Introduction and chronological tables from Cassell Guide to Literature in French (1996)

Cassell Guide to Literature in French

GENERAL EDITOR: VALERIE WORTH-STYLIANOU

,.. -CASSELL

Contents The Contributors vi

Acknowledgements vii

Introduction viii

1 The Middle Ages: Beginnings 1

Karen Pratt

2 The Middle Ages: Later Developments 24

Karen Pratt

3 The Renaissance (1500-1610) 42

Valerie Worth-Stylianou

4 The Seventeenth Century (1610-1715) 67

Valerie Worth-Stylianou

5 The Eighteenth Century (1715-1820) 95

Angelica Goodden

6 The Nineteenth Century (1820-1880) 121

Anne Green

7 The Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth 147

Centuries (1880-1940)

Toby Garfitt

8 French Literature since 1940 173

Colin Davis

9 Francophone Literatures 199

Belinda Jack

10 French Thought since 1940 227

Christina Howells

Chronology 252

Index 266

Introduction

The Cassell Guide to Literature in French is a guide in the sense of both a work to lead the reader through familiar and less familiar territories and a compendium of itineraries to sample at leisure. It provides a continuous narrative and analytic account of French literature from its origins (in the early Middle Ages) to the 1990s, but each chapter can equally be read as an independent critical essay. As experienced university lecturers, engaged in research in their specialist fields, the contributors have been mindful of the need to combine an introduction to their subject with a discussion of areas of recent study and of continuing debate. If this volume encourages you to go away and read a new author or work, or return to a familiar one with new insights, it will have achieved its fundamental goal.

There are ultimately as many ways of reading literature as there are readers. The late twentieth century has witnessed a particular flourishing of theoretical debates (see Chapter 10), and before looking in more detail at some of the recurrent preoccupations of this book, it is appropriate to say a word about the challenges implicit in producing a historical account of literature. Sartre's essay 'Qu'est-ce que la litterature?' (1948) provides but one of the most famous question marks hanging over a term we frequently take for granted. Can we, for example, limit literature to the outstanding works of each generation preserved in written form (and outstanding by what criteria?) or, conversely, can literature include every example of the written form from Flaubert's finely crafted

INTRODUCTION ~

prose to an illustrated children's book? Does literature exist for its own aesthetic sake, or does it necessarily both shape and reflect values? Where does literature stop and where do such categories as history, philosophy and even theology start? In this single volume, we have taken the pragmatic approach of acknowledging the literary interest of works which might be argued to belong at least equally to other disciplines (Calvin's theological treatises, Rousseau's social writings, Derrida's philosophical discussions are among the many examples). Although in general we concentrate on works with obvious literary merit, we suggest the need to compare these with contemporaneous 'popular' writing, be it medieval theatre or the rapidly growing daily press of the nineteenth century.

However broadly we define literature, we are still left with the question of how far we can or should view it from a historical perspective. Briefly, is a given work to be seen as a product of its cultural/social/political environment? On the one hand, such an approach may mean that we are tempted to give undue emphasis to those groups in society who have succeeded in making their voices heard. And on the other hand, are we thereby undervaluing the

relationship between a work and the unique mind and sensibility of its author? It is a truism that real masterpieces defy attempts at rigid generic or historical classification. So can the modern reader not fully

enjoy a work of an earlier period on its own terms, unencumbered by background information? Ahistorical readings sometimes achieve new insights - witness Barthes's uneven but striking study Sur Racine (1963). But to refuse the importance of historical context in any circumstances is to deprive some texts of their fullest resonances. Interestingly, this is no less true of a contemporary writer such as Elie Wiesel, preoccupied with the Holocaust, than of Voltaire, concerned throughout his life with the denunciation of all forms of

intolerance and tyranny. Again, our response in this volume has been a practical compromise. Each of the first eight chapters opens with a brief summary of major historical events within France or affecting

the French, and the accounts which follow underline the complex interplay of historical, social and literary pressures, ranging from the relationship between poetry and patronage in the Renaissance to the

~ INTRODUCTION

ideological debates arising from the Dreyfus affair. Yet we also stress that some writers are far from typical of their age, and not all wrote expecting public recognition. Ultimately, it is often a judicious combination of modern critical approaches and informed historical scholarship which provides the most stimulating readings (see for example the exploration of feminist approaches to medieval epic and romance).

We chose to devote separate chapters to two aspects of later twentieth-century French writing: francophone literature (Chapter 9) and recent French thought (Chapter 10). In both cases, the texts covered and the issues raised could have been treated within a study of literature from 1940 to the present (Chapter 8). However, the explosion of interest in both these areas has been such that we felt they required separate treatment in order to do justice to the complexity and wealth of writings available. As both the discussions and cross-references make clear, though, much francophone and theoretical writing is concerned precisely to challenge the artificial boundaries within which any attempts at a large-scale synthesis are obliged to operate.

At an early stage of writing this book, the question arose of the extent to which we saw our task as a revision of established canons. Now that our work is completed, it seems appropriate to use the more neutral term of a review. First, the 'canon' has been challenged by both French- and English-speaking critics for some decades, so that once-revisionary statements may now pass as common observations: for example, if some of Corneille's plays do not conform to strict neo-classical rules, this makes him not a 'failed' author but an interestingly independent playwright able to exploit the (baroque) elements of suspense and surprise. Equally, new names have gradually been added to the canon. Thus our readers can expect such authors as Beroalde de Verville, Isabelle de Charriere, Marguerite Duras, Tahar Ben Jelloun to be conspicuous by their presence. Secondly, though, in a book for undergraduates and non-specialist readers, it would have been perverse to refuse to confront traditional labels or to discuss the pre-eminence still generally accorded to the 'great names'. So our index testifies to the fact that we examine the

INTRODUCTION ~

usefulness (and limitations) of such terms as amour courtois or Romanticism and Realism, and we try to give a balanced evaluation of the achievement of Chretien de Troyes, Moliere, Balzac, Proust, etc.

But we have also drawn attention to issues, works and writers we believe to merit closer attention than they have sometimes received. Since several of these approaches inform a number of chapters, it is useful to draw the threads together here.

The study of literature necessarily involves an awareness of the nature and evolution of language itself. While this Guide cannot offer a history of the French language, in some form the concern spans all the periods examined. Interestingly, it is particularly prominent in both the opening and closing chapters. The account of the Middle Ages looks at the problem of when French can be distinguished from Vulgar Latin, and highlights the co-existence of various dialects (as well as the language of Occitan or Old Provem;al). The chapter on francophone writing draws attention to a similar phenomenon: the creation of texts united by an apparently shared tongue, but with marked variations which here call into question the hierarchical assumption that there is a standard, normative form. French has, to a greater degree than English, been associated with intense debates over the relationship between thought and linguistic systems. Chapter 4 shows that in the seventeenth century, an age characterized by a wish to codify and purify the language after the energetic but almost unfettered expansions of the Renaissance, many writers strove after absolute goals - clarity, simplicity, elegance. Yet they and

their readers were intensely aware that language is only an approximate vehicle for the expression of reality. It is a very similar apprehension which lies at the heart of the fiction of the New Novelists (see Chapter 8) in their self-reflexive fascination with the limits and nature of narrative. And the relationship between language and the categories in which we represent our view of the world is again a key subject of modern critical theory (see, for example, the analysis of Foucault and Derrida in Chapter 10 ).

In contrast to the more abstract debates over the nature of language and thought, our work also reflects contributors' interests in issues of literacy, and in the status of the book (or manuscript)

GD INTRODUCTION

as a physical and commercial object. Recently there has been a substantial body of scientific research into these topics, which is significant for any assessment of the way writings may be influenced by the reception which they are expected to enjoy. Writers of all periods have often had at least one eye on the impact their work might make on the public or distinguished patrons, and many depended precisely on what we would now term the commercial success of their work. We recognize today the significance of a novelist winning the Prix Goncourt, but earlier ages had their own measures of success (which noble or monarch accepted the dedication of a collection of poetry in the Renaissance, which theatre performed a play in the seventeenth century, which journal serialized a work in the nineteenth). Whereas in the later twentieth century we have precise information on sales of books, and even categories of readers, for earlier periods the evidence is far less complete, and requires interpretation. Similarly, literacy levels today are closely documented (albeit that their interpretation is still open to debate), but for earlier periods our information is at best indicative. Thus we can assert that by 1789 about half the male population of France could read, but this masks the enormous gap between Paris (c. 90 per cent male literacy) and the south-west (c. 11 per cent). Furthermore, many who were notionally literate were very unlikely to read the kinds of book we are discussing.

However, this does not mean that a history of earlier literature must be confined to a study of the reading habits of the upper social classes, for any account of the reception of literature before the Revolution must take into account the importance of the oral transmission of texts. In the Middle Ages, this is paramount. Even after the spread of the printing press in the Renaissance, many works (such as those of Rabelais) retain marked oral characteristics, and poetry is frequently set to music or recited at court. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, salons perpetuate the shared reading and discussion of literature for the upper classes, while for a wider public the theatre becomes a focus of both popular celebration and political discontent. The emergence of something like the modern newspaper in the nineteenth century is an essential factor in the burgeoning of

INTRODUCTION ~

the novel. Yet even as the institution of universal, free, compulsory primary education in 1882 (under the Zais Ferry) set the seal upon public literacy, and as a handful of novelists and authors of school texts reached huge audiences, reading was about to be challenged by the rival attraction of the moving image. Such information helps us to appreciate writers of distinction within the context of their period, surveying their likely readership or audience. It also allows us to go some way towards answering the questions 'Was Madame de Lafayette/Prevost/Zola . . . widely read in her/his period?' and 'How does she or he compare with other writers of the time?' Readers of this Guide may be surprised to find how little 'popular' taste has changed over the ages - it is not only the late twentieth century which favours fast plots, love, adultery and murder, and larger-than-life characters!

In considering the question of reviewing canons, we were aware both of the challenges posed by recent feminist theory and of the increasing attention many women writers have enjoyed. The latter point means that in some chapters, notably those dealing with both French and francophone literature since 1940, the position of women is central. In some earlier periods, it has been easy to identify particular flowerings of writing by women, such as sixteenth-century poetry or the eighteenth-century novel. In other cases we have approached the question differently. Anonymous medieval works might conceal female authorship; some literary partnerships have obscured women's roles (Colette initially published under her husband's name). It is, in any case, useful to address the question of why women published relatively little in certain periods. Another fruitful approach has been to focus on women as readers, either individual women encouraging specific writers (as patrons and critics) or women collectively as a section of the public with distinct tastes for certain genres. For much of the seventeenth century, for

example, the influence of literary salons hosted by women is crucial. Some modern feminist theory, however, invites us to be more radical

in our reappraisal, and from this perspective the section on feminism in Chapter 10 might serve as a preface rather than a conclusion to the whole book.

~ INTRODUCTION

We hope that you will enjoy reading and reflecting on this

volume. If you find statements with which you disagree or emphases

you would like to change, they may demonstrate that literary

criticism is essentially an act of dialogue, both with the text we are

reading and with other readings of it. Montaigne remarked rather

ironically of the late Renaissance that 'Tout fourmille de

commentaires', * and four hundred years on, that, at least, has

changed little.

* 'Everything is swarming with commentaries.'

Valerie Worth-Stylianou General Editor

Chronology Note We have been able to include only some of the most obvious 'landmarks' in literary history in this summary table. For earlier periods, especially pre-1600, the date of composition/publication of a work is often unknown, and only approximate indications are given.

1 REIGNING MONARCH 2 HISTORICAL EVENTS

OR REGIME IN FRANCE

751-987 Carolingian Dynasty

3 LITERARY WORKS AND

EVENTS

800 Coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor

842 Strasbourg Oaths

987-1328 Capetian Dynasty

987-96 Hugues Capet 996-1031 Robert II

1031--60 Henri I 1060-1108 Philippe I

1108-37 Louis VI 1137-80 Louis VII

1180-1223 Philippe II (PhihppeAuguste)

1066 Norman Conquest of England

1096-9 First Crusade

1147-89 Second Crusade

1152 Eleanor of Aquitaine married to future Henry II of England (1154-89)

Late 12th Beginning of century University of Paris

9th 'Carolingian century renaissance'

c.880 Cantilene de Sainte Eulalie

9th-llth Early saints' lives centuries

c.1050 Vie de Sainte Alexis

c.1098 Chanson de Roland

12th Early epics, romances, century lyric poetry, histories

c.1138 Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia regum Britanniae

Mid-12th Adam century

c.1150-70 Romans antiques c.1155 Wace, Roman de Brut

1170-80 Marie de France, Lais 1170s Romances of Gautier

d'Arras 1175 onwards Roman de Renart

c.1176 Thomas, Tristan 1180s Romances of Chretien de

Troyes Beroul, Tristran Folies

c.1200 Robert de Boron, Joseph c.1200 Jean Bodel, /eu de Saint

Nicolas Perlesvaus

CHRONOLOGY (}ill

REIGNING MONARCH 2 HISTORICAL EVENTS 3 LITERARY WORKS AND

EVENTS OR REGIME IN FRANCE

1223-6 Louis VIII

1226-70 Louis IX (Saint Louis)

1270-85 Philippe III (le Hardi)

1285-1314 Philippe IV (le Bel)

1314-16 Louis X 1316-22 Philippe V 1322-8 Charles IV

1328-1498 Valois Dynasty

1202-4 Fourth Crusade

c.1200 Romances of Jean Renart fabliaux

Early 13th Villehardouin; Robert century de Clari 1215-35 Vulgate Cycle 1225-40 Prose Tristan

c.1230 and 1270 Roman de la Rose (parts 1 and 2)

1244 Christians lose Jerusalem

1270 Eighth Crusade

1271-95 Travels of Marco Polo 1309-77 Papal schism

(Avignon papacy)

c.1250 Robert de Blois Philippe de Navarre Aucassin et Nicolette

1270s Plays of Adam de la Halle

1310-20 Roman de Fauvel

Early 14th Joinville century Voeux de paon

Deguilleville, Pelerinage Percejorest

1300-77 Guillaume de Machaut 1328-50 Philippe VI 1337-1453 Hundred Years War

1350-64 Jean II (le Bon) 1364-80 Charles V

1380-1422 Charles VI

1422--61 Charles VII

1461-83 Louis XI

1346-50 Black Death 1346 Battle of Crecy 1356 Battle of Poitiers

1415 Battle of Agincourt

1431 Joan of Arc burnt by English

c.1389 Philippe de Mezieres 1346-1407 Eustache Deschamps Mid-14th Froissart

century 1393 Menagier de Paris

Late 14th Querelle de la Rose century

c.1400 Christine de Pizan

c.1420 Quinze Joies de mariage c.1420 Alain Chartier

1394-1465 Charles d'Orleans

1450-3 France recovers Normandy andGascony

c.1456 Antoine de la Sale, Petit Jean de Saintre

1456 and 1461 Franc;ois Villon, Lais and Testament

1460s Cent Nouvelles nouvelles

~ CHRONOLOGY



1483-98 Charles VIII

1498-1589 Valois-Orleans Dynasty

1498-1515 Louis XII

1515-47 Fram;ois I

1547-59 Henri II

1470 First printing press in Paris 1482 Burgundian lands

divided between France and the Empire

c.1465 Farce de Pierre Pathelin

1489-98 Philippe de Commynes, Memoires

Late 15th Grands Rhetoriqueurs century

1499 Louis XII invades northern Italy

1513 French expelled from Italy 1515 Leonardo da Vinci invited

to Amboise

1503 Champier, Nef des dames 1511-13 Lemaire de Belges, Les

Illustrations de Gaule

1516 Bude, L'Institution du prince 1517 Luther's 95 theses published

in Germany 1520 Fran\ois I and Henry VIII meet

at the Field of the Cloth of Gold 1525 Fran\ois I defeated at Battle of

Pavia 1530 College des Lecteurs

Royaux founded

1532 Treaty of Union between France and Brittany

1534 Affaire des Placards Jacques Cartier reaches Canada

1535 Reformation adopted at Geneva

1541-64 Calvin in Geneva

1545--63 Council of Trent

1531 Marguerite de Navarre, Mirozr de tame pecheresse

1532 Rabelais, Pantagruel Clement Marot, Adolescence clementine

1534 Rabelais, Gargantua

1538 Helisenne de Crenne, Les Angoisses douloureuses

1539 Edict of Villers-Cotterets 1540--6 French translation of

Amadis de Gaule 1541 Calvin, Institution de la

religion chretienne (first French edition)

1544 Sceve, Delie 1545 Pemette du Guillet, Rimes 1546 Rabelais, Le Tiers Livre

1549 Du Bellay, Defense et illustration

1552 Jodelle, Cleopatre captive Rabelais, Quart Livre

1552-3 Ronsard, Les Amours 1555 Ronsard, La Continuation des

amours; Hymnes Labe, Oeuvres

REIGNING MONARCH 2 IBSTORICAL EVENTS

OR REGIME IN FRANCE

1559-oO Fran\ois II 1560-74 Charles IX

1574-89 Henri III

1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambresis between France and Spain

1560-3

1562

1572

Regency of Catherine deMedicis Outbreak of Wars of Religion Massacre of St Bartholomew

1589 Assassination of Henri III

1589-1792 Bourbon Dynasty 1589-1610 Henri IV 1594 Entry into Paris and

coronation of Henri IV 1598 Edict of Nantes

1599-1611 Ministry of Sully

CHRONOLOGY [ff[]

3 LITERARY WORKS AND

EVENTS

1558 Marguerite de Navarre, Heptameron Du Bellay, Les Antiquites de Rome; Les Regrets

1559 Boaistuau and Belleforest, Histoires tragiques

1562-3 Ronsard, Discours des miseres de ce temps

1572 Ronsard, La Franciade Jean de la Taille, Saiil le fttrieux

1573 Garnier, Hippolyte

1576 Bodin, Six Livres de la republique

1578 Ronsard, Sonnets pour Helene Du Bartas, La Premiere Semaine

1580 Montaigne, Les Essais 1587 La Noue, Discours politiques

et militaires

1594 (anon.) Satire Menippee

1599 Comediens du Roi established at Hotel de Bourgogne

c.1606 Malherbe's Commentary on Desportes

1607- 27 D'Urfe, Astree

1610-43 Louis XIII

1608 Founding of Quebec

1610 Assassination of Henri IV

1609 Saint Fran\ois de Sales, Introduction a la vie devote Lescarbot, Les Muses de la Nouvelle-France

1610 Beroalde de Verville, Le Mayen de parvenir

1610-17 Regency of Marie de Medicis

1618-48 Thirty Years War

1624-42 Ministry of Richelieu 1627-8 Siege of La Rochelle

1616 D' Aubigne, Les Tragiques

c.1620-50 Salon of Marquise de Rambouillet

1621-o Theophile de Viau, Oeuvres

1629 Theatre du Marais established

1635 French arrive in Caribbean 1634 Mairet, La Sophonisbe 1635 Foundation of Academie

fran\aise by Richelieu 1636 Pierre Corneille, L'Illusion

comique 1637 Descartes, Discours de la

methode

(}ID CHRONOLOGY



1643-1715 Louis XIV

1637 Corneille, Le Cid 1638 St Louis (Senegal) founded 1639 Rising of Va-nu-pieds in Normandy

1642-61 Ministry of Mazarin 1643-51 Regency of Anne of Austria

1648-53 Civil Wars of La Fronde

1653 Papal condemnation of Jansenism

1645 Rotrou, Le Veritable Saint Genest

c.1646-96 Letters of Madame de Sevigne

1647 Vaugelas, Remarques sur la langue franraise

1649-53 Madeleine de Scudery, Le Grand Cyrus

1651-7 Scarron, Le Roman comique

1656 Thomas Corneille, Timocrate 1656-7 Pascal, Lettres provinciales

1661 Louis XIV assumes personal control of government; work starts on Versailles

1661 Moliere's comfany moves to Palais Roya

1661-83 Ministry of Colbert

1667-8 War of Devolution

1662 Moliere, L'Ecole des femmes 1664 Les Plaisirs de l'fle enchantee

at Versailles, including Moliere's Tartuffe

1666 Furetiere, Le Roman bourgeois

1668

1669

Racine, Andromaque La Fontaine, Les Fables (Books I-VI) Academie royale de musique established byLully

1670 Pascal, Pensees 1672-8 Second War against Holland

1673 Moliere, Le Malade imaginaire 1674 Boileau, Art poetique 1677 Racine, Phedre 1678 Madame de Lafayette,

La Princesse de Cleves 1680 Dragonnades against 1680 Comedie-Fran~aise

Protestants established 1682 Court moves to Versailles 1683 Secret marriage of Louis XIV

and Madame de Maintenon 1685 Revocation of Edict of Nantes

1688-97 War of League of Augsburg

1686 Fontenelle, Entretiens sur la pluralite des mondes

1687-8 Main episode of Querel/e des Anciens et des Modernes

1688-96 La Bruyere, Les Caracteres

1691 Racine, Athalie 1694 First Dictionnaire de

l' Academie franraise 1697-1706 Bayle, Dictionnaire critique

et historique 1699 Fenelon, Telemaque

CHRONOLOGY (}ill



1715-74 Louis XV

1774-92 Louis XVI

1702-5 1702-13

1709

1715 1715-23

Camisard risings in Cevennes War of Spanish Succession Expulsion of nuns from Port-Royal Death of Louis XIV Regency of Philippe d'Orleans

1726-43 Ministry of Fleury

1734 Spread of Anglomania

1755 Lisbon earthquake 1756-63 Seven Years War

1763 France cedes most of Canada to Britain

1709 Lesage, Turcaret

1715 Lesage, Gil Blas

1721 Montesquieu, Lettres persanes

1730 Marivaux, Le Jeu de l'amour et du hasard

1731 Prevost, Manon Lescaut; Cleveland

1734 Voltaire, Lettres philosophiques

1736 Crebillon.fils, Les Efarements du creur et de l'espri Voltaire, Le Mondain

1737 Marivaux, Les Fausses confidences

1750 Rousseau, Discours sur les sciences et les arts

1757 Diderot, Le Fils nature[ 1759 Voltaire, Candide 1760 Palissot, Les Philosophes

Diderot, La Religieuse 1761 Rousseau, La Nouvelle

Heloise 1762 Diderot, Le Neveu de Rameau

Rousseau, Emile; Du contrat social

1764 Expulsion of Jesuits from France 1766 Lorraine incorporated into France 1768 France acquires Corsica

1770 Marriage of Dauphin and Marie-Antoinette

1774-6 Ministry of Turgot

1776-81 Ministry of Necker 1778 France enters War of

American Independence

1783-7 Ministry of Calonne

1769 Diderot, Le Reve de d'Alembert

1773 Diderot, Jacques le fataliste; Paradoxe sur le comedien

1775 Beaumarchais, Le Barbier de Seville

1782 Rousseau, Reveries du promeneur solitaire Laclos, Les Liaisons dangereuses

1782-8 Rousseau, Les Confessions

1784 Beaumarchais, Le Mariage de Figaro

1788 Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, Paul et Virginie

~ CHRONOLOGY



1789 (14 July) 1789 (4 August)

Storming of Bastille Declaration of the Rights of Man

1792-1804 First Republic

1791 Flight of Louis XVI to Varennes

1793 Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette executed

1793-4 The Terror 1794 Downfall of Robespierre

1795-9 The Directory

1791 Sade, Justine, ou Les Malheurs de la vertu

1798-9 Napoleon's Egyptian campaign 1799 (10 October) Napoleon seizes power

1804-1814 First Empire 1804-14 Napoleon I

1814-30 Bourbon Restoration

1814-24 Louis XVIII

1824-30 Charles X

1830-48 Orleans (July) Monarchy

1830-48 Louis-Philippe

1801 Chateaubriand, Atala 1802 Chateaubriand, Rene; Le

Genie du christianisme Madame de Stael, Delphine

1803-14 Napoleonic campaigns in Europe

1804 Napoleon crowned Emperor 1804 Senancour, Obermann Independence of Haiti

1814 Napoleon abdicates and retires to Elba

1815 Return of Napoleon (The Hundrea Days); Battle of Waterloo; Napoleon exiled to St Helena

1807 Madame de Stael, Corinne

1816 Constant, Adolphe 1816-20 Milscent, L'Abeille haiJienne

1821 Death of Napoleon I

1820 Larnartine, Les Meditations poetiques

1821 Nodier, Smarra

1826 Hugo, Odes et ballades Vigny, Cinq-Mars

1827 Hugo, Cromwell 1829 Hugo, Les Orientales

Merimee, La Chronique du regne de Charles IX

1830 July Revolution, abdication 1830 Hugo, Hemani of Charles X

1830 Colonization of Algeria begins Independence of Belgium

1833 Guizot's charter for primary education in France

1831 Hugo, Notre-Dame de Paris Balzac, La Peau de chagrin Stendhal, Le Rouge et le noir

1832 Dumas pere, La Tour de Nesle Sand, Indiana

1834 Musset, Lorenzaccio Balzac, Le Pere Goriot

CHRONOLOGY [filJ



1848-52 Second Republic

1852-70 Second Empire 1852-70 Napoleon III

1835 Assassination attempt on Louis-Philippe

1844 Dominican Republic established

1846 Economic crisis in France

1835 Vigny, Chatterton Gautier, Mademoiselle de Maupin Revue beige founded

1836 Musset, Confession d'un enfant du siecle

1839 Stendhal, La Chartreuse de Parme

1843 Hugo, Les Burgraves Balzac, Illusions perdues

1844 Dumas pere, Les Trois Mousquetaires

1844-5 Sue, Le Juif errant 1845-8 Garneau, Histoire du Canada

1846 Balzac, La Cousine Bette

1848 Abdication of Louis-Philippe; 1848 Dumas fils, La Dame proclamation of Second aux camelias Republic; Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte elected president

1849-50 Chateaubriand, Memoires d' outre-tombe

1851 Coup d'etat of Louis-Napoleon

1852 Louis-Napoleon proclaimed emperor

1853 Haussmann begins reconstruction of Paris

1854-6 Crimean War

1855 Exposition universelle

1859 War with Austria 1861-7 Mexican campaign of

Napoleon III

1864 Cambodia becomes French protectorate

1852 Gautier, Emaux et camees Leconte de Lisle, Poemes antiques

1853 Hugo, Les Chiitiments

1854 Nerval, Sylvie

1855 Nerval, Le Reve et la vie

1857 Flaubert, Madame Bovary Baudelaire, Les Fleurs du mal

1862 Flaubert, Salammbo Hugo, Les Miserables

1863 Fromentin, Dominique

1864 Goncourt, Germinie Lacerteux

1866 Verlaine, Poemes saturniens

1867 Canada becomes a dominion 1867 Zola, Therese Raquin

1869 Opening of Suez Canal

1870-1 Franco-Prussian War; fall of Napoleon III

1868 Lautreamont, Les Chants de Maldoror

1869 Flaubert, L'Education sentimentale Baudelaire, Petits Poemes en prose Verlaine, Fetes galantes

~ CHRONOLOGY

1 REGIME IN FRANCE

1870-1940 Third Republic

2 HISlORICAL EVENTS

(METROPOLITAN FRANCE)

1870-1 Start of Third Republic; Paris Commune

1873 Death of Napoleon III

1875 Republican Constitution established

1879 Senate and Chamber of Deputies return to Paris from Versailles

1881-2 Lois Ferry establish universal free primary education

1889 Paris International Exhibition

1898 Dreyfus affair

1905 Separation of Church and state

1914 Outbreak of First World War 1916 Battle of Verdun

1919 Treaty of Versailles

1920 Foundation of French Communist Party

1924 Bloc National defeated by Cartel des Gauches

1925 Locamo Agreements 1926 Papal condemnation of

Action Fran~aise

1929 Wall Street Crash

1933 Hitler comes to power in Germany

1936 Popular Front government

3 LITERATURE AND THOUGHT


1873 Rimbaud, Une Saison en en fer

1877 Zola, L'Assommoir Flaubert, Trois contes Goncourt, La Fille Elisa

1879 Goncourt, Les Freres Zemganno

1880 Zola, Nana; Zola and others Les Soirt~es de Medan '

1884 Huysmans, A rebours 1885 Zola, Germinal

1892 Maeterlinck, Pelleas et Melisande

1897 Barres, Les Deracines

1902 Gide, L'Immoraliste

1909 Founding of NRF

1913 Alain-Fournier, Le Grand Meaulnes Apollinaire, Alcools

1914 Gide, Les Caves du Vatican 1916 Barbusse, Le Feu 1917 Valery, La Jeune Parque 1919 Proust, A l'ombre des jeunes

Jilles en Jleurs

1924 Breton, Manifeste du surrealisme

1925 Gide, Les Faux-monnayeurs

1927 Mauriac, Therese Desqueyroux 1928 Giraudoux, Siegfried

1932 Celine, Voyage au bout de lanuit

1933 Malraux, La Condiiton humaine

1935 Giraudoux, La Guerre de Troie n'aura pas lieu

1936 Bernanos, Journal d'un cure decampagne Gide, Retour de l'URSS

4 HISTORICAL EVENI'S

(FRANCOPHONE COUNTRIES)

1881 Tunisia becomes French protectorate

1885 Treaty of Berlin: Africa divided between

colonial powers

1912 Morocco becomes French protectorate

1920 Lebanon under French Mandate

1931 Statute of Westminster: Canada gains political independence

CHRONOLOGY ffiD

5 LITERARY WORKS AND EVENI'S


1881 Jeune Belgique founded

1885 Firmin, Egalite des races humaines

1896 Chekri Ghanem, Rances et fleurs

1905 Ramuz, Aline 1906 First Con$1"es international de la langue

franc;aise m Liege Marius and Ary Leblond, Anthologie coloniale

1914 Hemon, Maria Chapdelaine

1920 Randau's Algerianistes' manifesto

1921 Maran, Batouala 1923 Lara, Questions de couleur 1924 Lacascade, Claire Solange iime africain

1928 Price-Mars, Ainsi parla l'oncle 1929 Couchoro, L'Esclave

1935 Ousmane Soce, Karim

[ill] CHRONOLOGY

1 REGIME IN FRANCE

194o-44 Vichy Regime

2 1-llSTORICAL EVENTS

(METROPOLITAN FRANCE) 3 LITERATURE AND lHOUGftr


1936 Sartre, La Transcendance de /'ego

1937 Spanish Civil War 1937 Malraux, L'Espoir 1938 Sartre, La Nausee

1939 Outbreak of Second World War 1940 German troops occupy

Paris and much of France

1940-4 Vichy regime under Marshal Petain

1940 Sartre, L'Imaginaire

1942 Camus, L'Etranger Vercors, Le Silence de la mer Ponge, Le Parti pris des chases

1943 Sartre, Les Mouches; L'f tre et le neant

1944 Liberation of Paris 1944-6 Provisional Government

of de Gaulle

1946-58 Fourth Republic

1958- Fifth Republic

1945 End of Second World War;

1944 Anouilh, Antigone Sartre, Huis clos

de Gaulle head of provisional government; referendum votes to end Third Republic 1945 De Beauvoir, Le Sang des

autres

1946 Resignation of de Gaulle; Constitution of Fourth Republic accepted by referendum

1947 Adoption of Marshall Plan (1948-52) to assist economic reconstruction of Europe

1948 Signature of North Atlantic Treaty

1947 Camus, La Peste Genet, Les Bonnes Queneau, Exercices de style

1948 Sartre, Les Mains sales

1949 De Beauvoir, Le Deuxieme Sexe

1952 lonesco, Les Chaises 1953 Beckett, En attendant Godot 1954 De Beauvoir, Les Mandarins 1955 Levi-Strauss, Tristes

Tropiques 1956 Camus, La Chute

1957 Treaty of Rome ratified, founding Common Market 1957 Robbe-Grillet, La Jalousie

1958 De Gaulle returns to power; Fifth Republic founded

1958 Yourcenar, Memoires d'Hadrien Duras, Moderato cantabile

1960 De Beauvoir, La Force de l'iige Sartre, Critique de la raison dialectique

4 HISlDRICAL EVENTS


1951 Beginnings of struggle for independence in Tunisia and Morocco

1954 Beginning of Algerian War 1954-62 Decolonization in Africa

1956 Independence of Tunisia and Morocco recognized

CHRONOLOGY ffi[J

5 LITERARY WORKS AND EVENTS


1937 Saint-Denys Garneau, Regards et jeux dans I' espace

1939 Cesaire, Cahier d'un retour au pays natal

1947 Borduas, Refus global Presence africaine founded

1948 Senghor, Anthologie de la nouvelle poesie negre et malgache

1950 Feraoun, Le Fils pauvre Gelinas, Tit-Coq

1951 Albany, Zamal

1952 Chedid, Le Sommeil delivre

1954 Chraibi, Le Passe simple

1956 First Congres des ecrivains et artistes noirs Yacine, Nedjma Damas, Black Label Beti, Le Pauvre Christ de Bomba

1957 Memrni, Portrait du colonise

1958 Bessette, La Bagarre

1959 Blais, La Belle Bete Dadie, Un Negre ii Paris

ffi!J CHRONOLOGY

1 REGIME IN FRANCE 2 HISlORICAL EVENTS


1968 Student revolt and general strike

3 LITERATURE AND THOUGl-fr


1963 Sarraute, Les Fruits d'or 1964 Sartre, Les Mots

Foucault, Histoire de la Jolie a /'age classique

1964-71 Levi-Strauss, Mythologiques 1966 Lacan, Ecrits 1967 Derrida, La Voix et le

phenomene; De la grammatologie; L'Ecriture et la difference

1968 Modiano, La Place de l'etoile

1969 De Gaulle resigns (dies 1970); 1969 Perec, La Disparition Georges Pompidou Foucault, L' Archeologie elected president du savoir

1974 Pompidou dies; Valery Giscard d'Estaing elected president: abortion laws liberalized

1981 Fran~ois Mitterrand elected president; Socialist victory in general election; abolition of death penalty

1988 Mitterrand re-elected president

1995 Jacques Chirac elected president

1970 Toumier, Le Roi des Aulnes 1971-2 Sartre, L'Idiot de lafamille

1972 Derrida, Marges de la philosophie; La Dissemination

1974 Leclerc, Parole de femme Derrida, Glas Irigaray, Speculum; De I' autre femme Kristeva, La Revolution du langage poetique

1975 Cixous, Le Rire de la Meduse; La Jeune Nee (with Catherine Clement) Lacan, Encore; Le Seminaire, BookXX Cardinal, Les Mots pour le dire

1976 Foucault, La Volante de savoir

1979 Lyotard, La Condition postmoderne

1980 Derrida, La Carte postale Kristeva, Pouvoirs de l'horreur

1983 Wiesel, Le Cinquieme Fils 1984 Duras, L'Amant

Foucault, Le Souci de soi 1985 Toussaint, La Salle de bain 1987 Derrida, De /'esprit; Psyche

Kristeva, Soleil noir 1988 Emaux, Une Femme

1992 Echenoz, Nous trois 1993 Derrida, Spectres de Marx 1994 Derrida, Politiques de l'amitie;

Force de loi 1995 Derrida, Mai d' archive

4 HISTORICAL EVENTS


1962 Independence of Algeria proclaimed

1970 Agence de cooperation culturelle et technique founded

1976 Parti quebecois attains office

1980 Defeat of independence referendum in Quebec

CHRONOLOGY []![)

5 LITERARY WORKS AND EVENTS


1961 Fanon, Les Damnes de la terre 1962 Nokan, Le Soleil noir

Dib, Qui se souvient de la mer 1963 Founding of Parti Pris

1966 Haut Comite de la langue fran.;aise founded

1968

1969

ADELF (originally Association des ecrivains coloniaux) founded Kourouma, Les Soleils des

independances Memmi, Le Scorpion

1970 Hebert, Kamouraska

1973 Sembene, Xala

1975 Glissant, Malemort

1977 Cheynet, Les Museles 1979 Sow Fall, La Greve des Biittu 1980 Depestre, Bonjour et adieu a la

negritude

1981 Glissant, Le Discours antillais

1983 Khatibi, Maghreb pluriel

1985 Djebar, L'Amour, la fantasia 1987 Brossard, Le Desert mauve

Ben Jelloun, La Nuit sacree 1988 Memmi, Le Pharaon

Depestre, Hadriana dans tous mes reves 1991 Khatibi, Un Ete ii Stockholm 1992 Chamoiseau, Texaco 1993 Maalouf, Le Rocher de Tanios

Index Except for anonymous works, titles appear under the author's name.

Abdelwahab 221 absolutism 62, 63 absurd 175--6

Theatre of 183, 184 Academie frarn;aise 68, 182 Adam 27 Adamov, Arthur 183 Ades, Albert 221 adventure novels 162 Africa 200, 202, 205

North Africa, see Maghreb publishing 217 Sub-Saharan 214-18

Agrippa, Henri 48 AYol 7 Alain 159, 166 Alain-Fournier (Henri Alain

Fournier) 158, 159 Albany, Jean 213 Albert-Birot, Pierre 161 Albin Michel 169 d' Alembert, Jean le Rond

96 Alexis, Jacques-Stephen

213 Algeria 218-20

Beur literature 220 Algerian War 121, 173, 179,

219 Allain, Marcel 152 allegory 18, 33, 52

animals 34 Charles d'Orleans 39 rose 35

Althusser, Louis 200 Amadis cycle 73 Amadis de Gaule 5 Ambroise 25 amour courtois 9, 11, 13, 15

challenge 38 sterility 31

Ananou, David 214 Andrea, Giovanni 1 Anglo-Normand 3, 12

Voyage de Saint Brendan 5 Anouilh, Jean 170

Antigone 177-8 Antilles, see Caribbean

islands

Apollinaire, Guillaume 155, 159, 160, 162

Les Mamelles de Teresias 161

Aragon, Louis 161, 162, 166, 167

communism 183 aristocracy 86, 87

criticism 110 values 106

Aristotle 72 Aron, Raymond 236 Arras 26-7 Artaud, Antonin 156, 161,

169, 170 Arthurian legend 10, 12-16,

17-19 Aubigne, Agrippa d' 64 Aucassin et Nicolette 20 Audiberti, Jacques 170 Audoux, Marguerite 153 Augier, Emile 134 Aunet, Leonie d' 133, 135 autobiography 61

Gide 163 nineteenth-century

novels 127-8 Rousseau 107-8

Avignon papacy 24 Aye d' Avignon 7 Ayme, Marcel 166

Balzac, Honore de 103, 130 I.a Comedie humaine

130-1, 140 scientific developments

141, 142 Barante, Aimable-Guillaume

Prosper Brugiere, baron de Barante 136

Barbusse, Henri 159, 162, 166

baroque 67 period 58-o5 theatre 76

Barrault, Jean-Louis 184 Barres, Maurice 157, 160 Barsacq, Andre 170 Barthes, Roland 186 Baty, Gaston 161

Baudelaire, Charles 112, 155, 161

Les Fleurs du mal 144 Baudrillard, Jean 200 Bayle, Pierre 93 Bazin, Rene 157 Beaumarchais, Pierre-

Augustin Caron, baron de Beaumarchais 85, 110-11

Beauvoir, Simone de 176, 182, 249

Le Deuxieme Sexe 247 Le Sang des autres 177 Pour une morale de

I' ambigui"te 232 Beckett, Samuel 156, 183,

184,223 plays 187

Becque, Henry 156 Bekri, Tahar 221 Belgium 199, 203, 206 Belle Epoque 147 Belleforest, Franc;ois de 47 Ben Jelloun, Tahar 204 Benda, Julien 166 Benoit, Pierre 162 Benoit de Sainte-Maure 8,

25 Berinus et Aigres 26 Bernanos, Georges 151,

167-8 Bernard, Claude 141 Bernard de Chartres 7 Bernard de Ventadour 9 Bernardin de Saint-Pierre,

Jacques-Henri 115 Beroalde de Verville 60 Beroul 12 Berrada, Omar 221 Berthelot, Marcelin 141 Bertrand, Aloysius 124 Bertrand, Louis 159, 162 Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube 6 Bessette, Gerard 209 Beti,Mongo 214,218 Beur literature 220 Beze, Theodore de 58, 63 Billon, Franc;ois de 49 Black Death 24, 34

Blin, Roger 184 Bloy, Leon 151 Boaistuau, Pierre 47 Boccaccio, Giovanni 48 Bodel, Jean 27-9, 36 Bodin, Jean 63 Boileau, Nicholas 67, 91

Art poetique 69-70, 87-8 Bonnefoy, Yves 185 Borduas, Emile 209 Borel, Petrus 124 Bosco, Henri 160, 169 Bossuet, Jacques-Benigne

91,92 Bouchet, Jean 52 Boudjedra, Rachid 220 Bouhours, pere Dominique

86 Boukman, Daniel 212 Bounfour, Abdalleh 221 Bourboune, Mourad 220 bourgeoisie 75

19th century 128 Arras 28 drama 134 government 69 medieval women 33 patronage 26 philosophy 109 rejection 187 theatre 76, 155 values 106, 194

Bourget, Claude 151 Brasillach, Robert 167, 168 Brecht, Bertolt 40 Breton, Andre 161, 162, 168,

169, 209 Bric;onnet, Guillaume 50 Brossard, Nicole 210 Brunhoff, Laurent de 168 Bruno, G. (Madame

Fouillee) 148 Bude, Guillaume 45 Bussy-Rabutin, Roger 86 Butor, Michel 185, 186

Calvin, Jean 50-1 calvinism 50 Cameroon 218 Campistron, Jean Calbert

de 81 Camus, Albert 166, 170,

180-2, 183, 219 absurd 229 existentialism 228, 232 L'Etranger 174-5, 228

Canada, French, see Quebec Cantilene de Sainte Eulalie 4 Capellanus, Andreas 9

Cardinal, Marie 190, 194 Caribbean islands 202, 205,

210-12 Casgrain, abbe Henri-

Raymond 208 Castiglione, Baldassare 48 catholicism 157, 168, 209 Celine, Louis-Ferdinand

167 Cendrars, Blaise 152, 160,

164, 206 censure 110 Cent Nouvelles nouvelles 32,

49 Cercamon 9 Cesaire, Aime 204, 211, 212,

216 Cesaire, Ina 212 Chaillou de Pestain 35 Chamoiseau, Patrick 212 Champfleury, Jules

Husson 129 Champier, Symphorien 48 Chanson de Guillaume 5, 6, 7 Chanson de Roland 4-5 Chanson de Sainte Foy 4 chansons de geste 5, 7, 17 Chappaz, Maurice 207 Char, Rene 169, 184, 185 Chardin, Jean-Baptiste 135 Charlemagne 1, 2, 6 Charles d'Orleans 38-9 Charles IX 42 Charles X 121 Charriere, Isabelle de

114-15, 119 Charron, Pierre 62 Chartier, Alain 34, 38 Chassignet, Jean-Baptiste

64 Chastelaine de Vergi 20 Chateaubriand, Franc;ois

Rene, vicomte de 102, 115-16, 128, 135, 136

Memoires d' outre-tombe 127

Chateaubriand, Alphonse de Bredenbec de 160

Chawaf, Chantal 190 Chedid, Andree 222 Chenier, Andre 95, 111 Chenier, Marie-Joseph 111 Cheynet, Anne 213 childhood 128, 152 children's books 148, 168 chivalry 18, 26 Chraibi, Driss 220 Chretien de Troyes 7-8,

12-16, 22, 36

Cixous, Helene 189, 190, 248, 249

classicism 59, 67 Claude}, Paul 156 Clement, Catherine 190 Cocteau, Jean 160, 161, 162,

170 Cohen, Albert 169 Coignard, Gabrielle de 64 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste 69 Colette 164, 190 collaboration 177 colonialism 122, 147

post-colonialism 203-5 Comedie-Franc;aise 98 Comedie-ltalienne 98 comedies-ballets 82, 83 comedy 29, 57, 82-5, 95,

98-9, 110-11, 134-5 comic realism 28, 29 committed literature 176,

179, 182, 184, 185, 197 Algeria 219

Commune 122 communism 166, 174

Sartre 231 Commynes, Philippe de 25 Comte, Auguste 142 Conde, Louis II, prince de

86, 91 Conde, Maryse 204, 212 Confiant, Raphael 212 Constant, Benjamin 102,

115, 128, 163, 206 Adolphe 117

contes, see short stories Copeau, Jacques 156-7, 158,

161 Coppee, Franc;ois 153 Corbiere, Tristan (Edouard

Joachim Corbiere) 154 Corneille, Pierre 57, 73,

77-9, 80, 81, 82 Le Cid 68, 78

Corneille, Thomas 79, 81 Cossery, Albert 221 Couchoro, Felix 214 Courbet, Gustave 129 Couronnement de Louis 6 Courtois d' Arras 28 Cousin, Victor 136, 142 Crebillon, Prosper 103-4,

113 Crenne, Helisenne de 47 Crimean War 122 Crommelynck, Fernand

161, 206 Crusades 2, 25

cultural relativism 60, 99, 115, 236

Cuvier, Baron Georges 141 Cyrano de Bergerac, Savinien

de 75, 92

Dabit, Eugene 166 dadaism 161 Daguerre, Louis Jacques

Mantle 141 Damas, Leon-Gontran 211,

215 Daudet, Alphonse 148 Daumal 170 deconstruction 227, 241-7,

248, 249, 250 deism 72 Delarue-Mardrus, Lucie

155 Delille, Abbe Jacques 95 Delly 152 Denoel 169 Depestre, Rene 204, 213 Derrida, Jacques 186, 200,

241-7, 249, 250 des Masures, Louis 58 des Periers, Bonaventure

49,51 Des Roches, Catherine 56 Descartes, Rene 72, 78, 237,

250 Deschamps, Eustache 32, 37 Desnos, Robert 161 Desportes, Fran<;ois 56, 70 Diagne, Matape 214 dialects 3

patouete 218 Diallo, Bakary 214 Dib, Mohammed 219 dictionaries 43 didactic works 33, 34-5, 139 Diderot, Denis 95, 108-10,

113 Encyclopedie 96

Dierx, Leon 153 Diop, Birago 214 Diop, David 215 Djebar, Assia 204, 220 Doan de la Roche 7 Dorgeles, Roland 159, 162 Dostoevsky, Feodor 151,

163 Dreyfus affair 147, 157, 158 Drieu la Rochelle, Pierre

167, 168 du Bartas, Saluste 64 Du Bellay, Joachim 55

Defense et illustration de la langue fran(aise 44, 51, 52

Pleiade 51, 52, 53 sonnets 56-7

Du Camp, Maxime 141 du Fail, Noel 50, 59 du Guillet, Pernette 55 Duhamel, Maurice 155, 159,

162, 164 Dujardin, Edouard 151, 154 Dullin, Charles 161 Dumas, Alexandre, fils 155

La Dame aux camelias 133 plays 134 travel writing 135

Dumas, Alexandre, pere 128, 138

Durant, Oswald 212 Duranty, Pierre 129 Duras, Marguerite 190,

191-2

Echenoz, Jean 195-6, 197 education

Egypt 221 historiography 136 nationalism 157 primary 121, 128, 147 of princes 33 Sub-Saharan Africa

214-20 Egypt 221 Eliot, George 119 Eluard, Paul 161, 162, 169 Empire, Second 122 Encyclopedie 96, 109 Enlightenment 72, 92, 96

themes 109 ennui 102, 116 epics 5-7, 35, 115 Erasmus 45 Ernaux, Annie 194 Ernst, Max 168 eroticism 109, 164, 221 estates of the realm 34 Estienne, Robert 43 Etcherelli, Claire 194 exhibitions 122 existentialism 170, 178, 183,

221, 227, 228-33, 234, 250

exoticism 114, 115, 135, 151, 217, 222-3

fables 34-5, 87 fabliaux 10, 29, 30, 49 Fanon, Frantz 204, 223 Fantosme, Jordan 25 Fantoure, Mohammed

Alioum 218 Farce de Pierre Pathelin 29

farces 29, 57, 82, 83 Rabelais 46

Fares, Nabile 220, 223, 224 fascism 148 Fastoul, Baude 36 fatalism 136 feminism 114, 194, 227,

247-50 African 218 after May 1968 190 de Beauvoir 182 Christine de Pizan 31 francophone literature

199-226 George Sand 127 Marie de France 11 Quebec 210 see also women's writings

Fenelon, Fran<;ois de Salignac de La Mothe- 69, 92

Feraoun, Mouloud 219 feudalism 2, 6, 27 Feval, Paul 128, 148 Feydeau, Georges 156 Ficino, Marsilio 48 Fille du comte de Pontieu, La

21 Firmin, Antenor 213 First World War 147, 157,

158-9, 165 first-person narratives

36-40, 72, 109, 117, 174 Montaigne 60

Flaubert, Gustave 103, 130, 135, 138, 141

correspondence with Sand 132

novels 132, 135, 139 prosecution 144 and science 141

Fleuriot, Zenaide 152 Floire et Blanchejlor 10, 19,

20 Flore, Jeanne 47,, 49 Folie de Berne 12 Folie d'Oxford 12 Follain, Jean 169 Fontaine, Charles 49 Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier

de 91, 92 Foucault, Michel 200,

237-8, 242, 246 France, Anatole 157 Franco-Prussian War 122,

149 Fran<;ois I 42, 45 Jrancophonie 203, 204-5,

222-4

French language adoption as official

language 43 Africa 217 colonialism 201 debates 68 dialects 3 enrichment 52 francophone writers

222-4 grammar 71 Middle French 24 neologisms 64 OldFrench 1 Quebec 207

Froissart, Jean 25, 37-8 Fromentin, Eugene 127, 135 Frondes 69, 79, 86 Furetiere, Antoine 75

Gaboriau, Emile 152 Gaimar, Geffrei 25 Gallimard 162, 169 Galzy, Jeanne 164 Gamaleya, Boris 213 Garmadi, Salah 221 Gamier, Robert 57 Gaulle, General Charles de

173 Gauthier, Xaviere 190 Gautier d' Arras 10 Gautier, Theophile 135, 139 Gauvin, Axel 214 Gelinas, Gratien 209 Genet, Jean 183, 184, 249 Genevoix, Maurice 160 Geoffrey of Monmouth 13 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,

Etienne 141 Geraldy, Paul (Paul le

Fevre) 165 Gerbert de Montreuil 19 Gervais du Bus 35 geste du roi 6 Ghachem, Moncef 221 Ghanem, Chekri 222 Ghil, Rene (Rene Guilbert)

154 Gide, Andre 151, 158, 161,

162, 163 autobiography 163 Les Caves du Vatican 160 communism 166 homosexuality 163

Giono, Jean 167 Girart de Roussillon 6 Giraudoux, Jean 161, 164,

170 Glissant, Edouard 204, 212

Gobineau, Maxime 213 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang

106, 123 Gomberville, Marin le Roy,

sieurde 73 Goncourt, Edmond 132- 3,

140, 149 Goncourt, Jules 132-3, 140,

149 Gourmont, Remy de 155 Goumay, Marie de 70 Gracq, Julien 169 Grafigny, Franc;oise de 114 grammars 43, 71 Grasset 169 Green, Julien 168 Grenier, Pierre 166 Groupe de I' Abbaye 155 Guadeloupe 199, 202, 205,

210 Guerin, Eugenie de 128 Guerin, Maurice de 128 Guemes de Pont-Sainte-

Maxence 25 Guillaume d'Angleterre 22 Guillaume de Deguilleville

33 Guillaume de Lorris 30, 36 Guilleragues, G. de

Lavergne, sieur de 89, 99

Guilloux, Louis 166, 167 Guinea 218 Guizot, Franc;ois 121, 136 Guyana 199, 202, 205, 210

Habanc 59 hagiography, see saints' lives Haiti 199, 201, 205, 212-13 Hamou, Abdelkader Hadj

219 Hardy, Alexandre 76 Harry, Myriam 153 Hausmann, Baron 122 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm

Friedrich 228 Heidegger, Martin 228, 246 Heldris of Cornwall 21-2 Hemon, Louis 162 Henein, Georges 222 Henri II 42 Henri III 43 Henri IV 43, 63 Herberay des Essarts,

Nicholas d' 45 Heredia, Joseph de 153 Heroet, Antoine 49 Histoire de Guillaume le

Mari~chal 25

historical writing 25-6, 136-41

Holocaust 195, 227 homosexuality 115, 163, 168

see also lesbianism Hotman, Franc;ois 63 Houssaye, Arsene 135 Hugo, Victor 111, 123, 124

adultery 133 Cromwell 125 Hemani 126 historical writing 138,

139 Les Miserables 137 Les Orientales 135 plays 126

humanism 44-5, 53, 58, 182, 233, 246

bourgeois 235 Montaigne 60 opposition to 242 Rabelais 45 Sartre 231, 234

Hundred Years War 24, 25, 34

Husserl 230, 243, 244 Huysmans, Joris Karl 150,

151, 154 Hyvrard, Jeanne 190

incest 21, 22, 116 Indian Ocean 213 lndo-China 202, 205 Ionesco, Eugene 156, 183,

184, 223 lrigaray, Luce 189, 248 Italian wars 42

Jabes, Edmond 185, 223 Jacob, Max 155 Jacquottet, Philippe 206 Jakemes 21 Jansenism 80, 90 Jarry, Alfred 151, 156, 161 Jean de Meun 30, 31 Jelloun, Tahar Ben 220 Joan of Arc 34 Jodelle, Etienne 52, 54 Joinville, Jean, sire de 25 jongleurs 1, 5 Josipovici, Albert 221 Jouhandeau, Marcel 169 Jouve, Pierre-Jean 165 Jouvet, Jean 161, 170 Joyce, James 249 July Monarchy 121

Kahn, Gustave 154 Kant, Emmanuel 228, 237

Kessel, Joseph 164, 166 Kharr-Eddine, Mohammed

220 Khatibi, Abdelkebir 204,

220 Kierkegaard, S0ren 228 Kourouma, Ahmadou 217,

218 Kristeva, Julia 186, 189, 203,

223, 248, 249, 250

la Boetie, Etienne de 63 la Borderie, Bertrand de 49 La Bruyere, Jean de 88, 91,

92 La Calprenede 7 4 Lafayette, Marie Madeleine,

comtesse de 88, 190 La Princesse de Cleves

89-90, 101, 107 La Fontaine, Jean de 85, 87,

91 la Halle, Adam de 28, 36 La Noue, Franc;ois de 61 La Rochefoucauld, Franc;ois,

due de 85, 88, 90 la Sabliere, Marguerite

Hessein de 85 la Sale, Antoine de 26 la Taille, Jean de 58 La Tour du Pin, Patrice de

170 Laabi, Abdellatif 220 Labat, pere Jean-Baptiste

210 Labe, Louise 49, 55 Labiche, Eugene 134 Lacan, Jacques 239-41, 242,

248, 249, 250 Lacascade, Suzanne 211 Laclos, Pierre Choderlos

de 95, 104, 106 Les Liaisons dangereuses

107, 112-13 Lacrosil, Michele 212 Laforgue, Jules 154 Lai d'Aristote 19 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 141 Lamartine, Alphonse de

124 Les Confidences 128 Voyage en Orient 135

Lammenais, Felicite Robert de 142

language feminism 249 philosophy 185, 240, 241,

243, 244, 245 Lara, Oruna 211

Latin 1 sources 4 use in 16th century 45

Lautreamont (Isidore Ducasse) 144, 161, 209

Les Chants de Maldoror 143-4

Laye, Camara 214, 218 Le Fevre, Jean 32 le Lionnais, Franc;ois 186 Le Roy, Eugene 152 Lebanon 202,205, 222 Leblanc, Maurice 152 Lebrun-Pindare (Ponce Denis

Ecouchard-Lebrun) 111

Leclerc, Annie 190 Leconte de Lisle (Charles

Marie Rene Leconte) 139, 153

Lecoq, Louis 219 Lefevre d 'Etaples, Jacques

50 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm

104 Lemaire de Belges, Jean 53 Lemsine, AYcha 220 Lenormand, Henri Rene

Pierre 161 Leroux, Pierre 152 Lesage, Alain-Rene 85, 96 lesbianism 110, 155, 210

see also homosexuality letters 74

epistolatory novel 99, 112, 114

Levi-Strauss, Claude 234, 234--6, 239, 242

Liberation 173 libertinage 112-15

libertins 62, 70, 71, 75, 102

Liking, Werewere 218 literacy l , 68

19th-century 121, 128 20th-century 152 medieval 4 women 33

literary prizes 152-3, 169 Goncourt 161, 162, 166,

192, 212, 217, 221, 222 Loakira, Mohamed 221 Locke, John 108 Loti, Pierre 152 Louis VII 2 Louis XIII 69 Louis XIV 68-9, 86, 95, 99 LouisXV 109 Louis XVIII 121

Louis-Philippe 121 Lucian 51 Lully, Jean-Baptiste 82 Lyotard, Jean-Franc;ois 200

204 I

lyrics 9

Maalouf, Amin 222 Machard, Raymonde 164 Machaut, Guillaume de 37 Madagascar 199, 203 Maeterlinck, Maurice 155,

156, 206 Maghreb 205, 218-21 Maillart, Jehan 26 Maintenon, Franc;oise

d' Aubigne, marquise de 82

mal du siecle 17, 123 Malebranche, Nicholas de

72 Malherbe, Franc;ois de 70 Mallarme, Stephane 153,

154, 155 Malot, Hector 148 Malraux, Andre 166-7, 168,

176 manuscripts 2

dating 3 Maran, Rene 160, 211, 217 Marcabru 9 Marguerite de Navarre 48,

50, 190 Marguerite de Valois 61 Marie de France 10-2, 20,

190 Marinetti, Filippo

Tommaso 160 Marivaux, Pierre Cadet de

Chamblain de 96, 112 comedies 98 La Vie de Marianne 114 novels 97-8

Marot, Clement 50, 52-3 Marot, Jean 52 Marseillaise, la 122 Martin du Gard, Roger 158,

162, 165 Martinique 199, 202, 205,

210, 212 martyrs, see saints' lives Marxism 183, 204

Haiti 213 Sartre 232

Maryan 152 Massacre of St

Bartholomew 43, 62, 65, 139

Matiere de Bretagne 10, 12

Maupassant, Guy de 150, 151

Mauriac, Franc;ois 152, 153, 162, 168, 176

cult of youth 164 Mauritius 205 Maurois, Andre 162 maxims 88 May 1968 173, 233 Mazarin (Giulio Mazarini),

Cardinal 69 Medan Group 150 Memmi, Albert 204, 221 memoirs 61, 86

autobiographical 127 novel 97

Menagier de Paris 33 Mendes, Catulle 153 Mere, Antoine Gombeau,

Chevalier de 85, 90 Merimee, Prosper 138 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice

228 Merouvel 148 Michaux, Henri 164, 169,

185 Michelet, Jules 95, 136, 137 Middle East 221-2 Mignet, Franc;ois-Auguste

136 Millett, Kate 248 Milosz (Oscar Vladislas de

Lubiz-Milosz) 165 Miximin, Daniel 212 Mockel, Albert 155 Modiano, Patrick 195, 196,

197 Moliere Gean-Baptiste

Poquelin) 68, 82-5 monomaniacs 84, 92

Montchrestien 58 money

Augier 134 Balzac 131

Montaigne, Michel Eyquem, sieurde 60

Essais 58, 60-1, 71 scepticism 62

Montenay, Georgette de 63 Montepin, Xavier comte de

148 Montesquieu, Charles-Louis

de Secondat, baron de la Brede et de 104

Lettres persanes 99 Montherland, Henri de 162,

164, 169 Montluc, Blaise de 61 Morand, Paul 162, 164

Moreas, Jean (Ioannis Papadiamantopoulos) 154

Morocco 220-1 Mouchkine, Ariane 184 Musette (Auguste Robinet)

218 Musset, Alfred de 124

Confessions d'un en/ant du siecle 123

historical plays 138 plays 126

Nadar (Felix Toumachon) 141

Nantes, Edict of 43 Napoleon I 121, 127, 136 Napoleon III 122 Narcisus 8 nationalism, Algerian 219 Naturalism 148-53 N'Diaye, Catherine 204 negritude 211, 215, 216 Neoplatonism 53, 73 neologisms 64 Nerval, Gerard de 128, 143,

161 Voyage en Orient 135

newspapers 128, 148 Ngal, Mbouill Mpaang 204 Niepce, Nicephore 141 Nietzche, Friedrich

Wilhelm 246 Nimier, Roger 182 Nissaboury, Mostafa 220,

221 Nizan, Paul 166, 167, 168 Noailles, Anna de 155 Nodier, Charles 124, 143 Noel, Marie 165 Nokan, Charles Zegoua 216 novels

African 216 beginnings 26, 47, 59 Communism 166 development 67, 73, 95 epistolary 99, 112, 114 historical 114, 166 memoir form 97 nouveau roman 185, 187,

191, 193, 197 politics 130 psychological 127, 151 romans du terroir 208 romans-Jleuves 164-5 working-class 140

occitan 3, 4 love poetry 36 lyrics 9

Occupation 176, 178, 181 Ohnet, Georges 148 Old French 1 Old Provenc;al, see occitan Ollier, Claude 185 opera 81 oral transmission 1, 3, 49 Oulipo 186 Oyono, Ferdinand 214

Palissot de Montenoy, Charles 105

Panneton, Philippe 208 Parain, Nathalie 168 Pamassians 139, 153, 200

Caribbean 211 Partonopeus de Blois 10 Pascal, Blaise 62, 68, 88, 92,

164 Lettres provinciales 90 Pensees 90-1

pastoral tradition 28, 73, 115

patois, see dialects patronage 2

16th-century 45 16th-century poets 54 bourgeoisie 26

Pecheux, Michel 200 Peguy, Charles 157, 159 Peletier du Mans, Jacques

53 Perec, Georges 186 Pergaud, Louis 162 Perochon 160 Perrault, Charles 91- 2 Petain, Marechal Philippe

173 Petrarch 54, 55, 56, 57 phenomenology 228-33,

244 Philippe, Charles-Louis 157 Philippe de Mezieres 33 Philippe de Novarre 33 Philippe de Remi 21, 26 Philippe d'Orleans 95 Philippe-Auguste 2, 10 Philomena 21 philosophy

18th-century philosophes 99

after 1940 227-51 photography 141 Pierre de Saint-Cloud 34 Piramus et Tisbe 8 Pitoeff, Georges 161, 170

Pizan, Christine de 2, 31, 32-3, 34

first-person poetry 38 Placoly, Vincent 212 Planchon, Roger 184 Plato 48, 242 Pleiade 51-2, 53, 64, 70

ideal of poetry 54 plays 76

Plisnier, Charles 166 poetes maudits 125 poetry

16th-century 51-8 17th-century 69-71, 87 20th-century 160-1, 184 African 216 creole 212 devotional 165 First World War 159 first-person 36-40 forms 52, 125, 154 francophone 212 Morocco 221 Occitan love poetry 36 religious 63-4 role of poet 153 Romantic 124-5 rules 70 technique 37

Poirie de Saint-Aurele, Jean (Jean-Aurele Poirie) 211

Poissenot, Benigne 59 Pomier, Jean 219 Ponge, Francis 169, 184, 185 Ponson du Terrail, Pierre-

Alexis 128, 148 positivism 142 Poulaille 166 Pourrat, Henri 160 preciosite 73, 74, 86 Prevost d'Exiles, abbe

Antoine-Franc;ois 95, 101-2, 104

Price-Mars, Jean 213 printing 43, 128, 148

printing press 2 Protestantism 54, 63, 64

dramatists 58 Proust, Marcel 158, 161,

162, 163 Prudhomme, Sully 153 Psichari, Ernest 158, 159 psychoanalysis 233, 239-40,

248 publishing 162, 169

Africa 217 Quebec 209, 217

reviews 154 see also printing

Quatre Fils Aimon 6 Quebec 199, 202, 203, 205,

207-10 publishing 209 socialism 209 women's writing 210

Queneau, Raymond 168, 169, 186

Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes 91

Quinault, Philippe 79, 82 Quinet, Edgar 136 Quinze Joies de mariage 32

Rabelais, Franc;ois 43, 45, 45-7,49, 51

Gargantua 44-5 metaphors 44 religion 51

Racan, Honorat de Bueil, marquis de 70

Racine, Jean 57, 67, 68, 80-2, 85, 91, 164

racism 211, 213 Radiguet, Raymond 160,

162 Rambouillet, Catherine de

Vivonne, marquise de 68

Ramuz 160, 206 Randau, Robert 219 Raoul de Cambrai 6 Realism 128-35, 149

bourgeois 35 reality and fiction 50 sentimental 112 social 112 socialist 166

Reformation 42, 50, 207 Refus global 209 Regency 95-104 regional literature 160, 167,

169, 199, 214 Morocco 220

Regnier, Henri-Franc;ois Joseph de 154

Regnier, Mathurin 70 remaniement 5 Renaissance 42-65

12th-century 2, 7-16 Carolingian 1

Renart, Jean 19-20 Renaut de Beaujeu 10 republicanism 122 Republic

Second 122

Third 122, 147 Fourth 173 Fifth 173

Resistance 177, 178 Restif de la Bretonne,

Nicholas 112 Retz, Paul de Condi, cardinal

de 86, 88 Reunion 202, 205, 214 Reverdy, Pierre 161 reviews 158, 169, 176

Algeria 219 Haiti 213 Morocco 220 Parti Pris 209 Tel Quel 186, 191 Tropiques 211

revolutions of 1789 127, 140, 147 of 1848 132 July Revolution 121, 137 revolutionary writings

110-11, 217 rhetoric 37, 52, 53, 58 Ricardou, Jean 185, 186 Riccoboni, Marie-Jeanne

113, 114 Richelieu, Louis-Franc;ois

Armand de Vignerot du Plessis, due de 69

Rimbaud, Arthur 145, 153, 154, 156, 161

Ringuet (Philippe Panneton) 208

Rivaudeau, Andre de 58 Robbe-Grillet, Alain 168,

185, 187, 188 radicalism 189

Robert de Blois 22, 33 Robert de Boron 16, 17-18 Robert de Clari 25 Robles, Emmanuel 219 Rodenbach, Georges 155 Rolland, Romain 159, 164,

166 Roman d'Alexandre 8 Roman de la Rose 30-2 Roman de Renart 35 Roman de Thebes 8 Roman d'Eneas 8 romances 5, 7-22, 35

chivalric 25 heroic 73

Romanticism 96, 123-8, 149, 200

Haiti 212 pre-Romanticism 115-19 theatre 133, 138

Ronsard, Pierre de 43, 70 La Franciade 53, 64 Neoplatonism 53 patronage 54 Pleiade 51-2, 53 sonnets 55-6

Rosny, J.H. 152 Rostand, Edmond 75, 156 Rotrou, Jean de 78 Rousseau, Jean-Baptiste 95 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 95,

96, 112, 206 Confessions 107 Emile 106 Enlightenment 105 La Nouvelle Heloise 106-7 language 245,246 Reveries du promeneur

solitaire 107-8 Roussel, Raymond 151, 156 Roy, Jules 219 Rudel, Jaufre 9 Rutebeuf 29

dits 37 Renart series 35

Sade, Donatien-AlphonseFran~ois, marquis de 112, 113, 209

sadism 110 Said, Amina 221 Saint-Amant, Marc Antoine

Girard, sieur de 71 Saint-Denys Garneau, Hector

de 208 Saint-Evremond, Charles de

Saint-Denis, sieur de 91

Saint-Exupery, Antoine de 165-6

Saint-John Perse (Alexis Saint-Leger Leger) 165, 185

Saint-Lambert, Jean-Fran~ois, marquis de 95

Saint-Real, abbe Cesar de 89

Saint-Simon, Louis de Rouvroy, due de 69, 86

Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin 124, 148

saints' lives 1, 4-5, 27 Salacrou, Armand 170 Sales, Saint Fran~ois de 71 Sall, lbrahima 216 Salmon, Andre 155 salons 68, 70, 73, 86, 153

debates 85

Sand, George (Aurore Dupin) 123, 127, 190

correspondence with Flaubert 132

Histoire de ma vie 128 social realism 131-2

Sardou, Victorien 156 Sarraute, Nathalie 185, 186,

187-8, 191 Sartre, Jean-Paul 152, 170,

178-80, 238, 240, 243-4, 247, 250

Critique de la raison dialectique 232, 236

existentialism 228, 229-33

La Nausee 176 Le Sursis 177 Les Chemins de la liberte

177 Les Mots 182 Orphee noir 215 'Qu'est-ce que la

litterature?' 184 structuralism 234

Sassine, William 218 Satire Menippee 63 Saussure, Ferdinand de 233 Savard, Felix-Antoine 208 Scarron, Paul 75 scatology 6

Rabelais 46 scepticism 72, 93

Montaigne 62 Sceve, Maurice 49, 54-5 Schehade, Georges 222 Schelandre, Jean de 77 Schiller, Johann Christoph

Friedrich von 123 Schlumberger, Jean 158 Schopenhauer 154 Schwartz-Bart, Simone 212 science 141-5 Scott, Sir Walter 137 Scribe, Eugene 134 Scudery, Madeleine de 74 Searle, John 243 Sebillet, Thomas 53 Second World War 227, 228 Sedaine, Michel-Jean 111 Sefriouri, Ahmed 220 Segalen, Victor 165 Sembene, Ousmane 214,

216 Semprun, Jorge 195 Senancour, Obermann 116 Senghor, Leopold Sedar

215, 216 sensibilite 92, 96, 107, 111

Sept Sages de Rome 10 Serhane, Abdelhak 221 sermons 29, 91 Sevigne, Marie de Rabutin

Chantal, madame de (marquise) 74, 86

Seychelles 205 Shakespeare, William 123,

125, 126 short stories 47-50

17th century 89 18th century 95 Renaissance 59

Siege de Barbastre 7 Simenon, Georges 169 Simon, Claude 185 slavery 121 Soce, Ousman 214 socialism 247

Quebec 209 Sollers, Philippe 186, 191 sonnets 52 Sorel, Charles 7 4 soties 57, 152 Soulie, Frederic 128 Soupault, Philippe 161 Souvestre, Pierre 152 Sow Fall, Aminata 216, 218 spelling 2 Spinoza, Baruch 92 Sponde, Jean de 64 Stael, Anne-Louise-Germaine

Necker, baronne de 115, 118-19, 123, 190, 206

States-General 63 Stendhal (Henry Beyle) 103,

128, 130 La Chartreuse de Parme

130 Le Rouge et le Nair 129,

130 Racine et Shakespeare 123

stoicism 62, 125 structuralism 188, 204, 227,

233-41, 248, 250 post-structuralism 241

subconscious 143 Sue,Eugene 128,148 suffrage 121

women's 173, 190 Supervielle, Jules 165 Surrealism 144, 151, 152,

161, 169, 200, 204, 222, 223

Haiti 213 Swedenborg 142 Switzerland 199, 203, 206 Symbolism 153-7, 200

Haiti 213

[10 CASSELL GUIDE TO LITERATURE IN FRENCH

Tabourot des Accords, Etienne 59

Taillemont, Claude de 49, 55

Taine, Hyppolite 142, 149 Tallemant des Reaux,

Gedeon 74 Tardieu, Ambroise 169 Tencin, Claudine

Alexandrine Guerin, marquise de 113-14

Terror 111 Tharaud, Jerome et Jean

152 theatre

17th-century 76-85 19th-century 155-7 20th century 161 of the Absurd 183 bourgeois 134 medieval 26-9 Quebec 209 Renaissance 57 Romanticism 133, 138

Thiard, Pontus de 53, 55 Thierry, Jacques 136 Thiers, Adolph 136 Thomas 12 Tlili, Mustapha 221 Todorov, Tzvetan 203-4,

223 Tolstoy, Leo 151 Tournier, Michel 191, 192-4 Toussaint, Jean-Philippe

196, 197 tragedy

17th century 77-81 18th century 101 beginnings 52, 57-8

translations Boccaccio 48 Castiglione 48 classical texts 8 Latin sources 32

travel writing 135, 164 Treaty of Rome 173 Triolet, Elsa 168 Tristan 18-19 Tristan de Nanteuil 22 Tristan l'Hermite 75 troubadours 9, 36 trouveres 207 Tunisia 221 Tyard, Pontus de 53, 55 Tzara, Tristan 161

unconscious 2.39, 240, 248 unities 76, 126 Urfe, Honore d' 59, 73

Valery, Paul 151, 159, 161, 162

Valles, Jules 157 vaudevilles 156 Vaugelas, Claude Faure,

baron de Perouges, seigneur de 71

Vercors Gean Bruiler) 177 Verhaeren, Emile 155 Verlaine, Paul 125, 153, 154 vernacular 1, 4, 72

use in 16th century 45 Verne, Jules 148 Versailles court 69, 83 Vian, Boris 182 Viau, Theophile de 70 Vichy regime 173 Vie de Saint Alexis 4, 7 Vie de Saint Leger 4 Viele-Griffin, Francis 154 Vigneulles, Philippe 49 Vigny, Alfred de 124, 125

Chatterton 125, 126 Cinq-Mars 137, 139

Vildrac, Charles (Charles Messager) 155

Villedieu, Catherine Des Jardins, madame de 89

Villehardouin, Geoffroi de 25

Villers-Cotterets, Edict of 43

Villiers de l'Isle-Adam JeanMarie-Mathias-Philippe · Auguste, comte de 151, 155

Villon, Fran<;ois 24, 36, 39-40

Vivien, Rene 155 Voeux du Paon 25 Volney, Constantin de 135 Voltaire (Fran<;ois-Marie

Arouet) 93, 95, 96, 100-1

Contes 104-5 Lettres philosophiques 99 life-style 105

Voyage de Saint Brendan 5

Wace Roman de Brut 13, 25 Roman de rou 25

Wagner, Richard 154, 155, 156

Warner-Vieyra, Myriam 212 Wars of Religion 43, 58, 62 Watelet, Claude-Henri 95 Werth, Leon 159 West Indies, see Caribbean

Islands Wiesel, Elie 195 Wittig, Monique 190 women in literature

18th century 112-15 Alexandre Dumas 133 battle of the sexes 32 chansons de geste 7 Chretien de Troyes 14 gender issues 21-2 liberation 162 literacy 33 love 55 medieval bourgeoisie 33 Rabelais 49 Roman de la Rose 31 status 48 violence 21

women's writings 3 17th-century 70, 74,

86, 89-90 18th-century 113-15 19th-century 118-19 20th-century 152-3, 164,

168 Africa 218 after May 1968 189-90 Renaissance 47-9, 55, 56 Quebec 210

working-class novels 132, 140, 149, 166

Yacine, Kateb 219 Y de et Olive 22 Yourcenar, Marguerite 164,

182 youth 160 Yver, Jacques 59

Zola, Emile 140, 149-51, 157 scientific developments

141

Introduction and chronological tables from Cassell Guide to Literature in French (1996)

Documents