistance in the region. These
cases will help future researchers as well as policy makers and practitioners to better
understand and create effective model for regional collaboration and sustainable
development.
The case study method was employed in this study as it allows a multi-perspective,
multi-dimensional analytical tool, providing researchers tools for considering the actions not
only of the main actors, but also of the relevant groups of actors within and outside the value
chain and their interrelations
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
Firstly, it is necessary for ASEAN countries to create and maintain various infrastructure, this
can improve connectivity among the ASEAN economies and in turn facilitates trade and
investment growth. In recent years, Thailand has been an active part of various infrastructure
development projects in the region. This is through its involvement in creating new physical
154
infrastructure as well as providing financial support. For instance, Thailand has strongly
supported the construction of various Thai–Lao Friendship Bridges. This is from the first
Thai-Lao friendship bridge which connects Nong Khai with the capital of the Lao People’s
Democratic Republic, Vientiane through to the recently planned fifth bridge which will
connect Beung Kan in Thailand with Pakxan in Laos. The improving logistical connection
between two countries has brought about benefits to the two neighboring countries in terms
of their economies, trade, tourism, investment, cultural exchanges, transportation and
logistics. Another example is Dawei Port Project and East-West Economic Corridor which
will create another important logistical route linking ASEAN from Vietnam, Cambodia and
Thailand with major export markets such as India, the Middle East, Europe and Africa. After
its completion, Dawei Port will become Southeast Asia largest industrial and trade zone.
Secondly, Thailand’s Ministry of Education has been an important contributor of education
development in ASEAN. It plays an active role in networking and coordinating with ASEAN
member countries to share and support their educational development. For instance, Thailand
works closely with Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) to
initiate many education development projects to raise awareness of ASEAN such as Spirit of
ASEAN School, ASEAN Focus School, ASEAN Youth Caring and Sharing Program, and
ASEAN Manuals. In addition, there are other organizations that promote education
development projects in ASEAN. For example, the Thailand International Cooperation
Agency (TICA), a focal agency under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Thailand, has
provided various forms of education cooperation, such as volunteer and expert programs,
fellowships, scholarships and training programs, which do not only lead to positive impacts
on the international relations among member countries but also improve the capacity and
potential of people in the countries.
Lastly, beyond government sector, this paper also outlines the development projects that are
being addressed by Thai private sector. For instance, Charoen Pokphand Group (CP) has set a
high standard for its Vietnamese operation to provide social impact activities for Vietnamese
such as blood donation, volunteer doctors, supporting community and school, including the
disadvantaged in society and handicapped persons. PTT Exploration and Production Public
Company Limited (PTTEP) has implemented the “SIOLA (Stimulation, Intervention,
Optimization of Services for Children) Project”, a social responsibility program in Mamuju,
Indonesia to deliver services to families for taking a greater role in the care, protection and
development of local children. From all of these outlined initiatives, Thailand has actively
contributed to the development of ASEAN
Keywords: Thailand, ASEAN, Development Initiatives
155
Humanities and Culture Studies/ Literature and Linguistics
Friday, July 26, 2019 09:00-10:30 Meeting Room 1
Session Chair: Ms. Joana Grant
ICSSB-215
Oral Profiling and Foreign Language (English) Use in the Classroom: Comparison with
Language Performance Levels, within the Context of Language Teaching Policies, in
Brazil
Joana Grant︱Cooplem Idiomas
ICSSB-212
Representations of Ethnic Groups as Perceived in the Writings of King Rama V
Supaporn Kongsirirat︱Naresuan University
ICSSB-254
The Buddhist Perspective towards War
Sudaporn Khiewngamdee︱Mahamakut Buddhist University
Chamnong Kanthik︱Mahamakut Buddhist University
ICSSB-255
Utilizing Archived Digital Data of Traditional Ainu Clothes - Visualization of
Embroidering Process
Masaaki Minagawa︱Sapporo Gakuin University
156
ICSSB-215
Oral Profiling and Foreign Language (English) Use in the Classroom:
Comparison With Language Performance Levels, Within the Context
of Language Teaching Policies, in Brazil
Grant, Joana
Universidade de Brasília - UnB
Cooplem Idiomas, Brasília – DF - Brazil
Absract
This article is a sample extract from my Master's dissertation presented as a requirement for the
Master's Degree in Applied Linguistics in Foreign Language Teaching, and approved by the
Applied Linguistics Post-Graduate Examining Board, at the University of Brasilia UnB), in
Brazil, within Teaching and Learning of Foreign Language area, supervised by Professor Dr.
José Carlos Paes de Almeida Filho. The completion of this work was on the investigative basis
of non-native English-speaking teachers’ oral skills, by mapping their working practices
within elementary and secondary schools, in the public and private sectors, and a language
teaching cooperative school, in Brasília, the capital of Brazil, Cooplem Idiomas. In the
literature, I present comparative tables between the performance bands from the referential
performance languages levels (RENIDE Project) and the oral profile of the participants who
took part in the research, within the context of language teaching policies (POELIN). I try to
understand the phenomena of oral circulation in the classroom, using appropriate tools and
resources such as questionnaires, classroom observations and semi-structured interviews,
using qualitative method in order to answer two questions in light of the current literature that
deals with personal dispositions, values in the tradition of teaching and learning in schools, in
Brazil, taking into consideration the schools and teachers who participated in the research. By
adopting the case study, I point out the findings reflecting the oral profiles found.
Keywords: Language performance referential level (RENIDE); Oral fluency; Oral
language profile; POELIN; Oral language skills
1. Presentation and research justification
The initial reference of this article is anchored in the mapping of orality profiles of non-native
English teachers working in elementary, secondary and a language school, within the public
and private sectors in Brasilia. I was particularly interested in teaching English as a foreign
157
language in private systems, such as Cooplem Idiomas30, where I have been working for a long
time.
From the research and the comparison with RENIDE's performance bands, I maintain and
emphasize the importance of continuing education for professionals in language teaching,
whose pillars contemplate many fragmented theories, permeating questions concerning the
teaching and graduation of new generations of teachers. In order to meet the demands of the
profession as a whole, I have tried to focus on the current relevance of orality among
non-native professionals who work mainly with English language teaching.
To discuss the facets of oral fluency in language teaching, the reflection about professional
teacher’s training in the light of the theoretical reference of the RENIDE Project, allowed me to
show in this paper the various tasks that surround the day to day of teachers, which generally
guide their work, and according to (Almeida Filho, 2013, p.7) this is:
A philosophy of teaching (an approach) formed by a concept of what is language
and what is the target language to be taught, and by a concept of what it is to teach
and learn that language from a non-mother language perspective. These ideas and
a set of attitudes held by teachers need to be recognized in the initial training
process and then in the continuing training of language teachers.
Therefore, when discussing an approach in the contemporary world, we should not mention as
macro approaches guiding the process of teaching and learning languages, which are the
grammatical and the communicative approaches. The first (formal / systemic / structural)
differs not only in emphasis but, mainly, by the nature or quality of the second (communicative
or interactive / constructional), second (ibid, p.8). And it is necessary to situate right away that,
to act in a communicative approach, it is necessary to have a relatively constructed
communicative competence, and this includes oral skills to produce socially appropriate
interactions in the new language (and not only well-constructed language from the
grammatical point of view).
30
Cooplem Idiomas is a non-profit civil society initiative of language teachers, from CIL,
founded on 09/12/1999, supported by Law no. 5,764, dated 12/16/1971 - which defines
the National Cooperative Policy - currently has 152 teachers, 12 units in the Federal
District, accommodates approximately ten thousand students enrolled per semester to
learn Spanish, English, Japanese and / or French.
158
The expansion of foreign language teaching leading to a real ability to use the target language -
which for a long time was thought to be the attribute of private language schools or binational
centers and their more accessible cultures to higher economic extracts of society - increased
globalization31. The ability to communicate in a second language of wide circulation has
become more valued, therefore, in addition to characterizing to a large extent the profile of the
well-educated and culturally well-placed citizens32. Therefore, my insertion in the applied
research in Language Teaching and Training of Agents from the perspective of Applied
Linguistics (LA) aims to contribute to the implementation, training and valuation of language
teachers (particularly those of English language because this is my specific professional
segment). I have to assume that oral fluency is not an appendix, but an integral and essential
part of the communicative competence of mostly non-native teachers in the context of
language teaching in the country, in general, to teach to use and to communicate in the target
language.
2. RENIDE Project Brief
At the groundsel of this research, I worked as a volunteer and research team collaborator for
the RENIDE Project in the field of Language Teaching Policies (POELIN), a joint initiative
of the University of Brasília(UnB) and the University of São Paulo (USP) with collaborators
from other universities and institutions in Brazil and abroad33:
2 I bring to this work a conceptualization of 'globalization' by my understanding that
language professionals and learners have the theorized knowledge and the awareness of
communicational skills that allow them to travel around the world in a more
comfortable way by being citizens and / or citizens capable to communicate effectively
in a language other than their mother tongue, to the point of engaging with the speakers
of that language, to the point of being potential candidates for positions where fluency
in another language is required.
3 I am referring to the citizen who engages in a natural way for the capacity of
communicational linguistic action. Who can circulate through various environments
strengthened by the awareness and professionalism with a multi cultural behavior
accepted in the different environments that he / she attends or will attend to, politely
accommodating the parts involved.
4 Com proficiência baixa em inglês, Brasil fica estagnado em ranking. Available in:
<http://let.unb.br/pgla/?p=4448>. Acessado em: 10 mar. 2015, 13:51.
159
RENIDE begins with the description and analysis of the current situation of the
fields related to Language Teaching Policies in national contexts of language
teaching and advances towards the construction of an organic framework of levels
of performance in the languages taught, a framework summarized in a document
crucial to guide actions of strategic planning of the stages of schooling that
contain the study of languages. In our case, we will initially cover the languages
already included in the grades of elementary education, English and Spanish, as
well as Portuguese for Foreigners and Portuguese as a Language of Inheritance in
communities of Brazilians living abroad. In order to elaborate a Performance
Level Reference, we will critically seek subsidies in the Adequate Theory of
Language Acquisition and Teaching, and specifically in the descriptor levels of
the Celpe-Bras Examination of Proficiency in Portuguese as a Foreign Language
and in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. The
benchmark will be used after their support to prepare National Level
Examinations to be applied at the end of the following stages: Elementary School
I, Elementary School II, High School, Higher Education (in the Teaching of
Spanish and English and in contexts of Higher Technological Education),
Portuguese Language Teaching as Inheritance Language abroad and Teaching of
PLE - Portuguese as a Foreign Language - in Brazil and abroad. Methodologically,
the project creates conditions for documentary analysis in a case study with the
purpose of establishing original proposals to the Brazilian contexts of language
teaching.
The project claims to define in a critical way "the recognizable stages of proficiency in a
foreign language as a relevant Language Teaching Policy component", and in the role of
collaborating researcher I made classroom observations of four teachers between November
2015 and February 2016, in the public sector, developing field notes, doing semi-structured
interviews and applying questionnaires to a total of 60 teachers, opportunities that also
generated data that integrated the case study, illuminating my research regarding to the
orality of non-native English teachers. I was allowed to describe and publish a part of the
RENIDE Project that is still in the process of drawing up and piloting.
3. Orality in English language teaching and learning
When thinking about the RENIDE program and the language teaching-learning processes, in
the country, it was vivid in my mind the challenges that both students and teachers have to
face, starting with the initial training of future professionals, to the continuous training of
teachers in service and during their professional career. The legion of non-native teachers
160
faces a formidable initial challenge that is to acquire the language and culture they will teach
in a professional capacity. It is not new that discussions about the level of orality of graduates,
future language teachers, who come to the university in very different stages of their lives,
generally fall short of what it would be fair to expect from those who will become teachers of
that language. The level of English teaching in many Brazilian schools, and especially in the
public sector, does not offer quality in the results, according to
(MASTRELLA-de-ANDRADE, 2014). And it is in this aspect, that later, I make a
comparison of the levels of desirable oral proficiency levels of the non-native language
teachers (foreign, second) proposed by the RENIDE group, with the results of the orality
profiles obtained in this study.
The teaching of language in contemporary days does not contemplate only the learning, the
knowledge about it, but the acquisition, making real use of it, either when the citizen travels
for leisure, for service or for studies and can communicate in a satisfactory way with the
speakers, natives or not, of that language, in this case English. And it is in this sense that the
RENIDE proposal is integrated into the context of the performance of the researched teachers,
and inserted in the organic framework of the levels of proficiency and respective orality
profile.
Following the analysis, I took a look at the characteristics of the classroom and RENIDE’s
guidelines, I looked for evidence if the observed teachers found in the situations of this
research, and former language students, can or can not teach in English in elementary and
secondary level of public or private schools, and in Cooplem. I used the data gathered to
contraste with the RENIDE performance descriptors, shown later. I sought to know if there
would be verbal interaction in the teaching of foreign language - English - in the classroom so
that this would contribute to the students' oral language development process, with a focus on
the possible influence of teachers' orality on students' oral production. (CONSOLO, 2001,
p.25).
Assuming that teachers rely heavily on a basic ability to interact in the target language and on
explicit knowledge about the language and culture associated with them, I emphasize that
teachers depend - after other attributes - on a teaching ability explained on the basis of
theoretically increasing oral language explicity. The learners, in the end, act for the
acquisition to take place and that is where the whole process converges to.
3.1 Orality of professional
This point refers to several considerations, firstly, the need to recover memories of this
requirement and to generate new expectations about the orality of language teachers.
Secondly, there is a need to formulate a new itinerary of awareness for each teacher, towards
the academic formation itself in terms of target language performance to reactivate the
development of the ability to speak the target language. In this sense, it is necessary to go
161
beyond the objectives of Art. 32, LDB, "basic citizen training/teaching", and "full mastery of
reading, writing and mathematics".
The inclusion of sufficient orality foreign language skills (referenced in the table below)
require, immediately, that teachers use this modality themselves to produce good quality inputs
in the classroom teaching. It is also understood that students from other languages need to
develop full communicative competence and not just a reading competence as understood in
the 1980s. This understanding will enable learners to participate in communication (CANALE,
1983) and to interact in oral or written speeches with interlocutors via information technology
resources. I subscribe to the above requirements, reinforcing the importance and the
understanding that the sufficient orality profile (ascertained in this research and compared to
the RENIDE performance bands) is also necessary to produce good inputs (understandable
inputs produced by language teachers to their students) joins the possibility to fight in favor of
the provision of quality language teaching in the public school system, within the local
education authority (LEA), in Brasília. Still, in the argumentation of the real conditions found
in the contexts of the research, the provision of article 32, § 3, also of the LDB, says that
regular basic education will be taught in Portuguese language. I therefore believe that it would
be appropriate to insert a similar paragraph aimed at making explicit that foreign language
teaching should be carried out in the target language itself in a growing way in the stages of
language teaching. Next, I present the profiles of orality and the table of the descriptive bands
of the RENIDE project.
3.2. The Profiles of orality of teachers and the RENIDE Descriptor levels
The progress of this article is anchored in the sub-area of RENIDE, joined to the larger area of
Language Teaching Policies (POELin), aim to propose a referential of language performance
levels, relating to each profile identified, the descriptors of English language teaching skills, as
well as the oral profile tables and respective definitions.
Table 1 - Identified performance profiles of participating teachers
Profiling level Definition/ Characteristics
a: Do very little or no use of the target language;
b: Use a word or another in English, sporadically;
Low c: Limited to reproduce the grammatical rules on the
blackboard;
d: Favor the explanation of grammatical rules in the mother
tongue, rather than using the target language.
a: Sporadic use of the language for specific purposes, calling
Borderline or the register list numbers, greeting, pronunciation of words
Limitrophe written on the board, possible reading of a dialogue;
162
b: Teaching and singing a song with the performance of the
students in the target language.
a: Can teach any part of the content in the target language;
b: Teach without major difficulties, occupying most of the
Sufficient classes using the target language;
c. Establish instructions, correcting and encouraging students;
d: Read texts and then ask questions paraphrasing some of
what has been taught in the target language.
Source: Prepared by the author.
The table above represents the identification of the three oral profiles found during the
investigation of the performance of the research participants, which I named and categorized as:
1. Low orality, 2. Borderline or Limitrophe orality, and 3. Sufficient orality. Next, I present the
framework that locates the pedagogical performance of the observed teachers, adding the
orality profiles found in the research, that is to say where they work, whether in the public,
private or both sectors.
Table 2 - Profiles identified in the segments investigated
Orality Public School Private Language
profile School School
Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher
1 2 3 4 4 3
Low
Limitrophe/
Borderline
Sufficient
Source: Prepared by the author.
Out of the four teachers observed, one participant was considered not to possess the minimum
communicative competence required to conduct her classes, another participating teacher was
recognized as having a reasonable orality level to perform her teaching work, and two other
teachers were recognized as having sufficient oral skills. The teacher with low orality and the
other teacher with borderline orality level teach for the LEA. The third and fourth teachers - in
the researched context - were recognized as possessing high orality competence: one teaches in
the public sector and in Cooplem, and the other teacher works for the public and private school
systems. In the public school I found that the performance of that particular professional falls
intothe low oral profile (R7D) (codes used so I could identify the teacher, without nominating
and maintain their anonymity), one in the borderline profile (R8R), and two in the profile of
163
sufficient orality. Teachers with a sufficient oral proficiency act in both, the public and private
sectors (R1EP), and the other teacher works for the language school and public sector, (R1AV).
Next, I detail the profiles of the participating teachers of this research, taking as data the
observations of classes, application of questionnaires and semi-structured interviews.
a. Participant Teacher 1(R7D): the teacher who composed the profile cell with
low orality brings together the following peculiarities: operates only in the public
sector; did not take an oral test before entering the classroom; indicates that
favours the grammatical approach by not having orality to communicate in the
target language; does not produce good inputs needed for students to
learn/acquire the language; the use of English in the classroom is in a proportion
of 1%, whereas the usage of Portuguese it is in a proportion of 99%. Still,
according to the teacher, she has the qualification to teach Portuguese, but was
hired to teach English.
b. Participant Teacher 2(R8R): the teacher who composed the profile cell with
bordering orality brings together the following peculiarities:
considerable experience in teaching for the public sector; is not totally devoided
of a certain level of orality; brings and produces a certain amount - although not
substantial - of good inputs for his classes; has the potential to bring and produce
more inputs to its regency; when expressing himself in the target language
(English) is expressed in a natural way; is always seeking to improve
academically to accompany students; privileges the use of the communicative
approach and uses technological resources to conduct the classes.
c. Participant Teacher 3(R1AV): the teacher who composed the profile cell with
sufficient orality has the following peculiarities: she teaches for the LEA, and
also teaches at the language school; has demonstrated orality enough to conduct
her classes in the target language in both the public and private sectors.
Classroom instruction in the target language is limited in the public sector
classrooms, but not limited in the language school. The inputs produced revolve
around 30% in the public school against 90% (on average) in the language school;
she has other skills that allow short-term improvement in the awareness of
language teaching in the target language in the public sector, as she already
teaches the target language in the target language in the language cooperative.
d. Participant Teacher 4(R1EP): the other teacher who also composed the profile
cell with sufficient orality has the following peculiarities: teaches in the private
164
and public segments; has orality proven by his performance during the
observations of classes in the private school; uses the target language naturally;
brings and creates good inputs spontaneously during the classes; has the potential
to deliver classes in the target language, although this ability has been mixed in
30% (English) X 70% (Portuguese). The teacher himself stated that by the
contractual and legal obligation of the (private) school, the English language
teaching is geared to prepare students for the PAS and ENEM34 exams and is not
directed to the acquisition.
To bring the definition of the three levels of teaching oral proficiency - from this study - I
related the system of three orality profiles with the descriptors levels of
performance/preparation of non-native teaching professionals (foreign, second) languages
elaborated by RENIDE, as follows:
Table 3 - Comparative table: RENIDE descriptors and orality profiles
Band Description (RENIDE) Orality's profile
1 Teach isolated points based purrely
on the experience of L1 acquisition
ando f any otherlanguage partially
learned.
LOW
a. Do very little use or almost no use of the
target language; b. Use a word or another in
English, sporadically; c. Limited to reproduce
the gramatical rules on the blackboard; d.
Favorthe explanation of gramatical rules the
L1, rather than using the target language.
2 Desire to teach a given language
(with etermination and interested
atitude), evidence showing some
abilities to teach, but has a very
limitedcommunicative ability.
LOW
a.Do very little or almost no use of the target
language; b. Use a word or another in English,
sporadically; c. Limited to reroduce the
gramatical rules on the board; d.Favor the
explanation of gramatical rules in the L1, rather
than using the target language.
3 Teaching with some available LOW
5 PAS and ENEM are Brazilian national examination so students can gain access to
public universities.
165
comercial material, following
instructions of the authors and
having some limited
linguistic-communicative
competence.
a.Do very little or almost no use of the target
language; b. Use a word or another in English,
sporadically; c. Limited to reroduce the
gramatical rules on the board; d.Favor the
explanation of gramatical rules in the L1, rather
than using the target language.
4 Teaching with reasonable
linguistic-communicative
competence to individuals or classes
after a short training period, mixing
spontaneous natural internal
orientations, still very much
influenced by previous experiences
and by the local teaching culture,
sometimes with a fixed method
trained with obstinacy.
Limitrophe or Borderline
a.Spordic use of the language for specific
purpoes (calling the register list numbers,
greetings, pronnciation of words written on the
board, possible Reading of a dialogue); b.
Teaching and singing a song with he students’
performance in the target language
5 Develop lessons and the whole
process of contact with the learners in
the target language, including
communication outside the didatic
material, knowing theory that can be
articulated in its own terms,
preferably theory of the appropriate
type reflecting with criteria about the
processo f teaching and beginning to
experimente its own ideas. Go to new
readings, reflect more, gain
awareness by analyzing and continue
development.
Sufficient
a.Can teach any part of the contente in the target
language; b. Teach without major difficulties,
occupying most of the classes in the target
language; c. Establish instructions, correcting
and encouraging students; d. Read texts and
then ask questions paraphrasing some of what
has been taught in the trget language.
6 Deepen reflection by criteria, access
appropriate theory, reflective about
teaching itself, by initiating informed
changes in practiced teaching.
Sufficient
a.Can teach any part of the contente in the target
language; b. Teach without major difficulties,
occupying most of the classes in the target
language; c. Establish instructions, correcting
and encouraging students; d. Read texts and
then ask questions paraphrasing some of what
has been taught in the trget language.
7 Have been recognised as a Sufficient
166
researcher, easily read theory, attend
events in the área, continue to
develop on their own, participate in
research and possible publications
with others.
a.Can teach any part of the contente in the target
language; b. Teach without major difficulties,
occupying most of the classes in the target
language; c. Establish instructions, correcting
and encouraging students; d. Read texts and
then ask questions paraphrasing some of what
has been taught in the trget language.
8 Do research whilst is teaching and
develop gradually by practicing
reflections. Publish alone or with
others, is the fruit of observations
and nalysis in well-defined applied
projects.
Sufficient
a.Can teach any part of the contente in the target
language; b. Teach without major difficulties,
occupying most of the classes in the target
language; c. Establish instructions, correcting
and encouraging students; d. Read texts and
then ask questions paraphrasing some of what
has been taught in the trget language.
9 Becomea trainer of new teachers
while delving into research and
publications in journals and books in
the área of AELin. Teach with
recognitions by incorporating the
results of Reading and research done
by him/herself and others with whom
he/she has a theoretical-practical
affinity.
Sufficient
a.Can teach any part of the contente in the target
language; b. Teach without major difficulties,
occupying most of the classes in the target
language; c. Establish instructions, correcting
and encouraging students; d. Read texts and
then ask questions paraphrasing some of what
has been taught in the trget language.
Source: Adapted by the author (Cf. RENIDE Project)
The equivalence of RENIDE's performance profiles with orality profiles are indicative points to
be recognized by the teachers in service or pre-service after the initial training provided by the
degree in Language courses before joining the teaching profession. This equivalence aims to be
another tool to indicate if the professional, besides being a bearer of oral fluency, is also able to
use the target language to teach it professionally.
This is to say that the professional must also have the pre-disposition to make circulate the
target language in the classroom: the teaching of the target language has to be in the target
language in all segments of performance whether public or private. Finally, I understand that
this relational challenge between levels of oral fluency and levels of professional mastery also
includes: 1) the understanding that the training of agents to act in the teaching and learning of
languages requires knowledge, appropriate attitudes and capacity for action to optimize the
167
acquisition of a foreign language, and 2) the studies and definitions of the criteria of
recognizable stages of action in a foreign language, since they are provided as a component of
the sphere of Language Teaching Policies which, in turn, fall within the scope of a Linguistic
Policy of a nation, according to the RENIDE project.
Returning to the objectives of the RENIDE Project, which I presented above, reminding readers
that the project represents and proposes the "construction of an organic framework of action
levels in the languages taught to guide strategic planning actions of the stages of schooling that
contain the" study "of languages". I assess that this proposal represents a step forward in the
stages of languages teaching-learning process, which can enable results shown by the learners.
To this end, the project aims to "make explicit in a single framework and with correspondences
in different contexts" the dependence on the language teaching policies that the country needs
to edit and adopt
When teachers speak of how to increase the interest and attention of students, for me, the results
of the study suggest that one of the ways to attract attention and motivate the student is to teach
the teacher the language in the target language. We must consider that the purpose of hiring the
language teaching professional is specifically to teach the target language in the target language,
because in all my observations, the students were very curious to know new words in the
English language, especially in the public schools.
In this sense, I share the understanding of (CONSOLO and BORGES ALMEIDA, 2009), when
they affirm that orality in the classroom is vital for the intensification of linguistic knowledge.
On the other hand, I also share the importance of considering the power divisions presented by
(BONH, 2000, apud CHAGURI, 2014, p.15) on the occasion of national congresses on foreign
language teaching policy. The authors' perception that the way language teaching is offered in
many of the schools, and especially in the Brazilian public sector, results in political,
ideological and cultural impositions.
In this context, the nature of foreign language teaching is not overlooked, and in the words of
(Chaudron Croses, 1997: 47):
[...] teachers thus need to remain aware that they are not in the classroom to fill up
the time within the sound of their own voices, but to arrange matters so that their
students do the talking (or writing, or listening). Particularly in EFL rather than
ESL situations, class time is so valuable that we believe the teacher should get
offstage as soon as possible consistent with an adequate presentation of material,
and the giving of clear instructions for some practice exercise.
168
The purpose of teaching is to strengthen students academically. Mainly at elementary and
secondary scholling years, and the role of the teacher is to minister not just content of grammar
and vocabulary, but also to teach students to interact socially in order to acquire the target
language.
I converged in this study to the understanding that one learns more and better in the Language
Schools. Therefore, it is imperative that professionals aligned with low profile, limítrofe or
borderline and/or suficiente orality skills deepen their training in linguistic-communicative
competence. They need, through this training, to awaken the understanding of the importance
of teaching students in the target language and not in the mother tongue in public schools.
Finally, the recommendation is that there be use of target language in teaching rooms, and for
this reason, public policies must ensure that before the professional enters the classroom, he/she
already has a command of the language to provide quality education and motivate language
acquisition. This includes the ability to use the language in a new language, and orality in line
with the RENIDE performance standards, which brings us to say that the public sector needs to
offer quality language teaching as well as the collection of applied linguistics researchers by
measures to address the challenges resulting from teacher training challenges, and efficient
public policies. Since they are no longer new findings, they need urgent action to reverse the
stigma of low quality language teaching in public schools.
I pointed out as limitations of the research the need for studies in the near future of a sample of
at least 100 of the teachers' collective in Brasília - to be submitted to
statistical measure - in the three school segments (public, private and language schools), doing
comparisons with RENIDE performance bands. The increase of the sample is necessary to
ascertain the profile of the teachers in the other schools that did not compose the sample portion
of this study, as well as the validation of the relationship of the levels of oral fluency found in
this research: 1). Low Fluency, 2). Limtrophe or Borderline Fluency, and 3) Sufficient Fluency.
This last one is the oral fluency that is necessary for the teaching of foreign language, with
equivalence in the system of nine increasing ranges of RENIDE band competencies.
5. Bibliography and References
ALMEIDA FILHO, JCP. Dimensões Comunicativas no Ensino de Línguas. Campinas, Pontes,
2013
BOHN, H. I. Os aspectos ‘políticos’ de uma política de ensino de línguas e literaturas
estrangeiras. Linguagem e Ensino, Vol. 3, O. 1, 2000, pgs. 117 – 138.
169
BORGES-ALMEIDA, Vanessa. Tese de Doutorado. Precisão e complexidade gramatical na
avaliação de proficiência oral em inglês do formando em Letras: implicações para a
validação de um teste / Vanessa Borges de Almeida. - São José do Rio Preto: [s.n.],2009.
CANALE, M & Swain, M. Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second
language teaching and testing. In: Applied Linguistics. Chapter 1 From Communicative
competence to communicative language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1983.
CHAGURI, J. de Paula & TONELL, J. R. A. Perspectivas Educacionais e Ensino de Línguas.
Londrina: EDUEL. Editora da Universidade Estadual de Londrina, 2014
CONSOLO, D. A. On student engagement in whole-class oral interaction: From classroom
discourse and sociocultural aspects to implications for language learning. Ilha do Desterro
Florianópolis nº 41 p.041-060 jul./dez. 2001.
LDB- Lei de Diretrizes Básicas, 7ª. Edição 2012, Mesa da Câmara dos Deputado, 54ª
Legislatura | 2ª Sessão Legislativa | 2011-2015
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ICSSB-212
Representations of Ethnic Groups as Perceived in the Writings of King
Rama V35
Supaporn Kongsirirata
a Department of Thai Language, Faculty of Humanities, Naresuan University, Thailand
E-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract
This research article aimed to investigate the representations of ethnic groups as perceived in
the writings of King Rama V during His Majesty’s two visits to Europe in 1897 and 1907.
The study applied the concepts of Representation, Identity, and Hybridity as the frameworks
for the analysis. The results revealed that the western ethnicities, despite their advanced
knowledge and ingenious plans, put their self-interests over those of all others with no
consideration for Mother Earth and the environments. In addition, they viewed themselves as
superior to other ethnic groups although they were not essentially better in their origins. Their
manners were not particularly well-kept in spite of the self-image they projected since their
lives were not as idealistic as generally thought. As for the colonial ethnic groups, they
were represented as imitators of their colonists in ways of clothing, language and religion.
Their attempts, however, usually failed to impress the indifferent colonists. The King’s
representations of these ethnic groups constituted a view of western ethnicities as seen by a
wide-eyed easterner amazed at the progressive knowledge, yet itching to “counteract” the
“power” abused by the West against other ethnicities, especially those in Siam at the time.
King Rama V, then, employed travel literature as a “tool” to challenge this, as had been done
by the West to others.
Keywords: Representation, ethnic group, cultural hybridity, travel literature
1. Background and Objective
The reign of King Chulalongkorn, or King Rama V, saw the expansion of occidental power
into Asia. Although Siam never fell under western colonization, thanks to the technological,
social and cultural modernization of the country based on the western model and driven by
the progressive vision of King Chulalongkorn, the country’s situation was considered to be
under the influence of “crypto-colonialism” or “semi-colonialism” (Jackson, as cited in
Panyaphet, 2015, pp.51, 57) both of which refer to the circumstance of a nation that “has
35
This article is part of a research project titled “The Representations of Ethnic Groups as Perceived in the
Writings of King Rama V.”
171
never been colonized” yet has, in reality, been under the influence of or forced to make
economic, cultural and social adjustments, values, etc. by the imperial powers in order to
safeguard the country’s sovereignty. Viewed from this perspective, Siam was no different
from other colonized nations. (Matichon Online, as cited in Panyaphet, 2014, p.51)
A study of the representations of ethnic groups is related to ethnic identity. This is a result of
the concepts of colonialism and post-colonialism, which posit that the western ethnicities
tend to regard those whose skin colors are different from theirs as others. (Said, as cited in
Duangwiset, n.d.) This is evident in travel memoirs of westerners travelling outside their
western sphere. Their writings related not only stories of their journeys and related incidents
but also western viewpoints looking down on nationalities whose populations were non-white.
A study of the representations of ethnic groups is connected to the concept of
post-colonialism as a result of the colonists’ attempts to take over their colonies by means of
political, social and cultural mimicry while being countered by their colonies. The cultural
counteractions are known as “hybridity.” (Bhabha, as cited in Panyaphet, 2014 p.36)
Sources for a study of the representations of ethnic groups are literary writings, especially
travel writings and memoirs. (Young, 1995, as cited in Prasannam, 2011, n.d.)
King Chulalongkorn was the first Thai king to visit Europe twice in 1897 and 1907, during
which the threats from western imperialism were found to be the most intense. During each
trip the King wrote letters to those close to him such as Queen Saovabha Phongsri and
Princess Nipanoppadol relating his encounters with the foreign lands and people. These
letters have the characteristics of travel memoirs, a western custom of recording experiences
in foreign countries. However, King Rama V’s memoirs tell stories from the point of view of
a non-westerner from a semi-colonial land. A study of the representations of ethnic groups in
King Rama V’s writings, therefore, could detect the colonial trace of social and cultural
mimicry as well as the cultural adjustments and “hybridity” which indicate the colonies’
social and cultural “counteractions” against the colonists as well as traces of the colonists’
weaknesses.
2. Methods
2.1 Research Objective
To study the representations of western ethnicities and ethnic groups under western
colonization based on the writings of King Rama V.
2.2 Research Frameworks
This study employed as frameworks the concepts of Representation, Identity, Hybridity, and
Post-colonialism as follows:
172
1. Representation: Representation refers to a model presented through literature that is
constructed, considered, sorted, selected and modified to emphasize certain qualities of
reality based on beliefs and values. Representation, therefore, serves as an indicator of a
society’s or a writer’s belief, expectation and viewpoint towards the meaning and values of
the object of representation. (Charoenporn, 2003, p. 31)
2. Identity: Identity refers to a unique image of an ethnic group as a result of a convergence
between cultures inside and outside the group. Identity, therefore, is related to Representation
because it represents a group’s feeling and conscience through a viewpoint of an outsider.
This study employs the concept of Identity of an ethnic group perceived by an outsider.
3. Hybridity and Post-colonialism: Homi Bhabha’s concept of Hybridity is an application of
Edward Said’s concept of Orientalism and the concept of Post-colonialism. These two
concepts were Eurocentric in that differences between the East and the West are regarded as
binary oppositions. Consequently, the represented Orientalism identity conceived by the West
overlooks the fact that Eastern societies of the time did contain elements of modernity and
tremendous local diversities. (Said, as cited in Yuktanan, 2013, p.65)
Nevertheless, since Siam in the reign of King Rama V was under the circumstances of
crypto-colonialism or semi-colonialism, the social and cultural pattern of Siam at the time
featured the characteristics of what Bhabha termed “hybridity” with contexts that differed
from those of neighboring countries. Siam, then, acted as both the controller and the
controlled. Cultural hybridity was a result of the colonial attempt to take control in order to
effect mimicry. When the attempt failed, which it sometimes did, cultural hybridity occurred.
The hybridity serves as a “trace” showing the colony’s counteraction against its colonist as
well as the colonist’s own weakness.
2.3 Research Methodology
This is a qualitative study. The data were collected from the writings of King Rama V. The
analysis followed the frameworks mentioned above. The results were presented in a
descriptive analysis format.
2.4 Scope of the Data
This study was conducted based on 2 sources of King Rama V’s writings:
1. King Chulalongkorn’s Letters to Queen Saovabha Phongsri from His Majesty’s First Visit
to Europe in 1897
2. King Chulalongkorn’s Writing Titled Klai Baan (“Far from Home”) to Princess
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Nipanoppadol from His Majesty’s Second Visit to Europe in 1907
2.5 Scope of the Analysis
The analysis was restricted to the western ethnicities and the ethnic groups that were under
western colonization.
2.6 Definition of Term
In this study, the term “King Rama V’s Writings” refers to the 2 sources of King
Chulalongkorn’s writings as indicated in Scope of Data.
3. Results
The representations of ethnic groups in King Rama V’s writings could be classified into the
representations of western ethnicities and the representations of the ethnic groups under
western colonization, as follows:
3.1 The Representations of Western Ethnicities
The representations of western ethnicities projected in King Rama V’s writings revealed that
the western ethnicities, despite their advanced knowledge, intelligence and ingenious plans,
put their self-interests over those of all others with no consideration for Mother Earth and the
environments. In addition, they viewed themselves as superior to other ethnic groups, and
their manners were not particularly well-kept in spite of the self-image they projected since
their lives were not as idealistic as generally thought.
3.1.1 The Ethnicities with Advanced Knowledge
King Rama V viewed that westerners possessed wondrous epistemological advances and that
it was impossible to predict a leap that western knowledge and technology would make in the
future (King Chulalongkorn, 2002b, p.331) because “… when an accomplishment has been
achieved, it paves way for further ideas that are more and more glorious.” (King
Chulalongkorn, 2002a, p.97) This representation indicates amazement at western
technological advances, as generally known as “culture shock” that usually happens to an
individual who is faced with a completely different and unfamiliar culture.
3.1.2 The Ethnicities with Ingenious Plans
The English were represented in King Rama V’s writings as clever in their strategic choice of
political position and commerce, as seen in “… the English are smart … especially in
guarding their trade interests.” (King Chulalongkorn, 1992, p.43) This statement refers to the
fact that England was willing to buy the overpriced Lanka from Holland because they saw
that “this island is an important passage that can bar ships from crossing to the East except
174
without coal. England wants power, and Holland wants money.” (King Chulanlongkorn, 1992,
p. 23)
In addition to the clever choice of their strategic position of trade and war, England employs
its ingenuity corruptly to gain self-interests even over fellow western ethnicities. King Rama
V narrated the ways in which England gained control over Perim Island which was part of the
Kingdom of Aden located at the Arabian estuary of the Red Sea: “Over 40 years ago, England
did not see the significance of this island. However, when a French battleship arrived at Aden,
the English residents invited the French for drinks. When the French were drunk, their tongue
slipped, and they revealed that they were there to occupy the island. That night the English
rushed to put their national flag on the island to claim ownership. In the morning, the French
awoke to see the English flag on the island, and there was nothing else they could do to claim
it for France.” (King Chulalongkorn, 1992, p. 46)
This representation provides a trace of counteraction against British Imperialism that was
threatening Siam at the time. The retelling of an “ambiguous” past event is what Loomba (as
cited in Yuktanan, 2013, p. 65) calls “a reproduction of anti-colonial struggles” by the victims
(the colonies) to counter the attackers (the colonists).
3.1.3 Ethnicities Engrossed with Self-interests with No Regard for the Earth and Its
Population
The western ethnicities were perceived as selfish groups who had no regard for the impact of
their actions on the Earth and its population. They exhausted national resources using their
technological advantages until nothing remained for later generations. Europe, then, “is
deprived of its goodness… useful metals have been exhausted and not one place is left alone.
Everywhere is owned… for thousands of years to come.” (King Chulalongkorn, 2002b, pp.
328-329) This was a reason why western nations began to colonize other countries. They
wanted to expand their livelihood. (King Chulalongkorn, 2012b: p.330)
Moreover, France was mentioned regarding their administrative control over Monaco: “…
The administration of construction and land in Monte Carlo is under the monopoly of a
French company that pays its due to Monaco’s King… France collects the taxes, controls the
police and sets up a court of justice. If an appeal is made, it is directed to Paris, but the
interests are collected under the name of Monaco’s King. The margins from the
administration, large or small, go to Monaco’s King. It is, in other words, no different from
being a French colony.” (King Chulalongkorn, 2002a, p.202)
3.1.4 Ethnicities with a View of Superiority over Others
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The westerners tended to act as if they were “fairies” and superior to other ethnic groups,
especially when they ventured into non-western countries. In fact, their origins were not as
noble as the image they projected. King Chulalongkorn told a story of Mr. Residence who
had stationed in Siam and whom the King met again in Germany and remarked that “His face
was sorrowful like a dying fairy… a westerner in his own land looks very different from
when he was in Siam.” (King Chulalongkorn, 1992, p.183) Furthermore, the King presented
the image of the ancestors of certain western ethnicities such as the Norwegians that
“Originally… they came in ships called the Vikings and pirated the sea and then extended to
such lands as Denmark, England and France. They robbed people of their possessions and
went back to their country. Later on they took control over the lands and established
themselves as kings.” (King Chulalongkorn, 2002a: p.178)
The aristocrats in western countries were not without faults. They “enjoyed bullying… It can
be compared to sinful acts we had in the past such as rapes, drinks … and murders… The
soldiers are bad role models. The civilians are powerless… They are not to be imitated.”
(King Chulalongkorn, 1992, p. 129)
3.1.5 Ethnicities with Unkempt Manners
The westerners were not neat in manners. They could not control their emotions, especially
western women. The King wrote that a group of French people lined up to welcome his visit
and shouted “Vive Roi de Siam” (“Long Live the King of Siam”), and the women waved
their hands and requested to kiss him. He remarked in his writing that “This show of passion
has been unheard of in any other cities. They were overwhelmed by their emotion and could
not control it…” (King Chulalongkorn, 1992, p. 187) This representation was a viewpoint of
a Thai person judging the values of western culture based on those of the Thai culture and
regarding the westerners as “others.” This was probably due to the fact that the incident
happened during the King’s first visit to Europe, that culture shock was taking effect, and that
the women were French, a nationality that had wounded Siam in the Crisis of 1893 when
France advanced its battleship into the Chaophraya River and forced Siam to withdraw its
rights over the left bank of the Mekong River including various islands from the North of
Laos to the Cambodian borders. (Sukumalphong, n.d.)
3.1.6 Ethnicities with Life that Was Not Always Noble
Contrary to what was generally believed by Thai people at the time, the western lands were
far from being equally well developed. The King gave an example of Turin, Italy, where “The
village comprises rows of cluttered and poorly constructed houses. Farmers’ houses have
only one wall. Barns are made of leaves… Bricks and cement are rare. If they feature at all,
the constructions are covered with rough cement and sand. (King Chulalongkorn, 2002a: p.
176
252) The King also commented that their clothing was “bare… to the point of poverty… We
tend to think that westerners always eat meat, but the poor here have no meat to eat. Thai
people, on the contrary, always have more fish to eat than these people.” (King
Chulalongkorn, 2002a: p. 139) The economy of the West, in addition, was not promising: “…
When westerners are poor, they are struck hard… They are very very poor. Their clothes are
tattered and torn, and they look like old beggars in children’s story books.” (King
Chulalongkorn, 1992, pp. 79, 86)
3.2 The Representations of the Ethnic Groups under Western Colonization
The colonial ethnic groups were represented as imitators of their colonists in ways of religion,
clothing and language, as follows.
3.2.1 Imitation by Conversion to Christianity
King Rama V presented the image of people under western coloniation who converted to
Christianity and adopted western names. (King Chulalongkorn, 1992, p. 17) This showed that
the colonized wholeheartedly accepted their colonists. As religion is related to man’s spiritual
values, converting to another religion signals a person’s spiritual acceptance of his new
religion’s values. Changes of religion and names are symbolic expressions of complete
submission to the colonial power.
3.2.2 Imitation of Clothing
King Rama V presented an image of colonial citizens imitating their colonists by “wearing on
the top half a western-style shirt and an open-neck jacket with only one button done and
without wearing a bow tie like a westerner, and wearing on the bottom half a sarong like a
native… some have a western-style haircut, some do their hair in a bun tied in by a comb.”
(King Chulalongkorn, 1992, p. 25)
This representation reflects both an acceptance and a rejection of the West by King Rama V.
The acceptance could be seen from the critical tone when the description of improper
clothing in the western style was given. The rejection was perceived in the “message”
counteracting the western power that the East and the West could never be completely
merged. This was illustrated in the fact that Eastern men were used to going bare-chested, and
when forced to wear a shirt, they refused to have it all buttoned up. This also indicated
cultural hybridity among people in the colonies who combined the clothing styles of the East
and the West.
Another representation counteracting the West could be seen in the description of how
servants in the houses of the colonists were dressed: “They are dressed like westerners and
177
are efficient, but their clothes look very unbecoming and comical, like smoking apes… The
Parsis (immigrants from Persia – the researcher) look better. They are neatly dressed and look
truly like humans, second only to westerners.” (King Chulalongkorn, 1992, p. 41) The use of
the words “human” and “ape” to compare westerners with easterners was to satire westerners
who projected the evolution theory in which humans and apes shared an ancestor, and who
believed that advances made by humans were possible because humans were more intelligent,
knowledgeable and able than apes, and that cultural evolutions professed that since western
societies achieved the highest level of development, beyond the development of any other
nations, the West had a duty to take control over the administration in countries of other
ethnic groups in order to enhance their development. Therefore, an “ape” was compared to a
native citizen in a colony who had yet to evolve into a full human, and his action was a mere
imitation of “human” who was a westerner. The symbols employed were western-style
clothing and the western act of “smoking.” The King viewed that no matter how much effort
was made to imitate the West, colonial people would never be truly accepted by their
colonists.
As for the Parsis (Persian immigrants in India), they were compared to “humans” second only
to westerners. This was influenced by the King’s visit to India in 1871. The Parsis who had
good knowledge of engineering and railway management played a great role in developing
Siam’s railway industry during Siam’s modernization. The King’s familiarity with them
explained his acceptance of this ethnic group. Sinthuphan (2017) states that “The Thai history
during the reign of King Rama V focuses mainly on the western masters who held
government offices or had investments in Siam. However, if we look closely at the list of
people who worked in government offices or other businesses, we will see that most of the
influential people were of various ethnic groups that had immigrated from India, especially
the Parsis and the Malayans. They sweated for Siam, and the experiences of their dedication
to Siam could compare to, or even surpass, those of the western business owners in the
modernization of Siam.”
3.2.3 Imitation of Language
King Rama V presented the image of colonial people who were fluent in the language of their
colonists but were not accepted as equals by the colonists. They were seen always as
“servants,” as shown in the following: “People here hire servants from India. Some are black
but wear a moustache and are dressed like westerners. They can speak English.” (King
Chulalongkorn, 1992, p. 41)
Moreover, the King viewed that the fact that colonial people adopted the language of their
colonists contributed to the loss of their national language and indirectly undermined their
178
nationalism: “… The people in Lanka today are different from those in the story of
Mahawong (a history of Lanka – the researcher)… The language has been transformed… The
dying language is a result of the downfall of the nation.” (King Chulalongkorn, 2002b, p. 232)
When the colonists imposed their language on the colonial people, the colonial language
began to change, resulting in the obliteration or the death of the native language, and
eventually that of the “nation” as the awareness of sharing a language and a culture would
inevitably disappear. Buadaeng (n.d., p. 50) calls this phenomenon “cultural assimilationism.”
This is in accordance with Kongsirirat (2015, pp. 29-30) who emphasizes the importance of a
national language: “Language is a communication tool for people of a nation. It expresses
nationalism and national unity. If the national language and culture are forsaken… the result
is an obsession with foreign cultures and the eventual loss of nationalism.”
3.3 Discussion
The representations of western ethnicities presented in the writings of King Rama V were
constructed from 3 aspects of the King’s viewpoint: acceptance of the West, rejection of the
West and cultural hybridity. First, the acceptance of western advances resulted in mimicry by
means of national modernization and westernization of public facilities and public health.
Second, the rejection of western power was done through the projection of the image that
westerners were not always as noble as Thai people generally thought. In addition,
comparisons were constantly made among the colonists, the colonies and Siam to point out
that certain aspects of the colonists were not at all different from or better than Siam such as
housing, food, outlawed ancestors, etc. Another counteraction was found in the representation
of the colonial ethnic groups who imitated their colonists by means of religion, clothing and
language to signal their complete submission but failed to win acceptance of equality from
the colonists. The comparisons of the western colonial power, the western colonies and Siam
to emphasize differences are regarded by Loomba, a post-colonial thinker, as “anti-colonial
struggles.” Siam itself was crypto-colonized in that it was dictated by certain colonial powers,
but at the same time the country dictated its own tributaries. The third characteristic is
cultural hybridity in which certain elements of the East and the West were selected and
blended, as seen in Siam’s mimicry of westernization while rooting firmly in absolute
monarchy as its identity. This characteristic is called “a learning process for cultural
adjustment.” (Jansson, Johanson &Ramström, as cited in Saengwipak, n.d., pp. 22-23)
In conclusion, the presentations of the ethnic groups in King Chulalongkorn’s writings
reflected the West’s influence on Siam in terms of technological advances which brought
about the country’s modernization, while at the same time projected Siam’s counteractions
against the imperial powers of the West. The colonial ethnic groups, moreover, counteracted
against their colonists by means of cultural hybridity such as a combination of western-style
179
and eastern-style clothing. This showed a weakness in the western power that could not
entirely take over the East because “eastern ethnicities are diverse according to their different
local features.” (Said, as cited in Yuktanan, 2013, p. 65) King Rama V employed travel
writing, a western custom to oppress the East, as a “tool” to counteract western nations.
4. References
Buadaeng, K. (n.d.). Chapter 6: Ethnic minorities and human development in the global
context. Retrieved from
http://www.stou.ac.th/Schoolnew/polsci/UploadedFile/82427-6.pdf
Charoenporn, S. (2003). The representation of women in Thai literature of the B.E. 2530’s:
An analysis of interconnections with social issues. (Master thesis). Chiang Mai
University, Thailand.
Duangwiset, N. (n.d.). Anthropology glossary. Retrieved from
http://www.sac.or.th/databases/anthropology-concepts/glossary/112
King Chulalongkorn. (2002a). Klai baan volume 1. Bangkok: Thai Rom Klao Company
Limited.
King Chulalongkorn. (2002b). Klai baan volume 2. Bangkok: Thai Rom Klao Company
Limited.
King Chulalongkorn. (1992). His Majesty King Chulalongkorn’s personal letters to Queen
Saovabha Phongsri, the regent of Siam during His Majesty’s visits to Europe in 1897.
Bangkok: Amarin Printing Group Limited.
Kongsirirat, S. (2015). The Laotian’s worldview from Nanasara column in the Vientiane Mai
newspaper. The Journal of Rommayasan. 13(3), 21-34.
Panyaphet, C. (2014). Thai contemporary art under postcolonialism in 1990s. (Master thesis).
Silpakorn University, Thailand.
Prasannam, N. (2011). Writing of “otherness” in Luang Vichit Vadakarn’s Fak Fa Salween.
Paper presented at the 49th
International Conference, Kasetsart University, Thailand.
Retrieved from http://lit.human.ku.ac.th/_2011/_17/01-54.pdf
Saengwipak, A. (n.d.). A cultural learning process essential for ASEAN integration. Sripatum
Chonburi Journal. 19-26. Retrieved from
https://www.east.spu.ac.th/journal/booksearch/upload/1347-04_cultural.pdf
Sinthuphan, J. (2017). Parsis of Siam and modernizing Siam. Retrieved from
https://mgronline.com/daily/detail/9600000122177
Sukumalphong, J. (n.d.). The crisis of Ror Sor 112. Retrieved from
http://wiki.kpi.ac.th/index.php?title=ร.ศ.112
Yuktanan, S. (2013). The identity for tomorrow. Journal of Social Sciences, 9(2), 61-103.
180
ICSSB-254
The Buddhist Perspective towards War
Chamnong Kanthik1, Sudaporn Khiewngamdee
2
1 Associate Professor, Ph.D. in Pali and Sanskrit Program, Department of Oriental
Language, Faculty of Humanities, Mahamakut Buddhist University, Thailand. 2
Lecturer in Pali and Sanskrit Program, Department of Oriental Language, Faculty of
Humanities, Mahamakut Buddhist University, Thailand.
E-mail : [email protected]
Abstract
This article aims to study wars in the Tipitaka and Commentaries and to study the Buddhist
teachings concerning wars. The data of this documentary research were collected from the
Tipitaka and Commentaries, Siamrattha Volume of Mahamakut Foundation under the Royal
Patronage. The study focused on the wars, the Buddha’s teachings concerning the wars, and
how monks and soldiers should practice to protect their states or towns from enemies.
The results of the study indicated that external wars occurred from the inner defilements;
greed, anger, and delusion. It was normal to win or lose in war, but it must have morale and
arrogance. It was said in Dhajagga Sutta that looking at the military flag could encourage the
morale and arrogance of the force. Among Bhikkhus, when the fear occurred, monks should
recall the Triple Gems. In protection of the country, the fundamental principles were regular
meetings or called Aparihaniya Dhamma. Monks were advised to keep themselves far from
troops and wars. There was a code of Discipline for monks, not to view the troops marching
or to spend overnight in a military base without appropriate reasons. The Buddha praised
peacefulness as the ultimate happiness.
Keyword : War, The Buddhist perspective, The Tipitaka
Background of the study
In Buddhism, the foundation of unwholesome thoughts comes from thoughts of
sensual pleasure, of hatred, and of violence (An. Chakka. 22/380/493).36
The thought of
sensual pleasure is thinking or considering sensual pleasure and sensual desire. In
36
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake aṅguttaranikāyassa tatiyo bhāgo
(chakkanipāto) Vol. XXII. (Nakhon Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.), p. 493.
181
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, the meaning of sensual pleasure refers to pleasurable objects
and beings. Unsatisfactory in what is obtained and departing from the beloved causes
suffering and sometimes for revenge on those who take away the expected objects or beings.
Thinking and considering revenge is the cause of hate thoughts. With the hate thought, one
will have suffering in his mind. The mental suffering can be explored in physical action and
verbal action. The verbal action may come in the form of telling a lie, slandering, and harsh
speech, called verbal misconduct. The mental suffering is easily explored through physical
violence. In Bhikkhu Patimokkha, it is a Pacitti for a monk to raise his hand to harm another
monk. (bhikkhupāṭimokkhapāli, 2548 B.E. : 81). In the early ages, stone and wood were used
as weapons (Di.Pa. 11/62/85)37
and knives, swords and spikes in later ages. At present, these
weapons have been developed in quantity and quality more than those in the past. Again, it is
considerable that the thought of violence is composed of 2 parts; one is the violence for the
revenge of anyone having direct violence done to him, and the other is the violence consisting
of the thought of delusion. In this way, the violence is for fun. For example, children catch
small animals to torment for fun, and for going hunting when adults. It is called a sport but
animals have no chance to fight back against highly powerful weapons and hunting
equipment. Hunting is a fun game for humans but it is opposite animals who hunt. The
predator animals hunt for food to assuage hunger.
Based on the wholesome thoughts as mentioned, there have been wars among human beings
from generation to generation. In Indian history, there was Mahabharatayuddha, the war
between the Pandavas and the Gauravas (Karuna-Ruang-urai Kusalasai, 2555 B.E. : 1). In the
Buddha’s time, there were small and big wars. For example in Dhammapada, Bandula was
lured to suppress the border towns and he was killed together with his 32 sons. King
Vidudabba and his army killed Sakya King and family because of their looking down on him
and treating him with dishonor. Vidudabba had the palace floor washed away with the blood
of the Sakyas (Dhammapada, 17/361, 2553B.E.).38
King Udena was arrested by the tricks of
King Candapajjota (Dhammapada, 17/302).39
The Buddha rejected all kinds of violence, but he did not directly go to deter the warfare. It
might be that the warfare was a worldly business.
37 Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake dīghanikāyo (pāṭikavaggo) Vol .XI. p, 85.
38 Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṭṭhakathā(1992)(2535 B.E). Dhammapadaṭṭhakathā Vol. XVII., p.361.
39 Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṭṭhakathā(1992)(2535 B.E). Dhammapadaṭṭhakathā Vol. XVII., p.302.
182
In the final period and after the death of the Buddha, the Buddha’s relics were divided for the
kings from 7 states. If there had not been an agreement in dividing, there could have been a
war because all the 7 kings approached the Mallas with their full armies. With the wit and
ability of Dona Brahman, the seven kings agreed to share the Buddha’s relics with
compromise. (Di.Ma. 10/157-159/155-156).40
Later on, before and during the reign of King
Ashoka, there were several wars. King Ashoka had to subdue his brother (Samantapāsādikā
1/50, 2535 B.E.)41
and then the king had to subdue Orissa State. In this warfare, hundreds of
thousands of army forces and people were killed and that made the king remorseful. Then he
turned to Buddhism and had Dhamma in his warfare. Finally, the king was called Dhamma
Vijaya. (Sathien Bodhinanda, 2514 B.E. : 88)
In the modern history, the World War I began in 1914 and ended 4 years later. About 40
million civil and soldiers died in the war. The World War II started in 1939 and ended in
1945, about 50-85 million civil and soldiers died because of the war.42
In April 2561, there
was a crisis in the Middle East and that might lead to the World War again. People in some
countries were suggested to hoard food and food supplies.43
In February 2562, there was a
crisis between India and Pakistan, the fighter jets of India bombed a specific area in
Pakistan and it almost became a big war.44
All these are wars documented in human history. There are other wars left unmentioned,
such as Korean War, Viet Nam War, Israel-Arab War, Iraq-Iran War, etc.
This article aims to present the Buddhist perspective towards wars. Buddhism is a religion of
peace, but it has been concerned with wars from the past to present. How should Buddhists
and monks behave themselves to the war?
40
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake dīghanikāyo (mahāvaggo) Vol. X., p. 155-156.
41 Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṭṭhakathā(1992)(2535 B.E). Samantapāsādikā., p.50.
42 Wikipedia. (2017, November 17) [Online]. World war. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_war
43 BBC NEWS. (2018, April 14) [Online]. Syria air strikes: US and allies attack 'chemical weapons sites'.
Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-43762251
44 Aljazeera. (2019, March 10) [Online]. India-Pakistan tensions: All the latest updates. Retrieved from
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/02/india-pakistan-tensions-latest-updates-190227063414443.html
183
Objectives of the study
1. To study wars in the Tipitaka and Commentaries, and
2. To study the Buddha’s teachings concerning wars
Scope of the study
To study wars and the Buddha’s teachings concerning wars in the Tipitaka and
Commentaries, Siamrattha Volume of Mahamakut Foundation under the Royal Patronage.
Methods of the study
The data were collected from the Tipitaka(45 book series) and Commentaries(48 book series),
Siamrattha Volume on the topics and contents concerning wars and the Buddha’s teachings
towards the wars, the ways of practice for monks and soldiers in protection of states or
country from enemies. The data were analyzed, synthesized, composed and presented in a
descriptive method.
Results of the study
External War and Internal War
1. External War
The external war refers to the war or fighting between groups of people. A fight of a few, or
few people, is not called a war, but a quarrel instead. But war and fighting have a similar
purpose, victory. Under the rule of law or the rule of government, the quarrel depends not
only on the force but also on witnesses, clues, documents, and judges. In the war between a
country and a country, the victory depends on weapons, force and war strategies and tactics.
In war, the winner becomes the judge. The Buddha did not support war and fighting, but
there were wars even in the Buddha’s time. Pathamasangamavatthu Sutta told about the war
between King Ajata and King Pasenadi who lost and won alternatively. It is noticed that the
winner is not always good and the loser is also not always bad. The Buddha concluded that:
The winner is to create enmity, while the loser is to sleep with suffering.
Those who overcome loss and win become calm and can sleep peacefully.
(Sam.Sa. 15/371/107)45
45
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake saṁyuttanikāyo (sagāthavaggo) Vol. XV.,p.
107.
184
The details in the Sutta are as follows:
PathamasangamavatthuSutta 4
At Sāvatthī. Then King Ajātasattu Vedehiputta of Magadha mobilized an army of four
divisions and marched to Kāsi to attack King Pasenadi of Kosala. When King Pasenadi heard
of this, he mobilized an army of four divisions and marched to Kāsi to defend it against
Ajātasattu. Then the two kings met in battle. And in that battle Ajātasattu defeated
Pasenadi, who withdrew to his own capital at Sāvatthī.
Then in the early morning, a large number of monks, having put on their robes and carrying
their bowls and outer robes, went into Sāvatthī for alms. Having gone for alms in Sāvatthī, after
the meal, returning from their alms round, they went to the Blessed One and, on arrival, having
bowed down to him, sat to one side. As they were sitting there, they said to the Blessed One:
"Just now, lord, King Ajatasattu of Magadha, the son of Queen Videha, raising a fourfold army,
marched toward Kasi against King PasenadiKosala. King Pasenadi heard, 'King Ajatasattu of
Magadha, the son of Queen Videha, they say, has raised a fourfold army and is marching
toward Kasi against me.' So King Pasenadi, raising a fourfold army, launched a counter-attack
toward Kasi against King Ajatasattu. Then King Ajatasattu and King Pasenadi fought a battle,
and in that battle King Ajatasattu defeated King Pasenadi. King Pasenadi, defeated, marched
back to his capital at Sāvatthī."
"Monks, King Ajatasattu has evil friends, evil comrades, evil companions, whereas King
Pasenadi has fine friends, fine comrades, fine companions. Yet for now, King Pasenadi will lie
down tonight in pain, defeated."
That is what the Blessed One said. Having said that, the One Well-Gone, the Teacher,
said further:
Winning gives birth to hostility.
Losing, one lies down in pain.
The calmed lie down with ease,
having set winning and losing aside. (Sam.Sa. 15/368/106-107)46
In the end of the sutta, it said that King Ajatasattu has a false friend. That means the king has
Devadatta as a friend and the king committed an immediacy deed, patricide, to kill his father,
King Bimbisara.
Loss and Win
At Sāvatthī. Then King Ajātasattu Vedehiputta of Magadha mobilized an army of four
divisions and marched to Kāsi to attack King Pasenadi of Kosala. When King Pasenadi heard
46
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake saṁyuttanikāyo (sagāthavaggo) Vol. XV.,p.
106-107.
185
of this, he mobilized an army of four divisions and marched to Kāsi to defend it against
Ajātasattu. Then the two kings met in battle. And in that battle Ajātasattu defeated
Pasenadi, who withdrew to his own capital at Sāvatthī.
King Pasenadi thought that even though King Ajātasattu Vedehiputta had tried to kill him, he
still was his brother. Then he would seize King Ajātasattu’s elephant troop, horse troop, chariot
troop and all his infantry and let him live.
So King Pasenadi seized King Ajātasattu’s elephant troop, horse troop, chariot troop and all his
infantry and let him live. (Sam.Sa. 15/372-373/118-119)47
The War between Devas and Asuras
There were wars among non-human beings. In Dhajagga Sutta Samyuttanokaya, the Buddha
told about the war between Devas and suras, Sakka, King of gods and Vepacitti, King of
demons. When there was fear or terror in the war, let the devas behold the crest of Sakka’s
banner. In the war between Devas and Asuras, historians believed that there were quarrels
among the migrant Aryans and they divided into two groups. Both sides fought each other.
Those who migrated through India were Devas and those who went to Iran were Asuras, they
were Iranian and believed in Zoroaster. The contents of Devasurasangama were as follows:
Dhajagga Sutta 3
The power of recalling the Triple Gems
On one occasion the Blessed One was living near Savatthi at Jetavana at the monastery of
Anathapindika. Then he addressed the monks saying, "O monks." — "Venerable Sir," said the
monks by way of reply to the Blessed One. Thereupon he spoke as follows:
"Monks, I shall relate a former incident. There arose a battle between the Devas (gods) and
Asuras. Then Sakka, the Lord of the devas, addressed the devas of the Tavatimsa heaven thus:
Happy ones, if the devas who have gone to the battle should experience fear or terror or suffer
from hair standing on end, let them behold the crest of my own banner. If you do so, any fear,
terror or hair standing on end arising in you will pass away. If you fail to look up to the crest of
my banner, look at the crest of the banner of Pajapati, King of gods. If you do so, any fear,
terror or hair standing on end arising in you will pass away.
In this Sutta, the Buddha applied the concept of war between the Devas and Asuras in teaching
monks to recall the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha when they had fear and terror.
The Buddha said:
47
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake saṁyuttanikāyo (sagāthavaggo) Vol. XV.,p.
118-119.
186
O monks — if any fear, terror or hair standing on end should arise in you when you have gone
to the forest or to the foot of a tree, or to an empty house (lonely place), then think only of me
thus:
"'Such Indeed is the Blessed One, arahant (Consummate One), supremely enlightened,
endowed with knowledge and virtue, welcome being, knower of worlds, the peerless trainer of
persons, teacher of gods and men, the Buddha, the Blessed One.' Monks, if you think of me,
any fear, terror, or standing of hair on end that may arise in you, will pass away. (Sam.Sa.
15/863-865/278-280). 48
Treatment to the Defeated
In Vepacitti Sutta, the Buddha praised patience and not the profane or looking down on the
defeated or the weak. At present it means to follow international law concerning the prisoners
of war. The Buddha praised patience in Vepacitti Sutta as follows:
At Sāvatthī. On one occasion the Blessed One was staying near Sāvatthī at Jeta’s Grove,
Anāthapiṇḍika’s monastery. There he addressed the monks, “Monks! Once in the past,
bhikkhus, the devas and the asuras were arrayed for battle. Then Vepacitti, lord of the asuras,
addressed the asuras thus: 'Dear sirs, in the impending battle between the devas and the asuras,
if the asuras win and the devas are defeated, bind Sakka, lord of the devas, by his four limbs and
neck and bring him to me in the city of the asuras.' And Sakka, lord of the devas, addressed the
Tavatiɱsa devas thus: 'Dear sirs, in the impending battle between the devas and the asuras, if
the devas win and the asuras are defeated, bind Vepacitti, lord of the asuras, by his four limbs
and neck and bring him to me in the Sudhamma assembly hall.' "In that battle, bhikkhus, the
devas won and the asuras were defeated.
Then the Tavatiɱsa devas bound Vepacitti by his four limbs and neck and brought him to Sakka
in the Sudhamma assembly hall. When Sakka was entering and leaving the Sudhamma
assembly hall, Vepacitti, bound by his four limbs and neck, abused and reviled him with rude,
harsh words. But Sakka was patient and did not reply to those harsh words. (Sam.Sa.
15/867-876/278-280)49
The War of Words
For people in general, winning in discussion is important. Winning makes them proud and
losing causes sorrow. In Buddhism, the Buddha said that not being angry to the one who is
48
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake saṁyuttanikāyo (sagāthavaggo) Vol. XV.,p.
278-280.
49 Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake saṁyuttanikāyo (sagāthavaggo) Vol. XV.,p.
278-280.
187
angry is victory. People believe that keeping silent is defeat Buddhism believes that silence is
beneficial to both sides. The foolish believe that silence is dull.
In Asurindaka Sutta, the Brahmin Asurinda Bharadvaja, angry and displeased approached the
Blessed One, and with rude, rough words scolded and reviled the Blessed One. Then the
Blessed One kept silence. Then the Brahmin Asurinda Bharadvaja said to the Blessed One:
"Recluse, we won!" The Buddha replied that: The foolish think it is victory to talk rough words.
Victory is to him, who heals the mind, knowing it. So also it is demerit to arouse someone, who
has aroused you. He that does not arouse someone in return has won a difficult battle. He
behaves for his own good and the good of the other. Knowing that someone is angry, if you
appease yourself mindfully, you heal both yourself and the other. Those not clever in the
Teaching, think they are foolish. (Sam.Sa. 15/635-636/206)50
The War of Wit or Words
The war that had a special agreement on saying proverbs as appeared in Subhasitajaya Sutta;
On one occasion the Blessed One was staying near Sāvatthī at Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s
monastery. There he addressed the monks, “Monks! Once in the past, the devas and
asuras were arrayed for battle. Then Vepacitti the asura-king said to Sakka the deva-king: ‘Let
there be victory through what is well spoken.’ And Sakka replied ‘Yes, Vepacitti, let there be
victory through what is well spoken.’
One who repays an angry man with anger, thereby makes things worse for himself. Not
repaying an angry man with anger, one wins a battle hard to win. He practices for the welfare of
both, his own and the other's, When, knowing that his foe is angry, he mindfully maintains his
peace. When he achieves the cure of both — His own and the other's — The people who
consider him a fool are unskilled in the Dhamma. (Sam.Sa. 15/877-883/282-284)51
Good Characteristics of Warriors
Since he was born and brought up in the Kshatriya caste, The Buddha was trained and
well-versed in troop management, warfare, and soldier characteristics. There are teachings of
the Buddha comparing oldiers’ warfare with defilement fighting of monks. The monks who
could overcome defilements must bear ability similar to soldiers as mentioned in the
following Sutta.
50
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake saṁyuttanikāyo (sagāthavaggo) Vol. XV.,p.
206.
51 Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake saṁyuttanikāyo (sagāthavaggo) Vol. XV.,p.
282-284.
188
"Endowed with four qualities, monks, a warrior is worthy of a king, an asset to a king, and
counts as a very limb of his king. Which four? "There is the case where a warrior is skilled in
his stance, able to shoot far, able to fire shots in rapid succession, and able to pierce great
objects. A warrior endowed with these four qualities is worthy of a king, an asset to a king, and
counts as a very limb of his king. "In the same way a monk endowed with four qualities is
deserving of gifts, deserving of hospitality, deserving of offerings, deserving of respect, an
unexcelled field of merit for the world. Which four? "There is the case where a monk is skilled
in his stance, able to shoot far, able to fire shots in rapid succession, and able to pierce great
objects. A monk endowed with these four qualities is deserving of gifts, deserving of
hospitality, deserving of offerings, deserving of respect, an unexcelled field of merit for the
world. "And how is a monk skilled in his stance? There is the case where a monk is virtuous.
He dwells restrained in accordance with the Patimokkha, consummate in his behavior and
sphere of activity. He trains himself, having undertaken the training rules, seeing danger in the
slightest faults. This is how a monk is skilled in his stance. "And how is a monk one who is able
to shoot far? There is the case where a monk sees any form whatsoever that is past, future, or
present; internal or external; blatant or subtle; common or sublime; far or near -- every form --
as it actually is with right discernment as: 'this is not mine. This is not my self. This is not what
I am.'
(Ang.Catukka. 21/181/199-200)52
The Dhamma practice to protect the country as mentioned in the Tipitaka
In MahaparinibbanaSutta, the Buddha told monks about the 7 regular practices of the Vajji
Kings;
1. To hold regular and frequent meetings,
2. To meet together in harmony, disperse in harmony, and do the business and duties of
the Order in harmony,
3. To introduce no revolutionary ordinance, break up no established ordinance, but train
oneself in accordance with the prescribed training rules,
4. To honour and respect those elders of long experience,
5. Not to fall under the influence of craving,
6. To pay homage and give offerings to sacred monuments, and
7. To take care and protect the noble ones, and establish the thought that let those who
have not come, come, and let those who have already come, live in comfort.
52
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake aṅguttaranikāyassa dutiyo bhāgo
(catukkanipāto) Vol. XXI., p. 199-200.
189
The Buddha concluded that as long as the Vajji kings keep practising these Dhamma, they
could expect only progress and prosperity. It could be interpreted in the warfare context that
the Vajji kings could maintain their victory in the war as long as they could follow these
principles. Unfortunately they could not follow these principles, so they were defeated in the
war because they quarreled with each other as Vassakara Brahman instigated. (Di.Ma.
10/68/70-72)53
The practice of monks concerning war in the Discipline
In some situations, monks have to be concerned with the war inevitably. There are
prohibitions for monks as follows;
The tenth disciplinary code of AcelakaVagga
10. If a monk goes to see the troops that are carried away without a suitable reason, it is a
Pacittya.
11. With some reasons, a monk can stay in an army base for 3 nights. If he stays there for
more than 3 nights, it is a Pacitti.54
12. A monk stays in the army base for 2-3 nights, and he goes to see the battle, inspect the
army or see the army, it is a Pacitti.55
According to this disciplinary rule, monks are barred from interference with the army that is
not the monks’ business. If monks and lay-people are gathered to stay in the army base with
some reasons, monks can stay there for 2-3 nights, but they cannot go to see the army. (Vi.
Maha. 2/563/571/295-303)56
Invincible War
There are documents about wars that the authors prefer to write with pride in the victory of
their nation or history. In Buddhism, there is war but all warriors are defeated all the time.
53
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake dīghanikāyo (mahāvaggo) Vol. X., p. 70-72.
54 yo pana bhikkhu uyyuttaṃ senaṃ dassanāya gaccheyya aññatra tathārūpapaccāya, pācittiyaṃ
(bhikkhupāṭimokkhapāli, 48/70)
siyā ca tassa bhikkhuno kocideva bhikkhunā senāya vasitabbaṃ. tato ce uttariṃ vaseyya, pācittiyaṃ
(bhikkhupāṭimokkhapāli, 49/70)
55dvirattatirattañce bhikkhu senāya vasamāno uyyodhikaṃ vā balaggaṃ vā senābyūhaṃ vā anīkadassanaṃ vā ga
ccheyya, pācittiyaṃ (bhikkhupāṭimokkhapāli, 50/70-71)
56 Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Vinayapiṭake mahāvibhaṅgo (dutiyo bhāgo) Vol. II.,p.
295-303.
190
That is the war with old age and death. With the realization of this truth, the Buddha gave
suggestions to decrease the loss by cultivating goodness and wholesome. A person can
completely win in this war only by attaining Nibbana. (Sam.Sa. 15/415/129-130)57
Venerable sir, when overcome by old age and death, the war of infantry will not occur at all.
In the royal dynasty, noble men with magic power that can destroy the enemy are available.
But when they are overcome by old age and death, the use of magic power in fighting cannot
be expected. Venerable sir, there are gold and silver under the ground and in our palace that
can be spent to instigate the enemy, but when we are overcome by old age and death, that
wealth is useless. Venerable sir, when we are overcome by old age and death, what we should
do is to practice Dhamma, make merit, and do the wholesome regularly.
2. The Inner War
It may be only in Buddhism that the other name of the Lord Buddha is called “Maravijaya”,
the one who subdues the Mara. This word refers to the last watch on which the Buddha could
overcome the Mara and on that occasion, he exclaimed that:
yadā have pātubhavanti dhammā
ātāpino jhāyato brāhamaṇassa
vidhūpayaṃ tiṭṭhati mārasenaṃ
sūrova obhāsayamantalikkhanti
As phenomena go clear to the Brahman-ardent,
In Jhana-he stands, routing Mara’s army as
the sun illuminating the sky.
(Vi.Maha. 4/3/3)58
(Khu.U. 25/40/67-68)59
After subduing the Mara and his army, the Buddha was named as the subduing Mara Buddha.
Mara in this context means defilement that is difficult to overcome. Only the noble ones can
57
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake saṁyuttanikāyo (sagāthavaggo) Vol. XV., p. 129-130.
58 Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Vinayapiṭake mahāvaggo (pathamo bhāgo) Vol. IV.,p. 3.
59 Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake Khuddanikāyassa Udāna Vol. XXV.,p. 67-68.
191
gradually overcome the defilements. For people in general, training to control and reduce the
rough defilements; greed, anger, and delusion, is a start to winning the inner war. There is a
Buddhist proverb saying that defeating oneself is better, meaning that we should overcome
defilements that can influence our mind.
The war of aggregates is cause and effect coming together naturally. There is a Buddhist
proverb reminding us that with the troops of elephants, horses, and chariots, no one can
defeat this war, even the Lord Buddha.
Conclusion
No one wants war because it brings suffering and difficulties to everyone, but the war still
exists as long as humans have greed, hatred, delusion, and advantages. In April 2018, The
US., England and France fired missiles to bomb Syria because of a false accusation that Syria
possessed and used toxic gas. In February 2019, there was a conflict between India and
Pakistan on the Kashmir border. In Buddhism, to prevent the occurrence of war starts from
controlling our mind and thoughts from violence. With the stem of Loving-Kindness in mind,
it can be certified that violence will not be expanded. The Buddha said that to defeat oneself
is better than defeating others (attā have jitaṃ seyyo) (Khu.Dha.25/18/26)60
, and no other
happiness than peacefulness and calmness. (natthi santiparaṃ sukhaṃ)
(Khu.Dha.25/25/38).61
The ultimate goal of war is calmness, neither win nor loss, but few
people can realize it. Most people aim to defeat other people, countries and states and that has
created suffering and troubles in the world, from the past to the present.
References
Aljazeera. (2019, March 10) [Online]. India-Pakistan tensions: All the latest updates.
Retrieved from
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/02/india-pakistan-tensions-latest-updates-190227
063414443.html
BBC NEWS. (2018, April 14) [Online]. Syria air strikes: US and allies attack 'chemical
weapons sites'. Retrieved from
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-43762251
60
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake Khuddanikāyassa Dhammapadagāthā Vol.
XXV.,p. 26.
61 Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake Khuddanikāyassa Dhammapadagāthā Vol.
XXV.,p. 38.
192
Karuna-Reungurai Kusalasaya.(2012)(2555 B.E.). The Mahabharata. Bangkok : Syam Press.
Mahamakut Buddhist Foundation. (2005)(2548 B.E.). “bhikkhupāṭimokkhapāli” . Nakhon
Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Sathien Bodhinanda. (1971)(2514 B.E). Prawatsastrabuddhasasna chababmukhapatha
(History of Buddhism : Oral edition) . Phra Nakhon : Buddha-upatham Press.
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Vinayapiṭake mahāvibhaṅgo (dutiyo bhāgo) Vol.
II. Nakhon Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Vinayapiṭake mahāvaggo (pathamo bhāgo) Vol.
IV. Nakhon Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake aṅguttaranikāyassa dutiyo bhāgo
(catukkanipāto) Vol. XXI. Nakhon Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake aṅguttaranikāyassa tatiyo bhāgo
(chakkanipāto) Vol. XXII. Nakhon Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake dīghanikāyo (pāṭikavaggo) Vol .
XI. Nakhon Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake dīghanikāyo (mahāvaggo) Vol. X.
Nakhon Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake Khuddanikāyassa
Dhammapadagāthā Vol. XXV. Nakhon Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake saṁyuttanikāyo (sagāthavaggo)
Vol. XV. Nakhon Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṃ(2013)(2556 B.E). Suttantapiṭake Khuddanikāyassa Udāna Vol.
XXV. Nakhon Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṭṭhakathā(1992)(2535 B.E). Dhammapadaṭṭhakathā Vol. XVII.
Nakhon Pathom :Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Syāmaraṭṭhassa tepiṭakaṭṭhakathā(1992)(2535 B.E). Samantapāsādikā. Nakhon Pathom :
Mahamakuta-Raja-Vidyalaya Press.
Wikipedia. (2017, November 17) [Online]. World war. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_war
193
ICSSB-255
Utilizing Archived Digital Data of Traditional Ainu Clothes
- Visualization of Embroidering Process -
Masaaki Minagawa
Department of Law, Sapporo Gakuin University, Japan
E-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract
In this paper, the author proposes a method for taking and utilizing digital images of
traditional clothes of Ainu people, indigenous to northernmost areas of Japan. To study
characteristic embroidery pattern of the clothes and archived digital image data utilization,
digitization methods that can reproduce and visualize the original embroidery patterns are
examined. With regard to characteristic embroidery patterns of Ainu clothes, the patterns on
the digital image are traced in accordance with the traditional hand sewing movement, and
the “one-stroke pattern” is extracted and drawn in two/three dimensional computer graphics.
The coordinate value data on the traced curve is extracted, and the drawing is carried out with
the Bezier curve, and the sewing needle movement process by hand is simulated. To make
observation of the pattern easier, the author created a three-dimensional paper craft model
from the development view drawing.
Keywords: Ainu Clothes, Embroidery, Hand Sewing Process, Digital Archive
1. Background
The traditional clothes of the Ainu people, indigenous to northernmost areas of Japan (Ainu
History and Culture: Ainu People (n.d.).), has characteristic geometric patterns extend in
three dimensions throughout the clothes. Such clothes can be seen through museum displays,
images on websites (Ainu Tradition and Culture , 2010), various printed publications ( e.g.
Ainu museum, 2001; Historical Museum of Hokkaido, 1999), and so on. However, it is
difficult to observe and understand the characteristic patterns in detail from viewing the
display under limited conditions in the museums or browsing low-resolution and small-size
images on the websites. The same can be said for images of various printed publications.
In case of cultural assets, from the viewpoint of original materials preservation, the
opportunity to see closely and touch the real thing is limited to non-professional people such
as museum visitors. Expecting easy access to the cultural assets in several forms of media,
the author has been taking and storing high-resolution digital images together with attribute
information such as colors and materials. By utilizing such images, we can make and publish
194
accessible materials for many non-professional people. In this paper, the author proposes an
idea of digital archive system for the traditional Ainu clothes and some publishing methods
based on the stored digital data.
2. Methods
This chapter describes the features of Ainu clothes, an overview of the digital archive system,
and a method of extracting embroidery patterns from the digital images.
2.1 Ainu Clothes
Ainu clothes are characterized by the materials and patterns on the clothes body, and clothes
originally made by Ainu people are classified as follows (Traditional Livelihood – Food /
Clothing / Housing (n.d.). ; Ainu History and Culture: Clothing. (n.d.).).
Clothes made of animal hides and furs
Clothes made of plant fibers
Clothes made of cotton
The patterns commonly found in bark coats, grass coats and cotton coats are embroidered .
The “kirifuse” pattern is a small linear cloth arranged horizontally and vertically on clothes
body, and the embroidered pattern is a pattern on the “kirifuse” pattern with a thread (Ainu
Museum, 2009). There are two types of embroidery patterns: embroidered on the kirifuse
patterns and embroidered on a clothes body directly.
In the example of Fig. 1, the black and thick band-shaped part is in the form of a “kirifuse”
pattern, and the white and thin part is in the pattern of embroidery. Such patterns range from
those applied to part of clothes to those covering the whole. In the latter case, the pattern is
connected from the back to the front of the clothes, i.e. stretching in three-dimensional.
Fig. 1: An example of “kirifuse” pattern and embroidery pattern
195
2.2 Constructing Digital Data of Ainu Clothes
Fig. 2 shows the framework of digitization process proposed by the author (Minagawa, 2017).
In the first stage of material digitization, images are created by photography and scanning.
When digitally reproducing the three-dimensional configuration of patterns of clothes, it is
desirable to be able to directly refer to the target material itself each time. However, such
direct reference is generally difficult from the point of view of preservation of the materials.
On the occasion of creating digital data , assuming the future utilization, the author attempts
to obtain information equivalent to direct reference to the material. With such digitization , by
accessing the data later, it will become possible that research and reproduction work can be
performed without the restriction of the difficulty of refer to the original materials.
Fig. 2: Digital data creation process
2.3 Tracing the Embroidery Image
By tracing embroidery patterns on the digital image, it is possible to analyze and understand
characteristic patterns. The Ainu patterns include basic component patterns such as “Aiushi”
and “Moreu” (Ainu Museum, 2009), but, in this study, each individual pattern is not traced.
To make the tracing work regular and consistent, we adopt the method of “one-stroke sewing”
(Nishida, 2007; Tsuda, 2008 ). The process of the one-stroke sewing is an empirically
established needle movement method for embroidery, and tracing is performed according to
that. In the traditional needle movement method, from the start point to the end point, as
shown in the intersection points A and B in Fig.3, the needle does not change the direction of
movement, and as the result, threads crosses with each other. The author applies this method
to tracing.
196
Such tracing work is an opportunity for the learner/researcher to experience the needle
movement process without using real needles and threads. In addition, the trace result itself
leads to data utilization for visualization as described later.
Fig. 3: Basic pattern of needle movement
3. Utilization of the Digital Data
3.1 Visualizing the One-stroke Sewing Process
In this section, first example of the visualization of the one-stroke sewing process by
Minagawa (Minagawa, 2014) is explained. Fig.4 shows the sample clothes material and Fig.
5 shows the result of tracing the embroidery pattern according to the one-stroke sewing
method described above, and shows the case where the clothes are unfolded and viewed from
the back. The upper center of the figure is the back, and on both sides are the patterns on the
front collar, which are connected from the lower center of the figure. Here, it can be observed
that four one-stroke patterns are extracted.
See Fig.5 in more detail. At the top of the back, there are three one-stroke patterns, indicated
by a solid line and two broken lines. The pattern that spreads from the lower back to the left
and right consists of a one-stroke pattern. The left and right are symmetrical. Based on the
trace results, the pattern was converted to 3DCG and displayed in Fig.6. Such visualization
can be used as a material to verify the Ainu pattern configuration and hand sewing movement
method from the viewpoint of "one-stroke".
197
Fig. 4: Sample clothes material
Fig. 5: Extraction result of one-stroke patterns
198
Fig. 6: Display result of embroidery pattern by 3DCG
3.2 Animating the Sewing Process by Drawing Bezier Curve
In this section, another example of the visualization of the one-stroke sewing process by
Minagawa (Minagawa, 2015) is explained. Traces are performed using Adobe Illustrator
which is a widely used software to create vector image data. As shown on the left of Fig. 7,
drawing is performed by arranging representative points called the “anchor point” on a curve,
and giving the shape of a segment (line/curve) between anchor points by manipulating the
position of the direction points. In CG, a cubic Bezier curve is often used, and as shown on
the right of Fig.7, a curve can be obtained by giving four control points. It can be seen from
Fig.7 that the positions of the anchor points and the direction points correspond to the
coordinates of the control points of the Bezier curve.
Fig. 7: Drawing of curves in Illustrator and Control point of Bezier curve
199
Bezier curves are drawn using relatively simple calculations. Given four points
P x y P x y P x y P x y1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4( , ) , ( , ) , ( , ), ( , ) on the same plane shown in Fig.7, approximate
expression of the Bezier curve is given as follows.
4
1
44332211
4
1
44332211
iii
iii
tBy
tBytBytBytByy
tBx
tBxtBxtBxtBxx
)(
)()()()(
)(
)()()()(
Where t is the parameter of this parametric curve, and values of Bi are given as follow.
B t t
B t t t
B t t t
B t t
13
22
32
43
1
3 1
3 1
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
An example in which control point coordinates are extracted from the results of Fig.5 and
drawing is performed is shown in Fig.8. The number of used control points used for this
drawing is 481.
As the patterns on the image are traced in accordance with the traditional hand movement
method, the one-stroke patterns of the Ainu clothes are extracted. From the obtained trace
results, numerical data such as coordinate values on the curve were extracted, and drawing
was carried out using Bezier curves, and the sewing process is visualized. It should be noted
that, with this method, the pattern is drawn using relatively small size of numerical data (i.e.
coordinate values ) and simple equations.
Fig. 8: Embroidery pattern drawn by Bezier curve
200
3.3 Three Dimensional Visualization by Making Papercraft
In this section, the author shows another method of visualizing three-dimensional feature of
the embroidery pattern (Minagawa, 2017). Fig.9 shows the material being examined. In order
to obtain a development view, in addition to the front and back of the clothes, the side and the
top parts are photographed, and an image for tracing is created. Fig.9 shows the combined
images for the tracing. It is observed that the front view image is divided into three parts and
attached to the back view image. Top view image and side view image are added for
correction purpose of distorted parts (boundary between the front and back of the clothes ).
Fig.10 shows an example of the development view and the created paper craft model. The
figure on the left of Fig.10 shows the development view of the traced image. The method of
making the development view drawing is based on (Shizunai town, Hokkaido utari
association shizunai branch, 1993 ). The three-dimensional model of the paper created using
this development view is on the right of Fig.10. If accurate development view can be drawn,
it is possible to create a paper craft model without distortion, and it becomes possible to
visualize three-dimensional embroidery pattern in a simple and precise way.
By observing the pattern from a free angle, and by touching the model in hand, the material
becomes a familiar object. This paper craft model can be used as a teaching material in
classrooms to learn local traditional cultures. It is possible to color “one-stroke” paths on
printed development view picture and then make a three-dimensional paper craft model. This
enables students to understand how complex the embroidery pattern is.
Fig. 9: Sample material
201
Fig. 10: Development view and paper craft model
4 Conclusions
In this paper, the author proposed a method of taking and utilizing digital images of
traditional clothes of the Ainu people. The patterns on the digital image were traced according
to the traditional needle movement method, and the characteristic “one-stroke” pattern of the
clothes was extracted. By using the trace results, the author showed some visualization
methods.
First, the pattern was displayed as three-dimensional image of the embroidery pattern. The
result enables us to verify the configuration of the pattern graphically on monitors. Second,
coordinate values on the curve were extracted from the obtained trace results, and using the
Bezier curve, needle movement in the sewing process was drawn. This shows that the pattern
can be drawn using relatively small size of numerical data and simple equations. Third, to
facilitate easier understanding of the three-dimensional composition of the embroidery
pattern, the author created a paper craft model from the development view drawing. This
enables us to touch the model in hand, and observing from different angles. So, this paper
craft model can be used as a teaching material in classrooms to learn local traditional
cultures.
In the study results described above, the author showed examples of making accessible
materials of Ainu clothes.
202
5 References
Historical Museum of Hokkaido(1999). Ainu no Yosooi , Dentou to Souzou [Ainu Clothes,
Tradition and Creation].Sanyo Insatsu.
Ainu Tradition and Culture. (2010). Retrieved March 27, 2019 from
http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/nyumon/siryo/kiru.htm
Ainu History and Culture: Ainu People. (n.d.). Retrieved March 27, 2019 from
http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng01.html
Ainu History and Culture: Clothing. (n.d.). Retrieved March 27, 2019 from
http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng07.htm
Traditional Livelihood – Food / Clothing / Housing. (n.d.). Retrieved April 28, 2019 from
https://www.akarenga-h.jp/en/hokkaido/ainu/a-01/
Ainu Museum (2009). Ainu bunka no kiso chishiki [Basic knowledge of ainu culture].
Chiba:Sofukan.
Nishida,K.(2007). Nishida Kayoko no tekekarape, ainu shisyu [Nishida Kayoko’s
Tekekarape , ainu embroidery]. Sapporo, Kuruzu.
Tsuda,N.(2008). Ainu sisyu nyumon [Introduction to ainu embroidery]. Sapporo, Kuruzu.
Minagawa,M.(2014). Constructing Digital Archive of Folkcraft Articles – Visualizing
Stitching Process of Ainu Clothes Embroidery by 3DCG. Digital Archive Research
Journal, 2(1), 3-10.
Minagawa,M.(2015). Constructing Digital Archive of Folkcraft Articles – Digital
Representation of Ainu Embroidery Pattern. In Proc. of Annual Conference, Japan
Society of Educational Information, 31, 122-125.
Minagawa,M.(2017). Constructing digital archive of folkcraft articles – constructing
three-dimensional structure of ainu clothes embroidery using bird’s-eye view images.
Digital archive research journal,4(1), 51-59.
Shizunai town, Hokkaido utari association shizunai branch(1993). Shizunai-chiho no ainu
ifuku [Ainu clothes in shizunai region]. Sapporo:Hokkaido Kikanshi Insatusyo.
Ainu museum(2001). Ainu no ifuku bunka [Culture of Ainu Clothes]. Sapporo:Hokkaido
Kikanshi Insatusyo.
203
Education
Thursday, July 26, 2019 10:45-12:15 Meeting Room 1
Session Chair: Dr. Bob Barrett
ICSSB-0265
Assessment of Teaching Characteristics of Successful Online Teaching Candidates
Transitioning from Traditional to Virtual Learning Environment
Bob Barrett︱American Public University
ICSSB-0230
The Influence of Constructive Touch-Screen Games on Children with "Number Sense"
Disadvantage
Chien Heng Lin︱National Dong Hwa University
Chunn-Ying Lin︱National Dong Hwa University
ICSSB-0221
The Impact of Cooperative Gaming on the Speaking Ability and Motivation of Adult
English Learners of a Japanese Business: A Qualitative Study
Justin Pool︱Osaka Kyoiku University
Haruyo Yoshida︱Osaka Kyoiku University
ICSSB-0231
Effects of the International Science Experiments’ Program for High School Students
Madoka Inui︱Tennoji High School attached to Osaka Kyoiku University Toshiyuki Morinaka︱Tennoji High School attached to Osaka Kyoiku University Haruyo Yoshida︱Tennoji High School attached to Osaka Kyoiku University
204
ICSSB-265
Assessment of Teaching Characteristics of Successful Online Teaching
Candidates Transitioning from Traditional to Virtual Learning
Environment
Dr. Bob Barrett
School of Business, American Public University, United States
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
The transition from traditional classroom learning to online learning environment requires not
only candidates for virtual teaching positions to have a certain level of teaching ability but
also technological skill and aptitude in order to meet the needs of today’s online learning
student. Historically, the traditional format for learning required a physical location for both
the instructor and learners in order to achieve the “perceived” mastery of the course learning
objectives and to follow the traditional “Socratic Method of Teaching”, but due to various
personal and business factors, not all learners can still attend a traditional classroom and need
a new learning opportunity for their learning needs. Thus, there is a need to examine what
are the teaching characteristics of current traditional teachers and what do they need to be
successful online instructors, as well as explore how to better serve current and future
educators wishing to transition over to virtual teaching assignments. Consequently, this paper
will examine the teacher training methods used in two universities with either a traditional or
online learning format provided to their learners.
2. Methods
This paper will examine how over a period of several years two distinct populations which
were selected either voluntarily or involuntarily to participate in teacher training preparation
for an upcoming online learning assignment(s). Besides prepare potential online instructors
with current academic preparation and/or teaching experience in the traditional learning
environment, several key questions focused on this teaching endeavor. Does the level of
previous experiences attribute to better skills sets for instructors to transition from a
traditional learning environment to a virtual one? Can new instructors with little or limited
teaching experience be properly prepared for online teaching assignments with a teacher
training program designed to cover the key requirements in a given time and enable these
candidates to be successful and feel empowered to find resources to assist with their teaching
skills in order to meet their learners’ needs? During the course of several years, two distinct
population were taught and observed. The first population were newly recruited professors
to teach online for the Department of Management Studies in a virtual university. The
205
second population consisted of new and current teaching applicants for virtual learning at
another university to learn how to become online teachers, as well as being qualified to teach
in both the traditional and online classroom. The key distinction between the two populations
was based on the fact that the first population were mainly teachers with little or no virtual
teaching experience, and the second population had the same characteristics with little or no
virtual teaching experience, but they were being trained for both the traditional and online
classroom environments. The methodology used for both populations included the use of
observation of the candidates during the training process, as well as evaluation of the
candidates by the instructor/training which included coursework completed during the
training program. Further, the trainer proceeded with this study with the use of qualitative
method of both observation of the teaching candidates, as well as reviewing the coursework
submitted by the learners to observe if there were certain teacher characteristics that stood out
in the process and how these teacher characteristics did impact the development of certain
teaching skills sets, attributes, and attitudes toward learning in the traditional and/or online
learning environ.
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
The outcome of both observations and examination of the results of the training and
placement of the teachers in both populations proved that it is necessary for current and
future online teachers to have a strong command of technology, academic understanding of
education, as well as a strong teaching personality and commitment to the teaching profession
and use of technology. Further, it was found that both types of instructors could become
more enabled and empowered instructors if given more education and training with the use of
technology, as well as being exposed to the area of online learning to develop their teaching
skills sets and discover how technology can enhance not only their current teaching skills, but
also provide better learning opportunities for both their learners and overall teaching career
development. Consequently, it should be noted that further research over a period of time
could lead to a better understanding of teaching characteristics which can enhance the
educator’s performance and ability to interact with both the learner and the academic staffing,
as well as to strengthen one’s ability to engage, excite, and motive learners to move from
passive to more active learning.
Keywords: Traditional learning, virtual learning, teacher characteristics, technology skills
206
ICSSB-230
The Influence of Constructive Touch-Screen Games on Children with
"Number Sense" Disadvantage
Chien-Heng Lina , Chunn-ying Lin
b
aDepartment of Early Childhood education, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan
E-mail address: [email protected]
bDepartment of Early Childhood education, National Dong Hwa University ,Taiwan
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
Researchers indicated that the "number sense" ability in early childhood stage can predict the
effectiveness of learning math in the future. The difficulties and frustrations of school
children in math learning are mainly rooted in their lack of the "number sense". Therefore,
the early childhood stage is a critical period for "number sense" learning. It can directly affect
the children’s achievement of math learning in the later stages. However, the cultivation of
children’s "number sense" seems to be very passive in early childhood education in Taiwan.
The learning of "number sense" in early childhood stage is mainly built by themselves
through the interaction with their parents in their family life and external stimuli and
imitation from peers. Therefore, the children in disadvantaged families are even more at
unfavorable situation. Moreover, the new curriculum of early childhood education in the
construction of children’s math is mainly depended on thematic integration curriculum which
may not be systematic and progressive construction of children's mathematical concepts. No
matter on the teaching objectives and learning targets or the actual implementation of the
thematic curriculum activities, the construction of children’s "number sense" are truly facing
a real predicament.
Therefore, in order to solve this dilemma, the purpose of this study is to construct a set of
effective learning strategies and tools for enhancing children with "number sense"
disadvantage. Due to the highly developed smart phones and tablet touch devices, many
learning digital games with touch screen functions have become very popular. Recently, some
empirical studies have also shown that touch screen games have a high potential for young
children’s learning. In particular, the portability of digital games and the characteristics of
self-learning are highly valued. The function of intrinsic feedback in the digital game allows
learner to learn at any time without the teacher's instruction and without using other related
teaching aids. In addition, researches pointed out that children can solve the touch
manipulation and skill of many touch operations. Children can also successfully perform
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some touch operation actions, including tapping, dragging, zooming, long pressed, and
double tap. Hence, this study uses touch screen as a tool and to develop a digital game with
touch screen function for young children to learn "number sense". The touch screen digital
game, which designed based on constructive idea and cognitive theory of number sense, is
expected to play a constructive and reinforcing role to improve the preschool children with
"number sense" disadvantage.
2. Methods
This study applies the quasi-experimental design to explore the effectiveness of participants’
learning with touch screen digital game. Our targeted participants in this study are selected
based on the condition of "number sense" disadvantage, which are from public preschool in
the Hualien city located in the east part of Taiwan. A total of 6 preschools and 90 preschool
children participated in this study. The procedure started with the pre-test in which all
children are individually tested; then they joined the controlled experimental teaching. The
whole instruction process included eight complete teaching cycles, the total time being
around three weeks. After that, the post-test was given. In order to check whether the
differences between pre-test and post-test scores were significant, and to exclude certain
moderating variables this research adopted the method of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA).
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
The results show that the children learning with touch screen digital game have effectively
improvement in the test of “number sense”, compare with control group. The results of this
study have also found that the children with "number sense" disadvantage who are involved
in interventional teaching is not only performing the same as that of children with better
pre-testing in“number sense”, but even better. In other words, the interventional game
instruction with targeted design can make the students with poor performance in“number
sense” significantly improve in a short period of time.
Keywords: Touch screen device, number sense, digital game, preschool
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ICSSB-221
The Impact of Cooperative Gaming on the Speaking Ability and
Motivation of Adult English Learners of a Japanese Business: A
Qualitative Study
Justin Parker Poola, Dr. Haruyo Yoshida
b
a Department of English Education, Osaka Kyoiku University, Japan
E-mail address: [email protected] b Department of English Education, Osaka Kyoiku University, Japan
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
This study is a qualitative view of how modern cooperative games can be used to foster
English motivation, confidence, and the communicative skills necessary for companies
competing on the globalized stage. A 2012 initiative of Japan’s Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) aimed to “overcome the Japanese younger
generation’s ‘inward tendency’ and to foster human resources who can positively meet the
challenges and succeed in the global field, as the basis for improving Japan’s global
competitiveness and enhancing ties between nations” (MEXT, 2013).
Cooperative games can help to achieve these ambitions through the practice of discussion and
consensus-building. These types of games are a rather modern phenomenon. Unlike
traditional competitive games where players are on their own and attempt to defeat their
opponents, cooperative games allow learners the opportunity to work together to solve a
particular goal. Therefore, these games necessitate interaction and negotiation, skills that are
integral for people working at international businesses. This is especially important in a
context like Japan, where assertiveness is not fostered as much as in many Western countries
like the United States (Singhal & Nagao, 1993). Cooperative games can allow for learners to
advocate for their opinions on strategies for the best possible outcomes for all.
Games are also known to increase motivation in the classroom. Learning English in high
school in Japan is often viewed as studying grammar, vocabulary, and reading
comprehension for university entrance exams (Ushioda, 2013). Thus, through participating in
games, learners can practice meaningful interactions beyond the scope of the instrumentalism
of studying for high exam scores. Despite their potential to hone important skills for the
business environment and the ability to increase motivation and confidence, very little
research has been done on the use of cooperative games in the adult EFL classroom.
209
Japanese adults often have a low image of their English ability. This lack of confidence can
stunt their willingness to communicate (MacIntyre, 2007) and limit their growth potential.
Additionally, while Japanese learners of English have often memorized many grammatical
forms and vocabulary, the English as a foreign language curriculum has historically
overlooked the need for practicing production. The government has recently taken steps to
promote more communicative classrooms and active learning, but many adults in the
workplace were not able to take advantage of this pedagogical shift.
2. Methods
Eighteen employees working for a Japanese company’s factory and research center took a
15-week course focusing on communication ability, presentation skills, and the mitigation of
error avoidance tendencies, coupled with an online program focusing on reading, vocabulary,
and grammar. During the classes, learners were introduced to the cooperative tabletop game,
Forbidden Island. In this game, players act as treasure hunters who attempt to obtain four
treasures and escape an island before it sinks into the water. The players are a team working
toward the same goal and must continually discuss their strategy to come to an optimal
outcome. The research for this study comprises of teacher observations and learner feedback
from surveys and interviews.
3. Expected Results / Conclusion / Contribution
Many of the subjects of this study struggled in producing output at the beginning of the game.
However, as gameplay progressed, they were able to successfully use the grammatical
patterns of their group members to contribute their own ideas. The most frequent comments
from the subjects were that the game was highly challenging, that it was a lot of fun, and that
they progression in their ability to express their ideas. The high level of enthusiasm generated
by playing the game coupled with student comments on their perceived self-growth suggest
that cooperative tabletop games can help to increase learner motivation, confidence, and
discussion abilities. This study fills a gap in the research of cooperative gaming in adult
language courses.
Keywords: Cooperative Gaming, Task-Based Learning, Motivation, Discussion
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ICSSB-231
Effects of the International Science Experiments’ Program for High School
Students
Toshiyuki, Morinaka A,
, Madoka Inui B
, Dr. Haruyo Yoshida c
a Tennoji High School attached to Osaka Kyoiku University, Japan
E-mail address: [email protected]
b
Tennoji High School attached to Osaka Kyoiku University, Japan
E-mail address: [email protected] c
Department of English Education, Osaka Kyoiku University, Japan
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
This study details how effective students in different countries through the experiments on
Science can study by using ICT. Our school, Tennoji High School attached to Osaka
Kyoiku University, is certified by Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science,
and Technology (MEXT) as a Super Science High School and has an exchange program with
a Science High School in Thailand. This program is focused on the study of Science and
Mathematics. We made use of ICT as an effective communicative tool. ICT offers learners
various activities for developing different language skills. The teachers of EFL have positive
attitudes towards the use of ICT for utilizing effective teaching and learning practices (Akhter,
2012; Nazmun, 2013). Each December, the students of our school and the Thailand school
visit each other’s campuses. In January, students always communicate with each other using
English as a lingua franca. Through these experiences, we want them to have the abilities to
have the in-depth study by thinking for themselves, and at the same time these motivators
will cultivate in them a broader perspective within our society and internationally. The
objectives are, 1) By using ICT in an EFL situation, students have opportunities to acquire an
international way of thinking and gaining an understanding of other people’s ways of looking
at things and have an ability to go ahead with the study with independent-minded. 2)
Students in Thailand and Japan collaborate on the experiments together in remote places. 3)
When they visited the other country, they have lessons from professors in the university and
the research institutes.
2. Methods
At first, all participants introduced themselves via video conference using Zoom. Zoom
Video Communications is a company that provides remote conferencing services using cloud
computing. The students were divided into small groups for six categories and started having
meetings in chatrooms in groups based on their progress. Students carried out experiments
211
in their own country and analyzed the data and then they had discussion using ICT. The
topics were from six categories within the fields of Biology, Mathematics, Physics, and ICT.
Last December our students visited Thailand and did experiments there. After coming back
to Osaka, they shared the data and confirmed the results. They made the report in groups
using ICT. At that time, they used Google Classroom in G-Suite to make the report together.
G-Suite is comprised of Gmail, Hangouts, Calendar, Google+ for communication; Drive for
storage; Docs, Sheets, Slides, Forms, and Sites for collaboration; and, depending on the plan,
an Admin panel and Vault for managing users and the services. They edited the results of
experiments in the same time in both countries. The six categories were as follows; 1)
Comparative research of rice (Biology), 2) The relationship between angles from the x axis
and the line (Math), 3) Application of nuclear techniques (Physics), 4) The comparison of
Young's Modulus to the physical properties (Physics), 5) A comparison of efficiency of heat
insulation production from water hyacinth fibers (Biology), 6) Developing a system for
recording students’ activities ( ICT ).
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
To solve the same task, this is the good chance for each student in each school. According
to the questionnaires of students, points are as follows; all students felt that they could make
the program through the discussion with students in Thailand in English though the language
barrier was difficult to overcome at first (100%). Through these programs, they felt the
significance of studying science. Especially their science experiments made them take a
growing interest in science (67%). The ability of communication with others in English is
increased. The presentation about their research in front of many people raised their
confidence of using English (87%). Additionally, the teachers involved believe that the
long-term communication in English contributed to, deeper friendships. By using English,
they tried to understand well and took time to think about things. Science was the main
topic, and through science they learned how students in other countries have ideas and ways
of thinking. Cooperation between teachers who moderate the program is necessary to share
information.
Keywords: ICT, cooperation program, EFL
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Poster Session
Electrical & Electronic Engineering/ Chemical Engineering/
Biomedical Engineering/ Electrical & Electronic Engineering/
Environmental Sciences/ Material Science Engineering/
Mechanical Engineering
Thursday, July 25, 2019 13:15-14:15 Pre-Function Area
ISEAS-235
The Study of Factors Influence Consumer Trust in Chatbots from Both Self-reported
Approach and EEG
Chia-Hui Yen︱Ming Chuan University
Ming-Chang Chiang︱Fu Jen Catholic University
ISEAS-233
Rheological Behavior of Microgel Reinforced Self-Healing PVA Hydrogel Composite
Hong-Ru Lin︱Southern Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Yi-An Chang︱Southern Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Chuh-Yean Chen︱Southern Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Yiu-Jiuan Lin︱Chung Hwa University of Medical Technology
ISEAS-242
Synthesis of Buta-1,3-Diene from Ethanol With Mixed Catalyst of Magnesium Oxide
and Sulfonated Graphite
Naoki Ikenaga︱Kansai University
Yuto Hirota︱Kansai University
Kojiro Fuku︱Kansai University
ISEAS-255
Discussion on Software and Hardware Architecture and Control Logic for
Smart-Adjusting Hybrid Ventilation Mode
Nien-Tsu Chen︱Tungfang Design University
Ying-Sheng Chen︱National Cheng Kung University
213
ISEAS-241
Distribution System Voltage Control Method Considering Fairness of Distributed Power
Supply Owners
Takeshi Nagata︱Hiroshima Institute of Technology
ISEAS-249
Analysis of the Low-Electron-Density State of a Channel Layer in InGaAs High
Electron Mobility Transistors
Itsuki Takagi︱Chukyo University
Honoka Tanabe︱Chukyo University
Hirohisa Taguchi︱Chukyo University
ISEAS-250
Crystal Defect Evaluation Method of AlGaN/GaN HEMT using the Temperature
Dependence of the Electric Field Pulse Response
Honoka Tanabe︱Chukyo University
Itsuki Takagi︱Chukyo University
Hirohisa Taguchi︱Chukyo University
ISEAS-251
Promotion of Cutting Performance for SiC-Particle Reinforced Aluminum-Matrix
Composites through the Assisted Machining Techniques
Shen Yung Lin︱National Formosa University
Zhe Wei Hu︱National Formosa University
ISEAS-131
An Implementation of Mobilenet Using FPGA
Hsin-Yu Chen︱Yuan Ze University
Kan-Lin Hsiung︱Yuan Ze University
214
ISEAS-235
The Study of Factors Influence Consumer Trust in Chatbots from both
Self-reported Approach and EEG
Chia-Hui Yena and Ming-Chang Chiang
b*
aDepartment of International Business, Ming Chuan University, Taiwan
E-mail address: [email protected]
bDepartment of Life Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, Taiwan,
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/Objectives and Goals
This study demonstrates a chatbots trust model to empirically investigate consumer’s
perception by questionnaire from self-reported approach and by electroencephalography
(EEG) from neuroscience approach. Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques have been
extensively applied to support and enhance the quality of decision making and problem
solving. Chatbots is one of the fast rising AI trend relates to the utilization of applications that
interact with users in a conversational format and mimic human conversation.
2. Methods
Participants: The healthy subjects included 14 males and 16 females, ranging in age from 21
to 24 years (Mean= 21.55 years, SD= 1.60 years), and did not have any history of
neurological diseases. The experiment was conducted with 30 undergraduate students from a
major university in Taipei, Taiwan.
EEG recording: EEG recordings were performed using Neuron-Spectrum 3 (Neurosoft Lt,
Russia) and 21-Channel Digital EEG Systems. Electrodes were situated according to the
International 10-20 System.
Data Analysis: EEG data were processed through the Neuron-Spectrum.NET software, it is
proposed for the performing of EEG exams with the use of digital EEG systems of
Neuron-Spectrum. After converting and analyzing the beta frequency band of EEG data were
collected 30 subjects using standardized Low Resolution Electromagnetic Tomography
(sLORETA)
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
Chatbots allow business to enhance customer experiences and fulfill expectations through
real-time interactions in e-commerce environment. Therefore, factors influence consumer’s
trust in chatbots is critical. This study starts from integrating three key elements of chatbots,
in terms of machine communication quality aspect, human-computer interaction (HCI) aspect,
and human use and gratification (U&G) aspects. We propose that credibility, competence,
anthropomorphism, social presence, media richness, informativness, and playfulness have
215
effect on consumer’s trust in chatbots and seller, in turn, have effect on purchase intention.
Moreover, numerous literatures have indicated the beneficial tool of electroencephalography
(EEG) through its non-invasive neuronal signals for trust and social behavior. However, the
underlying brain mechanisms of trust in social process exchange is still not well understood.
Our study chooses EEG instrument to explore the relationship between trust and purchase
intention in chatbots condition. In this result, 30 participants were invited to examine brain
image through EEG. We indicated that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the superior
temporal gyrus are significantly associated with building a trust relationship by inferring
chatbots to influence subsequent behavior.
Keywords: Trust, Chatbots, Self-reported questionnaire, EEG, Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex,
Superior temporal gyrus
216
ISEAS-233
Rheological Behavior of Microgel Reinforced Self-Healing
PVA Hydrogel Composite
Hong-Ru Lina,*
, Yi-An Changa, Chuh-Yean Chen
a, Yiu-Jiuan Lin
b
aDepartment of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Southern Taiwan University of Science
and Technology, Tainan 710, Taiwan bDepartment of Nursing, Chung Hwa University of Medical Technology, Tainan 717, Taiwan
*E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Introduction
The research on self-repairing materials has become more and more active owing to scientific
needs and commercial interests. Although the study on self-repairing hydrogels has made
exciting progresses; critical challenges still remain. The mechanical strength of existing
self-repairing supramolecular hydrogels is usually low and may cause problems in some
biomedical applications such as tissue engineering scaffolds. In this study, microgel guar gum
and borax were used to prepare macrocrosslinkers, which were used to prepare self-repairing
microgel-reinforced composite hydrogel of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). We analyzed
viscoelasticity of microgel-reinforced composite hydrogel of PVA and compared it with
uncrosslinked hydrogel.
2. Methods
In this study, the microgel was prepared by inverse emulsion polymerization, then the
microgel was dispersed in a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) viscous liquid, and finally borax (borax)
was added to the microgel to form macro cross-linkers. The macro cross-linker and the PVA
polymer chain were bonded to prepare self-repairing microgel reinforced PVA hydrogel. The
effects of concentration of crosslinking agent and repairing time on the storage modulus G΄
and loss modulus G˝ of self-repairing microgel-reinforced composite hydrogel of PVA were
analyzed.
3. Results and Discussion
Figure 1 (A) shows the frequency sweep rheogram of microgel-reinforced PVA hydrogel with
different microgel concentrations after repair for one day. When the concentration of
microgel increased, the density of crosslinking with PVA would increase; so it was expected
that there would be higher G΄ and G˝. However, as Figure 1 (A) indicate, the concentration of
microgel does not show a regular correlation with G΄ and G˝, which is possible due to uneven
dispersion of microgel and PVA substrate caused by overhigh concentration. In order to study
the changes before and after repair, we compared the data and found G΄ was 14.2 kPa and G˝
217
was 9.76 kPa respectively for the microgel-reinforced PVA hydrogel with 0.5 wt% microgel
before repair at an angular frequency of 1 rad/s. But G΄ was 13.1 kPa and G˝ was 9.04 kPa
and the recovery rate of G΄ was 92% and that of G˝ was 93% respectively after repair. With
regard to microgel-reinforced PVA hydrogel with 1 wt% microgel at an angular frequency of
1 rad/s, G΄ was 16.6 kPa and G˝ was 8.95 kPa respectively before repair. But G΄ was 13.1 kPa
and G˝ was 9.04 kPa and the recovery rate of G΄ was 79% and that of G˝ was 101%
respectively after repair. With regard to microgel-reinforced PVA hydrogel with 1.5 wt%
microgel at an angular frequency of 1 rad/s, G΄ was 16.4 kPa and G˝ was 10.6 kPa
respectively before repair. But G΄ was 19.4 kPa and G˝ was 11.6 kPa and the recovery rate of
G΄ was 118% and that of G˝ was 109% respectively after repair. The comparison on G΄, G˝
and their recovery rate shows microgel-reinforced PVA hydrogel with 1.5 wt% microgel
presents the best recovery rate and its G΄ and G˝ are ever higher than those before repair. The
macrocrosslinkers may crosslink with one another and form bigger agglomerations due to
increase of microgel concentration. When the microgel is destroyed by external force,
separation of microgel agglomerations is helpful to allow microgels to rebond with PVA
polymer chains; so the optimal viscoelastic recovery can be obtained when the microgel ratio
is 1.5 wt%.Figure 1 (B) is the frequency sweep rheogram of microgel-reinforced PVA
hydrogel with different repairing time. It can be found that G΄ and G˝ of all hydrogels that
were cut and repaired were not significantly different from those of uncut hydrogels in all
frequency ranges, showing the hydrogel has a good self-repairing capacity. The
viscoelasticity will be maximum when the repairing time is 7 days. That is because the
dynamic repair inside the hydrogel can be extended, the functional groups can cross the
damaged zones and the restored dynamic bonds can repair the cracks along with extension of
the repairing time.
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Keywords: Rheological property, Self-healing, Microgel, PVA hydrogel
Fig. 1 (A) shows the rheogram of
microgel-reinforced PVA hydrogel
with change of microgel
concentration after repair for one
day. Angular frequency is
changed when strain is fixed at
1%; (B) Frequency sweep
rheogram of microgel-reinforced
PVA hydrogel against repairing
time. PVA (13 wt%); BX (0.5
wt%).
219
ISEAS-242
Synthesis of Buta-1,3-Diene From Ethanol with Mixed Catalyst of
Magnesium Oxide and Sulfonated Graphite
Naoki Ikenaga, Yuto Hirota, Kojiro Fuku
Department of Chemical, Energy and Environmental Engineering, Kansai University, JAPAN
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
Currently, buta-1,3-diene (BD) is mainly manufactured by the steam cracking of naphtha, and
BD is produced as a side-product in the steam cracking process for ethylene production. Due
to the growth of ethylene production from shale gas, the synthesis process of chemical
products from ethylene manufactured from the shale gas tends to be increased output. For
that reason, the naphtha cracker plants are gradually decreasing, and the BD deficiency is a
concern. Recently, BD synthesis from ethanol (EtOH) has attracted much attention as a new
alternative process. The production process from ethanol is expedient to produce a small
amount. For this process, catalysts having both acid and base properties such as MgO/SiO2
have been investigated.
In this work, we tried to apply a mixed catalyst of magnesium oxide (MgO) and sulfonated
graphite (SGR) for the BD synthesis from ethanol. MgO and SGR have basic properties and
acid properties, respectively. Furthermore, the mixing method such as physical mixing and
kneading of MgO and SGR was examined.
2. Methods
BD synthesis reactions were carried out using a fixed-bed flow quartz reactor at 400-500 oC
under atmosphere pressure for 1 h. After 200 mg of the mixed catalyst was placed in the
reactor, EtOH was introduced (around 0.6 mmol/h) into the reactor with a saturator while
accompanying 20 mL/min of Ar. The liquid phase products were collected in ethane-1,2-diol
as a cold trap, and then octan-1-ol was added to the trap as an internal standard. The gas
phase products were collected with a gas-burette to measure the gas volume.
Gaseous samples such as C2H4, 1-C4H8, and C4H6 were analyzed by a FID gas
chromatograph (column: Unicarbon A-400). CO and CO2 were analyzed by the FID gas
chromatograph (column: activated carbon) equipped with a methanizer. H2 was analyzed by a
TCD gas chromatograph (column: activated carbon). Ethanol, acetaldehyde, and butan-1-ol
were analyzed by the FID gas chromatograph (column: DB-WAXTR).
220
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
As a result, MgO+SGR prepared by the physical mixing method gave 81.6 % of EtOH
conversion 44.8 % of BD yield of 44.8 %. These values were higher than those obtained
with MgO/SiO2 reported previously. Moreover, when MgO+SGR prepared by the kneding
method was used for the reaction, although the EtOH conversion decreased from 81.6 % to
74.8 %, the BD yield increased from 44.8 % to 56.0 %.
Keywords: Buta-1,3-diene, Ethanol, Magnesium oxide, Sulfonated graphite
221
ISEAS-255
Discussion on Software and Hardware Architecture and Control Logic for
Smart-Adjusting Hybrid Ventilation Mode
Nien-Tsu Chen a,*, Ying-Sheng Chen
b
a Department of Interior Design, Tungfang Design University, Taiwan(R.O.C.)
E-mail address: [email protected]
b Department of Architecture, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan(R.O.C.)
E-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract
This study discussed how to ensure indoor air quality by integrating relevant ventilating and
purifying devices and structures under the hybrid ventilation concept in a smart-adjusting
manner in response to environmental conditions. It focused on system building,
smart-adjusting logic and the development of mobile device (mobile phone) adjusting App.
Preliminary research results established the software and hardware architecture and adjusting
logic of the system. In the future, the stability, operability and acceptability by users will be
validated through users experience in application.
Keywords: smart-adjusting, hybrid ventilation, indoor air quality, APP
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
In the current context of degradation of external environment and dramatic climate change, as
well as indoor air pollution, how to ensure the air environment quality in respect of cleanness
and comfort was the subject concerned in this study. Many researchers or research teams,
including Per Heiselberg (2001), Steven J. Emmerich (2006), University of California, Center
of Building Environment of Berkeley, have proposed the concept of hybrid ventilation, a
ventilation method integrating the energy-saving and healthy natural and mechanical
ventilation.
In order to discuss how to apply hybrid ventilation method in due time in response to
diversity and environmental challenges amid different severe conditions, other air purification
methods may be integrated, to ensure indoor air quality and realize energy conservation. In
pilot study, four elements, including window, air conditioner, heat recovery ventilator, purifier,
etc., were established, to implement an appropriate strategy to ensure a healthy environment
in response to six scenarios, including “outdoor overheating”, “outdoor undercooling”,
“outdoor overwetting”, “only outdoor air quality is poor”, “only indoor air quality is poor”
and “both indoor and outdoor air quality are poor”; and preliminary results have been
222
obtained through on-site experiment (Chen et al., 2018). In this study, an appropriate
adjusting strategy and control logic were identified for different environmental conditions,
and a smart-adjusting App was developed by leveraging the mobile device (mobile phone) as
a man-machine interface, and its basic architecture was established preliminarily.
2. Methods
In this study, domestic and foreign literature on environment monitoring, smart adjusting,
man-machine interface, App, wireless communication, etc. were collected on a continuous
basis through literature analysis as references for this study. In addition, the system was
further revised and contents were supplemented and deleted through exchanges and
communications with experts on smart-adjusting hybrid ventilation system architecture,
relevant software and hardware applications and other implications.
3. Results
3.1 Smart-adjusting hybrid ventilation system hardware architecture proposed in this
study
Smart-adjusting hybrid ventilation system hardware proposed in this study includes devices
and structures such as window, air conditioner, heat recovery ventilator and purifier, and
various controllers, mobile device (mobile phone) and environmental sensing units. Such
devices and structures, generally connected through Wifi signal, were expected to start
auxiliary devices to adjust temperature, humidity and purify air in due time through system
logic controlling device and structure terminal according to indoor or outdoor environmental
sensing data amid adverse natural environmental conditions. Hardware system diagram is as
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of smart-adjusting hybrid ventilation system hardware
architecture proposed in this study
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3.2 Device system logic for smart-adjusting mode
In this study, applications of controlling devices and structures were discussed and specified
in the following four parts based on the 6 scenarios set out in preceding study:
3.2.1 “Outdoor overheating” scenario or “outdoor undercooling” scenario
As shown in Table 1, when outdoor temperature (To) ≧ 30℃ (inclusive), mechanical
ventilation was applied: start the cooling mode of air conditioner and heat recovery ventilator
to reduce temperature; when outdoor temperature (To) was 30℃ >(To)≧21℃, natural
ventilation was applied: open windows to maintain natural ventilation; when outdoor
temperature (To) was below 21℃, mechanical ventilation was applied: start the heating mode
of air conditioner and heat recovery ventilator to raise the temperature. Temperature
thresholds for “outdoor overheating” or “outdoor undercooling” were determined with
reference to the values recommended after considering and discussing the impact of external
ambient temperature on people with cardiovascular disease and respiratory disease (Hsia, et
al., 2019).
Table 1: Ventilation strategies and adjusting mode for “outdoor overheating” scenario or
“outdoor undercooling” scenario
Environmental
conditions Ventilation strategies WD
* AC
* HRV
* AP
* Scenario
To**
≧ 30℃ Mechanical ventilation ■**
□**
□ ■ Outdoor
overheating
30℃ > To ≧ 21℃ Natural ventilation □ ■ ■ ■ -
To < 21℃ Mechanical ventilation ■ □ □ ■ Outdoor
undercooling * WD denotes window; AC denotes air conditioning; HRV denotes heat recovery ventilation;
AP denotes air purifier. **
To denotes outdoor temperature; □ denotes ON; ■ denotes OFF.
3.2.2 “Outdoor overwetting” scenario
As shown in Table 2, when outdoor relative humidity (RHo) was ≧70% (inclusive),
mechanical ventilation was applied: start the dehumidification function of air conditioner and
heat recovery ventilator to reduce humidity; when outdoor relative humidity (RHo) was below
70%, natural ventilation was applied: open windows to maintain humidity within a
comfortable range. Threshold for “outdoor overwetting” was set at 70% with reference to the
conformable range (40%-70%) recommended by the Environmental Protection
Administration (EPA) of Taiwan, but it can be increased if energy conservation is taken into
consideration. Generally, the possibility of relative humidity below 40% in Taiwan is slim,
224
therefore, “outdoor overdrying” was not considered.
Table 2: Ventilation strategies and adjusting mode for “Outdoor overwetting” scenario
Environmental
conditions Ventilation strategies WD
* AC
* HRV
* AP
* Scenario
RHo**
≧ 70% Mechanical ventilation ■ □ □ ■ Outdoor
overwetting
RHo < 70% Natural ventilation □ ■ ■ ■ -
* WD denotes window; AC denotes air conditioning; HRV denotes heat recovery ventilation;
AP denotes air purifier. **
RHo denotes outdoor relative humidity.
3.2.3 “Only outdoor air quality is poor” scenario
“Only outdoor air quality is poor” mentioned in this study refers to excessive PM2.5 or PM10
concentrations, which is also the main air pollution issue that Taiwan is coping with. Other
pollutants were not considered for the time being. As shown in Table 3, for “only outdoor air
quality is poor” (OA-PM2.5≧35μg/m3 or OA-PM10≧125μg/m
3), hybrid ventilation was
applied: start heat recovery ventilator and air purifier to prevent external air pollution from
contaminating indoor air environment and to reduce indoor air pollutants; for outdoor air
quality below benchmark (PM2.5<35μg/m3 and PM10<125μg/m
3), 24-hour value
recommended by EPA of Taiwan, natural ventilation was applied: open windows to maintain
natural ventilation.
Table 3: Ventilation strategies and adjusting mode for “Only outdoor air quality is poor”
scenario
Environmental conditions Ventilation
strategies WD
* AC
* HRV
* AP
* Scenario
OA-PM2.5**≧35μg/m
3 or
OA-PM10**≧125μg/m
3
Hybrid
ventilation ■ ■ □ □
Outdoor air
quality is
poor
OA-PM2.5 < 35μg/m3 and
OA-PM10 < 125μg/m3
Natural
ventilation □ ■ ■ ■ -
* WD denotes window; AC denotes air conditioning; HRV denotes heat recovery ventilation;
AP denotes air purifier. **
OA-PM2.5 denotes outdoor PM2.5; OA-PM10 denotes outdoor PM10.
225
3.2.4 “Only indoor air quality is poor” scenario
As shown in Table 4, for “only indoor air quality is poor” (IA-PM2.5≧35μg/m3 or
IA-PM10≧75μg/m3), hybrid ventilation was applied: open windows and start air purifier, to
quickly reduce indoor air pollutants; for indoor air quality below benchmark (PM2.5≦
35μg/m3 and PM10≦75μg/m
3), 24-hour value recommended by EPA of Taiwan, natural
ventilation was applied: open windows to maintain natural ventilation. For “both indoor and
outdoor air quality are poor”, in principle, the adjusting method for “only outdoor air quality
is poor” scenario was recommended.
Table 4: Ventilation strategies and adjusting mode for “Only indoor air quality is poor”
scenario
Environmental conditions Ventilation
strategies WD
* AC
* HRV
* AP
* Scenario
IA-PM2.5**≧35μg/m
3 or
IA-PM10**≧75μg/m
3
Hybrid
ventilation □ ■ ■ □
Indoor air
quality is
poor
IA-PM2.5 < 35μg/m3 and
IA-PM10 < 75μg/m3
Natural
ventilation □ ■ ■ ■ -
* WD denotes window; AC denotes air conditioning; HRV denotes heat recovery ventilation;
AP denotes air purifier. **
IA-PM2.5 denotes indoor PM2.5; IA-PM10 denotes indoor PM10.
Adjusting modes varied according to different environmental conditions. However, such
conditions may exist at the same time, and therefore may conflict with each other. In
principle, mechanical ventilation or hybrid ventilation strategies applied amid poor
environmental conditions were better than natural ventilation and should be preferred.
However, priorities of all conditions and actual adjusting methods are to be identified in
subsequent studies.
3.3 Planning of mobile adjustment App page
In this study, mobile device (mobile phone) was applied as a man-machine interface, to
manually adjust relevant devices and structures. In the center of its App homepage was a
simple house pattern, and outdoor and indoor environmental monitoring data were displayed
on the top and at the bottom, respectively, in real time. Users can touch the window (WD), air
conditioner (AC), heat recovery ventilator (HRV) or air purifier (AP) on the pattern to control
devices or structures and access respective interfaces upon clicking to select such devices or
structures. Schematic diagrams of relevant interfaces of determining control modes of
relevant structures and devices through manual control or smart logic in system planning are
as shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3.
226
Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of the homepage of the App developed in this study
Fig. 3: Schematic diagram of adjusting interfaces of relevant devices and structures
3.4 Acknowledgements
We want to thank the Ministry of Science and Technology for financial assistance and Tung Fang
Design University for providing the site and relevant devices, hence facilitating the successful
implementation of this study.
4. References
Heiselberg P. (2001). Hybrid ventilation –state-of-the-art review. The Second International
Forum on Hybrid Ventilation, HybVent Forum 01.
Emmerich, S. J. (2006). Simulated performance of natural and hybrid Ventilation systems in an
office building. HVAC&R Research.
Center for the Built Environment (CBE) (2005). About Mixed Mode. University of California,
Berkeley. Retrieved from http://www.cbe.berkeley.edu/mixedmode/aboutmm.html
Chen, N. T., Hong, S. Y., Chen, Y. S. (2018). A Preliminary Discussion on the Control Strategy
of Hybrid Ventilation Considering Climate Change. Asian Conference on Engineering and
Natural Sciences, Osaka, Japan.
Hsia, Y. F., Hsu, N. Y., Jung, C. C., Su, H. J. (2019). Health risk of cumulative effect of indoor
temperature on cardiovascular and respiratory diseases emergency department visits. 2019
International Conference on Occupational Hygiene, Tainan, Taiwan.
AC
HRV
AP
WD
TEMP℃
RH%
PM2.5
ug/m3
PM10
ug/m3
TEMP℃
RH%
PM2.5
ug/m3
PM10
ug/m3
24 72 20 125
25 75 18 105
SMART HOMEAC
HRV
AP
WD
TEMP℃
RH%
PM2.5
ug/m3
PM10
ug/m3
TEMP℃
RH%
PM2.5
ug/m3
PM10
ug/m3
24 72 20 125
25 75 18 105
SMART HOME
Window
(WD)
AutoManual
Opening Angle
Air Conditioning
(AC)
AutoManual
Temperature
Heat Recovery Ventilation
(HRV)
AutoManual
Air Volume
Air Purifier
(AP)
AutoManual
Air Volume
227
ISEAS-241 Distribution System Voltage Control Method Considering
Fairness of Distributed Power Supply Owners
Takeshi Nagata a
a Department of Computer Science and Technology ,
Hiroshima Institute of Technology, Japan
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
This paper proposes a new method for voltage control of distribution system. At present, the
introduction of solar power generation is progressing worldwide for realization of a low carbon
society. When a large amount of photovoltaic (PV) power generation is introduced into the
distribution system, voltage fluctuations due to the sudden change of PV output occur at various
places, and as a result, it is expected that the voltage profile given to the distribution line
becomes very complicated. The proposed method controls the power factor of PCS (power
conditioning system) attached to PV, injects reactive power into the distribution system, and
controls the voltage. However, power factor control of PV connected to the same distribution
line is prioritized on the downstream side, and there is a problem that fairness among owners of
PV is not satisfied. Therefore, in this paper, we propose a multi-agent system that controls the
power factor of all PCSs linked to the distribution line simultaneously by the same amount. The
proposed system is constructed in Java language and computer simulation is performed on a
model system. As a result, it was confirmed that the voltage control with satisfactory fairness
could be realized.
2. Methods
The proposed method implements voltage control for each distribution line without deteriorating
the power factor as much as possible. In order to realize control per distribution line, the
proposed scheme adopts the multi-agent technology to build as a distributed system. The
proposed system consists of "feeder agent (F_AG)" corresponding to the distribution line and
"bus agent (B_AG)" corresponding to the customers and the bus of PV power plant which are
connected the distribution line.
Fig. 1 shows the process of each agent. An agent is implemented as a state transition machine,
and circles in the figure represents states. F0 to F3 are states of F_AG, while S0 to S3 are states
of B_AG. In this method, each agent is composed of four states as shown in this figure. State 0
(corresponding to F0 or S0) is an initialization processing at startup, state 1 (F1 or S1) is an
environmental perception processing, state 2 (F2 or S2) is a decision processing, and state 3 (F3
or S3) is an action process to the environment.
228
The features of the proposed method are shown below.
(1) In this method, F_AG controls the power factor of PV of all B_AGs connected to
distribution line feeders equally, and satisfies the fairness among PV owners.
(2) B_AG sends the values of active power (P), reactive power (Q), and bus voltage (V) to
F_AG in a fixed cycle, and the knowledge modules built in F_AG determine the strategy
for voltage improvement or power factor improvement.
(3) The knowledge module determines the optimal control value by solving the power flow
problem with changing the power factor of PCS repeatedly on the virtual power system.
Therefore, the implementation of complicated control rules and the tuning of control
parameters are unnecessary.
The simulation results (voltage control with the same power factor) are shown in Fig. 2. As
shown in this figure, it can be seen that all bus voltages are controlled within the voltage target
range (between 0.97 and 1.03 p.u.).
B_AG (Bus agent)
S0
S1
S3
S2
[1] [2] [3] [4]
F0
F1
F2
F3
F_AG (Feeder agent)
Voltage estimationcalculation
[1] [2] [3] [4]
B_AG (Bus agent)
S0
S1
S3
S2
Fig. 1 Proposed multi-agent processing.
Fig. 2 Simulation results (Voltage control
with same power factors)
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
This paper proposes a voltage control scheme of distribution system that satisfies the fairness
among PV owners. The multi-agent system is implemented to control the power factor of all
PCSs linked to the distribution line at the same time. From the simulation results, it is confirmed
that the voltage control can be realized which satisfies the fairness among PV owners. Future
work includes the examination of practical level by modeling of low voltage distribution system.
Keywords: Voltage control, distribution system, PV, fairness, multi-agent
0.96
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
Voltage(p.u)
Time
B0 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11B12 B13 B14 VLimit VTarget
229
ISEAS-249
Analysis of the low-electron-density state of a channel layer in InGaAs High
Electron Mobility Transistors
Itsuki Takagi, Honoka Tanabe, Hirohisa Taguchi
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, School of Engineering,
Chukyo University, Japan
Abstract
The InGaAs-based HEMT is a promising device for next-generation high-speed communication.
Conversely, the InGaAs crystal in the channel layer of this HEMT exhibits electron cloud
disappearance due to the hole accumulation effect. To solve this problem, the electron transport
phenomenon in the InGaAs crystal must be clarified. In this study, we aimed to clarify the
process of electron cloud formation in InGaAs of the InGaAs-based HEMT. A
low-electron-density state was constructed in the InGaAs crystal via the photovoltaic effect using
emitted light. The process of 2DEG formation was measured in detail by varying the intensity of
emitted light. This resulted in a weak peak of drain current in the 2DEG formation process.
Furthermore, we clarified the voltage value that expressed the stable function as FET via the
change in the irradiation intensity and gate voltage. At low voltages, the spread of the electron
cloud in the InGaAs crystal was three-dimensional. Hence, there was no presence of 2DEG from
the beginning. The voltage at the moment of two-dimensional degeneration was measured. The
electron transport phenomena were discussed via an energy phase diagram, and qualitative
findings were obtained. Thus, the switching condition from the low-electron-density state to the
high-electron-density state in the InGaAs crystal was obtained.
Keywords: InGaAs-based HEMT, photovoltaic effect, low-electron-density state
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
Recently, the demand for high-speed communication is increasing [1]. The increase in
communication speed has improved the frequency band of radio waves used as well as the
amount of information sent and received by individuals. To date, development focused on
increasing the amount of communication [2]. Technological innovation in communication
quality centers on communication speed. High-speed communication necessitates the
high-frequency response of all communication equipment. Most importantly, high expectations
are centered on InGaAs HEMTs while focusing on the quality of transmission and reception of
information (e.g. low noise, high-speed response, and high gain) [3]. An InGaAs-based HEMT is
a Schottky type transistor with InGaAs in the channel layer. Transfer electrons degenerate in two
230
dimensions in the channel layer and move at a high speed. Two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG)
minimizes scattering phenomena due to crystal defects and impurities and achieves high-speed
movement and low noise. The advantages of high-speed movement are reflected in high gain.
Specifically, 2DEG extends the number of electrons transferred per unit time; thus, HEMT is an
extremely promising device for next-generation high-speed communication. Conversely, the
InGaAs crystal exhibits a phenomenon of electron cloud disappearance due to the hole
accumulation effect [4]. In order to solve this problem, the electron transport phenomenon in the
InGaAs crystal must be clarified. In the study, we aimed to clarify the process of electron cloud
formation in InGaAs. A low-electron-density state was constructed in the InGaAs crystal via the
photovoltaic effect using emitted light. The emitted light intensity changed, and the process of
forming 2DEG was measured in detail. Evidently, this exhibited a weak peak of drain current in
2DEG formation process. Furthermore, we clarified the voltage value that expressed stable
function as FET via using irradiation intensity change and gate voltage change. At a low voltage,
the spread of the electron cloud in the InGaAs crystal was three-dimensional. Hence, there was
no presence of 2DEG from the beginning. The voltage at the moment of two-dimensional
degeneration was measured. The electron transport phenomena were discussed via an energy
phase diagram and qualitative findings were obtained. Thus, the switching condition from the
low-electron-density state to the high-electron-density state in the InGaAs crystal was obtained.
2. Methods
2.1 Target Devise
A structural cross-sectional view of the InGaAs-based HEMT used in the study is shown in
figure 1. The channel layer InGaAs crystal was lattice-matched to the base substrate InP
substrate. Furthermore, it exhibited a shape sandwiched between InAlAs crystals. Thus, a
difference in surface potential occurred between the InGaAs layer and the InAlAs layer, and a
well potential was formed on the InGaAs layer side.
2.2 Current–voltage characteristics of a low-electron-density state; Wavelength of 1480 nm
In the study, laser light was irradiated to the metal electrode side to confirm the light response
Fig1. Cross section of InGaAs-based HEMT used in the study
231
characteristics of HEMT. The experimental system is shown in Figure 2. Laser light was
supplied from a laser diode, and it was divided into an intensity ratio of 90:10 via the beam
splitter. The intensity ratio of 90% for the laser beam was irradiated to the HEMT by introducing
the remaining 10% to the light intensity meter to confirm the light intensity during irradiation.
The laser light used exhibited a wavelength of 1480 nm, and this slightly exceeded the band gap
energy value of the InGaAs layer based on the photoelectric effect in Equation (1) as follows [5]:
λ ≤ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑔 [𝜇m] (1)
Bias conditions were set at a low-electron-density state by varying the drain-source voltage (VSD)
in steps of 0.01 mV in the range from −0.5 mV to 4.8 mV. The drain-source current (ISD) was
measured under this condition. Furthermore, the current-voltage characteristics were similarly
measured at the time of light irradiation.
2.3 Current–voltage characteristics of a low-electron-density state; Wavelength of 830 nm
The experimental diagram is shown in figure 3. Additionally, in the experiment, laser light was
used to irradiate the metal electrode side of the HEMT. The laser light used exhibited a
wavelength of 830 nm. Hence, based on Equation (1), the InGaAs-based HEMT is irradiated
with a larger energy than in the case of the wavelength of 1480 nm. Bias conditions were set at a
low-electron-density state by varying the drain–source voltage (VSD) in the range from −0.5 mV
to 4.8 mV in steps of 0.01 mV as that described in Section 2.2. The source current (ISD) was
measured. Furthermore, the current–voltage characteristics were similarly measured at the time
of light irradiation.
3. Results
3.1 Current–voltage characteristics of InGaAs-based HEMTs
Fig.2 Experiment system of the DC characteristic under
light irradiation with a wavelength of 1480 nm
𝑉𝑆𝐷 𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑉𝑆𝐷
Fig.3 Experiment system of DC characteristic under
light irradiation with a wavelength of 830nm
232
The current–voltage characteristics in the source–drain voltage range from 0 V to 1.5 V are
shown in Figure 4 for the InGaAs HEMTs used in the study. In the study, we focus on the circled
area in figure 4 and measured. The DC characteristics of the linear region of the device are
linearly observed at each gate voltage via measuring the macroscopically current–voltage
characteristics as shown in the graph in figure 4.
3.2 Current–voltage characteristics of a low-electron-density state with a wavelength of 1480 nm
The current-voltage characteristics of InGaAs-based HEMTs measured in the study are shown in
Fig. 5. Dotted circles and squares are partially enclosed as shown in the graph in Figure 5. In the
portion surrounded by a circle, the measurement range of the power supply apparatus used in the
experiment shows that the portion changes to [mA] range from [μA]. It was confirmed that a
slight deviation occurred in the measured source-drain current value due to the change in the
measurement range. Subsequently, the part surrounded by the squares in Figures 5(a) and 5(b) is
described. The square part in Figure 5(a) corresponds to Figure 5(b) (enlarged view), and the
square part in Figure. 5(b) corresponds to figure. 5(c) (enlarged view). As shown in Figures 5(a)
and 5(b), relatively linear characteristics are obtained irrespective of light irradiation.
Furthermore, the phenomenon in which drain current decreased via light
Fig.4 DC characteristics of the InGaAs-based HEMT
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source–Drain Voltage [V]
Start VGS =0.0 V , Step =-0.05V
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
-0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Volatge [mV]
0mW10mW
30mW
60mW
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Volatge [mV]
0mW10mW30mW60mW
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Volatge [mV]
0mW10mW30mW60mW
Fig.5 DC characteristic of the InGaAs-based HEMT as a low-electron-density state under light irradiation with a
wavelength of 1480 nm, Vg=0.0 V. (a) The source–drain voltage range from -0.5 mV to 4.8 mV, (b) The
source–drain voltage range from -0.5 mV to 1.5 mV, (c) The source–drain voltage ranges from -0.1 mV to
0.3 mV.
( ( (
233
irradiation was confirmed. A difference in drain current reduction was confirmed by each light
intensity. The influence of light irradiation and the dependence on light intensity was observed.
Furthermore, as shown in figure. 5(c), a sharp rising current occurs between 0 mV and 0.2 mV of
the source–drain voltage, and the rising current is shifted to the right via the light intensity. In the
portions where the drain current was 0 mA and 0.01 mA, it was observed that the respective
graphs did not change linearly, and the current value was temporarily saturated and decreased.
Figure 6 shows the measurement results of gate voltage dependence. The gate voltage was
measured via changing the range from 0.3 V to −0.5 V in steps of 0.1 V. As shown in Fig. 6,
relatively stable current–voltage characteristics are obtained when a positive gate voltage is
applied. However, the shape of the graph was gradually distorted when negative gate voltage was
applied. In a manner similar to Fig. 5, a sharp rise current was observed at the drain voltage
value. When the gate voltage was positive, a significant rising current was generated. Conversely,
when a negative gate voltage was applied, the rising current was not recognized gradually.
Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 5 (c), the rising current and light intensity result in a rightward
shift for any gate voltage. The phenomena and effects of light irradiation are discussed later.
3.3. Current–voltage characteristics of a low-electron-density state; Wavelength of 830 nm
The current-voltage characteristics of InGaAs HEMTs under low electron density conditions are
shown in Figure 7, and the measurement results for gate voltage dependence are shown in Figure
8. The gate voltage was measured via changing the range from 0.3 V to -0.3 V in 0.1 V steps. In
the results shown in figure. 7, similar to that shown in figure. 5 (wavelength of 1480 nm),
relatively linear characteristics are confirmed irrespective of the presence or absence of light
irradiation. It was confirmed that a sharp rising current was generated between 0 mV and 0.2 mV
of the source–drain voltage, the light irradiation and light intensity shifted to the right.
234
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mW 10mW30mW 60mW80mW 100mW130mW 160mW200mW
𝑉G = −0.5[V]
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mW 10mW
30mW 60mW
80mW 100mW
130mW 160mW
200mW
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mW 10mW30mW 60mW80mW 100mW130mW 160mW200mW
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mW 10mW30mW 60mW80mW 100mW130mW 160mW200mW
𝑉G = −0.2[V]
𝑉G = −0.4[V]
𝑉G = −0.3[V]
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mW 10mW
30mW 60mW
80mW 100mW
130mW 160mW
200mW
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mW 10mW30mW 60mW80mW 100mW130mW 160mW200mW
𝑉G = 0.3[V]
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mW 10mW30mW 60mW80mW 100mW130mW 160mW200mW
𝑉G = 0.2[V]
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mW 10mW
30mW 60mW
80mW 100mW
130mW 160mW
200mW
𝑉G = 0.1[V]
𝑉G = −0.1[V]
Fig.6 Gate voltage dependence of DC characteristic in the low electron density state under light
irradiation with a wavelength of 1480 nm
235
.
Fig.7 DC characteristic of the InGaAs-based HEMT as a low-electron-density state under light irradiation with a
wavelength of 830 nm
(a) Source–drain voltage range from −0.5 mV to 4.8 mV, (b) Source–drain voltage range from −0.5 mV to1.5
mV, (c) Source-drain voltage range from -0.1 mV to 0.3 mV
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
-0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
(a) (c) (b)
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mA 10mA
30mA 60mA
80mA 100mA
120mA 160mA
𝑉𝐺 = −0.2[V]
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mA
10mA
30mA
60mA
𝑉𝐺 = −0.1[V]
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mA10mA30mA60mA80mA
𝑉𝐺
= −0.3[V]
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mA10mA30mA60mA80mA
𝑉G = 0.3[V]
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mA10mA30mA60mA
𝑉G = 0.2[V]
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
0mA
10mA
30mA
60mA
𝑉𝐺 = 0.1[V]
Fig. 8 Gate voltage dependence of DC characteristic at the low-electron-density state
under light irradiation with a wavelength of 830 nm
236
Additionally, as shown in figure. 8, when the gate voltage is positive, the stable current–voltage
characteristics are obtained. However, it is observed that the graph shape is gradually distorted
when the gate voltage is negative. A sharp rise current is confirmed at each gate voltage. A rise
current is significantly generated when the gate voltage is positive. However, with reverse bias,
the occurrence of the rising current gradually became difficult. This is similar to figure 5. When
light with wavelength of 830 nm was irradiated, a decrease in source drain current was
confirmed via light irradiation similar to that in the case of 1480 nm up to a certain drain voltage.
However, from the moment when the source drain voltage exceeded a certain value, the source
drain current exceeded that in the case where light irradiation was not performed. In the IV
characteristic of a normal HEMT, the drain current changed based on the gate voltage although
the drain current also increased when the gate voltage increased. The data were investigated in
detail with respect to the phenomenon. Hence, the IV characteristics after irradiation and IV
characteristics before laser beam irradiation and inversion of the drain current value (intersection)
were confirmed. In the experiment, a low bias was applied to the HEMT as a
low-electron-density state, and extremely minute carriers were supplied to the HEMT. Thus, as
previously described, a minute number of carriers occupied the triangular potential. The rise of
the number of carriers occupied the first level, and the degeneracy of the electronic state
commenced. From this moment, the carrier functioned as 2DEG and was transported to the drain
current side through the triangular potential. Figure 9 shows drain voltage reversal voltages
(crossing points) at the time of light irradiation and before light irradiation. As shown in figure 9,
the intersection of the moment when the source drain current (at the time of irradiation) exceeds
is potentially in accordance with a certain type of relationship.
3.4 Discussions: Operation of the InGaAs-based HEMT as a low-electron-density state
As shown in Fig. 5(c), when the drain voltage is in reverse bias, a clear change in the drain
current with or without light irradiation is not observed. As shown in the band diagram (figure.
10), carriers are not degenerate in the triangular potential in the InGaAs layer and are instead
Fig.9 Plot of intersection points of DC characteristic graph for
each gate voltage and light intensity
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
So
urc
e-D
rain
Curr
ent
[mA
]
Source-Drain Voltage [mV]
-0.3V
-0.2V
-0.1V
0.0V
0.1V
0.2V
0.3V
237
spread in three dimensions and transported from the source to the drain [6]. In the case of
forward bias, carriers supplied to the InGaAs layer began to occupy reciprocal lattice points in
the triangular potential. Within the triangular potential, carriers occupied the first level
completely and then degeneracy commenced (2DEG generation) [6]. This rapidly improved the
transport speed of the carriers. In the experimental result, in the voltage range prior to when the
rising current in the forward bias was confirmed, carriers flowed into the triangular potential
although they were considered to be a process of being transported three-dimensionally to the
source electrode side without degeneracy. Additionally, in the part where the rising current is
confirmed, degeneracy occurred, and this was observed as the functioning of 2DEG.
3.5 Discussions: Gate voltage dependence
As shown in the band diagram, the following phenomenon occurred via applying a gate voltage.
First, the mesostructure forms the state shown in Figure 10. Conversely, by setting the gate
voltage, the depletion layer at the interface between InGaAs and InAlAs was determined, and the
distribution of electrons in the triangular potential was subsequently determined [7]. Additionally,
the shape of the triangular wave potential changed. An image of the shape change of the
triangular wave potential is shown in Figure 11. Following the formation of the triangular
potential by the gate voltage, carriers flowed into the triangular potential via applying the drain
voltage, and degeneration occurred. The number of carriers supplied also increased when the
Fig.10 Energy-band diagram of the InGaAs-based Fig.11 Formation process of square-well potential
(triangular wave potential) in the InGaAs-based
HEMT via the gate voltage application
Fig.12 The change of Fermi level and square-well
potential (triangular wave potential) shape
due to the change of electron density
Fig.13 The shape of depletion layer via the gate
voltage application
238
applied drain voltage increased. The electron distribution in the potential changed again when the
number of carriers increased. Furthermore, the shape of the triangular potential also changed.
Furthermore, the electron density in the potential changed in conjunction with the pseudo Fermi
level [8]. An image of the phenomena is shown in Figure 12. First, the triangular potential is
formed when the gate voltage is positive as shown in Figures 11 and 12. The triangular potential
was formed deeper when the gate voltage was applied positively. Thus, the number of carriers
existing at the first level in the triangular potential increased when the potential deepened. Thus,
several carriers were present in the triangular wave potential. It was observed that it significantly
affected the decrease in the amount of current via a recombination of photocarriers generated
with light and holes. Conversely, when the gate voltage is negative, the triangular wave potential
changes from the triangular wave potential shape to the flat band shape as shown in Figure 12.
When the carrier density distribution was formed on the substrate side, the potential was not
formed deep. Therefore, the number of carriers satisfied at the first level was lower than that
when the gate voltage was positive. This also potentially leads to a difference in the number of
carriers that are degenerated and is reflected in the generation point of rising current as shown in
Figure 12. Furthermore, the potential was formed deeper on the substrate side when the gate
voltage was applied more negatively. The Fermi level also changed with changes in the carrier
density. Thus, it was impossible for the first level to satisfy the number of carriers that were
degenerated. Thus, drain current was not generated. With respect to the change in the Fermi level,
as shown in Figure 12, changes in the Fermi level change the first level energy value.
Additionally, the number of electrons that can stay in the first level energy changed. Under
negative bias conditions, the potential point formed in the positive bias disappeared. This led to a
decrease in the number of carriers. Carriers at the first level were degenerated and transported at
high speed although carriers that could no longer exist spread in three dimensions, and the
transport speed sharply decreased. This was considered as the reason as to why the current value
was temporarily saturated and decreased without linearly changing the experimental results when
the source drain current corresponded to 0 mA and 0.01 mA.
3.6 Discussions: Effect of light irradiation and light intensity of the wavelength corresponding to
1480 nm
Irradiating light with a wavelength of 1480 nm led to a decrease in source–drain current in the
InGaAs-based HEMT. The 1480-nm wavelength light corresponded to light with an energy that
slightly exceeded the band gap energy of the InGaAs crystal. This was because electron-hole
pairs were generated as photocarriers in the InGaAs layer via the photoelectric effect. Electrons
that are photo carriers flow into the triangular potential from the band diagram (Fig. 10). Holes
moved similarly but albeit did not move like electrons due to the potential difference generated
via the heterostructure. Therefore, the hole accumulation effect occurred in the InGaAs layer [9].
Holes were transported towards the source electrode in the InGaAs layer and accumulated
between the source and gate. Holes built up in the InGaAs layer and hole surface density
239
increased. Simultaneously, recombination occurred wherein electrons were transported from the
source electrode side towards the drain electrode. The amount of transfer electrons decreased via
recombination, and the drain current decreased. In the experimental results, it was observed that
light irradiation under a forward bias of 0 mV or less reduced the drain current. With respect to
the rise current portion, it was observed that the increase in the drain voltage was shifted to the
right via light irradiation. Holes as photogenerated carriers recombine with electrons in the
process where the supply carriers were degenerated within the triangular potential. Therefore, the
number of carriers existing in the triangular potential decreased. At the time of light irradiation,
carriers were supplied when compared to that prior to the light irradiation. An increase in the
number of carriers promoted recombination. Thus, the rising current was shifted to the right. The
dependence on light intensity was confirmed in each result. This was considered to affect the
number of photo carriers generated because the amount of light emitted to the InGaAs layer
differed based on the light intensity. When the light intensity was high, the amount of light
introduced increased, and the number of generated light carriers increased. Thus, the result of the
experiment was potentially obtained because the number of holes to be recombined increased.
The electron-hole pairs generated in InAlAs were transported to the channel layer side. Holes
were transported without being affected by the potential. Electrons are considered as
accumulated without possessing the ability to cross the barrier given the depletion layer wall
attributed to the electrostatic potential and gate voltage determined by the heterostructure.
Subsequently, a certain number of carriers accumulated and were added to the carriers supplied
from the InGaAs layer side at the moment when the barrier was crossed. Therefore, the current
value at the time of light irradiation exceeded the current value prior to light irradiation from a
certain stage.
3.7 Discussions: Effect of 830-nm wavelength light irradiation
It was observed that the photoelectric effect occurred in the InGaAs layer and InAlAs layer via
irradiation with light with a wavelength of 830 nm. The band gap energy of InAlAs was
approximately 1.45 eV, and the photoelectric conversion wavelength of InAlAs was
approximately 850 m as determined from Equation (1). Thus, it was considered that the
photoelectric effect occurred in the InAlAs layer [10]. As shown in the results in Figure. 9, it
appears that the cross point (at the moment when the source–drain current at the time of
irradiation was exceeded) shifted based on the gate voltage. This was attributed to the height of
the depletion layer wall formed via the gate voltage. The relationship between the gate voltage
and depletion layer wall is shown in Figure 13 as an image. Under negative bias conditions, the
depletion layer is formed gently as shown in Figure13. The number of carriers stored is not much
needed to cross the barrier. Under positive bias conditions, the depletion wall is formed with a
significantly steep shape, and it is necessary to accumulate more to overcome the barrier. As
shown in Figure 9, the intersection occurs in the order starting from the low gate voltage.
240
4. References
Ke, W., Ampalavanapillai, N., Christina, L., & Efstratios, S.(2011). High-speed optical wireless
communication system for indoor applications, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 23(8),
519-521, doi: 10.1109/LPT.2011.2113331
Jimmy, J. N., Rongkuan, L., & Petar, P.(2018). Ultra-reliable low latency communication using
interface diversity, IEEE Transactions on Communications, 66(3), 1322-1334, doi:
10.1109/TCOMM.2017.2771478
Pritam, S., Neetika, S., Radhey, S. G., & Jyotika, J.(2018). Simulating optical behavior of nano
dimensional InAlAs/InGaAs HEMT for IOT applications, Proceedings of 2018
UKSim-AMSS 20th International Conference on Computer Modelling and Simulation
(UKSim), doi: 10.1109/UKSim.2018.00043
Soya, N., & Hirohisa, T.(2017). Analysis of intrinsic delay time in InAlAs/InGaAs
high-electron-mobility transistors at cryogenic temperature, Proceedings of TENCON 2017
- 2017 IEEE Region 10 Conference, doi: 10.1109/TENCON.2017.8228130
Simon, M. S., & Kwok, K. N.(2007). Physics of Semiconductor Devises 3rd Edition, A John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 663-742, ISBN-10:0-471-14323-5
John H. D.(1997). The physics of low-dimensional semiconductors, Cambridge University Press,
118-146, ASIN: B0776W8XWP
Dmitrii, Y. P., & Konstantin, S. Z.(2017). The influence of impurity profiles on mobility of
two-dimensional electron gas in AlGaAs/InGaAs/GaAs heterostructures modulation-doped
by donors and acceptors, Solid-State Electronics, 129, 66-72, DOI.org/10.1016
/j.sse.2016.12.013
Hirohisa, T., Masamoto, K., Maki, H., Yuki, N., Tsutomu, I., & Yoshifumi, T.(2006). Frequency
dependence of drain conductance due to hole accumulation in InAlAs/ InGaAs high
electron mobility transistors, Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, 45(6), 4960-4966.
Hirohisa, T., Hiroaki, M., Mashashi, O., Tsutomu, I., & Yoshifumi, T.(2006). Analysis of
deviation of threshold voltage from hole accumulation model at high excitation, Japanese
Journal of Applied Physics, 45(11), 8549-8555
Hwang, J. S., Tyan, S. L., Chou, W. Y., Lee, M. L., David, W., & Hang, Z.(1994).
Photo-reflectance study of surface Fermi level in molecular beam epitaxial grown InAlAs
heterostructures, Applied Physics Letters, 64, 3314-3316, doi/10.1063/1.111294
241
ISEAS-250
Crystal Defect Evaluation Method of AlGaN/GaN HEMT using the
Temperature Dependence of the Electric Field Pulse Response
Honoka Tanabe,
Istuki Takagi, Hirohisa Taguchi
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, School of Engineering,
Chukyo University, Japan
[email protected] [email protected]
Abstract
AlGaN/GaN HEMT generates a large number of crystal defects in the AlGaN layer during the
heterostructure fabrication process using metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOCVD). Crystal
defects capture electrons in two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) and cause a current collapse
phenomenon that significantly reduces the drain current value. To evaluate the crystal defects, it
is necessary to understand the basis for the energy levels and the number of these defects. The
energy behavior of carriers that are charged and discharged by crystal defects can be understood
based on the energy level. Using the capture cross section, the specific number of trapped
carriers can be estimated. Based on our previous investigations, the isothermal capacitance
transient spectroscopy (ICTS) method was successfully utilized to simplify this process. By
detailed measurement of the temperature dependence of the electric field pulse response to
AlGaN/GaN HEMT, it was shown that the activation energy of the crystal defect in the AlGaN
layer can be identified. Furthermore, the crystal defect concentration and the capture cross
section were determined in this study. According to the presented method, the concentration of
crystal defects in the AlGaN crystal was a maximum of 3.2E+14 cm-3
and the crystal defect
concentration was found to depend on the ambient temperature. It is suggested that trapped
electrons in these defects are related to the 2DEG carriers and thermal carriers supplied by the
crystals. The carrier capture cross section due to crystal defects was calculated to be 1E-11 cm2
at 300 K. Thus, the effectiveness of crystal defect evaluation using the temperature dependence
of electric field pulse response in AlGaN/GaN HEMT was demonstrated.
Keywords: AlGaN/GaN HEMT, crystal defect concentration, carrier capture cross section
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
Currently, the energy problem associated with the development of power devices based on low
environmental impact materials has been actively investigated from the viewpoint of green
technology [1-3]. To date, power devices have used Si-based material. Although Si is an
environmentally low-load material, it is becoming increasingly difficult to demonstrate the
required performance [4]. The element systems used in the fabrication of wide gap
242
semiconductors include nitrides (GaN), carbides (SiC), and oxides (Ga2O3), all of which are
material systems that are harmless to the global environment. Practical application of SiC and
GaN in the development of high-power power devices exceeds that of Si [5, 6]. In particular, the
GaN/AlGaN structure can form a well-type potential in the GaN layer. This facilitates the
formation of two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in the GaN layer [7]. As a result, the
development of a high-output power FET with high-frequency response characteristics is a
distinct possibility [8, 9]. However, AlGaN/GaN HEMT generates a large number of crystal
defects in the AlGaN layer in the process of fabrication of the heterostructure using MOCVD.
This is due to the crystal structure mismatch between GaN and AlGaN and cannot be easily
solved [10]. Crystal defects capture electrons in 2DEG and cause a current collapse phenomenon
that significantly reduces the value of the drain current. To address this problem, the method of
constructing a field plate in the gate electrode may be employed. This is a countermeasure
solution and does not address the problem of the occurrence of carrier traps in the crystal defects
[11.12]. To evaluate crystal defects, it is necessary to understand the basis for the energy levels
and the number of crystal defects [13]. The energy behavior of carriers charged and discharged to
crystal defects can be understood based on the energy levels [14]. Using the capture cross section,
the specific number of trapped carriers can be estimated. To aid in this investigation, both the
ICTS and DLTS methods have been shown to be effective. Based on our previous studies, the
former was successfully used to simplify this process [15]. By detailed measurement of the
temperature dependence of the electric field pulse response to AlGaN/GaN HEMT, it was shown
that the activation energy of crystal defects of the AlGaN layer can be determined [15].
Furthermore, the crystal defect concentration and the capture cross section were determined in
this study. Based on the presented approach, the crystal defect concentration in the AlGaN
crystal was determined to be a maximum of 3.2E+14 cm-3
and depended on the ambient
temperature. It is suggested that trapped electrons in the crystal defects have a relationship with
the 2EDG carriers and the thermal carriers supplied from by the crystals. The carrier capture
cross section due to crystal defects was then calculated to be 1E-11 cm2 at 300 K. Two-digit
values were calculated based on known literature values. The measured results exhibited a linear
change with the ambient temperature, which was qualitatively, the correct direction. Thus, the
effectiveness of crystal defect evaluation using the temperature dependence of the electric field
pulse response in AlGaN/GaN HEMT was shown.
2. Methods
2.1 Target Device
Figure 1 shows the cross section of the heterostructure of AlGaN/GaN HEMT used in this study.
This device has a well-known layer structure in AlGaN/GaN HEMT. The gate electrode has a
field plate structure, and a protrusion exists on the drain side. As a result, the current collapse
phenomenon caused by crystal defects in the AlGaN crystal is suppressed. However, the crystal
defect remains. It should be noted that the source and drain electrodes of the ohmic contact with
243
GaN for the AlGaN side are chosen by selecting a metal to achieve a Schottky contact. Thus, the
gate electrode and the source and drain electrodes can be built simultaneously.
2.2 Experimental Method
Figure 2 shows the measurement system and confirms the transient response to the electric field
pulse response of the AlGaN/GaN HEMT used in this study. The pulse voltage was applied to
the gate electrode portion of the AlGaN/GaN HEMT with a base of 0 V, peak of 2 V, duty ratio of
0.5, and cycle of 50 ms. The drain voltage at the time of measurement was set to 0 V and the
output voltage on the gate side was measured with a sampling oscilloscope via a bias tee. A
transient response waveform was obtained. The environmental temperature of the AlGaN / GaN
HEMT was set within 10 K increments within the range of 243 K to 373 K. The temperature
change was performed in an inert nitrogen atmosphere.
2.3 Analysis method for crystal defect concentration and capture cross section
In general, it is assumed that a semiconductor has a plurality of crystal defects and each defect
has a capture energy order. A discharge also occurs because there is capture. This phenomenon is
interpreted as the spectrum. Assuming that the 𝑖th thermal dissipation time constant is τ𝐶i , the
spectral function S (t) is expressed by the following equation (1) [16]:
Substrate
GaN
AlGaN
Gate
Source Drain
Field-plate SiNx
Fig. 1: Cross-sectional view of AlGaN/GaN HEMT
244
𝑆(𝑡)＝𝑞𝜀𝑟𝜀0𝑆2
2(𝑉𝑑−𝑉𝑏)𝑁𝑇
𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (−𝑡
𝜏𝐶𝑖 ) (1)
where q is the elementary charge, εr is the dielectric constant of AlGaN, 휀0 is the dielectric
constant in a vacuum, S is the junction area, 𝑉𝑑 is the diffusion potential, 𝑉𝑏 is the applied
voltage, and 𝑁𝑇𝑖 is the deep impurity concentration. Considering the case that the thermal
emission time constant τ𝐶i = 𝑡 in equation (1), the deep impurity concentration 𝑁𝑇
𝑖 is given as
𝑁𝑇𝑖 =
2(𝑉𝑑−𝑉𝑏)
𝑞𝜀𝑟𝜀0𝑆2 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖 (2)
where 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖 is the spectral peak value. In this experimental system, the spectrum is confirmed
as a voltage response. The voltage response peak value is 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖 and equation (2) can be
converted to equation (3) as follows:
𝑁𝑇𝑖 =
2(𝑉𝑑−𝑉𝑏)
𝑞𝜀𝑟𝜀0𝑆2 (𝑞
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖 )
2
(3)
In the crystal, one of the parameters that define the trapping of crystal defects has a trapping
cross section. Let us assume that capture centers have a capture rank, then the trap level to form
a region area can be determined. This parameter can be derived when the activation energy is
found by evaluating the crystal defect level using the ICTS method [17]. The capture cross
section σn in the capture rank is defined by equation (4),
Pulse Source
YOKOGAWA
Sampling
Oscilloscope
HP 83480A
AlGaN/GaN HEMT
Averaging : 256
Drain Gate
Base : 0V
Peak : 2.0V
Duty : 0.5
Period : 50ms
Nitrogen Chamber
243K~373K
Bias Tee
PSPL554
Source Mater
KEITHLEY
2401
Fig. 2: Block diagram of measurement system based on transient response
245
𝜎𝑛 =1
2(2𝜋𝑚∗𝑘𝑇
ℎ2 )
32
𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝐸𝑇−𝐸𝑐
𝑘𝑇)√
3𝑘𝑇
𝑚∗ 𝜏𝐶
(4)
where m * is the electron effective mass in AlGaN, k is the Boltzmann constant, h is Planck's
constant, T is the absolute temperature, 𝐸𝑇 is the trapping order (activation energy), 𝐸𝑐 is the
conduction band level, and 𝜏𝐶 is the spectral time constant.
3. Results
3.1 The electric field pulse response results for AlGaN/GaN HEMT
Figure 3 shows the electric field pulse response results for AlGaN/GaN HEMT. Fig. 3 (a) is an
overall measurement view, and Fig. 3 (b) represents an enlarged view of peak 2 and peak 3. In
fig. 3, peak 1 is the response of the electric field pulse immediately after 0 bias. This is the
sweeping result for the 2DEG carriers that are temporarily concentrated under the gate electrode
due to the ON voltage of the pulse, which was not analyzed in this research. As shown in fig. 3
(b), peak 2 exhibits a transient response and temperature dependence. Based on this fact, peak 2
shows the carrier discharge phenomenon due to the crystal defect of the AlGaN layer. The time
constant and activation energy were derived from the results in Fig. 3 (b).
-0.16
-0.12
-0.08
-0.04
0
0.04
0.08
0.02503 0.02508 0.02513 0.02518
Inte
nci
ty V
olt
age
[V]
Transit Time [s]
243K 253K263K 273K283K 293K303K 313K323K 333K343K 353K363K 373K
Peak Peak
3
Peak 1
-0.022
-0.017
-0.012
-0.007
-0.002
0.003
0.008
0.013
0.018
0.02509 0.02511 0.02513 0.02515
Inte
nci
ty V
olt
age
[V]
Transit Time [s]
243K 253K263K 273K283K 293K303K 313K323K 333K343K 353K
Peak 2
Peak 3
Fig.3: Pulse response result of AlGaN/GaN HEMT.
(a) Overall view
(b)Enlarged view of peak 2 and peak 3
246
3.2 Crystal defect concentration
Figure 4 shows the result of the crystal defect concentration. The concentration tends to decrease
in the range of 313 K to 373 K. In this temperature range, it is considered that thermal
oscillations of the crystal lattice point occur in the AlGaN crystal. It is also considered that the
number of carriers released from the crystal defect apparently decreased due to the influence of
lattice vibrations. The concentration of the defect has peaks in the range of 273 K to 303 K.
Although the crystal lattice still oscillates in this temperature range, it does not inhibit the
transport phenomenon of the carriers released from the crystal defects. However, it is considered
that the carriers derived from thermal vibrations are added to the measurement results, and the
defect density increases. Finally, in the temperature range from 243 K to 263 K, neither the
influence of thermal vibrations nor the influence of the thermally excited carriers is evident and
the measurement result seems to indicate the original crystal defect concentration.
3.3. Capture cross section analysis.
Figure 5 shows the results of the capture cross section analysis. It is evident that the capture
cross section decreases with increasing temperature. The number of thermally excited carriers in
the AlGaN layer increases as the temperature increases. Finally, the carrier density increased
more than the crystal defect density and it is thought that this is reflected in the analysis result. A
temperature rise also leads to an increase in the total energy of the carriers. This increase in total
energy directly leads to an improvement in the carrier transportation speed. An increase in the
thermal rate leads to a decrease in the time constant, thus, it is impossible to correctly evaluate
the capture section. In this study, a positive pulse voltage is introduced on the gate electrode. By
0.0E+0
5.0E+13
1.0E+14
1.5E+14
2.0E+14
2.5E+14
3.0E+14
3.5E+14
243 253 263 273 283 293 303 313 323 333 343 353 363 373
Cry
stal
Def
ect
Den
sity
[cm
-3]
Temperature [K]
Fig. 4: Analysis results of crystal defect concentration
247
applying a positive charge, 2DEG carriers are forcibly formed under the gate electrode to capture
carriers to crystal defects. Considering a crystal defect side, it is assisted carrier trapping in the
activation energy or more external energy than originally present. As a result, more carrier
capture is apparently possible. Capture cross section evaluation by conventional ICTS method
forcibly generates a release phenomenon of carriers that were originally captured using a
negative bias. However, on the contrary, using the ICTS method does not preclude the possibility
of underestimating the capture cross section in the future. In the experimental proposed system,
the capture cross section of an amount that is two orders of magnitude larger than that obtained
using the ICTS method was calculated. Although the accuracy of the numerical value must still
be investigated further, confirmation of the environmental temperature dependency was
established, and it is considered to be qualitatively reasonable.
3.4 Conclusions
Using the proposed method, the crystal defect concentration in the AlGaN crystal was found to
be a maximum of 3.2E+14 cm-3
and this concentration was found to depend on the ambient
temperature. It is suggested that electrons trapped in crystal defects have a relationship with the
2EDG and thermal carriers supplied by the crystals. The carrier capture cross section due to
crystal defects was calculated to be 1E-11 cm2 at 300 K. Two-digit values were calculated based
on known literature values. However, the measured result exhibited a linear change with the
ambient temperature, which was qualitatively determined to be the correct direction. Thus, the
1.0E-13
1.0E-12
1.0E-11
1.0E-10
1.0E-9
1.0E-8
1.0E-7
243 253 263 273 283 293 303 313 323 333 343 353 363 373
Cap
ture
Cro
ss S
ecti
on [
cm2]
Temperature [K]
Fig. 5: Analysis results of capture cross section
248
effectiveness of crystal defect evaluation using the temperature dependence of the electric field
pulse response in AlGaN/GaN HEMT was demonstrated.
3.5 Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the Chukyo University Research Fund for financial assistance
during this research.
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technology for next-generation electrically powered environmentally friendly vehicles.
IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, 62(2), 278-285. doi:10.1109/TED.2014. 2359240
Umesh, K. M., Primit, P., & Yi-Feng W.(2002). AlGaN/GaN HEMTs-an overview of device
operation and applications. Proceedings of the IEEE, 90(6), doi: 10.1109/JPROC.2002.
1021567
Dingbo, C., Lijun, W., Jie, L., Zhikun, L., & Guoqiang, L.(2018). Ohmic contact to AlGaN/ GaN
HEMT with electrodes in contact with heterostructure interface. Solid-State Electronics,
151, 60-64, doi:10.1016/j.sse.2018.10.012
Sanjit, K. S., Sudhansu, M. B., Umakanta, N., Siva, P., Suraj K. N., & Birendra, B.(2019).
Impact of p-GaN gate length on performance of AlGaN/GaN normally-off HEMT devices.
Microelectronics, Electromagnetics and Telecommunications, 521, 803-809, doi:
10.1007/978-981-13-1906-8_81
Travis, J. A., Marko, J. T., Jennifer, K. H., Jordan, D. G., Andrew, D. K., Karl, D. H., & Fritz, J.
K.(2016). Effect of reduced extended defect density in MOCVD grown AlGaN/GaN
HEMTs on native GaN substrates, IEEE Electron Device Letters, 37(1), 28-30, doi: 10.
1109/LED.2015.2502221
Wenyuan, S., Ching-Sung, L., Paul, S., Steven, A. R., & Aaron, R. A.(2016). Investigation of
trapping effects on AlGaN/GaN HEMT under DC accelerated life testing. Proceedings of
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2016.7574587
Akiyoshi, O., Soya, N., Kimihirho, Y., Hirohisa, T.(2017). Temperature dependence of drain
current transient response by gate pulse voltage in AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility
transistors. Proceedings of TENCON 2017-2017 IEEE Region 10 Conference, 16786-1679,
doi: 10.1109/TENCON.2017.8228128
Besendörfer, S., Meissner, E., Lesnik, A., Friedrich, J., Dadgar, A., & Erlbacher, T.(2019).
Methodology for the investigation of threading dislocations as a source of vertical leakage
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125(9), 095704-1-8, doi: 10.1063/1.5065442
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250
ISEAS-251
Promotion of Cutting Performance for SiC-Particle Reinforced
Aluminum-Matrix Composites through the Assisted Machining Techniques
Shen-Yung Lina, Zhe-Wei Hu
b
a Smart Machine and Intelligent Manufacturing Research Center,
National Formosa University, Taiwan
E-mail address: [email protected]
b Department of Mechanical and computer-Aided Engineering,
National Formosa University, Taiwan bE-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
Difficult-to-cut material such as SiC-particle reinforced aluminum-matrix (Al/SiC) composites
has the properties of higher specific strength, specific modulus, specific rigidity,
high-temperature resistance, fatigue resistance, wear resistance, high thermal conductivity and
low thermal expansion coefficient has gradually become the important materials for aerospace,
automobile, electronics, military fields and sport and entertainment industry applications in
recent years. Due to the natures of low plastic deformation capability, existence of the
reinforcement particles and non-uniformity, the machinability of Al/SiC is very poor. As a result,
serious wear on cutting-tool and bad quality on machined surface are formed, which deduce low
production rate, high machining cost, etc. As its demand is increased constantly, various requests
of quality and accuracy on secondary mechanical processing after a near net forming process for
Al/SiC component manufacturing are also more stringent. Therefore, seeking a breakthrough for
improving the processing ways, selecting the assisted machining techniques and combining the
better process parameters is an important issue for the machining workers. In order to solve the
above problems, this study applies the diamond cutting tool to conduct Al/SiC machining
through a combination of an ultrasonically assisted machining and laser-assisted machining, and
cold air jet cooling. It is expected to handle the material removal mechanism, chip formation
process, machined surface generation process and cutting-tool wear mechanism properly for
Al/SiC machining and enhance the processing efficiency, surface quality and cutting-tool use life
consequently.
2. Methods
This study conducted the grinding experiments of Al/SiC in three-stage procedures by four
assisted machining techniques which consists of without assistance, biaxial ultrasonically
assisted, laser-assisted and hybrid-assisted in order to verify the assisted effect on cutting
performance and to compare the difference, merit and drawback among them. At the first stage,
251
the grinding experiments for the preliminary evaluation of process parameter were performed to
investigate the variations of cutting performance and the results were used for the suitable
process parameter planning in the next stage. Then, the process parameters adjusted from the
first stage experiment were applied in the second stage experiments which carried out the
Taguchi orthogonal array and full-factorial process parameter combinations, respectively. The
process parameters are further adjusted from the above experimental results and the grinding
experiments using Taguchi orthogonal array under four assisted techniques were performed at
the third stage which the optimization analysis and verification are conducted consequently. In
addition, the full-factorial experiments are also conducted at the third stage. Under the assisted
techniques mentioned above, grinding experiments of Al/SiC by a diamond electroplated burs
were conducted in three-stage procedures by changing the cutting process parameters such as
feed rate, spindle speed, radial depth of cut through a full-factor or Taguchi orthogonal array
combinations of the process parameters. Dynamometer is used to monitor the variation of cutting
force. Tool wear, surface morphology and defects on machined surface of the Al/SiC will be
measured by tool-microscope off-line. Surface roughness measurement through a surface
roughness instrument is also performed. Finally, the characteristics of nominal-the-best in
Taguchi method are applied to determine the optimal or better combination of process
parameters for Al/SiC grinding in which machined surface roughness and cutting-tool life are
used as object function and subjecting constraint, respectively. It is expected that the surface
quality and cutting-tool life can fulfill the requests in industry.
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
The results show that the grinding force assisted by the laser preheating system can reduce the
cutting force by up to 77%. In the case of hybrid-assisted grinding, there is a little fall off
phenomenon of the abrasive grits and the electroplated burs can maintain a good surface
morphology under the conditions of spindle speed of 10000rpm and radial cutting depth of
2~6μm. Furthermore, the cutting performance exhibited in the integrated hybrid-assisted milling
prevails over that in grinding without assistance as well as with each single assisted system.
Under this hybrid-assisted situation, the better surface roughness of 0.1632μm was obtained
under a combination of spindle speed of 10000 rpm, radial cutting depth of 0.02 mm, and feed
rate of 40mm/min. In addition, the wear of the electroplated burs and the surface roughness of
the machined surface are significantly improved by the hybrid-assisted system. The ANOVA
analysis indicates that the maximum contribution to surface roughness is the spindle speed and
the contribution rate is 88.48%, followed by radial cutting depth and the contribution rate is
7.96%.
Keywords: SiC-particle reinforced aluminum-matrix composites, ultrasonically assisted,
laser-assisted , cutting performance, optimization.
252
ISEAS-131
An Implementation of MobileNet Using FPGA
Hsin-Yu Chen and Kan-Lin Hsiung
Innovation Center for Big Data and Digital Convergence & Department of Electrical
Engineering,
Yuan-Ze University, 135 Yuan-Tung Road, Chung-Li, Taiwan 32003
Abstract
Recent research on deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs) [1] has focused mainly on
improving its accuracy. It is usually possible to find multiple CNN architectures that exactly
achieve the required/given accuracy. With the equivalent accuracy, smaller CNNs are more
feasible to deploy on hardware with limited memory (for example, FPGAs).
With no off-chip memory (or storage), FPGAs commonly have less than 10MB of on-chip
memory. Instead of being slowed down by memory band-width, a sufficiently small neural
network model could be stored directly (on the FPGA). When deploying CNNs on ASICs, a
sufficiently small model stored on-chip may enable the ASIC to fit on a smaller die.
In [3], Andrew Howard et al. have proposed a small CNN architecture called MobileNet, an
architecture for mobile and embedded vision applications. MobileNets are based on a
streamlined architecture that uses depth-wise separable convolutions to build light weight deep
neural networks. In this note, we discuss how to practically implement MobileNet using FPGA.
Keywords: Deep Learning, FPGA, CNNs, MobileNet
REFERENCES
[1] Krizhevsky, A.; Sutskever, I.; Hinton, G. E. Imagenet classification with deep convolutional
neural networks. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. 2012, 1: 1097–1105.
[2] Forrest N. Iandola et al, “SqueezeNet: AlexNet-level accuracy with 50x fewer parameters
and <0.5MB model size,” arXiv:1602.07360.
[3] MobileNets: Open-Source Models for Efficient On-Device Vision
https://arxiv.org/abs/1704.04861
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is supported by Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan (through Grant
#MOST 103-2221-E-155-067).
253
Psychology/ Education/ Fundamental & Applied Sciences
Friday, July 26, 2019 09:00-10:00 Pre-Function Area
ICSSB-234
The Effects of Emotional Clarity and Empathy on Early Adult Romantic Relationship:
Focusing on Actor and Partner Effects
Homin Shin︱Ajou University, Republic of Korea
Heecheon Shin︱Ajou University, Republic of Korea
ICSSB-235
Structural Relationship among Breast Cancer Patients’ Family Support, Their Emotional
Processing, and Patients’ Post-Traumatic Growth in South Korea: A Mediating Role of
Reappraising an Outbreak Of Breast Cancer
Dongsoon Kim︱Sungkyunkwan University
Myung-Yong Um︱Sungkyunkwan University
ICSSB-237
Measurement of the Errors between the Estimated Reach Distance to an Object and the
Actual Distance of Movement
Akiko Hiyama ︱Sapporo City University
ICSSB-256
The Strategies for Developing Integrated School Curriculum: A case of JeonNam Region in
South Korea
SeonMee Kim︱Sunchon National University
ISEAS-273
A Study on Ocular Movement of Lathe Machine Operators with a Digital Display Device
Seiko Taki︱Chiba Institute of Technology
Shohei Yonezawa︱Chiba Institute of Technology
254
ISEAS-274
Evaluation Effect of Placental-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells on Fetal Brain
Developmental Defects Caused by Maternal LPS-Induced Intrauterine Inflammation
Chun-Hao Wu︱Chung Yuan Christian University
Chia-Yi Tseng︱Chung Yuan Christian University
Ming-Wei Chao︱Chung Yuan Christian University
ISEAS-275
Protective Effect of Ganoderma Tsugae in PM2.5 Caused Memory Impairment of
Postnatal Rat
Chia-Ying Lin︱Chung Yuan Christian University
Ming-Wei Chao︱Chung Yuan Christian University
Chia-Yi Tseng︱Chung Yuan Christian University
ISEAS-276
Investigation of the Photoluminescence of Bioceramic in the Protection of Aged induced
Cognitive Defects
Yu-Chen Chuang︱Chung Yuan Christian University
Ming-Wei Chao︱Chung Yuan Christian University
Chia-Yi Tseng︱Chung Yuan Christian University
255
ICSSB-234
The Effects of Emotional Clarity and Empathy on Early Adult Romantic
Relationship: Focusing on Actor and Partner Effects
Homin Shin, Heecheon Shin
Psychology, The Graduate School of Ajou University, Republic of Korea
E-mail address : [email protected]
Psychology, The Graduate School of Ajou University, Republic of Korea
E-mail address : [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goal
The purpose of this study is to examine the mediating effect of empathy between emotio
nal clarity and early adult romantic relationship satisfaction for pre-marital couple and to
discuss the implications for counselling in order to provide a more effective advice to e
arly unmarried men and women who are experiencing difficulties.
2. Methods
For this purpose, 145 pairs of Korean couples completed the questionnaire, which consist
ed of Emotional Clarity Scale(TMMS), Empathy Scale and Early Adult Romantic Relatio
nship Satisfaction Scale. This study was designed to clarifies the mutual dynamics of het
erosexuality that we analyzed the Actor – Partner Interdependent Model (APIM) by using
AMOS and other statistical tests by using SPSS.
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
The results of this study are summarized as follows. First, emotional clarity had positive
effects on their own relationship satisfaction (actor effect) and their partner’s relationshi
p satisfaction (partner effect) for both men and women. Second, both actor and partner e
ffects of empathy on the relationship satisfaction were significant in a positive direction
across genders. Third, emotional clarity had a positive effects on their own and partner’s
relationship satisfactions through empathy. The results of this study are significant in th
at the author examined the actor and partner effects of empathy between emotional clarit
y and relationship satisfaction. These results suggest that emotional clarity increases the e
mpathy of individuals and that empathy can explain the relationship satisfaction of early
adult couples. These results provide implications for therapeutic intervention for clients w
ho present with empathy and relationship problems.
Keywords: Emotional Clarity, Empathy, Early Adult Romantic Relationship
256
ICSSB-235
Structural Relationship among Breast Cancer Patients’ Family Support,
Their Emotional Processing, And Patients’ Post-Traumatic Growth in South
Korea: A Mediating Role of Reappraising An Outbreak of Breast Cancer
Dongsoon, Kim., a, Myung-Yong, Um.
b
a Ph.D. student, Dept. of Social Welfare, Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea
[email protected] b Ph. D, Dept. of Social Welfare, Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea
1. Backgrounds
Despite heavy distress, breast cancer patients might be able to experience post-traumatic growth.
Post-traumatic growth has been reported to alleviate the effects of post-traumatic symptoms on
the quality of the patients’ life and it also has been reported to mitigate post-traumatic stress itself.
Few studies, however, attempted to find out which factors make the post-traumatic growth
possible. Several studies indicated that social support for cancer patients facilitates post-traumatic
growth, and both social support for breast cancer patients and coping strategies give positive
effects on the patients’ emotional well-being. It is well known that emotional state such as
anxiety, depression, or anger, which has been experienced by breast cancer patients, have a great
impact on their quality of life, but little is known about how breast cancer patients are processing
their emotions. Emotional expressive writing that has been proved to affect positive cognitive
reframing can be considered as a way of processing traumatic emotion, Generally emotional
processing has something to do with evaluation of stressors, which may lead to positive or
negative psychological and physical well-being. This study aimed to develop and empirically
evaluate a theoretical model that delineated the processes whereby cancer patients’ family
support and their emotional processing affected patients’ post-traumatic growth via patients’
reappraisal of an outbreak of breast cancer.
2. Methods
The proposed model was tested with a survey data of 166 breast cancer patients, which were
collected at an outpatient clinic of an oncology center in South Korea. Prior to testing the
structural equation model, a measurement model that allowed all latent constructs to correlate
with each measurement indicators was developed and evaluated by confirmatory factor analysis.
Then, the structural model that delineated the relationships among latent variables were tested by
structural equation modeling technique. Finally, this study used bootstrap analysis to examine the
mediating role of reappraisal of an outbreak of breast cancer.
257
3. Results
The goodness of fit indices for the measurement model showed that a measurement model was
constructed well: χ²=74.942(df=48, p=.008), CFI=.970, TLI=.958, GFI=.933, RMSEA=.058, and
SRMR =.026. The goodness of fit indices for the structural equation model also indicated a good
fit between the theoretical model and the empirical data: χ²=124.565(df=95, p=.023), CFI=.970,
TLI=.951, GFI=.928, RMSEA=.043, and SRMR =.028). The paths among all latent variables
were statistically significant showing that emotional processing of breast cancer patients (β=.337,
p=.002), family support (β=.226, p=.026) and positive reappraisal (β=.377, p=.000) had a
statistically significant direct effect on the post-traumatic growth. Emotional processing (β=.478,
p=.000) had a statistically significant effect on the positive reappraisal, which in turn resulted in a
statistically significant positive effect on the post-traumatic growth. That means breast cancer
patients’ positive reappraisal partially mediated the relationship between the patients’ emotional
processing and post-traumatic growth (β =.180, p=.006). In contrast, family support (β =.159,
p=.094) resulted in a nonsignificant effect on the patients’ positive reappraisal of breast cancer.
Based on these results, this study provided a couple of policy and practice implications. Firstly, it
might be good to design a writing program so that breast cancer patients can understand and
express their own emotions originated from an outbreak of breast cancer. Secondly, we need to
teach families of breast cancer patients how they can continually encourage and support patients’
coping process. Finally, we need to teach breast cancer patients how to reappraise positively their
own situations.
Keywords : breast cancer patients, post-traumatic growth, South Korea.
258
ICSSB-237
Measurement of the Errors between the Estimated Reach Distance to an
Object and the Actual Distance of Movement
Akiko Hiyama A a School of Nursing, Sapporo City University, Japan
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background
Falls occur in the community, at welfare facilities, in hospitals, and in any other place where life
exists. The failure of posture control at the time of posture change due to the movement of the
center of gravity triggers a fall. Various factors affecting posture control failure have been
clarified, including deterioration of motor function, balance function, sensory function, cognitive
function, and drugs (Hiyama, 2017). Among the influencing factors, the difference identified
between the estimated distance to an object and the actual distance of movement has been
attracting attention in recent years with regard to motor function and balance function. By
measuring the reach distance of the upper limbs and the reach distance both forward and down,
considering the difference as the body recognition error, it is a movement to try for fall
prediction. Currently, physiotherapists perform functional reach tests in rehabilitation rooms
using dedicated measurement tools. However, to prevent falls, it is desirable for nurses to be able
to measure such functions using a simple measurement method that can be used in daily life. To
develop such a method, this study reviewed the current research on body recognition error to
clarify the method of measuring body recognition error and the characteristics of the results.
2. Methods
MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and CINAHL were searched for articles published from the dates of
inception of the databases to November 2018. Search words were “postural,” “postural limits,”
“reach distance,” and “errors.” The tools published in the articles that met the criteria included a
description of measurement and outcomes; the study used an observational design with
comparison groups, and measured the error between the expected distance and the actual
distance. The quality of the studies was assessed using Strengthening the Reporting of
Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STRBE), which is a checklist of items to be reported to
ensure the quality of observational research reports (Vandenbroucke, 2007); quality assessment
confirmed whether the items were applicable or not. Data were extracted by reading each article
and recording information on the study design, subjects, data collection methods, statistical
analysis, and outcomes.
3. Results
Six articles met the criteria. Two surveyed the relationship between the elderly and young, two
259
surveyed the relationship between the faller and the non-faller (each a hemiplegic patient and a
community resident elderly person), one surveyed the relationship between a Parkinson’s patient
and a community resident elderly person, and one surveyed the relationship between elderly
people with high working memory and those with poor working memory. Five measured forward
reach of the upper limbs and one measured the forward and downward reach of the upper limbs.
Young people tended to underestimate the difference between the distance reached and estimated
distance. The elderly with disabilities and those with diseases tended to overestimate the
estimated distance.
4. Conclusion
These articles, which examined associations with falls, suggest that the recognition error of
postural limits may be a risk factor for falls. Furthermore, positive and negative errors were
recognized depending on the individual characteristics of the participants. Rather than the
absolute value of the error, the participant’s positive/negative judgment is presumed to contribute
to the fall prediction. In addition, the results of this study could not clarify knowledge about the
cutoff point of fall prediction. In the future, it will be necessary to find a way to predict fall risk
from errors of posture recognition. Although there were some differences in the measurement
methods, the tendency of the results was similar in all of the methods. Therefore, if a simplified
attempt can be realized so that forward reach testing can be performed without the need for
special techniques, it is thought that it will help clarify fall risks.
Keywords: reach distance, postural limits, error of perception
5. References
Hiyama, A. (2017). Accuracy of fall risk predicting in hospital. Evaluate of fall risk behavior
assessment tool by case control study. Journal of Medical Safety 2017, 51-56.
Vandenbroucke JP, von Elm E, Altman DG, Gøtzsche PC, Mulrow CD, Pocock SJ, Poole C,
Schlesselman JJ, Egger M; STROBE Initiative. (2007). Strengthening the reporting of
observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE): explanation and elaboration. Epidemiology,
18(6), 805-835.
260
ICSSB-256
The Strategies for Developing Integrated School Curriculum:
A case of JeonNam Region in South Korea
SeonMee Kim
Center for Global Multicultural Education, Sunchon National University, South Korea
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
This paper attempts to investigate how to develop integrated curriculum in accordance with the
national curriculum for elementary and secondary school, which was revised in 2015 and begun
to be used in Korea nowadays. Since one of the characters of the recent curriculum is the
emphasis of regional diversity and specialty, and curriculum integration for fostering creative
students, the paper inquires on the strategies of curriculum development at Jeonnam province. It
tries to suggest the principles and key-ideas that should be considered to conduct school
curriculum design for teachers.
2. Methods
In order to reflect teachers thought in this research, a structured survey questionnaire was made
and one thousands teachers in Jeonnam area participated in the survey. Twenty-one researchers
including teachers and curriculum specialists discussed and worked together regularly to figure
out the main principles and strategies of curriculum development, and they designed integrated
curriculum; mainly one subject-centered integrated curriculum and theme-based curriculum. The
quantitative and qualitative research data implies what should be the elements and strategies for
the regional curriculum development. The summary of this findings are provided in session 3 as
follows.
3. Findings & Conclusion
1. Reflection of the emphasis and content changes of the revised curriculum.
key-competencies and achievement standards of new curriculum, reflecting student participation
and choice on educational methods, process-oriented assessment, safety education, information
utilization, creative education, software education (coding education), uses of digital textbooks
2. Using educational contents and materials that reflect the regional characteristics of Jeonnam
province distinguished with other places.
Materials and contents that reflect regional geography & ecology, social, cultural, economic,
industrial, and historical characteristics: (ex) an aging society, a multicultural society,
Da-do-hae(islands and sea), ecology/ environment, characteristics of modern farming, fishing
village, (Gwangyang Plum, Boseong Green Tea, Suncheon Bay Garden, Hampyeong Butterfly
261
Festival, Gangjin Ceramics, etc), local specialties, industrial characteristics, regional historical
and cultural heritage, Goheung aerospace, Nogodan, Seomjin River, Dinosaur Site, Yi Sunshin
Memorial Battle, Sorok island, etc.).
3. Reflection of cutting-edge science and technology, social change of future on curriculum.
Ubiquitous, artificial intelligence/ robot, high-tech materials, space astronomy science,
utilization of smart devices and digital textbooks in class, etc.
4. The contents that include students’ curiosity and interests, linked with their daily life and
experiences rather than superficial knowledge in traditional textbooks.
5. Just-in-time learning
Focusing on the understanding of current situations and issues faced by students in daily life,
which could help to develop their insights and problem-solving ability by using and handling
timely learning materials in classrooms.
6. Dealing with the strategic knowledge rather than the declarative knowledge in class by
providing the diagnosis of learning process and the process-based learning programs.
7. Problem-based learning & qualitative assessment
Teaching and learning based on the idea that classes are taught in a way of students’ learning
'how to know' rather than 'what to know' about the knowledge in subject matters.
8. Curriculum design based on key-skills instead of goal-oriented curriculum
More flexible, variable, selective, diverse, open-ended, and modifiable curriculum
implementation.
Keywords: Curriculum development, School curriculum, Regional curriculum
4. References
Kim, S.M.(2017). The research on the policy for implementation of 2015 curriculum in
classroom, Jeonlanamdo school district. (2015 gaejeong kyoyukwajong heonjang anchakul
wihan jeongchack yeongu, Jeonlanamdo kyoyukchong)
Kim, S.M.(2017). The development of educational materials for integrated curriculum based on
students’ participation, Jeonlanamdo school district, (hakseong chamyeo whaldong jungsim
yunghasuyeopjaryo, Jeonlanamdo kyoyukchong)
262
ISEAS-273
A Study on Ocular Movement of Lathe Machine Operators with a Digital
Display Device
Seiko Taki*, Shohei Yonezawa
Department of Management Information Science, Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan
E-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract
In this study, we analyzed the ocular movements of skilled and unskilled engine lathe operators
in order to conduct efficient education and to transfer lathe skills. There was an attempt to
elucidate the difference in skilled and non-skilled workers to operate lathe with a digital readout
display meter that is capable of displaying the machining status of the workpieces. Additionally,
because the skill of estimating is common to most required manufacturing tasks, the differences
between the range of visual examination of workers were also analyzed during the process of
measuring a workpiece.
Keywords: Ocular movement, Motion analysis, Lathe operation, Skill transfer
1. Introduction
In recent years, the Japanese manufacturing industry has faced a critical issue related to a severe
lack of skilled workers. According to a survey conducted in December 2017 by the Ministry of
Economy, Trade, and Industry, 94% of companies have responded to the challenge of acquiring
skilled employees by encouraging the transfer of technical knowledge from skilled workers to
inexperienced workers the minimum possible. However, although computer-controlled CNC
lathes have become widespread, it is still necessary to identify an approach for the effective
transfer of technical skills in the training and development of new workers. This can be achieved
without atrophy of the abilities of skilled workers while allowing them to manufacture
high-precision parts.
This study analyzes the ocular movements of skilled and unskilled engine lathe operators. There
was an attempt to elucidate the difference in skilled and non-skilled workers to operate lathe with
a digital readout display meter that is capable of displaying the machining status of the
workpieces. Additionally, because the skill of estimating is common to most required
manufacturing tasks, the differences between the range of visual examination of workers were
also analyzed during the process of measuring a workpiece.
2. Experimental Method
2.1 Experiment and analysis method
263
The research participants included a male who worked at a University Machining Center, who is
identified as “skilled work A”, and 3 male students with little experience in lathe manufacturing,
identified hereinafter as student B, C, and D. The details of the research participants are shown in
Table 1.
Table 1: Research Participant Information
Research
Participant Height (cm) Age
Years of
Experience
Dominant
Hand
A 167 63 45 Right
B 175 24 3 Left
C 168 26 5 Left
D 174 23 3 Right
The research participants were asked to wear an eye movement measurement device and to
manufacture a supplied material as specified in Fig. 1 using an engine lathe equipped with a
digital readout display meter. They were tasked to produce an item with an S45C (60 x 90) as the
supplied material within a time limit of 30 minutes (cease task at 45 minutes). Each participant
received a total of two tests. The first test included the presence of a digital readout display meter,
while the second test did not include a meter. A background scene of the experiment is shown in
Fig. 2.
Fig. 1: Assigned task
2.2 Experiment and analysis method
In this study, an eye movement measurement device (“TalkEye Lite,” produced by Takei
Scientific Instruments Co., Ltd.) was used to measure the ocular movements of research
participants.
(Stage 2)
(Stage 1)
(Stage 3)
264
Fig. 2: Scene from experiment
2.3 Motion Analysis Software
The operation was subdivided using a motion analysis software (“Time Prism,” by Nihon Seikoh
Giken Co., Ltd.).
3. Results and Discussion
Fig. 3 shows the digital readout of the display meter as the “total visual examination duration”
and “total number of visual examinations” during lathe machine operation. Figure 4 shows the
results of the average gaze time equivalent to 1 attempt, wherein the visual examination duration
equivalent to 1 attempt was long for skilled worker A and short for participants B, C and D.
When the t-test (significance level of 5%) was applied using the average visual examination
duration equivalent to 1 attempt, statistically significant differences were observed between
skilled worker A and participant B, and skilled worker A and participant C. In the percentage of
visual examination duration for each processing stage as shown in Fig. 5, all the research
participants spent the most time visually examining the digital readout display meter during the
fine-tuning stage. However, the percentage values varied between the participants.
Next, the range of visual examination was analyzed using a micrometer from the beginning of
measuring the workpiece to parting from the workpiece. Table 2 shows the standard deviation of
the range of visual examinations. The average range of visual examination during measurement
with a micrometer is shown in Fig. 6 for each research participant. The left side in Fig. 6 shows
the coordinate system of the left eye. The right side shows the values of the right eye. Skilled
worker A primarily observed the origin with almost no deviation from the X-axis. The unskilled
workers B, C and D did not observe the origin and their ranges of visual examination near the X
and Y axes were widely dispersed.
265
Fig. 3: Total visual examination duration and number of visual examination counts
Fig. 4: Average visual examination duration
A B C D
A B C D
Total Duration of Visual Examination
Total number of visual examinations
266
Fig. 5: Percentages of visual examination duration of each processing stage
Table 2: Standard deviation during measurement with a micrometer
Research
Participant
Left Eye Right Eye
Angle X
(deg)
Angle Y
(deg)
Angle X
(deg)
Angle Y
(deg)
A 5.60 2.75 5.72 3.61
B 6.87 22.26 12.81 7.12
C 2.27 7.84 5.54 6.85
D 9.64 8.89 13.36 6.00
Before machining
Initial stage
First stage of machining
Second stage of machining
Third stage of machining
Fine tuning stage
A B C
D
267
Fig. 6: Range of visual examination of a micrometer (left: left eye, right: right eye)
1. Conclusions
In this study, the ocular movement operators were analyzed during operation of an engine lathe.
(1) In the visual examination of a digital readout display meter, the skilled worker’s 1-time
visual examination duration was long, while short 1-time visual examination duration with
multiple counts was observed for the unskilled workers.
(2) When using a micrometer, the skilled worker’s visual examination did not deviate from the
x-axis. Wide dispersions in the range of visual examinations were observed for unskilled
workers B, C and D.
Based on these results, it can be determined that there was a tendency for the skilled worker to
primarily observe the origin and produce a longer 1-time visual examination duration when
measuring a target object. Additionally, was an observed tendency among the unskilled workers
to spend more time on the entire task and to perform a higher number of actions, as a result of
attempting to perform multiple tasks at the same time.
In the next study, the relationship between the body movements of the operators and their ocular
movements in lathe machining will be investigated after for a larger number of research
participants for comparison with the results obtained in this study. Another objective is to
develop a method to distinguish between the skilled workers and the unskilled workers and to
examine an effective training method.
Acknowledgments
This work was partially supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP19K04909.
268
References
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2018). White Paper on
Manufacturing Industries (Monodzukuri) 2018. Retrieved from
http://www.meti.go.jp/report/whitepaper/mono/2018/honbun_pdf/pdf/honbun01_01_02.pdf
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2017). White Paper on
Manufacturing Industries (Monodzukuri) 2017. Retrieved from
https://www.meti.go.jp/report/whitepaper/mono/2017/honbun_pdf/index.html
Yasushi Takeo, Wataru Natsu (2013). Experimental study on gaze point movement in size
measurement skill with micrometer for skill succession. Journal of the Japan Society of
Mechanical Engineers, 79(799), 814-826.
269
ISEAS-274
Evaluation Effect of Placental-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells on Fetal
Brain Developmental Defects Caused By Maternal LPS-Induced Intrauterine
Inflammation
Chun-Hao Wua, Ming-Wei Chao
b, Chie-Pein Chen
c, Chia-Yi Tseng
a
a Chung Yuan Christian University, Department of Biomedical Engineering,
200 Chung Pei Road, Zhongli District, Taoyuan City, Taiwan 320
E-mail address: [email protected]
bChung Yuan Christian University, Department of Bioscience Technology,
200 Chung Pei Road, Zhongli District, Taoyuan City, Taiwan 320
E-mail address: [email protected]
bMackay Memorial Hospital, Department of Medical Research,
45 Min Sheng Rd, Tamsui, Taiwan 251
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are pluripotent cells that are present in multiple tissues,
including bone marrow, adipose tissue, skin, muscle, blood, and placenta. It has been proved that
MSCs can interact with cells of both the innate and adaptive immune systems, and thus act as a
possible clinical therapy for immune-mediated diseases, such as osteogenesis imperfecta, severe
graftversus-host disease (GvHD), and Crohn’s disease. Maternal bacterial infections during
pregnancy represent a significant risk factor in preterm as well as neuropsychiatric disorders with
a presumed neurodevelopmental deficit. One of the downstream syndrome, neuroinflammation,
has been reported to be highly associated with numbers of neurological and pathological diseases,
like schizophrenia, cerebral palsy, and autism. Epidemiological studies suggested that
intrauterine infection acts as a crucial role in inducing a neuroinflammatory response, which
would lead to neurodegeneration and functional deficits in fetal brain, including area involved in
learning and memory. Accordingly, we hypothesize that MSCs may attenuates intrauterine
infection induced neurodevelopmental defects by modulating the inflammation response and
oxidative stress. To address the question, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration is used to
model clinical bacterial infection in pregnant animals.
2. Methods
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration is used to model clinical bacterial infection in pregnant
animals. MSCs were directly infused into fetal abdomen or placenta at a density of 1×105
cells at
270
15 days of gestation age, and one hour later a dose of 25 μg/kg LPS was injected into pregnant
rats intraperitoneally. To label the new generating neurons, 5-bromodeoxyuridine solution (BrdU,
50 mg/kg/day in PBS) was injected subcutaneously from 16 to 18 days of gestation age.
Twenty-four hours later, the pregnant rats were sacrificed, and maternal hematology, cytokine
and ROS production were analyzed. H&E staining and immuno-labeling of cortical laminate
markers, such as Ctip2, Satb2, were used to investigate the fetal brain morphology and laminal
development.
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
We found that LPS -induced toxicity could be ameliorated in the presence of MSCs, including in
recovery of hemoglobin level and WBC number, increasing of cortical thickness, and prevention
of abnormal Satb2 cortical lamination. In the first place, this study describes the initial efforts to
evaluate the likely therapeutic effects of MSCs on LPS-induced developmental failure.
Keywords: Intrauterine infection, Lipopolysaccharide, Fetal brain development, Mesenchymal
stem cells
271
ISEAS-275
Protective Effect of Ganoderma Tsugae in PM2.5 Caused
Memory Impairment of Postnatal Rat
Chia-Ying Lina, Ming-Wei Chao
b, Chia-Yi Tseng
a
a Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christine University, Taiwan
E-mail address: [email protected]
E-mail address: [email protected]
b Department of Bioscience Technology, Chung Yuan Christine University, Taiwan
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
Air pollution sources with particle size less than 2.5μm are called fine particulate matter, PM2.5.
Epidemiological studies have shown that long-term PM2.5 exposure could increase the risk of
neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and dementia.
Previous studies show that PM2.5 could penetrate the endothelial barrier of the respiratory tract
and enters the systemic blood circulation. It triggers the inflammatory response, increases the
production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and therefore upregulates the oxidative stress. Our
previous data have demonstrated that both pregnant rat and its offsprings exhibit chronic
inflammatory and oxidative effects in response to maternal exposure of PM2.5, which further
causes the retardation in fetal brain development. Moreover, we found that Ganoderma tsugae
(G. tsugae), a medicinal fungus in Traditional Chinese Medicine, is able to inhibit the penetration
of PM2.5 into the bloodstream, and thus lower the risk of PM2.5 caused cardiovascular disease.
Accordingly, we would like to ask whether G. tsugae could decrease the risk that PM2.5 induced
chronic inflammation, oxidative stress and memory loss in the postnatal rats.
2. Methods
Pregnant rats will be intratracheally exposed to PM2.5 every other day for extended periods of
time, while G. tsugae will be provided daily to the rats (200 μg/kg B.W./day). Morris water maze
test will be applied to assess spatial memory. Object recognition will be used to assess spatial
hippocampal-dependent memory. Hematoxylin and eosin staining will be used to observe the
morphology of the brain. Immunohistochemistry will be used to detect inflammation and
oxidative associated markers in the plasma or the brain of the offsprings, such as SOD-1, CD68,
HO-1, IL-6.
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
We expect to see that G. tsugae can mitigate the PM2.5 induced the inflammatory and oxidative
272
response in the offspring. Also, G. tsugae could prevent the PM2.5 caused memory deficits of the
posterity.
Keywords: PM2.5, inflammation and oxidative stress, fetal brain development, Ganoderma
tsugae
273
ISEAS-276
Investigation of the Photoluminescence of Bioceramic in the Protection of
Aged Induced Cognitive Defects
Yu-Chen Chuanga, Ming-Wei Chao
b, Chia-Yi Tseng
a
a Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan
E-mail address: [email protected]
E-mail address: [email protected] b Department of Bioscience Technology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan
E-mail address: [email protected]
1. Background/ Objectives and Goals
An aging population is becoming increasingly apparent in many developing and developed
countries around the globe. Neural aging as a progressive loss of physiological functions and
metabolic processes, which is always accompanied by the occurrence of several
neurodegenerative diseases, such as cognitive impairment, Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases.
The popular theory concerning aging is the free radical theory, also known as oxidative stress
theory: accumulation of free radicals causes damage of effective molecules, and consequently
deteriorate the function of cells and tissues, and eventually organs, especially vulnerable brain.
Photoluminescence of bioceramic materials (PLB) is a novel material that emits nonionizing
radiation and luminescence after irradiation. Previous studies have shown that PLB treatment
could promote microcirculation and upregulate calcium-dependent nitric oxide- and calmodulin-
intracellular pathway. Therefore, PLB has been used in the therapy of nerve paralysis, muscle
pain, and poor blood circulation. Accordingly, we ask whether PLB can improve aging caused
cognitive dysfunction.
2. Methods
Chronic administration of D-galactose (100mg/kg/day, i.p.) to Sprague-Dawley rats will be used
to mimic the process of early brain aging. During aging induction, PLB irradiation will be
applied to the rats for one hour per day at a distance of 10 cm away from the rat. The total
experimental time is 6-9 weeks. In the end, the open field test and object recognition test will be
used to exam the locomotion and cognitive behavioral performance. The rat brain and serum will
be collected to test the oxidative stress-related marker, such as AGE and MDA.
3. Expected Results/ Conclusion/ Contribution
Our findings want to demonstrate that PLB irradiation can improve aging-caused cognitive
behavioral deficits.
Keywords: photoluminescence of bioceramic, oxidative stress, cognitive dysfunction
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