1 Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling 1 Prof. Krishna Saraswat Department of Electrical Engineering Stanford University Stanford, CA 94305 [email protected]Interconnect Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling 2 Outline •Interconnect scaling issues •Gate electrode •Aluminum technology •Copper technology
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1
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling1
Prof. Krishna Saraswat
Department of Electrical EngineeringStanford UniversityStanford, CA 94305
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling2
Outline
•Interconnect scaling issues
•Gate electrode
•Aluminum technology
•Copper technology
2
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling3
Why should we look at interconnects?
Basics and Background Interconnect Parameters: resistance, capacitance,inductance
Interconnect Metrics: Delay and Area Calculations
Scaling Related Issues: Delay
Problems
Solutions
Scaling Related Issues: Power
Current Interconnect Technology
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling4
Scaling of Minimum Feature sizeand Chip Area
Ref. A. Loke, PhD Thesis, Stanford Univ. 1999
101
102
103
104
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
logic
memor y
Year
memory
Chip
Are
a (m
m2 )
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
production
development
Year
0.01
0.1
1
10
Mim
imum
Geo
met
ry (µ
m)
3
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling5
Scaling of a chip and interconnections
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling6
Scaling of global interconnections
OldNew (scaled)
Scaled wires are:•Longer (chip area scaling)•Thinner (minimum dimension scaling)
4
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling7
60 80 100 120 140 160 18010-2
10-1
100
101
Technology Node (nm)
Del
ay T
ime
(ns) Longest Interconnect Delay
Typical Gate Delay
On-chip wires are getting slower
Increase in R, L and C
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling8
Why should we look at interconnects?
Basics and Background Interconnect Parameters: resistance, capacitance,inductance
Interconnect Metrics: Delay and Area Calculations
Scaling Related Issues: Delay
Scaling Related Issues: Power
Current Interconnect Technology
5
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling9
Types of Interconnects• Dimension based
• Local • Intermediate/semiglobal• Global
• Function based • Signaling• Clocking • Power/Gnd distribution
Global Local
Cross Sectional View:For Height, Width and Spacing
Top View: For Length
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling10
• Delay• Power dissipation• Bandwidth• Area• Joule heating• Data reliability (Noise)
• Cross talk
Depend on R and C and L !
Performance Metrics: Signaling Wires
• Reliability• Electromigration
6
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling11
Line Resistance and Capacitance
R = !L
WH
!
CIMD
= Kox"o
HL
LS
!
CILD
= Kox"o
WL
Xox
• What metrics does Resistance impact???? •With scaling of technology L increases, Xox, LS W and H decrease• As a result R, Cox and CI increase
AR=H/W
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling12
Space Width (!m) [=Line Width]
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Ca
pa
cita
nc
e (fF
/mm
)
0
100
200
300
400
500
Line To Ground
Line To Line
Total
CAPACITANCE
Capacitance in Multilayer Structures
H
W
CILD
CIMDAR=H/W
M1
M3
M2
)ARIMDAR
ILD(l2IMDC
ILDCtotintC !
!+=+=
In general
CILDCIMD
Cintot
Cap
acita
nce
7
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling13
Capacitance: Impact on Interconnect Metrics
Higher Packing Density⇓
Decreased Space BetweenInterconnects
⇓Higher RC-Delay, power and
crosstalk
Capacitance Reduction is Important for Performance Enhancement
2
IMD
ILDtotint
IMDtalk
totint
2
totint
totint
AR1
1
C
CX
CfVCP
RC
!"#
$%&
+
='
'=
'
((
)
*
RC-Delay
Power
Crosstalk
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling14
What Capacitance to use for Delay?
• Nominal Cinttot=CIMD+CILD
• Worst Case Cinttot=2CIMD+CILD
• Best Case Cinttot=CILD
o oS
Depends on switching condition on adjacent wires
S
S
Not only total capacitance plays a role in delay, IMD plays a very import. Role
CIMD ~ 70% of Cinttot
8
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling15
Interconnect Parameters at High Frequencies • In general complicated: No dedicated return paths
•Resistance: R(f)– Two components: signal and return path– Frequency effects
– Current distribution in signal (Skin effect)– Return path choice, thus resistance
• Inductance: L(f)– Self: Area enclosed between signal & return path (larger area => larger L): Can effect delay– Mutual: Effects crosstalk (long range)
•Capacitance: C(f)– Relatively constant
How is current distribution in signal and its return path determined ??
s
Return path Current dist.
in signal wire
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling16
Current Distribution and Return Path
jwCG
jwLRZ
+
+=
• Impedance (Z) is minimized • At high frequency minimizes L• Return path closer
• At lower frequency minimizes R• Return path could be far away if it lowers return resistance
• Values of T within a block or collection ofblocks are calculated using Rent’s rule,e.g.,
TA = k (NA) P
TABC = k (NA+ NB+ NC) P
• Recursive use of Rent’s rule gives wire-length distribution for the whole chip
TA-to-B = TA + TB -TAB
TB-to-C = TB+ TC -TBC
Determination of Wire-length Distribution
Ref: Davis & Meindl, IEEE TED, March 1998
14
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling27
Why should we look at interconnects?
Basics and Background
Scaling Related Issues: Delay Problems
Solutions
Scaling Related Issues: Power
Current Interconnect Technology
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling28
Future Problems (Delay)
• Local: Wires whose length shrinks• S1: AR maintained (3D shrink)• R up by α (worse) where α = scaling factor• C down by α (geometrical effect)• C down by low-k material• RC delay down as low-k• Delay going up compare to gate delay
• Semiglobal/Global: Length does not shrink• Much worse than local
All types of signal wires delaysare deteriorating wrt gate delaywith scaling even with newlow-k materials !
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling29
Scaling of Interconnect Cross Section Dimensions
GlobalSemi-globalLocal
Width
Height
2000 2004 2008 2012Year
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Dim
ensi
ons
(nm
)
0.18 0.12 0.07 0.05Technology Node (µm)
0.035
HeightWidth
Global
Semiglobal
Local
ITRS ‘99 dimensions: local, semi-global, global wires
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling30
Solutions to Mitigate the Interconnect Problems
Technological Solutions Material Solutions: Lower resistivity materials and lower-dielectric constant
(Existing Paradigm)
Future Solutions: 3-D integration and Optical Interconnects
Circuit Solutions Repeaters (Existing Paradigm)
Future Solutions: Low-swing signaling and near speed of light electricalinterconnects
Architectural/Combination Solutions
16
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling31
Impact of Interconnect Resistivity
• Will superconductors really improve the circuit speed?• Is Cooling conventional conductors to 77°K sufficient?
Al
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling32
Interconnect and gate delay vs chip area and minimumfeature sizes for various interconnect materials
WSi 2WSi 2
Delay calculated for the longest interconnect on a chip L =chip area
2
17
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling33
Limits of 4 Commonly Used Materials forInterconnections
Ref. Gardner, et.al., IEEE Trans Electron Dev., March 1987.
Copper
Maximum length limited by τG = τI
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling34
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Al & SiO2 (! = 4)
Cu & SiO2 (! = 4)
Al & low-! (! = 2)
Cu & lo w-! ( ! = 2)
0.092007
0.132004
0.182001
0.251998
0.351995
Tec hnology Generation
µmYear
Why Cu and Low-k Dielectrics?
Reduced resistivity and dielectric constant results in reduction in number ofmetal layers as more wires can by placed in lower levels of metal layers.
global
semiglobal
local
Source: Y.Nishi T.I.
18
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling35
Low Dielectric Constant (Low-k) MaterialsOxide DerivativesF-doped oxides (CVD) k = 3.3-3.9C-doped oxides (SOG, CVD) k = 2.8-3.5H-doped oxides (SOG) k = 2.5-3.3
OrganicsPolyimides (spin-on) k = 3.0-4.0Aromatic polymers (spin-on) k = 2.6-3.2Vapor-deposited parylene; parylene-F k ~ 2.7; k ~ 2.3F-doped amorphous carbon k = 2.3-2.8Teflon/PTFE (spin-on) k = 1.9-2.1
Highly Porous OxidesXerogels k = 1.8-2.5
Air k = 1
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling36
Repeaters As a SOLUTIONRepeater
R/n
C/n
! L =3.56 "Kox# o$
%2L2
! Ln
=3.56 "Kox# o$
%2L
n
& ' ( )
* + 2
! Ln
+ !G" # $ %
& ' n =
3.56 (Kox) o*
+2L2
n
"
# $
%
& ' + n!G
Propagation delay of a long interconnect line is
By breaking the long line into n smaller lines the delay of each line isreduced quadratically
The total wire delay is thus reduced significantly as τG reduces with scaling
τL/nτG
However, repeaters have Power and Area penalties
19
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling37
Repeaters: How Good Is It?
• Even with repeaters, 7.5X Clock at 35nm node 8X increasecompared to 180nm node
• By increasing the distance between the repeaters power canbe reduced at the expense of delay
0.18 0.15 0.12 0.1 0.07 0.05
Technology node (µm)
0.035
Wire
Del
ay (i
n nu
mbe
r of
clo
ck c
ycle
s)
Year
Non-re
peat
ed
optimal
25% Delay penalty
Delay
repeated
Technology Node (µm)
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling38
• ITRS wire dimensions: justified based on barely enough metal levels to fit the wires• Separation of memory and logic area because different wire length distributions• Rent’s rule based distribution for logic area
0.18 0.15 0.12 0.1 0.07 0.05Technology Node (µm)
Rep
eate
rs p
er L
onge
st G
loba
l Lin
e
Year
Number of Repeaters Required
A fraction of the chip area would be occupied by repeatersAdditional power will be consumed by repeaters
0.18 0.15 0.12 0.1 0.07 0.05Technology Node (µm)
p = 0.6
p = 0.55Rent’s exponent of0.55 is reasonable in microprocessors
Num
ber o
f Rep
eate
rs
Year
Technology Node (µm)
20
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling39
Repeater Area Penalty
Significant area occupied by repeaters in future Via blockage non-negligible for wire-limited chips
0.18 0.15 0.12 0.1 0.07 0.05Technology Node (µm)
p = 0.6
p = 0.55
Rent’s exponent
0.18 0.15 0.12 0.1 0.07 0.05Technology Node (µm)
p = 0.6
p = 0.55
Rent’s exponent
Via blockage by repeaters on global wires Fractional chip area occupied by repeaters
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling40
Why should we look at interconnects?
Basics and Background
Scaling Related Issues: Delay
Scaling Related Issues: Power
Power Dissipation
Power Removal (thermal Problem)
Power Distribution
Current Interconnect Technology
21
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling41
Chip Power: Breakdown • Dynamic Power: CV2f• Leakage power: devices• Short circuit power during switching• Analog components (sense amps etc.):static power
Dynamic Power
Signalingclocking I/O
DevicesClockingInterconnects
Logic
SignalingInterconnects
memory
Latches Buffers Off-chipload
• Interconnect power• Due to Cint: dissipated in devices• Due to Rint: Joule heating (makes things worse)
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling42
Power breakdown at the 180nm node
Logic (15%)
Signaling Interconnects (46%)
Memory (4%)
Clock (36%)
4%4%
23%Semi-global lines
13%
2%
2%
15%
29%
9%
Local lines
Logic(Dynamicpower)
Latches
Distribution(Interconnects)
Repeaters
Memory (dynamic power)
Memory (leakage power)
Global lines
22
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling43
Power breakdown at the 50nm node
Logic (27%)
Signaling Interconnects (27%)
Memory (17%)
Clock (28%)
5%5%
Local lines
Logic(Dynamicpower)
Latches
Distribution (Interconnects)
Memory (dynamic power)Memory
(leakage power)
Global lines
Repeaters
Semi-global lines
23%
< 1%
17%
25%
2%
5%
12%
5%
Logic (leakage power)
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling44
µprocessor Power Projections
23
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling45
Total power dissipation on chip
• Power dissipation rising to exorbitant proportions !!!
• Need to come up with novel schemes to reduce power in each department
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling46
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling47
>100A will flow on these wires
The problems Caused by Increased Power
As T ⇑ R ⇑, RC delay ⇑10°C ⇑ , Speed ⇓ 5%
PERFORMANCE
RELIABILITY
10°C ⇑ , MTF ⇓ 50%
!
MTF =A
rmJnexp
Ea
kT
"
# $
%
& '
Mean time to failure
Electromigration induced hillocks and voids
Hillock VoidMetal
MetalDielectric
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling48
Impact of Vias on the ThermalCharacteristics of low-k Interconnects
• Vias have much higher thermal conductivity than the dielectricmaterials (ILD)
• Can be efficient thermal dissipation paths
S W2
Via
Mn
Mn-1
V
ia
Separa
tion
W1S W2
Via
Mn
Mn-1
V
ia
Separa
tion
W1S W2
Via
Mn
Mn-1
V
ia
Separa
tion
W1S W2
Via
Mn
Mn-1
V
ia
Separa
tion
W1
V
ia
Separa
tion
25
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling49
Commonly used case 1model overestimatesinterconnect temperature
Case 3 represents themost realistic worst casecondition0
50
100
150
200
0 1 2 3 4
case1
case2
case3
Tem
p. R
ise Δ
T [°
C]
Current Density, J [MA/cm2]
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Simulation of WireTemperature: Role of Vias
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling50
3D Thermal Analysis of InterconnectsTHERMAL-ELECTRICAL ANALOGY
Thermal ElectricalTemperature T [K] Voltage V [V]Heat q’ [J] Charge Q [C]Heat flux q [W] Current I [A]Thermal resistance RT [K/W] Electrical resistance R [V/A]Thermal capacitance CT [J/K] Electrical capacitance C [C/V]Heat diffusion RC transmission line
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling52
Embedded Low-k Dielectric ApproachWhy embed Low-k dielectriconly between metal lines?
•Capacitance is dominatedby CIMD
•Use a low-k dielectric as IMD
•Heat flows vertically
• Use a high thermalconductivity material ⇒ SiO2
VIA
VIA
METMET LOWk
METMET LOWk
SiO2(k~4.2)
SiO2(k~4.2)
SiO2(k~4.2)
Source: Y. Nishi
27
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling53
Impact of Joule Heating on RC Delay
• RC delay is strong function of current density because of JouleHeating
• Greater RC degradation for lower-k materials
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5
FSGHSQair-gappolyimideaerogelair
Current Density, J [M A/cm2]
RC
[pse
c/m
m]
65nmNode
Chiang, Shieh and Saraswat, VLSI Symp, June 2002
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling54
a)both j and kILD scaleaccording to ITRS.
b) j scales with ITRS, but kILDstops scaling at 65nmnode.
c)j stops scaling at 65nmnode, while kILD continuesscaling.
d)both j and kILD stopsscaling at 65 nm node.Technology Node [nm]
Tem
pera
ture
Ris
e Δ
T [°
C]
130 90 65 45 220
5
10
15
20
25
30scenario (a)
scenario (b)
scenario (c)
scenario (d)
Temperature in Multilevel Metal Layers
• With the help of vias as efficient thermal paths, the wiretemperature can be significantly lower than that predicted fromoverly simplified 1-D thermal model.
• Therefore, the thermal problem associated with low-k insulatorsis not as bad as it appears.
• Beyond 45nm node closer packing of vias will alleviate thetemperature rise problem.
28
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling55
Global Signaling Wire: Repeater PowerMinimization With Delay Tradeoff
• Tolerable delay penalty depends on architecture
• Still 20W of power dissipation due to repeaters at 50nm node
• With about 20% more delay power dissipation by global wires with repeaters on them is now ~ 60+20=80W at 50nm node
0.18 0.15 0.12 0.1 0.07 0.05Technology Node (µm)
Rep
eate
r Pow
er D
issi
patio
n (W
atts
)
Technology Node (µm)
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling56
Current Interconnect Technologies
Copper 6
Copper 1
TungstenLocal Interconnect
Copper 3
Copper 5
Copper 4
Copper 2
Current Al technology(Courtesy of Motorola)
Current Cu technology(Courtesy of IBM)
29
Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling57
DC Resistance Modeling with Scaling:Technology Impact (I)
Diffusion barrier • Consumes progressively larger fractional area
• Barrier thickness (BT) doesn’t scale • Higher AR => larger barrier area
•Ability to contact shallow junctions•Ease of deposition of thin films of the material•Ability to withstand the chemicals and high temperatures required inthe fabrication process
•Ability to be thermally oxidized•Ability to be defined into fine patterns - dry etching
Reliability•Resistance to electromigration•Good adhesion to other layers - low physical stress•Stability of electrical contacts to Si and other layers•Good MOS properties
Requirements of the interconnection materials
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Stanford University Saraswat / EE311 / Interconnect Scaling61