Introduction to Research Ways of Knowing • Tenacity • Intuition • Authority • Reasoning (Rationalism) • Observation (Empiricism) • Science Tenacity • Most primitive approach • Stubbornly hold on to an idea or tradition – No evaluation • One of the most common and dangerous ways of accepting new information
25
Embed
Introduction to Research - Sifonis to... · Introduction to Research Ways of Knowing ... Scientific Method ... • Used for experimentation – Generating hypotheses ...Authors: Mark
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
• Estimate frequency or probability on the basis of how easily examples come to mind– May cause overestimation of likelihood of
vivid events• What percentage of convictions for felony crimes are
obtained through trial instead of plea bargaining?– Less than 10%
Confirmation Bias
• Search out information to confirm beliefs• Ignore contradictory information
If a man is offered a fact which goes against his instincts, he will scrutinize it closely, and unless the evidence is overwhelming, he will refuse to believe it. If, on the other hand, he is offered something which affords a reason for acting in accordance to hisinstincts, he will accept it even on the slightest evidence. - Bertrand Russell
Empiricist Rationalist
• Empiricism: phenomena investigated by careful, objective observation
• Rationalism: phenomena understood by careful thought, and logical proof
8
Science
• Combination of observation and reasoning by logic
• Advantage– Objectivity
• Observations can be verified/replicated by others
• Logical reasoning – Used to explain observed events
Scientific Method
• Building blocks– Empirical observation– Replication by other scientists– Logical explanation
• Used for experimentation– Generating hypotheses (educated guesses)– Conducting tests– Tests support or refute hypotheses
Pre-scientific Revolution
• Empiricism and rationalism used for centuries
• Method of authority– Most common means
used to answer questions of reality
• Religious dogma– Authority figures might use
empiricism or rationalism • Conclusions rarely
9
Scientific Revolution (1550 – 1700)
• Scientific method developed– Used both empiricism and rationalism
• Post revolution– Scientific method became favored method of
answering substantive questions • Very successfully
– Yielded rapid advances in the sciences• Medicine, physics, chemistry
Scientific Method and Psychology
• British Associationism– School of thought
emphasizing empiricism– Human behavior is
determined by experience• Spawned many
researchers– Wilhelm Wundt– First psychology lab (1879)
• What is an empirical question?– Answered through systematic
observations– Precise
• Allow specific predictions
• Operationalize terms– Defined in terms of a set of operations to
be performed• Strict definition
Operationalizing Terms
• Strict definition – Based on set of operations/procedures– Works well for some sciences
– Physics, geology
– Causes problems for other sciences– Psychology, Sociology
• Creates arbitrary limitations on concept
18
Operational Definitions
• Links concepts to measurable, observable events
• Creativity– # Ss drawing animals
with the same features– Rating scale– # Features shared by
earth animals
Pre-existing Bias Problem
• Intuitive theories• Same terms used by laymen and
scientists– Technical concepts are different– Leads to misunderstandings
• “Depression”– Layperson – “Down in the dumps”– Psychologist – DSM III-r definition
19
Basing Views on Intuition
• Operational approach dehumanizes people– Should base views of human beings on
intuition• Problems
– Disagreements difficult to resolve– Disagreements result in a power struggle
Operationalism: A Humanizing Force
• Truth of a knowledge claim not determined by strength of belief
• Theoretical views should be based upon observable behavior– Knowledge claims become public– Conflicting ideas can be tested
• Operational definitions evolve
Theories
• Theory– Set of logically consistent statements
about a behavioral phenomena• Can be derived from observation
– Tentative first step • Can be derived from experimental data
– Many experiments– Theory explains the whole set of data
20
Characteristics of Theories
• Summarize empirical knowledge about a phenomena
• Organizes the knowledge• Provides a tentative explanation for
phenomena• Serves as a basis for making predictions
about behavior
Falsifiability
• Theory must make falsifiable predictions• Predictions must be specific
– Predict what should happen– Predict what should not happen
The Freedom to Make Mistakes
• Falsifiability allows mistakes• Falsification of predictions is progress
– Used to adjust theories– Theories accord more closely with data
• Better reflect the nature of the world
• Driving force in the evolution of a theory
21
Replicability
• All experiments have flaws• New data is replicated by others to verify
results are reliable– Replication occurs
• Greater confidence in results– Replication fails
• Determine source of failure– Conditions under which effect is seen– Flaws that produced false result
Theories and Hypotheses
• Hypothesis– Can be derived from theory– Selects what the researcher observes
• “Working” hypothesis– Falsifiable– Corresponds with reality– Coherent and parsimonious
Correspondence with Reality
• Follows logically from what is known– Consistent with respected scientific
theories– Consistent with available empirical data
22
Coherence and Parsimony
• Coherence– Hypothesis statement is logical
• Parsimony– Hypotheses must be a simple as possible– Occam’s razor
• “Cutting away” superfluous concepts– A prescription rather than a description
Variables
• Events or conditions– Observed or measured– Subject to change
• Three types– Independent variables– Dependent variables– Extraneous variables
Dependent Variables
• Effect or outcome of interest• Manipulate presumed causes to determine
their effect on the DV• Measurement
– Operational definitions critical
23
Independent Variables
• Factor of interest to the experimenter– Hypothesized “cause” of phenomena
• Variable being manipulated
Independent Variables –Characteristics
• Minimum of two levels– Comparison between two situations
• The effects of different dosages of marijuana on reaction time– IV = amount of marijuana
• Level 1 = High dose• Level 2 = Low dose
– DV = reaction time
Context and Variables
• Variable can be an IV or a DV– Depends on presumed direction of
causality• Mental illness and Creativity
– Mental illness enables creativity• IV = degree of mental illness• DV = degree of creativity
– Creativity causes mental illness• IV = degree of creativity• DV = degree of mental illness
24
Extraneous Variables
• Variable that might affect DV– Not of current interest to experimenter
• Has the potential to influence the results of the study– Experimenter needs to control variable
Extraneous Variable - Example
• Examine relationship between time spent reading the textbook and grade received in class– IV = Time spent reading– DV = Grade received in class– Extraneous variable = Reading
ability
Mediating and Moderating Variables
• Mediating variable– An intermediate variable that enables
relationship between IV and DV• Moderating variable
– Influences perceived relationship between IV and DV
SocialClass
SelfBreastExam
EducationMediating variable
25
Mediating and Moderating Variables
• Mediating variable– An intermediate variable that enables
relationship between IV and DV• Moderating variable
– Influences perceived relationship between IV and DV
SocialClass
SelfBreastExam
EducationMediating variable
Mediating and Moderating Variables
• Mediating variable– An intermediate variable that enables
relationship between IV and DV• Moderating variable
– Influences perceived relationship between IV and DV
SocialClass
SelfBreastExam
AgeYounger
Moderating variable
Mediating and Moderating Variables
• Mediating variable– An intermediate variable that enables
relationship between IV and DV• Moderating variable
– Influences perceived relationship between IV and DV