Introduction to International Conflict Management

Introduction To International Introduction To International Conflict ManagementConflict Management

By Ms. Emma Oketch,By Ms. Emma Oketch,LecturerLecturer

IDIS, University Of NairobiIDIS, University Of Nairobi

Learning OutcomesLearning Outcomes At the end of this seminar you will: At the end of this seminar you will: Understand the historical origins and Understand the historical origins and

development of the academic field of conflict development of the academic field of conflict management. management.

Have developed your knowledge of the Have developed your knowledge of the ideas of key pioneers in the conflict ideas of key pioneers in the conflict management tradition. management tradition.

Have a basic grasp of the some of the Have a basic grasp of the some of the methods and processes of conflict methods and processes of conflict management advocated by these pioneers. management advocated by these pioneers.

International Conflict ManagementInternational Conflict Management International Conflict Management is the study International Conflict Management is the study

of conflict, how it is generated, its implications of conflict, how it is generated, its implications and ways of management. and ways of management.

It is a term used to show how the worst It is a term used to show how the worst excesses of conflict are mitigated or avoided. excesses of conflict are mitigated or avoided.

Historically the balance of power system and Historically the balance of power system and deterrence were the means used to manage deterrence were the means used to manage confliconflict.ct.

Balance Of Power Balance Of Power Balance of power means :Balance of power means :1.1. Even distribution of powerEven distribution of power2.2. The principle of aggrandizement of the great The principle of aggrandizement of the great

powers at the expense of the weak powerspowers at the expense of the weak powers3.3. An inherent tendency of the international system An inherent tendency of the international system

to produce an even distribution of power.to produce an even distribution of power. Balance of power is:Balance of power is:1.1. A policy – to prevent predominanceA policy – to prevent predominance2.2. A system of international politics – where the A system of international politics – where the

pattern of interaction between states tends to pattern of interaction between states tends to limit or curb the quest for hegemony – this results limit or curb the quest for hegemony – this results in general equilibrium.in general equilibrium.

Balance Of Power In The Modern State Balance Of Power In The Modern State SystemSystem

Hedley Bull argues that Balance of power has fulfilled Hedley Bull argues that Balance of power has fulfilled three positive functions in the modern world system:three positive functions in the modern world system:

1.1. It has prevented the system from being transformed It has prevented the system from being transformed through conquest into a universal empire.through conquest into a universal empire.

2.2. has served to protect the independence of states from has served to protect the independence of states from the absorption by a predominant power.the absorption by a predominant power.

3.3. It has provided the conditions in which other It has provided the conditions in which other institutions on which the international order depends institutions on which the international order depends might develop e.g. diplomacy, war, international law, might develop e.g. diplomacy, war, international law, and great power management. and great power management.

Balance Of Power In The Modern Balance Of Power In The Modern State SystemState System

A balance of power between two states is seen A balance of power between two states is seen as more unstable than within multipolar states as more unstable than within multipolar states due to the flexibility of alignments.due to the flexibility of alignments.

Conflict management is therefore a Conflict management is therefore a sophisticated and practical solution to the sophisticated and practical solution to the problem of decentralized states in the problem of decentralized states in the international system.international system.

Historical Development of Historical Development of International Conflict ManagementInternational Conflict Management

The balance of power system was used to manage The balance of power system was used to manage conflict until the WW1conflict until the WW1

After WW1 collective security was used to manage After WW1 collective security was used to manage conflict in the international systemconflict in the international system

Idealism and institutions like the League of Nations Idealism and institutions like the League of Nations were used to manage conflictwere used to manage conflict

The failure of the League of Nations, the onset of The failure of the League of Nations, the onset of WW2 and the predominance of Realist theory, the WW2 and the predominance of Realist theory, the formation of the United Nations and onset of the Cold formation of the United Nations and onset of the Cold War led to questions about the management of conflictWar led to questions about the management of conflict


ICM started in the 1950s and 1960s, at the height of ICM started in the 1950s and 1960s, at the height of the Cold War, when the development of nuclear the Cold War, when the development of nuclear weapons and the conflict between the superpowers weapons and the conflict between the superpowers seemed to threaten human survival.seemed to threaten human survival.

A group of pioneers from different disciplines saw the A group of pioneers from different disciplines saw the value of studying conflict as a general phenomenon value of studying conflict as a general phenomenon

They saw the potential of applying approaches that They saw the potential of applying approaches that were evolving in management,, social work, social were evolving in management,, social work, social psychology, international relations, communications psychology, international relations, communications and systems theory to conflicts in general, including and systems theory to conflicts in general, including civil and international conflicts. civil and international conflicts.


A handful of individuals in North America and A handful of individuals in North America and Europe began to establish research groups, formal Europe began to establish research groups, formal centers in academic institutions and professional centers in academic institutions and professional journals to develop the new ideas during these journals to develop the new ideas during these early years. early years.

However, they were not taken very seriously. However, they were not taken very seriously. The international relations profession had its own The international relations profession had its own

categories for understanding international conflict, categories for understanding international conflict, and did not welcome the interlopers. and did not welcome the interlopers.


Nevertheless, the new ideas attracted interest, Nevertheless, the new ideas attracted interest, and the field grew and spread during the 1970s and the field grew and spread during the 1970s and 1980s. and 1980s.

The number of scholarly journals and institutions The number of scholarly journals and institutions rapidly increased. rapidly increased.

The field developed its own subdivisions, with The field developed its own subdivisions, with different groups studying international crises, different groups studying international crises, internal wars, social conflicts and approaches internal wars, social conflicts and approaches ranging from negotiations and mediation to ranging from negotiations and mediation to experimental games.experimental games.


Developments in ICM were first seen in peace research Developments in ICM were first seen in peace research and non-violence movements. and non-violence movements.

Individuals who have contributed strategically to the Individuals who have contributed strategically to the development of the theory and practice of conflict development of the theory and practice of conflict management include: Mahatma Gandhi; Kenneth management include: Mahatma Gandhi; Kenneth Boulding, Johan Galtung and John Burton among the Boulding, Johan Galtung and John Burton among the founders; and Herbert Kelman, Roger Fisher, William founders; and Herbert Kelman, Roger Fisher, William Ury, Adam Curle and Elise Boulding amongUry, Adam Curle and Elise Boulding among those who those who carried the subject forward thereafter. carried the subject forward thereafter.

Needless to say, many others also played important Needless to say, many others also played important roles.roles.

The selections are intended to be illustrative rather The selections are intended to be illustrative rather than comprehensive. than comprehensive.

Early Peace ResearchEarly Peace Research The failure of the variety of peace, socialist and The failure of the variety of peace, socialist and

liberal internationalist movements to prevent the liberal internationalist movements to prevent the outbreak of the First World War motivated many outbreak of the First World War motivated many people to develop a 'science' of peace which would people to develop a 'science' of peace which would provide a firmer basis for preventing future wars.provide a firmer basis for preventing future wars.

Prominent here were the early empirical studies of Prominent here were the early empirical studies of war and conflict conducted in the interwar years by war and conflict conducted in the interwar years by researchers such as Pitrim Sorokin, Lewis Fry researchers such as Pitrim Sorokin, Lewis Fry Richardson, and Quincy Wright.Richardson, and Quincy Wright.

Research included causes of war, analysis and Research included causes of war, analysis and statistical surveys, integrative bargaining and statistical surveys, integrative bargaining and negotiations negotiations

Non-violent ActivismNon-violent Activism Accounts and analyses of pacifist and non-violent Accounts and analyses of pacifist and non-violent

objectives and strategies clearly influenced ICM.objectives and strategies clearly influenced ICM. The work of non-violence activism enhanced The work of non-violence activism enhanced

understanding of violent political conflict and alternatives understanding of violent political conflict and alternatives to it. to it.

For example Mahatma Gandhi is an inspiration for For example Mahatma Gandhi is an inspiration for modern ideas about conflict management.modern ideas about conflict management.

Gandhi's Gandhi's satyagrahasatyagraha ('struggle for truth') were to make ('struggle for truth') were to make latent conflict manifest by challenging social structures. latent conflict manifest by challenging social structures.

Non-violence (Non-violence (ahimsaahimsa) in conflict resolution, perhaps ) in conflict resolution, perhaps exemplified by his famous quoteexemplified by his famous quote, , "bring your opponent to "bring your opponent to his senses, not to his knees.“ Led to developments in his senses, not to his knees.“ Led to developments in theory of war of political objectives and economy oftheory of war of political objectives and economy of force.force.

Pioneers in ICMPioneers in ICM Johan Galtung helped create peace research and Johan Galtung helped create peace research and

conflict resolution and remains one of the most conflict resolution and remains one of the most influential thinkers in the field. influential thinkers in the field.

Galtung articulated the distinction between direct Galtung articulated the distinction between direct violence (children are murdered), structural violence violence (children are murdered), structural violence (children die through poverty) (children die through poverty)

We end direct violence by changing conflict behaviour; We end direct violence by changing conflict behaviour; structural violence by removing structural injustices. structural violence by removing structural injustices.

To this can be added his further distinction between To this can be added his further distinction between negative and positive peace, the former characterized negative and positive peace, the former characterized by the absence of direct violence, the latter by the by the absence of direct violence, the latter by the overcoming of structural conflict. overcoming of structural conflict.

Pioneers in ICMPioneers in ICM Kenneth Boulding's publications have focused Kenneth Boulding's publications have focused

firmly on the issue of preventing war, partly firmly on the issue of preventing war, partly because of the failures of the discipline of because of the failures of the discipline of international relations. international relations.

One of Boulding's most influential ideas has to do One of Boulding's most influential ideas has to do with the concept of power. (hard, soft )with the concept of power. (hard, soft )

Quincy Wright proposing a 'project on a world Quincy Wright proposing a 'project on a world intelligence centre', anticipating what has more intelligence centre', anticipating what has more recently come to be called early warning and recently come to be called early warning and conflict prevention. conflict prevention.

Pioneers in ICMPioneers in ICM John Burton broke away from the sociological tradition John Burton broke away from the sociological tradition

of regarding conflict as dysfunctional, instead of regarding conflict as dysfunctional, instead considering conflict as intrinsic in human considering conflict as intrinsic in human relationships. relationships.

His ideas about how to betterHis ideas about how to better handle conflict were handle conflict were influenced by systems theory and games theory as a influenced by systems theory and games theory as a means of analysing the variety of options and means of analysing the variety of options and orientations available to conflict parties. orientations available to conflict parties.

Edward Azar and Burton developed the concept of Edward Azar and Burton developed the concept of protracted social conflict, combining both domestic-protracted social conflict, combining both domestic-social and international dimensions.(Paradigm shift) social and international dimensions.(Paradigm shift)

Needs theory holds that deep-rooted conflicts are Needs theory holds that deep-rooted conflicts are caused by the denial of one or more basic human caused by the denial of one or more basic human needs, such asneeds, such as securitysecurity, , identity, and recognitionidentity, and recognition. .

Pioneers in ICMPioneers in ICM Three groups of scholar-practitioners were involved in Three groups of scholar-practitioners were involved in

the development of the theory and practice ofthe development of the theory and practice of problem-solving workshops: problem-solving workshops: a group based at a group based at University College, London, Yale University and University College, London, Yale University and Harvard University.Harvard University.

It was initially referred to as It was initially referred to as controlled controlled communicationcommunication

Kelman, Roger Fisher and William Ury went on to Kelman, Roger Fisher and William Ury went on to become leading practitioner-scholars of the problem-become leading practitioner-scholars of the problem-solving method,solving method,

They introduced the vocabulary of conflict resolution They introduced the vocabulary of conflict resolution e.g. win-win, problem-solving and mutual gain. e.g. win-win, problem-solving and mutual gain.

Pioneers in ICMPioneers in ICM Adam Curle defined peace broadly in terms Adam Curle defined peace broadly in terms

of human developmentof human development He advocated the importance of studying He advocated the importance of studying

social structures in order to identify those social structures in order to identify those that enhanced rather than restrained or that enhanced rather than restrained or even suppressed human potential. even suppressed human potential.

He also provides one example of conflict He also provides one example of conflict management similar to Track II diplomacymanagement similar to Track II diplomacy

Pioneers in ICMPioneers in ICM Elise Boulding encouraged wider Elise Boulding encouraged wider

participation in peace and conflict resolution participation in peace and conflict resolution processes, she introduced the idea of processes, she introduced the idea of imaging the futureimaging the future. .

This is a way of enabling people to break This is a way of enabling people to break out of the defensive private shells into which out of the defensive private shells into which they retreat, often out of fearthey retreat, often out of fear

The use of social imagination and the idea The use of social imagination and the idea of imaging the future in the context of what of imaging the future in the context of what she called the she called the 200 year present200 year present

Pioneers in ICMPioneers in ICM For Elise Boulding the idea is that we must For Elise Boulding the idea is that we must

understand that we live in a social space which understand that we live in a social space which reaches into the past and into the future. reaches into the past and into the future.

In doing so, she anticipated many of the In doing so, she anticipated many of the preoccupations of conflict resolution workers today. preoccupations of conflict resolution workers today.

Women and children were obviously excluded Women and children were obviously excluded groups, but she added to these the idea that global groups, but she added to these the idea that global civic culture needed to accommodate many other civic culture needed to accommodate many other cultural communities that were not heard in the cultural communities that were not heard in the existing international order. existing international order.

She also introduced the importance of peace She also introduced the importance of peace educationeducation

Content Of ICMContent Of ICM Concerned about the peaceful methods of managing Concerned about the peaceful methods of managing

the conflict. the conflict. This is an interdisciplinary field of study that draws This is an interdisciplinary field of study that draws

heavily from Law, Diplomacy, Sociology, Economics, heavily from Law, Diplomacy, Sociology, Economics, International Relations, International Political International Relations, International Political Economy, Foreign Policy Analysis etc. It also draws Economy, Foreign Policy Analysis etc. It also draws heavily from a cross section of theories from other heavily from a cross section of theories from other subject areas. subject areas.

These theories help us to understand:These theories help us to understand: how to manipulate the conflicthow to manipulate the conflict how to manipulate the structurehow to manipulate the structure of conflictof conflict how to manipulate the actors, interests and issues in how to manipulate the actors, interests and issues in

the conflictthe conflict how to manipulate the process of conflict managementhow to manipulate the process of conflict management

Theories In ICMTheories In ICM Theories are important as they aid in Theories are important as they aid in

understanding conflict, the realities in the system understanding conflict, the realities in the system and guide research and policy. E.g.and guide research and policy. E.g.

theories on how conflict is generated e.g. theories on how conflict is generated e.g. Biological theories, psychological theories- Biological theories, psychological theories- Darwin, FreudDarwin, Freud

theories on the causes of conflict e.g. economic theories on the causes of conflict e.g. economic sources of conflict- Holstisources of conflict- Holsti

theories on the operation of the international theories on the operation of the international structure e.g. deterrence, alliances, balance of structure e.g. deterrence, alliances, balance of power- Bull, Buzanpower- Bull, Buzan

theories on conflict management e.g. peaceful theories on conflict management e.g. peaceful settlement of disputes- Zartman, Saunderssettlement of disputes- Zartman, Saunders

Factors Affecting International Factors Affecting International Conflict ManagementConflict Management

Conflict Management is seen as an attempt by Conflict Management is seen as an attempt by actors involved in conflict to reduce the level of actors involved in conflict to reduce the level of hostility and generate some order in their hostility and generate some order in their relations. relations.

Successful conflict management may lead to:Successful conflict management may lead to:1.1. Complete resolution of the issues in conflict( a Complete resolution of the issues in conflict( a

change in behaviour and attitudes)change in behaviour and attitudes)2.2. An acceptable settlement, ceasefire or partial An acceptable settlement, ceasefire or partial

agreement( more common outcome)agreement( more common outcome)

Factors Affecting International Factors Affecting International Conflict ManagementConflict Management

Conflict management connotes a mechanism Conflict management connotes a mechanism that is concerned with defining when:that is concerned with defining when:

1.1. A conflict is ended (at least temporarily)A conflict is ended (at least temporarily)2.2. Deciding on the distribution of values and Deciding on the distribution of values and

resourcesresources3.3. Parties to conflict transform, de-escalate or Parties to conflict transform, de-escalate or

terminate the conflictterminate the conflict

Methods In ManagementMethods In Management The full range of methods and instruments that The full range of methods and instruments that

constitutes conflict management are quiet wide (See constitutes conflict management are quiet wide (See Fog 1985) Fog 1985)

However it varies from coercive measures, through However it varies from coercive measures, through legal processes to third party intervention and legal processes to third party intervention and multilateral conferences.multilateral conferences.

These can be divided into:These can be divided into: Unilateral methods (one party threats)Unilateral methods (one party threats) Bilateral methods (bargaining, negotiation )Bilateral methods (bargaining, negotiation ) Multilateral (third party interventions)Multilateral (third party interventions)

Factors Affecting The Course Of Conflict Factors Affecting The Course Of Conflict Or Manner Of Its Management Or Manner Of Its Management

Factors affecting the course of conflict or Factors affecting the course of conflict or manner of its management are numerous. manner of its management are numerous.

They involve interdependence, actors and They involve interdependence, actors and issues. issues.

They can be broadly divided into:They can be broadly divided into: Contextual factorsContextual factors Behavioural factorsBehavioural factors

Contextual FactorsContextual Factors Character of the International SystemCharacter of the International System- the - the

character of the I.S. affects expectations and character of the I.S. affects expectations and strategies strategies

The Nature of the ConflictThe Nature of the Conflict- this is crucial in - this is crucial in determining how it is managed Issues may determining how it is managed Issues may include Intangible issues like beliefs, values, include Intangible issues like beliefs, values, territorial integrity and tangible interests e.g. territorial integrity and tangible interests e.g. resourcesresources

Internal characteristics of actors/statesInternal characteristics of actors/states- their - their structural properties, nature of polity. Conflict structural properties, nature of polity. Conflict will depend on the power of the states (two will depend on the power of the states (two powerful states may have a long drawn out powerful states may have a long drawn out conflict)conflict)

Behavioural FactorsBehavioural Factors The relevance of past interactions is important. The relevance of past interactions is important.

Previous behaviour affects current conflict Previous behaviour affects current conflict management. management.

This experience may dampen, heighten parties, This experience may dampen, heighten parties, dispositions to rely on a particular method of dispositions to rely on a particular method of management. E.g. Deutsch 1973 and1994 management. E.g. Deutsch 1973 and1994 argues that states in negative interdependence argues that states in negative interdependence (in enduring conflict) or repeated conflicts tend (in enduring conflict) or repeated conflicts tend to use coercive methodsto use coercive methods

Factors Affecting the Course of Factors Affecting the Course of Conflict and its ManagementConflict and its Management

Definition Of ConflictDefinition Of Conflict A conflict exists when two or more actors carry out an A conflict exists when two or more actors carry out an

act which is mutually inconsistent (M Nicholson 1992).act which is mutually inconsistent (M Nicholson 1992). Conflict exists whenever incompatible activities Conflict exists whenever incompatible activities

occur (Deutsch, 1973)occur (Deutsch, 1973) A conflict occurs when two or more actors carry out A conflict occurs when two or more actors carry out

mutually exclusive goals. mutually exclusive goals. It is also defined as an expression of opposing interests. It is also defined as an expression of opposing interests. It is endemic in society, it is organic and transforms It is endemic in society, it is organic and transforms

itself. itself. The idea of transformation is fundamental in conflict The idea of transformation is fundamental in conflict

management. Transformations emerge from the management. Transformations emerge from the structures in society (See Mitchell and Varyrnenstructures in society (See Mitchell and Varyrnen))

Definition Of ConflictDefinition Of Conflict In International conflict management we are In International conflict management we are

concerned about group conflict and not individual concerned about group conflict and not individual conflict conflict

Conflict has positive and negative aspects. Positively it Conflict has positive and negative aspects. Positively it may lead to group cohesion, development and may lead to group cohesion, development and enhancement of leadership. Negatively it leads to enhancement of leadership. Negatively it leads to death, destruction and underdevelopmentdeath, destruction and underdevelopment

Prevention, management or resolution of conflict does Prevention, management or resolution of conflict does not aim at the elimination of conflict or the elimination not aim at the elimination of conflict or the elimination of opposing interests. of opposing interests.

It is important to search for conflict behaviour that non It is important to search for conflict behaviour that non violent handling of interests in an orderly process and violent handling of interests in an orderly process and the course and results of which will be acceptable to all the course and results of which will be acceptable to all parties involvedparties involved. .

Key SourcesKey Sources Hedly Bull, Hedly Bull, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in

World Politics World Politics ( London: Macmillan, 1977) ( London: Macmillan, 1977) Pruitt, Dean G and Olczak, Paul V, l995, “Approaches Pruitt, Dean G and Olczak, Paul V, l995, “Approaches

to Resolving Seemingly Intractable Conflict,” in to Resolving Seemingly Intractable Conflict,” in Barbara Bunker & Jeffrey Rubin, (eds) Conflict, Barbara Bunker & Jeffrey Rubin, (eds) Conflict, Cooperation and Justice( Jossey-Bass, 1995)Cooperation and Justice( Jossey-Bass, 1995)

Makumi Mwagiru, Makumi Mwagiru, Conflict Theory, Processes and Conflict Theory, Processes and Institution of ManagementInstitution of Management,( Nairobi, Watermark, 2006) ,( Nairobi, Watermark, 2006)

John Burton,John Burton, Global Conflict :The Domestic Sources of Global Conflict :The Domestic Sources of International CrisesInternational Crises(Brighton, Wheat sheaf, 1984) (Brighton, Wheat sheaf, 1984)

Key SourcesKey Sources Galtung, ‘Violence, Peace and Peace Research’ Galtung, ‘Violence, Peace and Peace Research’

Journal of Peace ResearchJournal of Peace Research Vol. 3 (1969) Vol. 3 (1969) Deutsch, M. Deutsch, M. The resolution of conflict: Constructive The resolution of conflict: Constructive

and destructive processesand destructive processes. (New Haven, Yale . (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1973) University Press, 1973)

Nicholson, M, Nicholson, M, Conflict AnalysisConflict Analysis (London: The English (London: The English University Press, 1998)University Press, 1998)

Mack R. W. and Snyder R. C., “The Analysis of Social Mack R. W. and Snyder R. C., “The Analysis of Social Conflict- Towards an Overview and Synthesis”, Conflict- Towards an Overview and Synthesis”, Journal of Conflict ResolutionJournal of Conflict Resolution 1957, pp. 225 –226 1957, pp. 225 –226

http://www.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol4_1/http://www.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol4_1/bercovitch.htmbercovitch.htm

THE ENDTHE END

THANK YOUTHANK YOU

Introduction to International Conflict Management

Documents

international

factors affecting

international

international

direct violence

structural

william ury

draws heavily