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Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com
1Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com
1
Introduction:
What is Research?
Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com
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Class Website
• www.vivaafrica.info
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Recommended Text
Boateng, R. (2014)
Research Made Easy,
Accra: PearlRichards
Foundation.• Students can buy book from
the University of Ghana
Bookshop from 8th April 2014
Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com
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Objectives
Research plays a critical role in business and
society. However, what makes a piece of
exercise of asking questions a research. This
chapter seeks to introduce readers to the
purpose of research and explain the research
process. The learning outcome is to understand
what is and what is not research, understand the
classifications or different types of research and
explain research design.
Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com
5Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com
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Understanding research
Steps in Research | Purpose of Research
Elements of a Research Proposal
Why Do Research
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What is Research?
• Research is an investigation into a particular
topic or social/business phenomena.
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What is Research?
• This said, one will argue that every
investigation on a topic of interest is research.
• NO! That is not true.
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What is Research?
Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING
ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.
1. SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of scientific
procedures and principles which the researcher will NEED to
follow in order to get reliable and accurate results.
2. ORGANIZED because there is a structure or method for doing
research. The research process has a number of steps to guide
the researcher.
Adapted From Henrichsen, Smith, & Baker (1997)
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What is Research?
Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING
ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.
3. FINDING ANSWERS because every research seeks to answer
a question or a number of questions. Sometimes the answer is no,
but it is still an answer.
4. QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question,
then how do we begin the research. Research is focused on
relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a question, research has
no focus, drive, or purpose.
Adapted From Henrichsen, Smith, & Baker (1997)
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So Why Do We Do Research?
Create/develop something new
Cause something particular to
happen
Make-sense-of what is happening
Explain what is happening/verify
Predict what will happen`
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Discover/Explore
Describe/Understand
Explain/Predict or Create
Social Phenomena
Research is partly a process of discovery
and partly a process of knowledge
creation.
So Why Do We Do Research?
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Absence of Research
• Authority
• Tradition
• Common Sense
• Media Distortion
• Personal Experience
common sources of knowledge, perception and conclusion
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1313Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com
Absence of Research
Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education –
ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379
Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com
1414
Who Needs Research?
• Research feeds into
– Future research
– Practice
– Policy
Research is needed by researchers, practitioners
and policy makers. In these broad categories, there
are a number of stakeholders including
organizations, communities, government and non-
governmental institutions and society in general.
“And so what?” meaning what can we do
with your findings and what are its
implications?
Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com
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The Research Process
Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education –
ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379
Research process is
the step by step
process of creating
and carrying out a
research project
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The Research Process
1. Selecting a Topic – Research Topic
2. Determining the Problem (Preliminary Literature Review) – Research Problem
3. Determining Research Gaps – Research Gaps
4. Determining the Hypotheses (Prelim. Literature Review) – Research Hypotheses
5. Determining the Objectives – Research Objectives
6. Determining the Question – Research Question
7. Detailed Review of Literature – Literature Review
8. Determining Research Framework – Research Framework (including hypotheses)
9. Designing the Research – Research Design
10.Collecting Data – Research Data Collection
11.Analyzing and Interpreting Data – Research Analysis and Conclusion
12. Informing Others – Research Write Up and Publishing
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Phases of The Research Process
• Phase 1: Identify a social or business phenomenon to be
studied;
• Phase 2: Determine the right question to ask;
• Phase 3: Design a research to find answers;
• Phase 4: Inform others about the answers to the
question or new knowledge.
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Research Process vs Research Design
• Not the Same
• The researcher’s plan on how to implement the research in
practice is known as the research design.
• The research design describes how, when and where data
are to be collected and how the data will be analyzed.
• Research Design is the subset of the Research Process
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Research Activities are Often Iterative
• Flexibility of revisiting
previous activities to revise
their focus
• Rarely linear; it is more
realistically cyclical
• Researcher needs to have
a bird’s eyeview of the
research process
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20Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Application of the Research [Whom - Recipient]
Purpose or Objectives of the Research [Why]
Inquiry Procedure of the Research [Who – Researcher]
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Application/Use of Research
Basic/Pure research
• The scientific community
• Focus is on the rigour of the process
Applied research
• Policy or Practice
• Focus is on the outcome/implications of results
• Evaluation research
– Assess the effectiveness
• Social Impact Assessment
Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education –
ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379
Types of Research
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Basic and Applied Social Research Compared
Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education –
ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379
Types of Research
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Purpose of the Research
– To explore (Exploratory research)
– To describe (Descriptive research)
– To explain (Explanatory research)
Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education –
ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379
Types of Research
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Purpose of the Research
– To explore (Exploratory research)
Exploratory research seeks to explore an area
where little is known or little research has been
done either in the context (research site) or on
the research topic in that particular context
(topic and context)
Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education –
ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379
Types of Research
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Purpose of the Research
– To describe (descriptive research)
Descriptive research seeks to systematically describe a
phenomenon or situation or problem.
Usually asks the ‘what’ and ‘how’ question.
For example, what are the attitudes of the community towards the
community library or what are the living conditions in the
farming communities in Ghana.
Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education –
ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379
Types of Research
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Purpose of the Research– To explain (explanatory research)
Explanatory research seeks to understand and explain a
phenomenon or situation or problem.Usually asks the questions ‘why’ and ‘how’ a particular phenomenon occurs or
there exist a relationship between two or more factors of a phenomenon. The researcher goes beyond merely describing the characteristics, to analyze
and explain why or how something is happening.
For example, why and how do firms achieve value amidst the reported fierce
competition in the micro-finance industry?
Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education –
ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379
Types of Research
Writing the Proposal - Data Collection Instrumentation http://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/researchcourse/steps.html
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Research Methods, Some Notes to Orient You. Source:http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic851950.files/Research%20Methods_Some%20Notes.pdf
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Inquiry Procedure of the Research
1. Approach of the Research
2. Time Dimension of the Research
Types of Research
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Approach of the Research
Quantitative:to determine the extent of a problem or the existence of a relationship
between aspects of a phenomenon by quantifying the variation. Methods
include survey.
Qualitative:to explore the meanings, attitudes, values, beliefs people associate with a
phenomenon in order to establish a better understanding, rather than to
test to support or disprove a relationship. Useful for describing social
phenomena or the nature of the variation... Methods include case study
Mixed-Methods:Combines the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research
Types of Research
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Approach of the Research
Quantitative:For example, a researcher may ask, ‘to what extent have students
adopted mobile phones?
HYPOTHESIS: Students who obtain Grade A never miss a class!
Qualitative:For examples, a researcher may ask, ‘what is the working condition in the
banking industry?
What are the perceptions of traditional medicines among nurses?
Mixed-Methods:What are the type of primary schools in the city of Accra and the extent of
their popularity in the city?
Types of Research
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Time Dimension of Research
Time influences research in manner in which data is
collected with respect to time. As a result, the
number of different types of research, namely:
Cross-Sectional Study
Longitudinal Study
Panel
Cohort
Time-series
Types of Research
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Cross-sectional StudyA researcher collects information from a sample drawn from a
population. The data you obtain is derived from a cross-section of the
population at one point of time.
Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education
OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University
of Malaysia, Ghana
Types of Research
Longitudinal Study - Panel
A researcher can identify a sample from the beginning and follow the specific
respondents over a specified period of time to observe changes in specific
respondents and highlight the reasons why these respondents have changed.
Longitudinal Study - Cohort Although the population remains the same, different respondents are sampled
each time. The researcher’s aim here is to see if there are changes in perceptions or
trends that occur in the study
A study in which selected aspects (variables) of a phenomenon is studied at different
points in time, often with a view to studying social trends. Eg: Trends in the levels of crime
Longitudinal Study – Time Series
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Structure of Long Essay
• Abstract
• Chapt. 1 – Introduction
• Chapt. 2 – Literature Review
• Chapt. 3 – Context of the Study
• Chapt. 4 – Research Methodology
• Chapt. 5 – Results and Discussion
• Chapt. 6 – Conclusion
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Assignment 1
On Monday, a journalist from Radio Universe interviewed
10 people randomly chosen on the streets on the
university campus concerning the state of the
Ghanaian economy. Six of the interviews were played
on radio as part of their evening news bulletin.
From your understanding of research, do you
think Radio Universe conducted a research?
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Assignment 2
The journalist ‘Anas’ is usually engaged in a number of
investigative assignments which generate reports on
ills in society. By exposing these ills, Anas seeks to
make society better.
From your understanding of research, do you
think Anas is conducting research?
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Assignment 3
A student was asked by a lecturer to explain two
differences between the simple definition of
research and the detailed definition of research.
From your understanding of research, what do
you think should be the student’s response?
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References
1. Boateng, R. (2014) Research Made Easy, Accra:
PearlRichards Foundation.
• Students can buy book from the University of Ghana
Bookshop from 8th April 2014
Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com
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Chapter Two
Selecting A Topic &
Literature Review - Part One
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Objectives
• Before starting any research, the researcher needs
determine the topic or issue to study.
• However, the question is how does the researcher
select a research topic or issue? Can every topic be
researched? What is researchable and what is not
researchable?
• This session seeks discuss how to select a research
topic and start a review on the topic.
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The Research Process
1. Selecting a Topic – Research Topic
2. Determining the Problem (Preliminary Literature Review) – Research Problem
3. Determining Research Gaps – Research Gaps
4. Determining the Hypotheses (Prelim. Literature Review) – Research Hypotheses
5. Determining the Objectives – Research Objectives
6. Determining the Question – Research Question
7. Detailed Review of Literature – Literature Review
8. Determining Research Framework – Research Framework (including hypotheses)
9. Designing the Research – Research Design
10.Collecting Data – Research Data Collection
11.Analyzing and Interpreting Data – Research Analysis and Conclusion
12. Informing Others – Research Write Up and Publishing
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What Can Be Researched
The right topic to be researched often depends on a
number of factors. First, let’s consider topics to
avoid:
1. Common/over-used topics
2. Topics related to religion/controversy
3. General/ broad topics
4. Topics that are Too Narrow
5. Controversial Politics related topics
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Common/over-used topics
• A number of research areas are very common and have been
reused several times by numerous other students. Most
importantly, try to be original. You can pick an over-used topic
but you can place it in another context or sector.
• For example, if internet banking in Ghana has been well-
researched, you may consider a topic on internet banking
among rural banks in Ghana.
Selecting A Topic
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Topics related to religion,politics/controversy
• Controversies have the propensity to arouse
emotions in people, usually because the surrounding
issues are highly subjective.
• Select this topic – if required by programme of study.
• Most importantly – you want to make sure you can
complete the research on time and with relevant and
appropriate data!
Selecting A Topic
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General/Too broad topics
• Some topics are too broad and general in scope, and
thus should be avoided.
• A research on service marketing is too broad,
however, service marketing in the insurance industry
may be more appropriate.
Selecting A Topic
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Too narrow topics
• Picking a topic that is too narrow should be avoided, because
it will be near impossible to find enough information to
conduct the research.
• For example, consider the research topic ‘Why John broke up
with Sarah’. This topic are too narrow and focused on a single
event.
• if this topic is changed to: ‘Determinants of break-ups in
relationships among undergraduate students’ – the topic
will become more researchable.
Selecting A Topic
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What can influence choice of topic
Selecting A Topic
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What can influence choice of topic
Selecting A Topic
YOUthe researcher values, belief, interests,
relevance, and personal experiences can
influence the choice of a research topic
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What can influence choice of topic
Selecting A Topic
SUPERVISOR Find out the research interests of the potential
supervisors; have a discussion with them;
read their publications
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What can influence choice of topic
Selecting A Topic
Data Source researchers are sometimes restricted to particular
topics because of access to or lack of access to data in
the specific field of study or time availability
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What can influence choice of topic
Selecting A Topic
Current Trends researchers can select a topic based on how important
a particular issue is perceived to be to society at that
point in time
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What can influence choice of topic
Selecting A Topic
Sponsor researchers can also restricted by the sponsor or
funding agency. Most funding agencies have specific
topics of interests which are based on their goals and
objectives.
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What can influence choice of topic
Selecting A Topic
Research
Gaps
Discrepancies in existing research literature which need to be
addressed or areas of study where there are reasonable gaps
in the existing literature. The potential contribution to literature
lies in the research gap.
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Corporate governance has been identified in previous studies to influence firms'
financing or capital structure decisions which also affect performance
(see Berger et al., 1997; Friend and Lang, 1988). These empirical studies tended
to focus mainly on developed economies with inconclusive results. Very little,
however, has been done on corporate governance in Sub-Saharan Africa,
especially with respect to firms' financing decisions. In Ghana for instance,
economic development and restructuring have introduced modern forms of
business activity and diverse financing structures like the Ghana Stock Exchange
(GSE) in the past two decades (Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993).
Thus firms are being exposed to more financing options than previously. It is crucial
to determine how current issues in corporate governance affect the financing
decisions of Ghanaian firms. This paper specifically examines the relationship
between various variables of corporate governance and the capital structure
decisions of firms listed on the GSE during the six-year period (1998-2003).
Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms
Abor, J. (2007) "Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms", Corporate Governance, Vol. 7 Iss: 1, pp.83 - 92
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Research Problem – illustrating a research issue gap
The adoption of social media by the government confronts a series of barriers. Some of these
barriers relate to records management, privacy and security issues, accuracy, and
administration-specific requirements (Bertot et al., 2012; Bryer and Zavattaro,
2011;Landsbergen, 2010 and Sherman, 2011). As social media includes two-way
communications, the risk of inserting malware into governments' websites exists (Bertot et al.,
2012), so the IT people should be prepared to protect government's information technology
infrastructure. Governments that would like to implement social media need to verify if people
in charge of updating the media will have the time to update the new communication channel;
they also need to answer other questions such as what to post, how and when often they will
update (Bryer and Zavattaro, 2011 and Landsbergen, 2010). The lack of resources and
procedures could undermine the accuracy of the information posted on social media.
Although the use of social media in Mexican state government portals is recent, the
development of relationships between government and citizens is growing fast (Sandoval-
Almazán et al., 2011). However, in contrast with other countries, to our knowledge, there is
still no guideline for the use of social media in Mexico. The study of perceived risks,
benefits, and strategies will be very helpful in the development of those guidelines.
Social networking in Public Sector in Mexico
Sergio Picazo-Vela, Isis Gutiérrez-Martínez, Luis Felipe Luna-Reyes, Understanding risks, benefits, and strategic alternatives of social media applications in the public sector, Government Information Quarterly, Volume 29, Issue 4, October 2012, Pages 504-511, ISSN 0740-624X, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2012.07.002.
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In education in general, evaluation has played a vital role for more than one
hundred years (Madaus et al, 1983). In English Language Teaching also,
evaluation has been a major concern for over twenty years (Strevens, 1976;
Stern, 1983; Lynch, 1996). In contrast, it is only recently (Star, 1994;
Gardner & Miller, 1999) that attention has been paid to the evaluation of
learning outcomes in self-access centres. However, if we are to argue that
such centres provide an effective and efficient alternative to other existing
modes of language learning, it remains a matter of serious concern that
there is no research-based model designed for their evaluation.
This paper will suggest four key issues which need to be addressed when
considering the development of such an evaluation model…
Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from:
http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm, on June 25, 2012
Research Gap identified: A research-based model for the evaluation of
self-access language learning centres.
Research Problem – illustrating a theory/model gap
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There have been a number of valuable studies of self-
employment using cross-section data (Rees and Shah, 1986;
Blanchflower and Oswald, 1993; Taylor, 1996), all of which
present evidence on a number of employment and personal
characteristics on the sector. However, none of these studies
provides a picture of the changes over the last decade or
forecasts the trends in self-employment as the recession of
1990 took hold.
Research Gap identified: The need for a study of the changes in
self-employment over the last decade.Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from:
http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm, on June 25, 2012
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Why do a literature review?
The literature review is not a chore to be finished quickly so that you can get on to the meat of your project, or a university department-imposed hoop to jump through before you can get on with the writing of your thesis or dissertation.
It is the very basis of your argument. It places your research in context within your discipline and demonstrates how your research improves your discipline. In other words, the literature review is the meat of your project.
1. So that your research will have a strong theoretical base on which to stand.
Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the
University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available:
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a) To prove that there are gaps in knowledge in your field that merit a closer investigation
b) To demonstrate that your work will improve your field in some way, filling in gaps and adding to knowledge in and understanding of your field
c) To prove that your work hasn’t been previously contributed and it is indeed original
d) For purely practical considerations: a good literature review demonstrates that you’ve read extensively in your field, that you have a thorough comprehension of your field and that you are capable of intelligently ad knowledgeably critiquing others’ work
Why do a literature review?
2. To justify your research
Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the
University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available:
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The LR stages are :
1. Select and refine a topic
2. Identify and Locate literature
3. Ensure Relevance
4. Record and Retrieve
5. Review and Summarize
6. Write
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Ensure Relevance
• From reading the titles and abstracts, priorities the literature that we have identified and make a note of why it has a high, medium or low priority (at this stage).
• Develop the habit of screening the literature for relevance before we download it or print it out. This way we will not become overwhelmed with all of the reading that we have to do.
After researching
Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the
University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available: