Instrumental and Sensory Quality of Fallow Deer (Dama dama) and Red Deer (Cervus Elaphus) Venison. by Christine Louise Hutchison A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Western Sydney School of Science and Health 2012
313
Embed
Instrumental and Sensory Quality of Fallow Deer (Dama dama ...
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
Instrumental and Sensory Quality of
Fallow Deer (Dama dama) and Red
Deer (Cervus Elaphus) Venison.
by
Christine Louise Hutchison
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
University of Western Sydney School of Science and Health
2012
STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICATION
The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and
belief, original, except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that
I have not submitted this material, either whole or in part, for a degree at
this or any other institution.
Christine Louise Hutchison, B.Ed., M.App.Sci. 3rd June, 2012
Acknowledgments
I would firstly like to thank my principal supervisor, Professor Robert Mulley. Rob
has provided an endless supply of support, patience, encouragement and wisdom
over the duration of my PhD candidature. Without Rob I would not have managed to
juggle the responsibilities of full time work, part time study and a young family quite
as I have. Also, thanks to my supervisory panel: Dr Jim Bergan, Emeritus Professor
Paul Baumgartner and Dr Rosalie Durham for their advice and expertise.
Thank you to Katrina Marshall and Professor David Laing for their assistance with
the sensory work. Thanks also go to Oleg Nicetic for his support with statistical
aspects of the project and to Dr Eva Wiklund and Dr Jason Flesch for assistance
during the experimental phase. I need to especially thank my family for their love,
support and hours of childcare provided during the project. I could not have done it
without you. I also wish to acknowledge my four children, Sarah, Laura, Mitchell
and Alexander, all born during the period of candidature, for their love and laughter
and making life interesting.
I also wish to acknowledge the support of the Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation and the Deer Industry Association of Australia for funding
experimental work which formed the basis of the project. The animals used in this
study were sourced from Ward Holdings (fallow deer), Barry and Fay Dalton, Ian
and Heather Dowsett (red deer) and the University of Western Sydney. Industry
partners who assisted with processing include Myrtleford abattoir and Wodonga
abattoir. Mr Tim Hansen of Mandagery Creek Australian Farmed Venison assisted
with organisation of red deer slaughter and recovery of selected meat cuts.
Author‟s eldest child with a fallow deer fawn at the UWS Deer Research Unit
i
Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS i LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF FIGURES ix LIST OF PLATES xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiv LIST OF TERMINOLOGY xviii LIST OF SPECIFIC NAMES xx PUBLICATIONS ARISING FROM THIS STUDY xx ii PRESENTATIONS ARISING FROM THIS STUDY xxiv ABSTRACT xxvi CHAPTER 1 General introduction 1
1.1: Background 2
1.2: Study aim 4
1.3: Experimental approach 4
1.4: Structure of the thesis 5
CHAPTER 2 Literature review 7
2.1: Venison production 8
2.1.1: History of deer as a meat species 8
2.1.2: Deer in Australia 8
2.1.3: Deer farming and venison production 9
2.1.4: Venison in the human diet 14
2.1.5: Current markets 18
2.1.6: Venison specifications 26
2.2: Measures of meat quality 28
2.2.1: Meat from muscle 28
2.2.2: Factors affecting meat quality 32
2.2.3: Consumer perception 49
ii
2.2.4: Beef and sheep meat quality improvement schemes 51
2.2.5: Estimations of body condition 57
2.3: Industry issues 62
2.3.1: Background 62
2.3.2: Current venison issues 67
2.3.3: Strategic industry alliances 73
CHAPTER 3 General materials and methods 76
3.1: Research environment and practices 77
3.1.1: University of Western Sydney deer research facilities 77
3.1.2: UWS fallow deer handling facilities 78
3.1.3: UWS abattoir facilities 80
3.1.4: Commercial abattoir description 81
3.1.5: UWS food processing facilities 82
3.1.6: UWS sensory evaluation and analysis facilities 82
3.1.7: Livestock and management 83
3.2: Meat quality analysis and procedures 85
3.2.1: pH 85
3.2.2: Intramuscular fat 85
3.2.3: Shear force/instrumental tenderness 86
3.2.4: Colour 87
3.2.5: Moisture 88
3.2.6: Freeze/thaw drip loss/purge 88
3.2.7: Carcass core body temperature 88
3.3: Measurements of body condition score 89
3.3.1: Kidney fat index 89
3.3.2: Carcass and fat depth measurements 91
3.4 : Sensory evaluation and analysis 94
3.4.1: Experimental design 94
3.4.2: Cooking and preparation technique 95
3.5: Statistical analysis 96
iii
CHAPTER 4 Relationship between body condition score and meat
quality parameters of venison 97
4.1: Introduction 98
4.2: Materials and methods 117
4.2.1: Fallow bucks of BCS 2 to 3 117
4.2.2: Fallow does of BCS 2, 3 and 4 117
4.2.3: Fallow bucks and haviers (castrated bucks) 118
4.2.4: Red deer stags with BCS of 2, 3 and 4 118
4.3: Results 120
4.3.1: Fallow bucks of BCS 2 to 3 120
4.3.2: Fallow does of BCS 2, 3 and 4. 121
4.3.3: Fallow bucks and haviers 123
4.3.4: Red deer stags with BCS of 2, 3 and 4 125
4.4: Discussion 127
4.4.1: BCS and live weight 127
4.4.2: Intramuscular fat 128
4.4.3: Shear force 129
4.4.4: Freeze-thaw/purge 132
4.4.5: Colour 133
4.5: Conclusions 135
CHAPTER 5 Effect of concentrate feeding on meat quality
parameters of venison from fallow deer does 137
5.1: Introduction 138
5.2: Materials and methods 140
5.3: Results 142
5.4: Discussion 151
5.4.1: BCS 151
5.4.2: pHu 151
5.4.3: Freeze-thaw purge 152
5.4.4: Intramuscular fat and tenderness 152
5.4.5: Colour 153
5.5: Conclusions 156
iv
CHAPTER 6 Relationship between post-slaughter management
and meat quality parameters of venison 158
6.1: Relationship of carcass hanging time to meat quality 159
6.1.1: Introduction 159
6.1.2: Materials and methods 164
6.1.3: Results 164
6.1.4: Discussion 168
6.1.4.1: Tenderness and meat ageing 168
6.1.4.2: Intramuscular fat 169
6.1.4.3: Colour 170
6.2: Pelvic suspension vs. Achilles tendon hanging of carcasses 171
6.2.1: Introduction 171
6.2.2 Materials and methods 175
6.2.2.1 Fallow Deer 175
6.2.2.2 Red Deer 176
6.2.3 Results 177
6.2.3.1 Fallow Deer Venison 177
6.2.3.2 Red Deer Venison 180
6.2.4: Discussion 181
6.2.4.1: Shear force 181
6.2.4.2: Freeze-thaw purge 183
6.3: Differences between slaughter premises for muscle pH 184
6.3.1: Introduction 184
6.3.2: Materials and methods 186
6.3.3: Results 186
6.3.4: Discussion 187
6.4: Conclusions 188
CHAPTER 7 Effect of pre- and post-slaughter management
on the sensory parameters of venison quality 190
7.1: Introduction 191
7.2: Materials and methods 198
7.2.1: Sensory evaluation facility 198
7.2.2: Panellists 198
7.2.3: Sample preparation 198
v
7.2.4: Sample testing 199
7.2.5: Data analysis 200
7.3: Results and discussion 201
7.3.1 Fallow deer (pasture-fed) 201
7.3.1.1 Experimental design 201
7.3.1.2 Results 201
7.3.1.3 Discussion 206
7.3.2: Fallow deer - Impact of Supplementary Feeding 208
7.3.2.1 Introduction 208
7.3.2.2 Experimental design 209
7.3.2.3 Results 210
7.3.2.4 Discussion 213
7.3.3 Red Deer (pasture-fed) 215
7.3.3.1 Introduction 215
7.3.3.2 Experimental design 216
7.3.3.3 Results 217
7.3.3.4 Discussion 221
7.4: Conclusions 223
CHAPTER 8 Conclusions and Recommendations for Industry 226
8.1 : Overall Conclusions 227
8.2 : Recommendations to Industry 229
REFERENCES 232
APPENDICES 275
Appendix 1: Australian Body Condition chart for fallow Deer 276
Appendix 2: Australian Body Condition Chart for Red Deer 277
Appendix 3: Body Condition Score chart for red deer 278
Appendix 4: Sensory Evaluation of Venison 280
vi
List of Tables Table 4.1: Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow
bucks of BCS 2 (n=16) and 3 (n=15). 121 Table 4.2: Meat quality attributes of M. longissimus dorsi from fallow
does of BCS 2 (n=7), BCS 3 (n=7) and BCS 4 (n=10). 123 Table 4.3: Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow
bucks and haviers of BCS 2 and 3. 124 Table 4.4: Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from red stags
of BCS 2 (n=14), 3 (n=6) and 4 (n=6). 127 Table 5.1: BCS, weights and dressing percentages from fallow does
measured at either 135 or 170 days after commencement of feeding with concentrates (n=6 per group), compared with pasture-fed controls. 144
Table 5.2: pH over storage times from fallow doe venison measured at either 135 or 170 days after commencement of feeding with concentrates (n=6 per group), compared with pasture-fed controls. 147
Table 5.3: Percentage drip loss (purge) over storage times for fallow doe venison measured at either 135 or 170 days after commencement of feeding with concentrates (n=6 per group), compared with pasture-fed controls. 148
Table 5.4: Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow deer does with BCS 2, 3 and 4 fed on pasture or concentrates. 149
Table 5.5: Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow does measured at either 135 or 170 days after commencement of feeding with concentrates (n=6 per group), compared with pasture-fed controls. 150
Table 6.1: Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from
fallow bucks and haviers with BCS between 2 and 3. 165
Table 6.2: Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow bucks and haviers with BCS between 2 and 3 measured at 5 days and 10 days post-mortem. 166
Table 6.3: Mean pH, moisture, shear force and intramuscular fat measurements for fore, mid- and hind loin samples for fallow bucks and haviers measured at 5 and 10 days post-mortem. 167
vii
Table 6.4: Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow bucks hung by the Achilles tendon and pelvic suspension methods (n=15). 179
Table 6.5: Meat quality attributes of M longissimus dorsi from fallow doe carcasses hung by either the Achilles tendon or by pelvic suspension (n=10). 180
Table 6.6: Meat quality attributes of M. longissimus dorsi from red stags hung by the Achilles tendon or pelvic suspension after slaughter (n=14). 181
Table 6.7: Ultimate pH of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow bucks slaughtered at three different slaughter plants. 186
Table 7.1: Mean (+/- SEM) sensory evaluation scores for venison
from fallow bucks (n=10) and does (n = 10). All panellists (n=42). 202
Table 7.2: Mean (+/- SEM) sensory evaluation scores for venison from fallow bucks (n=10) and does (n = 10), effect of panellist age (group 1 n=14, group 2 n=13, group 3 n=15) on determination of flavour strength. 202
Table 7.3: Mean (+/- SEM) sensory evaluation scores for venison from fallow bucks (n=10) and does (n = 10), effect of game eating experience (game eaters n=27, non game eaters n=15) on determination of flavour strength. 203
Table 7.4: Mean (+/- SEM) sensory evaluation scores for venison from fallow bucks and does with BCS of either 2 (n = 8) or 3 (n = 12). All panellists (n=42). 203
Table 7.5: Mean (+/- SEM) sensory evaluation scores for venison from fallow bucks and does hung by either the Achilles tendon or by pelvic suspension (n=20 of each), All panellists (n=42). 205
Table 7.6: Mean (+/- SEM) sensory evaluation scores for venison from fallow does fed on either pasture or grain prior to slaughter (n=12 per group). All panellists (n=42). 211
Table 7.7: Mean (+/- SEM) sensory evaluation scores for venison from fallow deer does with BCS ranging from 2 to 4. All panellists (n=42). 211
Table 7.8: Mean (+/- SEM) sensory evaluation scores for venison from fallow deer does (n=24) fed for either 135 or 170 days on grain, effect of panellist gender on determination of flavour strength. 212
Table 7.9: Mean (+/- SEM) sensory evaluation scores for venison from red stags hung by either the Achilles tendon or by pelvic suspension. 217
viii
Table 7.10: Mean (+/- SEM) sensory evaluation scores for venison from red stags with BCS of 2, 3 or 4 (n=12, 6 and 8 respectively). All panellists (n=42). 219
Table 7.11: Mean (+/- SEM) sensory evaluation scores for venison
from red stags with BCS of 2, 3 or 4 (n=12, 6 and 8 respectively), effect of panellist gender on determination of colour. 220
ix
List of Figures Figure 2.1: Australian deer processed and venison produced
(deer numbers estimated for 2009/2010) 25 Figure 2.2: Diagram of muscle and fibre structure (Ranken 2000). 29 Figure 2.3: Meat ageing. At x12500 magnification (A) Intact 1h post-mortem,
(B) 24h post-mortem some Z disk degradation, (C) 48h post-mortem Z disk degradation and myofibril breakage is extensive, at x650 magnification (D) 8 days post-mortem complete lateral breaks of myofibrils (Aberle et al 2001). 42
Figure 4.1: Live weights of the fallow bucks of BCS 2 and BCS 3 used
in this study. 120
Figure 4.2: Live weights of the fallow does of BCS 2, 3 and 4 used in this study. 122
Figure 4.3: Live weights of the fallow bucks and haviers of BCS 2 and BCS 3 used in this study. 124
Figure 4.4: Hot carcass weights of the red stags used in this study. 125 Figure 4.5: Fat depth (GR) of the red stags used in this study. 126 Figure 5.1: Comparison of weights and dressing percentages for fallow
does fed pasture or concentrates for 135 days prior to slaughter. 142 Figure 5.2: Comparison of weights and dressing percentages for fallow
does fed pasture or concentrates for 170 days prior to slaughter. 143 Figure 5.3: Temperature decline for carcasses from the fallow does
fed pasture or concentrates for 135 days prior to slaughter. 145 Figure 5.4: Temperature decline for carcasses from the fallow does
fed pasture or concentrates for 170 days prior to slaughter. 145 Figure 5.5: pH decline of M.Longissimus dorsi after 135 days of feeding. 146 Figure 5.6: pH decline of M.Longissimus dorsi after 170 days of feeding. 146 Figure 5.7: Drip loss following storage of venison from fallow does after
135 days of feeding. 147 Figure 5.8: Drip loss following storage of venison from fallow does
after 170 days of feeding. 148
x
Figure 6.1: The pH /temperature window as it relates to meat tenderness. The solid line indicates optimal decline, the dashed line cold shortening and the dotted line heat shortening (Thompson 2002). 161
Figure 6.2: Diagram of pelvic suspended (left) and Achilles hung
carcass (Sorheim & Hildrum 2002). 170 Figure 6.3: Shear force mean values in 7 muscles (LD = M. longissimus,
BF = M. biceps femoris, ST = M. semitendinosus, SM = M. semimembranosus, AF = M. adductor femoris, VL = M. vastus lateralis and RF = M. rectus femoris) from fallow bucks (18 months old, n=8). 178
Figure 6.4: Shear force mean values in 9 muscles (SS = M. supraspinatus,
PS = M. psoas major, LD = M. longissimus, BF = M. biceps femoris, ST = M. semitendinosus, SM = M. semimembranosus, AF = M. adductor femoris, VL = M. vastus lateralis and RF = M. rectus femoris) from fallow bucks (36 months old, n=7). 178
Figure 6.5: Shear force mean values in 9 muscles (SS = M. supraspinatus,
PM = M. psoas major, LD = M. longissimus, BF = M. biceps femoris, ST = M. semitendinosus, SM = M. semimembranosus, AF = M. adductor femoris, VL = M. vastus lateralis and RF = M. rectus femoris) from fallow does (≥24 months old, n=10). 179
Figure 7.1: Mean (+/- sem) sensory panel scores of meat colour for
venison from fallow bucks and does with BCS of 2 and 3. 204
Figure 7.2: Mean (+/- sem) sensory panel scores of overall liking of
venison from fallow bucks and does with BCS of 2 and 3 hung
by the Achilles tendon or by pelvic suspension. 205
Figure 7.3: Mean (+/- sem) sensory panel scores for flavour strength
of venison from fallow does with body condition scores of 3
and 4 fed either pasture or grain prior to slaughter. 212
Figure 7.4: Mean (+/- sem) sensory panel scores for tenderness, juiciness
and overall liking for venison from red stags with BCS between 2
and 3 hung post-mortem by the Achilles tendon or by
pelvic suspension. 218
Figure 7.5: Mean (+/- sem) sensory panel scores for tenderness of venison
from red stags with BCS 2, 3 or 4. Higher scores indicate more
tender meat. 219
xi
List of Plates Plate 2.1: Examples of AUS-MEAT venison language and descriptions for some bone-in cuts. 27 Plate 2.2: Examples of AUS-MEAT venison language and descriptions for some boneless cuts. 27 Plate 2.3: Split fallow deer carcass hung by the pelvic suspension technique. 39 Plate 2.4: Fallow deer carcass suspended by the Achilles tendon. 40 Plate 3.1: Aerial image of the Deer Research Unit at UWS Hawkesbury Campus 77 Plate 3.2: Diagram of the UWS Deer Research Unit located at the
Hawkesbury Campus of the University of Western Sydney (Flesch 2001). 78
Plate 3.3: Entrance to deer handling shed used in this study. 78 Plate 3.4: Deer handling shed at UWS. 79 Plate 3.5: Deer handling cradle used in this study. 79 Plate 3.6: Mezzanine view of deer in the handling shed at UWS. 80 Plate 3.7: Experimental abattoir at UWS. 81 Plate 3.8: Scales and meat rail leading to the chiller in the experimental abattoir. 81 Plate 3.9: Fallow deer carcasses in the chiller at UWS. 81 Plate 3.10: Food processing facilities at UWS. 82 Plate 3.11: Vacuum packaging equipment. 82 Plate 3.12: Individual tasting booth in the sensory evaluation facility at UWS. 83 Plate 3.13: Sensory facility preparation area. 83 Plate 3.14: Servery side of the individual tasting booths. 83 Plate 3.15: Hybrid fallow deer at UWS 84 Plate 3.16: Typical red deer stag at UWS. 84 Plate 3.17: Buchi apparatus for Soxhlet fat extraction. 86 Plate 3.18: Samples prepared for colour evaluation and shear testing. 87 Plate 3.19: Texture/shear analysis. 87
xii
Plate 3.20: Colour measurement using the Minolta chromameter. 87 Plate 3.21: Excised kidneys with channel fat removed (Flesch 2001). 90 Plate 3.22: Kidneys trimmed prior to decapsulation (Flesch 2001). 90 Plate 3.23: Kidneys prepared and denuded as described by Riney (1955). 90 Plate 3.24: Deer in handling cradle for live palpation to estimate BCS
(Flesch 2001). 91
Plate 3.25: Forequarter fat measurement area (Flesch 2001). 92 Plate 3.26: Loin fat measurement area (Flesch 2001). 92 Plate 3.27: Rump fat measurement area (Flesch 2001). 93 Plate 3.28: Brisket fat measurement area (Flesch 2001). 93 Plate 3.29: Venison samples prepared for serving. 95 Plate 3.30: Venison samples presented to panellists. 95 Plate 3.31: Panellists assessing venison samples. 96 Plate 4.1: Mature fallow deer doe of BCS 2. 105 Plate 4.2: Dorsal view of BCS 2 carcass. 106 Plate 4.3: Caudal view of BCS 2 carcass. 106 Plate 4.4: Cross sectional view of EMA of BCS 2 carcass. 107 Plate 4.5: Mature fallow deer buck of BCS 3. 107 Plate 4.6: Dorsal view of BCS 3 carcass. 108 Plate 4.7: Caudal view of BCS 3 carcass. 108 Plate 4.8: Cross sectional view of EMA of BCS 3 carcass. 109 Plate 4.9: Mature fallow deer bucks of BCS 4. 109 Plate 4.10: Dorsal view of BCS 4 carcass. 110 Plate 4.11: Caudal view of BCS 4 carcass. 110 Plate 4.12: Cross sectional view of EMA of BCS 4 carcass. 111 Plate 4.13: Mature red stag of BCS 4. 112
xiii
Plate 4.14: Red stag carcass of BCS 4. 112 Plate 4.15: Red stags of BCS 2. 119 Plate 4.16: Red stags of BCS 3 and 4. 119 Plate 4.17: Split red stag carcasses of BCS 2 hanging in the chiller at Myrtleford abattoir. 119 Plate 5.1: Fallow doe in the handling cradle for palpation to assess BCS
over the rump. 141 Plate 6.1: Fallow deer carcass suspended by the Achilles tendon. 172 Plate 6.2: Fallow deer carcass suspended by the pelvic bone. 172 Plate 6.3: Whole fallow deer carcass suspended by the pelvic bone. 174 Plate 7.1: Panellist in individual tasting booth. 199
xiv
List of Abbreviations
a* measurement of redness
ADP adenosine diphosphate
AMSA American Meat Science Association
ANOVA analysis of variance
AT Achilles tendon
ATP adenosine triphosphate
AUS-MEAT Authority for Uniform Specifications of Meat and Livestock
b* measurement of yellowness or greenness or vividness
BCS body condition score
BMF bone marrow fat
BSE bovine spongiform encephalopathy
BV breeding value
CCP critical control point
CEQ consumer eating quality
cm centimetre/s
CRC co-operative research centre
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
CT scanning X-ray computed tomography
CWD chronic wasting disease
DFD dry firm and dark
DIAA Deer Industry Association of Australia
E European fallow deer (Dama dama)
eg for example
EMA Eye muscle area
EQ eating quality
EQS eating quality standards
EU European Union
EUROP Five point scale for assessment of body conformation and fatness
et al. et alia
etc et cetera
F force
FMD foot and mouth disease
xv
g gram
GenStat statistical package
GLM generalised linear model
GM M.gluteus medius (rump)
GR fat depth Measurement of depth of fat at the GR site
GR site Site over the 12th rib at a vertical point down from the tuber coxae
(hip bone), 16cm out from the back bone
GVP gross value of production
h hour
H hybrid fallow deer (¼ Mesopotamian, ¾ European)
Ha hectares
HCW hot carcass weight
Hd head
IM intramuscular
IMF intramuscular fat
ISO International Organisation for Standardisation
JMGA Japanese Meat Grading Association
KFI kidney fat index
kg kilogram
L* measurement of lightness
Lab* colour measurement system
LD M.Longissimus dorsi (strip loin)
LW live weight
M molarity
m metre/s
MAXFAT ultrasonic technique of measuring rump fat thickness (US)
mg milligram
ml millilitres
mm millimetres
MQ meat quality
MQ4 composite meat quality score
MSA Meat Standards Australia
N nitrogen
n number
xvi
NS not significant
NSW New South Wales
NZ New Zealand
p statistical probability
PACCP palatability assured critical control point
pH acidity/alkalinity
pHi initial pH
pHu ultimate pH
ppm parts per million
PS Pelvic suspension (Tenderstretch)
PSE pale soft and exudative
PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acids
P8 rump site for fat depth measurement
QA quality assurance
QAMA quality assurance management and analysis
R&D research and development
RDI recommended daily intake
RIRDC Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
SCW standard carcass weight
sd standard deviation
sec second
sem standard error of the mean
SmartStretch technique of stretching and shaping hot boned primals
SMEQ sheep meat eating quality
SPSS statistical package
TQM total quality management
UK United Kingdom
USA United States of America
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
UWS University of Western Sydney
VIAScan Video image analysis scanning system
VIC Victoria
WHC water holding capacity
wt weight
xvii
¼ M ¼ Mesopotamian fallow deer
< less than
> greater than
= equals
plus or minus variance around the mean
% percent
° degree
°C degrees Celsius
$A value in Australian dollars
$NZ value in New Zealand dollars
£ value in pounds sterling
xviii
List of Terminology
Term Meaning
adipose fatty body tissue
Benelux European customs union encompassing Belgium, the Netherlands and
Luxembourg
buck adult male fallow deer
bull uncastrated adult male bovine
calf juvenile red deer
calpain calcium activated muscle protease
carcass body of a slaughtered animal after exsanguination and evisceration
castrate animal with gonads removed, usually male
cathepsins lysomal bound protease
caudal position situated toward animal‟s tail region
cow adult female bovine
cranial position situated toward animal‟s head region
denver to remove the silver skin of a primal meat cut
and Lab* colour measurement were the factors analysed along with consumer
sensory evaluation.
As body condition score increased so did levels of intramuscular fat, BCS 2-3
(p<0.001) and BCS 3-4 (p<0.01). Instrumental tenderness of venison also increased
as BCS increased, significantly so when BCS 4 animals were included in the study:
fallow does (p<0.01) and red stags (p<0.05). Even though venison from BCS 4
animals was more tender, BCS 2 and 3 animals provided venison of acceptable
tenderness, with most shear force values below 5.0kg and all well below 6.0 kg.
These data for tenderness are of importance to venison producers when determining
the condition of animals for slaughter, and producing for particular markets.
Freeze-thaw/purge losses were significantly higher in fallow deer bucks of BCS 3
when compared with BCS 2 (p<0.001). Bucks of BCS 3 had higher moisture content,
xxvii
though this was not significant. Significantly higher losses may be a result of a
number of factors including moisture content and fat percentages.
Meat colour measurements showed a decrease of redness as BCS increased. The
lower redness values were only significant for BCS 4 animals, being red deer stags
(p<0.01) and fallow deer does (p<0.05). This decrease in redness may be related to
fat deposition within the muscle in higher BCS animals. Fallow deer castrates of
BCS 2 and 3 had lower redness (p<0.05) and yellowness (p<0.05) than fallow deer
bucks of the same BCS, which may be attributable to hormonal status, muscle
activity and fat accretion.
Venison from fallow deer does produced the lowest shear force values (p<0.001),
regardless of BCS and animal age. These data suggest that older females culled for
poor reproductive performance are still suitable to slaughter and produce quality
venison. There were no significant differences in instrumental meat quality between
castrated male fallow deer and bucks.
Concentrate feeding of fallow deer does increased BCS (p<0.001). The concentrate-
fed deer had significantly higher live weights (p<0.001), carcass weights (p<0.01),
fat deposition and dressing percentages (p<0.001). Pasture-fed fallow deer venison
held its redness for a longer period than concentrate-fed venison (p<0.01), which is a
positive for pasture based management systems. Concentrate-fed animals had
significantly more tender meat than the pasture-fed group (p<0.05) which is probably
related to the increase of BCS and IMF.
In this study it was demonstrated that prolonged pre-slaughter handling in connection
with slaughter at an export abattoir significantly increased venison pH values
(p<0.05), compared with smaller purpose built slaughter systems. Stress before
slaughter can induce muscle glycogen depletion so meat pH stays above 6.0 and dark
firm dry meat (DFD) occurs.
Meat ageing is a technique employed by the meat industry to enhance tenderness of
product over various storage times. Dry ageing venison from fallow deer bucks and
castrates for between 5 and 10 days in this study had no significant effect on an
xxviii
already tender venison product. There was a general tendency for the meat aged for
10 days to be more tender, however, these differences were not statistically
significant.
The technique of hanging carcasses by pelvic suspension instead of by the Achilles
tendon resulted in more tender meat for fallow deer bucks (p<0.001), fallow deer
does (p<0.01) and red deer stags (p<0.001).
In this study, experiments using a consumer panel were conducted. Panellists
detected a gradual increase in tenderness of venison as BCS increased from 2 to 4,
and preferred venison from animals with a BCS of either 3 or 4, compared with BCS
2. Male panellists detected an increased darkening of the cooked meat as BCS
increased (p<0.01) compared with female panellists, however, this did not affect
overall liking or preference. Animals ranging in BCS from 2 to 4 can be slaughtered
without apparent effect on consumer preference, which allows for flexibility in the
supply chain. The data indicate no overall difference in liking for BCS 2-3 animals,
hung by the Achilles tendon, whether bucks or does (p>0.05). This is also important
given that most fallow deer presented for slaughter fall into this BCS range.
BCS was increased by grain feeding young animals to achieve BCS 4, which was not
achievable by pasture feeding alone. Consumer panels reported a significantly
stronger flavour in the venison from animals fed grain prior to slaughter (p<0.01),
particularly in animals that remained at BCS 3. Male panellists were particularly able
to detect a difference according to the number of days the animals were fed
concentrate feed, with longer feeding periods resulting in stronger flavours
(p<0.001). This result did not however affect overall liking or preference. However,
the stronger flavour in venison from grain-fed animals was not detected in animals of
BCS 4 in this study, possibly as a result of the higher intramuscular fat content
affecting the flavour strength of the muscle. As there were no significant differences
in other quality parameters between BCS 2, 3 and 4 animals, or between animals fed
grain or pasture, there would appear to be no justification for fallow deer farmers to
finish animals on grain prior to slaughter to achieve higher BCS.
xxix
Meat from fallow deer does was generally perceived as more tender than bucks
(p<0.001), even at older ages, and had a high overall liking rating by consumers even
though the meat was darker (p<0.001) and had a stronger flavour (p<0.01). The
middle aged group of panellists detected a stronger flavour in does (p<0.01), possibly
due to the animals being older, and this age group of panellists contained a higher
percentage of current venison consumers than the younger or older age groupings.
The group with previous game meat eating experience also detected a stronger
flavour in the venison from does (p<0.001). These results did not affect overall
liking.
The consumers clearly distinguished their overall liking for venison derived from
carcasses treated with pelvic suspension post-slaughter compared with Achilles
tendon suspension (p<0.001). This preference was demonstrated by the important
quality characteristics of tenderness and juiciness (p<0.001) which both increased in
venison as an effect of this technique. This finding is also consistent with the
instrumental data collected in this study, and indicates that the technique of pelvic
suspension should be adopted by the deer industry to produce venison for which
consumers have an increased preference.
The pH values measured in venison in the present study were in the range to
guarantee optimal tenderness which was supported by the consumer scores for
tenderness in venison, all averaging values of 8 or above on the scale from 0 (very
tough) to 11 (very tender). This suggested that all venison evaluated, regardless of
species, sex, age, BSC or carcass hanging method, generally was judged to be very
tender.
The hypothesis that changes in BCS would dramatically affect eating quality and
consumer preference has not been proven in these experiments for either species of
deer. The meat quality parameters measured, however, showed differences across the
BCS range 2 to 4, in increases in tenderness, less redness and higher levels of IMF,
particularly in red deer and fallow deer does with BCS 4 compared with BCS 2. This
difference is confirmed by the slight differentiation between BCS 2 and BCS 4 by
taste panellists, but with no negative implications for overall liking. It is apparent
from data for both red and fallow deer that there was a trend for greater overall liking
xxx
of venison from animals with BCS 3 and 4, compared with BCS 2, but this trend was
not significant. It may be necessary to slaughter larger numbers of animals to prove
beyond doubt that this trend is measurably significant.
The need to adopt the post-slaughter practice of pelvic suspension of deer carcasses
of all ages, sexes and body condition scores is unequivocal if enhanced tenderness of
venison is desirable. The sensory panels in this study validated the objective tests
that indicated increased tenderness and juiciness of venison from carcasses subjected
to pelvic suspension compared with carcasses hung by the Achilles tendon.
Flavour is a key quality attribute for consumers and in this study flavour was shown
to increase as animals aged and if they were fed grain prior to slaughter. The
detection by male panellists of stronger flavours in venison from deer fed grain prior
to slaughter was more surprising and this finding could be used by the deer industry
to satisfy market preference for stronger flavours, or could be a warning to restrict
the feeding of grain prior to slaughter if stronger flavours are not desirable.
Comparative evaluation of venison from bucks and does for „overall liking‟ indicated
consumer preference for venison from does. This is useful information for the deer
industry, especially with reference to slaughter of fallow deer, because fallow deer
bucks are very aggressive toward each other during the breeding season and at this
time of year, carcasses can be bruised and dehydrated. Venison quality can remain
acceptably high by slaughtering cull female stock during the breeding season.
Overall, this study has shown that venison is a high quality product. Sensory
evaluation showed the product to be strongly appreciated by men and women
between the ages of 25 and 55, and differences in „overall liking‟ between red and
fallow deer venison were not detected in this study. Consumer behaviour is shaped
by the availability of product to meet their needs. The decision to purchase food
products is generally influenced by perception of quality in terms of safety, sensory
aspects, nutrition and health (Troy and Kerry 2010). This study confirms that
Australian venison has the potential to meet all of the characteristics desired by
consumers.
Chapter One
1
Chapter One
General introduction
Red versus fallow deer
Chapter One
General introduction 1
1.1: Background 2
1.2: Study aim 4
1.3: Experimental approach 4
1.4: Structure of the thesis 5
Chapter One
2
1.1: Background Consumer perception of venison is a critical issue for the Australian deer industry.
Inconsistency of Australian venison is currently a major difficulty in establishing
repeat purchasing by consumers and has resulted in Australian producers being
largely dependent on a volatile export market (Cox et al 2005). Supply of venison to
the Australian domestic market has been undermined by inconsistent quality, lack of
consistent supply, poor presentation and lack of product knowledge by marketers and
at point of sale. Potential local consumers of Australian venison appear to lack
confidence in the industry‟s ability to supply quality venison, particularly in the food
service industry where much of the venison sold is imported from New Zealand
(Tuckwell & Tume 2000).
Consumer behaviour is shaped by personal needs and the availability of product to
meet those needs. Consumers purchase a product when their perception of that
product is positive and this generally relates to quality in terms of safety, sensory
aspects, nutrition and health (Troy and Kerry 2010). Australian venison and venison
in general has the potential to satisfy these consumer desires but has to date, failed to
do so, largely as a result of quality issues.
The Australian venison industry must move towards the same goal for consumer
focused supply systems as the beef (Thompson 2002) and sheep meat (Hopkins
2011) industries have done. A quality assurance (QA) system which addresses both
live animal and carcass processing aspects, both on and off farm, can lead the
industry into a more successful consumer focus with the ability to supply specified
products to markets. This system may facilitate consumer acceptance of venison and
provide consistent quality for repeat purchase. The deer industry must deliver
venison of consistent quality at a reasonable price to promote venison as a healthy,
premium source of red meat.
Consumer perception of venison is a critical issue for the Australian deer industry,
which is currently experiencing an extended slump (Cox et al 2006). Scientific
contributions may form the basis for the ability of the industry to improve
Chapter One
3
consistency and quality of their product as identified by the Rural Industries
Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) (McRae et al 2006).
The issues of inconsistent quality are of major concern for the industry and need to
be addressed in order for the industry to survive and rebuild. The questions remain;
how does a producer determine when animals are ready for slaughter in order to
produce optimal venison quality? What techniques can be employed pre- and post-
slaughter in order to reliably optimise meat quality?
Research was conducted by Flesch (2001) to provide producers and processors with
a common language for assessing animal body condition and determining suitability
for slaughter. This research resulted in the production of body condition scoring
(BCS) charts for fallow (Tuckwell et al 2000a) and red deer (Tuckwell et al 2000b).
These BCS charts gave Australian venison producers and processors a common
descriptive, assessment language for production and supply of suitable slaughter
stock. The obvious next step was to identify links between BCS and instrumental and
sensory mat quality and determine whether or not a premium live carcass produces
premium quality meat for the consumer. The RIRDC provided funding for this
project to establish links between BCS and meat quality. During this study
examination of pre- and post-slaughter management techniques such as feeding
regime and post-slaughter hanging method, and their effect on venison quality was
also explored. Research of this type had not been previously undertaken on fallow
deer, with some related research conducted on red deer in New Zealand. The links
between instrumental measures of quality and consumer acceptance have not been
previously studied for fallow and red deer venison.
The relationship of BCS along with pre- and post-slaughter management, to
instrumental measurements of deer venison quality and sensory evaluation by
consumers, may have important implications for all sections of the value chain,
especially in smaller industries such as the deer industry where it is critical that
product potential is maximised. Payment to producers based on consumer
satisfaction has the potential to initiate industry change (Polkinghorne and Thompson
2010).
Chapter One
4
Meat quality attributes such as tenderness, juiciness and flavour are not able to be
predicted by the appearance of the live animal or the meat. However, by establishing
links between live animal body condition score (BCS) and carcass fatness (Flesch
2001) with meat quality, predictions may be possible. This will assist producers
when determining the optimal condition of animals for slaughter. Links between live
deer assessment using the BCS system, and the resultant meat quality attributes and
acceptance by consumers has not been previously studied.
It is anticipated that scientific contributions, such as those outlined in this study will
assist the venison industry to improve consistency and quality of product.
1.2: Study aim
The aim of this work was to clearly establish the impact of a number of pre-slaughter
and post-slaughter production and processing techniques on instrumental and sensory
meat quality for venison from red and fallow deer.
The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of the following variables
on instrumental and sensory measures of venison quality as follows:
Body condition score (BCS)
Sex of the animal
Red and fallow deer species
Feeding regimes
Muscle ageing time
Post slaughter hanging technique.
1.3: Experimental approach
The study design followed a systems approach to venison quality; from on farm
growth and development, immediate post-slaughter management, optimum food
preparation through to consumer appraisal and perception. Experimental work was
Chapter One
5
carried out on selected slaughter age, red and fallow deer of body condition scores 2,
3 and 4 (lean, prime and fat) (Tuckwell et al 2000a;b). The research defines carcass
composition of the various scores. The study focuses on pre-slaughter treatments,
post-slaughter handling and meat quality assessment to determine parameters relative
to the production of optimal eating quality venison. In addition to eating quality and
consumer acceptance, venison from deer raised on pasture vs. supplementary feeding
was evaluated. This work uses body condition score as a critical parameter. Sensory
analysis was employed to quantify consumer expectation and acceptance of venison
of the three condition scores undergoing various treatments. The vision to link
carcass production with eating quality has long term implications for acceptance of
venison as a favoured consumer selection, just as Meat Standards Australia (MSA) is
achieving for the beef industry.
Definition of the relationship of BCS, along with pre- and post- slaughter treatments
with cooking and eating quality will increase opportunities for target marketing,
which should increase farm profitability and consumer satisfaction if product
consistency is enhanced. The pre- and post-slaughter techniques employed in this
study tested the effect of pelvic suspension (tender stretching) of carcasses for
product enhancement, evaluated ageing of venison, and looked at the effect of
supplementary feeding of deer pre-slaughter compared with pasture-fed deer, on
consumer sensory perception of meat quality attributes.
1.4: Structure of the thesis
This thesis is structured with a general introduction in Chapter 1, a literature review
in Chapter 2, general materials and methods in Chapter 3, four experimental chapters
from Chapter 4 to 7 and final conclusions in Chapter 8.
Chapter 4 establishes the relationship between body condition score and instrumental
measures of venison quality for both fallow and red deer.
Chapter One
6
Chapter 5 examines the effect of feeding concentrate feeds on the instrumental meat
quality of venison from fallow deer does.
Chapter 6 examines a number of pre- and post-slaughter management techniques,
including ageing time and carcass suspension methods on the instrumental quality of
fallow and red deer venison.
Chapter 7 encompasses all of the areas examined in Chapters 4 to 6 and presents
samples from these earlier experiments to consumer panellists for evaluation.
Chapter 8 brings together the main findings of the study and incorporates some
recommendations to industry.
Chapter Two
7
Chapter Two
Literature review
Venison sample collection
Chapter 2 Literature review 7
2.1: Venison production 8 2.1.1: History of deer as a meat species 8 2.1.2: Deer in Australia 8 2.1.3: Deer farming and venison production 9 2.1.4: Venison in the human diet 14 2.1.5: Current markets 18 2.1.6: Venison specifications 26
2.2: Measures of meat quality 28 2.2.1: Meat from muscle 28 2.2.2: Factors affecting meat quality 32 2.2.3: Consumer perception 49 2.2.4: Beef and sheep meat quality improvement schemes 51 2.2.5: Estimations of body condition 57
2.3: Industry issues 62 2.3.1: Background 62 2.3.2: Current venison issues 67 2.3.3: Strategic industry alliances 73
Chapter Two
8
2.1: Venison production
2.1.1: History of deer as a meat species
Deer are ruminants that constitute the family Cervidae of the order Artiodactyla and
sub-order Ruminantia. The Cervidae family consists of seventeen genera, forty
species, and over 190 different sub-species (Whitehead 1972).
It is believed that deer appeared early in the Oligocene epoch in Asia approximately
38 million years ago, with the dating of remains of fallow deer going back to the
second interglacial period 250,000 years ago (Chapman 1993). The intensive
husbandry of deer in farming environments, however, is relatively new to modern
agriculture, although archaeological records suggest breeding and utilisation by man
from 9000 BC (Reinken 1997). Most of the deer on farms today are believed to be no
more than forty generations removed from their wild descendants. Farmed deer still
exhibit some aspects of wild behaviour, with their ancestry still having an effect on
their diurnal and annual patterns of feed intake, growth and reproduction in managed
pastoral environments (Flesch 2001). Deer have not been selectively bred by man for
at least 5000 years and as such remain one of a few species to have been recently
domesticated (Fletcher 1998) for food production. Farmed deer have undergone little
genetic selection for improved domesticity, though are habituated to the farm
environment. This is in stark contrast to domesticated ungulates such as cattle, sheep
and goats, which have undergone extensive physiological, morphological and
behavioural changes as a result of thousands of years of selection for domesticity
(Flesch 2001).
2.1.2: Deer in Australia
Due to the lack of land bridges, native deer did not exist in Australia when cervids
spread throughout the world 15,000 to 30,000 years ago (Hansen 2004). Deer were
introduced into Australia as part of an acclimatisation program in the early 19th
Century, with the aim of “a more equitable distribution of the world‟s useful and
beautiful species” (Bentley 1978). This government program oversaw the
Chapter Two
9
introduction of several exotic species of animals and birds for use and hunting by the
British colonists. The first reported imports were of chital deer from India in 1800 by
Dr John Harris to his farm in the area which is now known as Chinatown in Sydney.
By 1809 his herd numbered 400 head (Hansen 2004). Approximately 20 deer species
were released from the mid 1800s up until 1900 by acclimatisation societies, hunting
clubs and individuals (Bentley 1978). Of these, only six remain after successfully
establishing wild populations, being red, fallow, rusa, chital, sambar and hog deer
(Moriarty 2004). These animals formed wild populations, and individuals from these
populations eventually formed the basis of Australian deer farming. Initial supply of
animals for farming came from capturing animals from wild populations, mainly
fallow deer in New South Wales, red deer in Queensland and rusa deer from the
Royal National Park near Sydney (Falepau 1999; Hansen 2004; Joubert 2004). Red
and fallow deer comprise most of the national herd of farmed deer with farms located
in NSW and Victoria. Rusa deer are farmed primarily in Queensland. Tasmania is
populated only with fallow deer, both in the wild and on farms (Falepau 1999).
2.1.3: Deer farming and venison production
Venison is traditionally defined as the meat from any furred game animal including
deer, rabbit and hare but is now more commonly used to refer to the meat of any
species of deer, whether hunted or farmed. Archaeological evidence shows that man
has been eating venison for many more centuries than beef or lamb and it has
constituted the base of meat diets for Europeans for between 5000 and 50000 years
(Fletcher 2001). The need for quality protein, fat, ease of domestication, draft
animals and fibre led to domestication of cattle and sheep 8000 years ago and for
man to hunt a variety of wild animals for food, clothing and fuel. Man no longer
requires a diet high in fat and lean meat meets consumer demands for healthier
lifestyles. Venison from deer and a number of other game meats can potentially meet
the demand for leaner and healthier meat sources (Wiklund et al 2010).
While sheep and cattle were being domesticated deer relied on natural selection and
thus populations have not had much human influence. The first deer farm was
established in Scotland in 1971 to farm red deer and was soon followed by a fallow
Chapter Two
10
deer farm established in Germany in 1973 (Reinken 1998). Red and fallow deer were
selected as a production species in Europe due to their longevity, disease resistance,
hardiness in winter, ease of calving and carcass and meat quality. Today, apart from
fallow and red deer, European game farms produce sika deer, roe deer, mouflon
(wild sheep) and wild boar, with often several species farmed together, particularly
in areas of culinary demand or where there are trophy hunting areas and tourism
(Audenaerde 1998). The challenge for deer farmers is to domesticate and breed for
temperament, leanness and growth in order to meet market requirements.
Deer farming, hunting, venison production and consumption has been firmly
established in Europe for many years (Piasentier et al 2005). The European Union
(EU) plays a major role in world production of farmed venison. Venison is produced
locally in several European countries, with centres for production, particularly for
fallow deer, being Austria, Germany, Italy, Sweden and Switzerland. Deer farming
has also been established in the Czech Republic, Portugal, Norway, Hungary,
Poland, Slovakia and Spain. Red deer are principally farmed in Great Britain.
However, European consumption far exceeds the ability of the EU to supply
sufficient quantities of venison (Audenaerde 1998). This surplus demand is catered
for primarily by imports of farmed venison from New Zealand, and to a much lesser
extent Australia, and some inputs from wild product harvested in Scotland and
central Europe. Countries such as Germany and the Scandinavian countries have a
culture of consuming venison. Countries, such as Australia where that culture is
missing, are often forced to export the venison that is produced. Europe produces for
its own consumption, while the New Zealand and Australian venison industries
depend on exports. There has been an increase in interest in venison by the EU due to
the recognition that venison is a healthy product. It is estimated that there are over
10,000 deer farmers in the EU producing over 7,000 tonnes of venison, and numbers
continue to rise (AACMI 1998; Audenaerde 1998). In 2002, estimates of the
European farmed red and fallow deer population stood at 410,000 and Scandinavian
reindeer at 90,000, while the total wild population was estimated at over 1 million
red deer, 5.5 million roe deer, 500,000 moose, 125,000 fallow deer and 50,000
reindeer (Fletcher 2004). Consequently the farmed venison sector in Europe is small
in relation to meat supplied from the wild venison sector, and there continues to be a
large market for trophy hunting, which is vital to the success of the European deer
Chapter Two
11
industry (Fletcher 2004). In 2004, farm sizes were very small with a predominance of
hobby farmers. Norway had 51 farms with a population of 650 deer, Benelux had
1,500 farms with 2,400 deer, and Switzerland, 485 farms carrying 8,389 deer. The
Czech Republic had approximately 200 farms with estimates of between 5,000 and
8,000 deer; Denmark had 142 farms with 20,000 deer and Poland 60 farms carrying a
total of 4,900 deer. Most farms carry only red and fallow deer, with Denmark also
carrying 200 sika deer (Fletcher 2004). More recent statistics on European farmed
deer holdings and meat processing quantities are difficult to obtain. In 2010, it was
reported that deer farming in the Netherlands was in decline, Latvia had several
holdings with a maximum of 60 deer per holding, France had 50 deer farms and 200-
330 deer parks, Switzerland had 600 deer farms, Sweden farmed 20,000 fallow deer
and 67,000 red deer, and there were large numbers of nomadic indigenous
communities farming or herding semi domesticated reindeer in Northern Europe. The
Czech Republic had 350 deer farms, Slovakia, 59 farms, while Lithuania had 152
deer farms. Germany had 6,000 small farms, mostly in Bavaria, with 70% having
fallow deer, and Austria had 1,600 deer farms but animal numbers were not reported
Meat quality data and data for the various sensory parameters evaluated were
analysed using statistical software SPSS 11.5, with analysis of variance using the
GLM procedure. Treatment means were separated using Ryan‟s Q test (SPSS 2002).
The data for studies on pelvic suspension were analysed by residual maximum
likelihood (Patterson and Thompson 1971) with the random effects given by reading
within muscle within animal, and the fixed effects by hanging treatment, muscle and
their interaction using the statistical package GenStat (2002). The data from
experiments on freeze/thaw drip loss were analysed by analysis of variance, fitting
slaughter data, hanging treatment and their interaction with the animal as a blocking
factor for the meat quality data using the statistical package GenStat (2002).
Chapter Four
97
Chapter Four
Relationship between body condition score and
meat quality parameters of venison
Cross section of fallow deer venison loin of BCS 5 (Flesch 2001)
Chapter 4 Relationship between body condition score and meat quality parameters of venison .............................................................................................. 97
4.2: Materials and methods ................................................................................. 117 4.2.1: Fallow bucks of BCS 2 to 3 ................................................................... 117 4.2.2: Fallow does of BCS 2, 3 and 4 .............................................................. 117 4.2.3: Fallow bucks and haviers (castrated bucks) ........................................... 118 4.2.4: Red deer stags with BCS of 2, 3 and 4 .................................................. 118
4.3: Results ........................................................................................................... 120 4.3.1: Fallow bucks of BCS 2 to 3 ................................................................... 120 4.3.2: Fallow does of BCS 2, 3 and 4. ............................................................. 121 4.3.3: Fallow bucks and haviers ....................................................................... 123 4.3.4: Red deer stags with BCS of 2, 3 and 4 .................................................. 125
4.4: Discussion ..................................................................................................... 127 4.4.1: BCS and live weight .............................................................................. 127 4.4.2: Intramuscular fat .................................................................................... 128 4.4.3: Shear force ............................................................................................. 129 4.4.4: Freeze-thaw/purge .................................................................................. 132 4.4.5: Colour .................................................................................................... 133
The dorsal appearance (Plate 4.10) of the BCS 4 carcass shows levels of fat over the
entire length of the carcass with rounded hindquarters. The spine and pelvic wings
are no longer visible.
Plate 4.10 : Dorsal view of BCS 4 carcass.
The caudal appearance shows increased deposition of brisket fat (Plate 4.11).
Plate 4.11 : Caudal view of BCS 4 carcass.
Chapter Four
111
The cross sectional view of the loin (Plate 4.12) shows the entire loin area covered
by a thick layer of fat. Mean subcutaneous fat depths for BCS 4 are rump 7.2 mm
(±1.3), loin 4.6 mm (±0.7), brisket 5.5 mm (±0.9) and forequarter 2.2 mm (±0.6). The
KFI range for BCS 4 was 96.5-128.2 with a mean of 115.1 (±19.7) (Flesch 2001).
Plate 4.12 : Cross sectional view of EMA of BCS 4 carcass (Flesch 2001).
Animals of BCS 5 were not used in this study. It is difficult to find production
animals in this condition, however, Flesch (2001) states that fallow deer bucks with
abundant feed may obtain BCS 5 over the summer. Processors will apply financial
penalties to producers supplying the abattoir with overfat animals due to the
trimming required, with no significant increase in saleable meat yield over BCS 4
animals.
An Australian BCS chart for red deer (Tuckwell et al 2000b) displays the same five
grades with similar live animal descriptions and photographic examples with GR fat
depth guidelines provided. A copy of the chart may be found in Appendix 2. Plate
4.13 illustrates an example of a mature red stag of BCS 4. Note the brisket fat visible
on the live animal.
Chapter Four
112
Plate 4.13 : Mature red stag of BCS 4.
Carcass fat, including subcutaneous fat depths, increase as BCS increases. Plate 4.14
illustrates an example of fat over the rump of a BCS 4 red stag carcass.
Plate 4.14 : Red stag carcass of BCS 4.
Flesch (2001) recommended that producers use BCS as selection criteria for
slaughter animals in conjunction with live weight. This allowed processors and
producers to avoid discrepancies relating to the criteria associated with the
Chapter Four
113
characteristics of lean, prime and fat carcasses. Venison processors will pay a
premium for what is considered a well muscled carcass requiring minimal fat
trimming within a given weight range. It is difficult, however, to determine the
eating quality of meat by visual assessment of the live animal, carcass or muscle. The
BCS system provides a common language for producers and processors, and links to
meat quality should increase profitability at all sections of the value chain. This study
aims to relate BCS to subsequent meat quality from lean, prime and fat carcasses,
and to determine whether a prime live animal and a prime carcass results in prime
eating quality venison.
Few studies have been conducted on the relationship of BCS to meat quality,
although the nutritional and physical status of deer has been demonstrated to improve
muscle glycogen and pHu post-mortem in reindeer (Wiklund et al 1995; 1996a).
Therefore, producing animals with optimal BCS may be useful in achieving better
pHu values after subjecting animals to normal pre-slaughter stressors. A study of red
deer showed lower pHu in animals with higher GR depths and carcass weights
(Wiklund et al 2010). The thickness and distribution of carcass fat in beef carcasses
affects the relationship between carcass characteristics and post-slaughter processing
conditions in relation to chilling rate, rate of pH fall, sarcomere length and potential
for ageing (Oddy et al 2001). As BCS increases, carcass fat deposition increases. Fat
deposition on a carcass can affect the appearance of meat cuts, reduce evaporative
losses and increase shelf life (Fisher et al 1998), can protect the carcass from
microbial attack, and can alter the cooking and processing qualities of meat (Aberle
2001). Rate of chilling is negatively correlated with carcass weight and back fat
thickness in sheep, whilst lower fat levels can result in fast chilling and cold
shortening, giving rise to an undesirable lack of tenderness (Okeudo and Moss 2005).
Stevenson et al (1992) examined seasonal venison quality variation in red deer stags
pre- and post-rut and found variations in GR depth, with subsequent variations in
IMF, tenderness and colour. Similarly, mean carcass weights and GR depths were
significantly higher pre-rut than post-rut in recent red deer studies (Wiklund et al
2010). Assessment of body condition score in live animals is directly associated with
subcutaneous fat coverage on the carcass, and intramuscular and intermuscular
(seam) fat deposition (Flesch e2001; Flesch et al 2002).
Chapter Four
114
A major study relating animal body condition and eating quality is the development
of the Meat Standards Australia program (MSA 2010). In terms of meat eating
quality, MSA has revolutionised the way in which beef has been assessed to
guarantee optimal eating quality. The MSA grading system models an eating quality
score for beef using the primary animal and carcass characteristics of Bos indicus
percentage, carcass weight, sex, ossification, marbling scores and pHu. The
secondary characteristics utilised in this model are meat colour, rib fat depth, muscle
texture and firmness, and weight adjusted for maturity along with treatment effects.
The principle behind the MSA grading system is to optimise animal characteristics
and processing variables with preparation at the consumer end to ensure optimal
eating quality. A study by Watson et al (2008) reported that fat depths and meat
marbling scores were positively correlated and formed part of the meat quality score
for beef. Minimum rib fat requirements are in place for beef as it relates to even
chilling in the muscles and the subsequent positive effect on meat quality
(Polkinghorne et al 2008a).
Lambe et al (2008) suggested that in vivo methods, of which BCS is an example, of
assessing carcass and meat quality could result in improved meat quality in lambs
and provide incentive for producers to aid the improvement of meat quality. Live
weights and assessment of body condition are commonly used by producers of lamb
to select live lambs that may produce the best potential carcass characteristics
(Lambe et al 2008), yet little work has been done to quantify the meat quality
characteristics of this assessment.
Flesch (2001) determined that, in terms of animal production, being able to estimate
body condition of individual animals was vitally important for both breeding and
slaughter stock. However, little work has been done on establishing links with body
condition to the subsequent meat quality of slaughter animals. If there is a strong
relationship between BCS and meat quality characteristics, then BCS will not only be
an important tool in assessing the health and productive potential of farmed deer, but
will also assist in quality assurance and product description to enhance marketing
opportunities and consumer confidence. The majority of fallow deer on farms fall
into the BCS 2, 3 and 4 categories (Hansen 2011). With animals of slaughter weight,
the ability of the producer to determine BCS may have an important influence on the
Chapter Four
115
timing, age and selection of animals for slaughter, with premiums paid for animals in
prime condition (Hansen 2011).
Red meat processors in Australia currently use measures of subcutaneous fat depth
and animal weight to predict lean meat yield. In the Australian sheep meat industry,
Hopkins (2011) suggested that improved predictive accuracy of lean meat yield
could be achieved by use of subjective estimates of subcutaneous fat such as those
used in the BCS system for red and fallow deer. A BCS on a five point scale used in
combination with fat and muscle depth measurements could achieve increased
predictive accuracy. There is evidence that utilisation of loin fat measures and
muscle weight can improve accuracy of lean meat predictions up to 76% (Hopkins
2008) over the reported accuracy of the current VIAScan system of 55% (Hopkins et
al 2004). Pethick et al (2011) concluded that in Australia, the time is right for cost
effective industry measures of prediction of lean meat yield to facilitate clearer price
signals for producers than the currently utilised system of a single point measure of
subcutaneous fat in beef and lamb.
Animals used in the current study included fallow deer bucks, haviers (castrated
males) and does, as well as red deer stags. An experiment with haviers was
conducted in the early stages of the project because at that time a number of
producers were castrating fallow deer buck prior to puberty to control aggressive
behaviours, supply quality venison year round and extend the slaughter season
beyond puberty (12-15 months of age), including the breeding season or rut. During
the rut male animals are likely to lose condition and have fluctuations in testicular
androgen levels, resulting in behavioural changes and increased risk of body damage
caused by fighting (Stevenson et al 1992). The impact of seasonal change is greater
for entire males compared with females and castrated males (Pollock 1975).
Castration has been utilised in livestock production systems for hundreds of years to
manage male aggression and improve meat quality (Field 1971; Seideman et al
1982). The effects of castration on cervids have been limited to effects relating to
growth and carcass composition in fallow deer (Mulley and English 1985; Asher
1986; Mulley 1989; Hogg et al 1990) and red deer (Drew et al 1978; Asher et al
2011), however, none of this work was linked to meat quality. Since the time of
Chapter Four
116
conducting these experimental trials, producers have ceased the practise of castration
and are now slaughtering non-breeding does during the breeding season.
This chapter describes the meat quality characteristics of venison from red and
fallow deer collected in a series of experiments associated with measured BCS in
animals of different sex.
Chapter Four
117
4.2: Materials and methods
4.2.1: Fallow bucks of BCS 2 to 3
Thirty one entire fallow deer bucks ranging from 18-24 months old and with BCS
ranging between 2 (n=16) and 3 (n=15) (lean and prime) were slaughtered by captive
bolt stunning and thoracic stick exsanguination within 3 seconds of the stun (Chapter
3) and hung by the Achilles tendon. Carcasses were measured for core body
temperature and muscle pH at 1 and 24 hours post-mortem. BCS was measured ante
-mortem and confirmed with carcass measurements post-mortem. The M.
longissimus dorsi muscles (strip loins) were boned out from each carcass once core
body temperature was less than 7 °C post-slaughter and divided into two sections,
one complying with the specified standard for mid-loin according to AUS-MEAT
(1995) guidelines, and one from the foreloin (cranial) section of the muscle. These
selected cuts were vacuum packaged and frozen at –21 °C until analysed. Samples
were analysed in triplicate for pH, intramuscular fat, colour, shear force, moisture
and freeze-thaw loss and purge. Kidneys were excised for later KFI calculations to
assist confirmation of BCS.
4.2.2: Fallow does of BCS 2, 3 and 4
Twenty four non-pregnant fallow does, approximately 36 months old with a history
of one previous lactation, and of BCS 2 (n=7), 3 (n=7) and 4 (n=10) were
slaughtered using the methods described in 4.2.1. Carcasses were measured for core
body temperature and muscle pH at 1 and 24 hours post-mortem. BCS was measured
ante-mortem and confirmed with carcass measurements post-mortem. The M.
longissimus dorsi muscles (strip loins) were boned out from each carcass once core
body temperature was less than 7 °C post-slaughter. These cuts were vacuum
packaged and frozen at –21 °C until analysed. Samples were analysed in triplicate for
pH, intramuscular fat, colour, shear force, moisture and freeze-thaw loss and purge.
Kidneys were excised for later KFI calculations to assist confirmation of BCS.
Chapter Four
118
4.2.3: Fallow bucks and haviers (castrated bucks)
Entire (n=31) and castrated (n=l8) fallow bucks ranging from 18-24 months old and
with BCS ranging between 2 (n=29) and 3 (n=20) (lean and prime) were slaughtered
as described in 4.2.1. All carcasses were hung by the Achilles tendon and measured
for core body temperature and muscle pH at 1 and 24 hours post-mortem. The
M.longissimus dorsi LD cut from each animal was divided into three sections,
foreloin (cranial end), mid-loin and hind loin (caudal end) and were vacuum
packaged and frozen at -21 °C for no more than 12 weeks until analysis. Samples
were analysed in triplicate for pH, intramuscular fat, colour, shear force moisture and
freeze-thaw loss and purge.
4.2.4: Red deer stags with BCS of 2, 3 and 4
Rising 2-year-old red deer stags with BCS 2 (n=14), BCS 3 (n=6) and BCS 4 (n=6)
were sourced from farms in the Central West region of NSW at Blayney, NSW (BCS
2) (Plate 4.1) and Neville, NSW (BCSs 3 and 4) (Plate 4.2). Body condition score
was estimated on the live animal using palpation techniques as described by Flesch et
al (2002). Animals were trucked to either Wodonga abattoir (BCS 3 and 4) or
Myrtleford (BCS 2) and held overnight prior to slaughter with ad libitum access to
water. All animals were slaughtered using techniques described in 4.2.1. Skinning
and evisceration were performed with carcasses hanging from a meat rail by the
Achilles tendon. At slaughter the hot carcass weight was recorded, as was pH in
(LD), and core body temperature. Kidneys were excised for later KFI calculations.
While hot, carcasses were split along the spine by bandsaw and hung by the Achilles
tendon (Plate 4.3). At 24 hours post-mortem carcasses were weighed to determine
standard carcass weight. Ulitmate pH and final core body temperature was recorded.
Fat depth measurements were taken at the GR site with a Hennessy probe to confirm
BCS post-mortem. KFI was also calculated to confirm live animal and carcass BCS
assessments.
Chapter Four
119
Plate 4.15 : Red stags of BCS 2.
Plate 4.16 : Red stags of BCS 3 and 4.
Plate 4.17 : Split red stag carcasses of BCS 2 hanging in the chiller at Myrtleford
abattoir.
Three days post-mortem the LD muscle from each of the carcasses was removed.
Samples removed from the carcasses for analysis were placed on marked trays and
vacuum packaged and then frozen at -21 C for no more than 12 weeks until used for
analysis.
Chapter Four
120
4.3: Results
4.3.1: Fallow bucks of BCS 2 to 3
The live weights of the BCS 2 bucks ranged between 39 kg and 57.5 kg giving an
average weight of 47.5 kg (sem 2.16) (Figure 4.1). Dressed carcass weights ranged
from 22.4 kg to 31.6 kg with an average of 26.2 kg (sem 1.48) indicating an average
dressing percentage of 56% (sem 3.28). Body condition scores were confirmed via
measurement of subcutaneous fat depth and KFI. Average fat depth for BCS 2 on the
brisket was 1.9 mm, forequarter 0.4 mm, loin 1 mm and rump 2.2 mm. Average KFI
for BCS 2 was 38.2 (sem 1.2).
The live weights of the BCS 3 bucks ranged between 38 kg and 56 kg giving an
average weight of 47.4 kg (sem 2.90) (Figure 4.1). Dressed weights ranged from 23
kg to 30.8 kg with an average of 26.3 kg (sem 1.60) indicating an average dressing
percentage of 56% (sem 2.09). Body condition scores were confirmed via
measurement of subcutaneous fat depth and KFI. Average fat depth for BCS 3 on the
brisket was 2.5 mm, forequarter 1.3 mm, loin 2.7 mm, rump 5 mm. Average KFI for
BCS 3 was 95.1 (sem 1.3).
Figure 4.1 : Live weights of the fallow bucks of BCS 2 and BCS 3 used in this study.
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
L
i
v
e
W
e
i
g
h
t
k
g
Number of animals
BCS 2 Bucks
BCS 3 Bucks
Chapter Four
121
Meat quality parameters and relationships between meat quality parameters and BCS
are shown in Table 4.1. In this experiment, no significant differences were detected
between animals of BCS 2 and BCS 3 in any of the parameters of meat quality, with
the exception of freeze-thaw loss and purge, where BCS 3 samples had significantly
higher purge than BCS 2 (p<0.001).
Table 4.1 : Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow bucks of
BCS 2 (n=16) and 3 (n=15).
BCS pH Cooked
Shear
(g)
Raw
Shear
(g)
Colour
L*
Colour
a*
Colour
b*
Moisture
(%)
IM
Fat
(%)
Freeze
Thaw
loss
(%)
BCS 2 5.41a
(0.17)
5401.5a
(386.0)
2424.9a
(176.3)
20.23a
(0.345)
12.28
(0.32)
0.18a
(0.15)
75.73a
(0.13)
2.85a
(0.21)
11.24a
(0.49)
BCS 3 5.50a
(0.43)
4890.2a
(240.2)
2350.8a
(123.8)
21.33a
(0.57)
11.58a
(0.41)
0.12a
(0.17)
76.00a
(0.19)
2.96a
(0.21)
16.00b
(0.74)
Means and standard error of means (in parenthesis) are shown.
Treatments followed by the same letter in the columns are not significantly different
(p<0.05).
4.3.2: Fallow does of BCS 2, 3 and 4.
The live weights of the BCS 2 does ranged between 37 kg and 42 kg giving an
average weight of 39.1 kg (sem 1.79) (Figure 4.2). Dressed weights ranged from
22.9 kg to 28.5 kg with an average of 25.1 kg (sem 1.09) indicating an average
dressing percentage of 64%. Average fat depth for BCS 2 on the brisket was 2.8
mm, forequarter 0 mm, loin 0.4 mm, rump 3.4 mm. Average KFI for BCS 2 was 49.6
(sem 1.2).
The live weights of the BCS 3 does ranged between 42.5 kg and 44.5 kg giving an
average weight of 43.5 kg (sem 0.76) (Figure 4.2). Dressed weights ranged from
25.1 kg to 29 kg with an average of 27.6 kg (sem 1.82) indicating an average
dressing percentage of 63%. Average fat depth for BCS 3 on the brisket was 6 mm,
forequarter 2.5 mm, loin 2.5 mm, rump 7 mm. The average KFI was 97.1 (sem 1.1).
Chapter Four
122
The live weights of the BCS 4 does ranged between 41.5 kg and 50 kg giving an
average weight of 44.5 kg (sem 2.85) (Figure 4.2). Dressed weights ranged from
28.3 kg to 33 kg with an average of 28.7 kg (sem 2.20) indicating an average
dressing percentage of 64%. The fat depths for BCS 4 on the brisket was 8.5 mm,
forequarter 4.1 mm, loin 3.5 mm and rump 9 mm. The average KFI for BCS 4 was
137.4 (sem 1.1).
Figure 4.2 : Live weights of the fallow does of BCS 2, 3 and 4 used in this study.
For fallow deer does, there were significant differences between BCS for IMF (BCS
2-3, F1,16 = 32.713, p<0.001); (BCS 3-4, F2,18 = 7.988, p<0.01), with IMF increasing
as BCS increased., and colour „a‟ (redness) (F1,16 = 4.414, p<0.05), with redness
values at BCS 4 being lower than BCS 2 or BCS 3. There were significant
differences between BCS for tenderness (cooked shear force values) (F2,18=3.984,
p<0.05), with meat from BCS 4 carcasses being more tender than meat from BCS 2
and BCS 3 carcasses (Table 4.2).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
L
i
v
e
w
e
i
g
h
t
k
g
Number of Animals
BCS 2
BCS 3
BCS 4
Chapter Four
123
Table 4.2 : Meat quality attributes of M. longissimus dorsi from fallow does of
BCS 2 (n=7), BCS 3 (n=7) and BCS 4 (n=10).
BCS pH Cooked
Shear
(g)
Raw
Shear
(g)
Colour
L*
Colour
a*
Colour
b*
Moisture
(%)
IM
Fat
(%)
Freeze
Thaw
loss
(%)
BCS
2
5.48a
(0.05)
4538.9a
(686.1)
2640.1a
(394.8)
20.91a
(0.31)
11.68a
(0.44)
2.43a
(0.29)
75.79a
(0.43)
1.63a
(0.12)
18.02a
(1.42)
BCS
3
5.47a
(0.06)
4476.6a
(452.3)
2629.5a
(194.2)
20.91a
(0.46)
11.67a
(0.27)
2.84a
(0.31)
75.69a
(0.42)
2.69b
(0.09)
19.44a
(0.99)
BCS
4
5.49a
(0.03)
3610.6b
(224.0)
2598.9a
(191.3)
21.69a
(0.76)
10.99b
(0.22)
2.97a
(0.28)
75.41a
(0.21)
3.79c
(0.65)
19.11a
(1.42)
Means and standard error of means (in parenthesis) are shown. Treatments followed
by the same letter in the columns are not significantly different (p<0.05).
4.3.3: Fallow bucks and haviers
Live weights, dressing percentages, BCS measurements and KFI results for fallow
deer bucks are in section 4.3.1.
The live weight of the BCS 2 haviers ranged between 40 kg and 52.5 kg giving an
average weight of 46.7 kg (figure 4.3). Dressed weights ranged from 23.5 kg to 31.9
kg with an average of 26.2 kg (sem 1.20) indicating an average dressing percentage
of 56%. Body condition scores were confirmed via measurement of subcutaneous fat
depth and KFI. Average fat depth for BCS 2 on the brisket was 2.4 mm, forequarter
0.4 mm, loin 1.4 mm, rump 3 mm. Average KFI for BCS 2 was 33.3 (sem 1.30).
The live weight of the BCS 3 haviers ranged between 41.5 kg and 52 kg giving an
average weight of 46.6 kg (Figure 4.3). Dressed weights ranged from 22.5 kg to 32.5
kg with an average of 26.6 kg indicating an average dressing percentage of 57%.
Body condition scores were confirmed via measurement of subcutaneous fat depth
and KFI. Average fat depth for BCS 3 on the brisket was 6 mm, forequarter 1 mm,
loin 1.7 mm, rump 4.8 mm. Average KFI for BCS 3 was 62.8 (sem 1.4).
Chapter Four
124
Figure 4.3 : Live weights of the fallow bucks and haviers of BCS 2 and BCS 3 used in
this study.
There was no significant relationship between BCS and meat quality parameters of
bucks and haviers, therefore data were combined for BCS. A number of meat quality
attributes for bucks and haviers are shown in Table 4.3. The data shows that there
was no statistical difference between BCS 2 and 3 bucks and haviers for
intramuscular fat, meat colour lightness (L*), tenderness and moisture content.
However, the bucks had higher redness (a*) and lower yellowness (b*) values
compared with the meat from haviers (p<0.05).
Table 4.3 : Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow bucks and
haviers of BCS 2 and 3.
Sex HCW
(kg)
pH
Raw Shear
(g)
Colour
L*
Colour
a*
Colour
b*
Moist
(%)
IM Fat
(%)
Bucks 25.75a
(0.94)
5.45a
(0.08)
2404.2a
(217.67)
21.27a
(0.63)
12.05a
(0.40)
0.56a
(0.39)
74.99a
(0.17)
0.73a
(0.13)
Haviers 24.69a
(0.60)
5.42a
(0.06)
2073.9a
(283.0)
19.17a
(0.50)
10.60b
(0.41)
0.80b
(0.18)
75.04a
(0.16)
0.69a
(0.17)
Means and standard error of means (in parenthesis) are shown.
Treatments followed by the same letter in the columns are not significantly different
(p<0.05).
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
L
i
v
e
w
e
i
g
h
t
k
g
Number of animals
BCS 2 Bucks
BCS 3 Bucks
BCS 2 Haviers
BCS 3 Haviers
Chapter Four
125
4.3.4: Red deer stags with BCS of 2, 3 and 4
The dressed weights of the BCS 2 stags ranged between 38.6 kg to 78.3 kg with an
average of 48.9 kg (sem 1.40) (Figure 4.4). Average fat depth at the GR site for BCS
2 was 2 mm (Figure 4.5).
The dressed weights of the BCS 3 stags ranged between 38.6 kg to 78.3 kg with an
average of 68.1 kg (sem 1.9) (Figure 4.4). Average fat depth at the GR site for BCS 3
was 3.5 mm (Figure 4.5).
The dressed weights of the BCS 4 stags ranged between 38.6 kg to 78.3 kg with an
average of 75.8 kg (sem 1.7) (Figure 4.4). Average fat depth at the GR site for BCS 4
was 5.8 mm (Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.4 : Hot carcass weights of the red stags used in this study.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
BCS 2 BCS 3 BCS 4
Kg
Carcass Weight
Carcass Weight
Chapter Four
126
Figure 4.5 : Fat depth (GR) of the red stags used in this study.
In this experiment, there was a significant difference between BCS in shear force of
raw meat samples (F2, 23 = 4.341, p<0.05) with BCS 4 having lower shear force
values than BCS 2 or BCS 3. There was no difference between BSC 2 and BSC 3
shear force for cooked meat samples, however, BSC 4 was significantly lower for
cooked shear values (p<0.05). There were significant differences between BCS in
redness (F2, 23 =5.588, p<0.01), with BCS 3 and 4 having less redness, but not in
other measured colour parameters. There were also significant differences between
BCS in intramuscular fat (F2, 23 = 70.234, p<0.001) and in HCW (F2, 23 = 35.165,
p<0.001), with increasing values as BCS increased, but no significant differences
between BCS for other measured parameters (Table 4.4).
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
BCS 2 BCS 3 BCS 4
mm
GR depth
GR depth
Chapter Four
127
Table 4.4 : Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from red stags of BCS 2 (n=1), 3 (n=6) and 4 (n=6).
Means and standard error of means (in parenthesis) are shown.
Numbers in the columns with the same letter are not significantly different (p<0.05).
4.4: Discussion
In this series of experiments carcass quality characteristics for entire fallow bucks,
castrated fallow bucks and fallow does, as well as red deer stags, with a BCS
between 2 and 4 were established.
4.4.1: BCS and live weight
The range of live weights for fallow deer included in the study fell within the target
sale weight range of 25 kg to 35 kg (Tuckwell 2003b). The red deer in the study
included two animals that failed to fit within the premium carcass weight ranges of
55 kg to 75 kg for red deer (Tuckwell 2003b), with one animal having a HCW of
38.6 kg and therefore below the schedule, and another over the maximum at 78.3 kg,
while the remaining 24 animals were within the specified range.
Live animal BCS assessment was confirmed with post-mortem measurements of
subcutaneous fat depths and KFI. The majority of these data fell within the ranges
described by Flesch (2001). It is acknowledged that there may be variations between
animals and assessors which can affect estimations of the body condition of any
BCS pH Cooked
Shear
(g)
Raw
Shear
(g)
Colour
L*
Colour
a*
Colour
b*
Moist
(%)
IM
Fat
(%)
Freeze
Thaw
loss
(%)
HCW
(kg)
BCS 2
(n= 14)
5.66 a
(0.03)
5724.3a
(397.7)
3810.6a
(243.2)
22.82 a
(0.48)
12.16 a
(0.34)
2.78 a
(0.25)
75.91 a
(0.15)
1.31 a
(0.17)
12.49 a
(0.80)
48.9 a
(2.4)
BCS 3
(n = 6 )
5.57 a
(0.03)
5403.5a
(292.8)
3330.4a
(184.5)
22.64 a
(0.34)
11.88 b
(0.34)
3.35 a
(0.11)
75.67 a
(0.26)
3.22 b
(0.34)
11.51 a
(0.97)
68.1 b
(2.9)
BCS 4
(n = 6)
5.63 a
(0.01)
4942.5b
(230.4)
2846.1b
(201.2)
23.62 a
(0.37)
11.80 b
(0.41)
3.58 a
(0.21)
76.13 a
(0.34)
4.84 c
(0.33)
12.34 a
(0.58)
75.8 b
(1.7)
Chapter Four
128
particular animal. There were a small number of discrepancies with fat deposition on
the does that formed part of this study. It has been noted by Flesch (2001) that fat
deposition in does may not always follow a consistent pattern, and this was evident
in this study, with fat deposition lacking consistency between measurement sites. In a
study by Mushi et al (2008) comparing lambs and goats, the EUROP system of BCS
was found to be an accurate discriminator of potential carcass composition, as did
Johansen et al (2008). The EUROP system, like the BCS system for red and fallow
deer, is a five grade system designed to assess fatness and body condition in the live
animal.
As body condition score increased, HCW and live weight increased, in both fallow
and red deer, particularly when comparing BCS 4 animals to BCS 2 and 3. This has
been confirmed in sheep, where heavier and higher condition animals were
significantly heavier than lower and medium condition animals (Okeudo and Moss
2005; Glimp et al 1998; Juarez et al 2009) and red deer where GR fat depth was
strongly correlated to carcass weight (Stevenson-Barry et al 1999).
4.4.2: Intramuscular fat
IMF increased as body condition score increased in all study animals, significantly
for the fallow deer does and red stags. Similar results have been found in sheep,
where animals of higher body condition were significantly higher in IMF than lower
and medium condition animals (Diaz et al 2004; Okeudo and Moss 2005; Glimp et al
1998; Juarez et al 2009), and in cattle (Weglarz 2010), where IMF increased with
carcass fatness score, particularly in heifers when compared with bulls. Similar
results were documented in higher body condition horses (Sarries and Berlain 2005).
There was no significant difference in IMF content between fallow deer bucks and
haviers. Carcass weights were not significantly different between fallow deer bucks
and haviers, as was the case with red deer (Kay et al 1981). Previous studies by
Mulley (1996) indicated that haviers have a higher percentage of body fat in terms of
carcass composition and better year round meat quality regardless of breeding
season. This was confirmed by Woodford et al (1996) with castrated blackbuck
Chapter Four
129
antelope. Although expected, this was not confirmed in the current study, possibly
because drought conditions prevailed at the time of raising and slaughter. Lack of
feed availability reduced the ability of animals to store fat in typical carcass fat
deposition areas. The experiment was not repeated in times of better quality and
availability of pasture, since by the time the drought had abated, venison producers
had ceased the practise of castrating fallow deer bucks and the experimental finding
was no longer of commercial importance. A recent study by Asher et al (2011) on
red deer and wapiti-red hybrid stags noted that there was a delay of between 6 and 23
days in reaching slaughter weight in castrated animals. Carcass composition was
measured on the live animal by CT scanning and results confirmed with carcass
measurements post-slaughter. The carcass traits demonstrated a linear relationship
with body weight. The study concluded that there were no significant effects of
castration on any musculature, and only a minor effect of increased fatness within the
hind leg. Their findings support the results of this study, where there was no
significant difference between bucks and haviers, apart from meat colour, which was
not determined in the study by Asher et al (2011). Hogg et al (1990) similarly found
little effect of castration, with minor differences in musculature and fat deposition,
but commented on issues of reduced production due to lower live weight gains and
meat yields. A study of blackbuck antelope also determined that castration caused a
reduction in live weight gain but had no significant effect on slaughter or carcass
weight when compared with entire animals (Woodford et al 1996). Much of the
effect of steroid hormones on the growth of entire animals results in increased
weight of hide and bone (Mulley 1989), and this appears to be why reduced live
weight gain of castrates is not translated into carcass weight differences between
entire and castrates males in this and previous studies. Once entire males are dressed,
the heavier head, hide and bones of the extremities are lost as offal and the carcass
weight is then similar to that of castrated males of the same age.
4.4.3: Shear force
In the current study meat tenderness of venison increased as BCS increased,
significantly so when BCS 4 fallow does and red deer stags were included in the
study. This is in agreement with findings in steer carcasses where fatter carcasses
Chapter Four
130
displayed better tenderness than leaner carcasses (Pflanzer and Felicio 2009). In this
study, there was no significant difference in tenderness when comparing venison
from BCS 2 animals with BCS 3. BCS 4 animals, however, were significantly more
tender than the other two scores. Although venison from BCS 4 animals was more
tender, BCS 2 and 3 animals provided venison of acceptable tenderness, with shear
force values predominantly below 5.0 kg, and all well below 6.0 kg. A Warner-
Bratzler shear force value of over 5 kg is a nominal and arbitrary estimate of the
threshold for consumer acceptability of tenderness in lamb and sheep meat (Russell
et al 2005). This finding is of importance to venison producers when determining the
condition of animals for slaughter and for producing venison for particular markets.
In a study by Wiklund et al (2010) on seasonal variation in red deer venison, the deer
slaughtered prior to the rut had higher carcass weights and GR fat depths, and the
most tender meat compared with animals slaughtered at other times of the year. In
this study higher BCS animals had the most tender meat also, and the highest carcass
weights in both red deer and fallow deer venison. Conversely, tenderness is known to
decrease as slaughter weight increases in lamb (Martinez-Cerezo et al 2002;
Abdullah and Qudsieh 2009; Tejeda et al 2008) and beef (Sanudo et al 2004; Maher
et al 2004), where animal condition is not used as a slaughter parameter.
In a New Zealand study, venison from red deer hinds was more tender than venison
from stags (Purchas et al 2010), as was the case in this study for fallow deer does and
bucks. In this study does were also more tender at all body condition scores despite
being 12-18 months older than the males. Within sexes it has been shown that
tenderness decreased with advancing age in fallow deer bucks (Volpelli et al 2005;
Pinto et al 2009); red deer stags (Stevenson et al 1989a); blackbuck antelope
(Woodford et al 1996); camels (Dawood 1995); goats (Rodrigues et al 2011); and
lamb (Hopkins et al 2006, 2007; Pethick et al 2002, 2005b; Thompson et al 2005b).
However, between sexes this study showed that older females were more tender than
younger males both in instrumental measures and sensory evaluation (Hutchison et al
2010). A study on venison from red deer hinds (Stevenson et al 1989a) found that
unless the carcasses were visibly emaciated, the venison was of uniformly high
quality and tenderness irrespective of animal age, which ranged from 1 year to 13
years of age. Female roe deer have also been reported (Daszkiewicz et al 2012) to
exhibit lower shear force values compared to males. This has been confirmed in beef
Chapter Four
131
cattle, with heifers providing more tender meat than bulls or steers at the same age
(Lundesjo et al 2003, Daszkiewicz et al 2005; Weglarz 2010) and cows more tender
than bulls (Jelenikova et al 2008). Similar results are reported in lamb, with ewe
lambs providing more tender meat with higher levels of IMF than ram lambs (Craigie
et al 2012). Therefore, one can speculate from these studies that this is a difference
related to sex rather than age, with female animals having slightly higher IMF and
smaller diameter of muscle fibres than males of the same species. In a study on bulls,
muscle fibre area highly correlated with age and classification of EUROP score,
resulting in poorer eating quality of the meat (Mlynek et al 2007).
Purchas et al (2010) noted that red deer hinds had greater GR depths (NS) than stags,
and the hinds had significantly higher levels of IMF. Higher IMF levels were also
confirmed for hinds when compared to red stags in a study by Polak et al (2008) and
roe deer does when compared to bucks (Daszkiewicz et al 2012). In the study by
Purchas et al (2010) tenderness was improved due to greater IMF and slightly longer
sarcomeres. Red deer stags also had higher cooking losses and lower water holding
capacity (Purchas et al 2010). This was confirmed in a study of wild red deer
(Daszkiewicz et al 2009), where red deer stags had higher shear force values than
hinds. This study reported low collagen levels in stags that were further reduced in
the hind population measured (Daszkiewicz et al 2009). Although higher collagen
concentrations in muscles from red stags and fallow bucks, compared to fallow deer
does, haviers and red deer hinds, have not been reported as they have for lamb; these
findings may provide an explanation for differences in tenderness between sexes of
fallow and red deer venison (Dransfield et al 1990).
Tender venison without ageing, as was the finding in this experiment, has been
reported by other authors (Wiklund et al 2003b; Kochanowska-Maturszewska 2004).
Various other game animals have been examined for meat quality: springbok and
impala (Hoffman 2000); blackbuck antelope (Woodford et al 1996); wildebeest (van
Schalkwyk 2004); reedbuck (Hoffman et al 2008b); and kudu (Hoffman et 2009),
and have been found to produce universally tender meat when compared with
domestic meat species such as goats, beef cattle and sheep.
Chapter Four
132
4.4.4: Freeze-thaw/purge
Freeze-thaw purge losses were significantly higher in fallow deer bucks of BCS 3
when compared with BCS 2. Bucks of BCS 3 had a tendency to exhibit higher
moisture content, though this was not significant. Significantly higher losses may be
a result of a number of factors relating to water holding capacity, moisture content,
muscle structure, freezing quality and fat percentages. One outcome from freezing
meat is the amount of exudates that arise during thawing, as freezing causes an extra
loss of water compared with fresh chilled meat (Anon and Calvelo 1980; Leygonie et
al 2012). When meat is frozen, water is removed from within the muscle cells which
provides a potential reservoir of fluid that appears as drip on thawing (Lawrie and
Ledward 2006). Moore and Young (1991) determined that the dominant cause of
drip loss was the type of the freeze-thaw system and resultant cellular damage (Anon
and Calvelo 1980; Leygonie et al 2012). Given that all samples were frozen in the
same manner in the present study, this is an unlikely explanation for these results.
Daszkiewicz et al (2009) found that water holding capacity and association of free
water with protein was pH dependent. Post-mortem rate and extent of pH decline,
proteolysis and protein exudation are believed to be key influences in the ability of
meat to hold moisture (Huff-Lonergan and Lonergan 2005). While the mean pHu of
the BCS 3 bucks was slightly higher than the bucks of BCS 2, this was not
significant. Hoffman et al (2009) related drip loss to water holding capacity (WHC)
of meat which is influenced by several factors including the extent of post-mortem
pH fall. It is believed that higher muscle pH causes less water release from the
muscle since WHC is at a minimum between pH 5.0 and 5.5, which corresponds to
the isoelectric point of the protein within the muscle (Bouton et al 1971; Offer and
Knight 1988). This is confirmed by Hoffman et al (2007) who reported that very low
pHu values resulted in higher drip losses from the LD samples of springbok. Oddy et
al (2001) speculated that carcass size and fatness can interact with drip loss due to
the effect on chilling rate and glycolysis. Fast rates of pH decline and low pHu are
related to high purge losses as proteins lose the ability to bind water during rapid
proteolysis (Huff-Lonergan and Lonergan 2005). The pHu of carcasses from bucks of
both BCS 2 and 3 was not considered to be low, and venison is considered to be
more likely to have higher pHu and produce dry, firm and dark (DFD) meat rather
Chapter Four
133
than pale, soft and exudative (PSE) meat (Stevenson-Barry et al 1999). Low pHu
values and associated drip loss is a phenomenon that has been studied extensively on
pork where certain genetic traits in pigs can result in meat that is pale, soft and
exudative. This genotype results in abnormal flow of calcium across the
sarcoplasmic membrane of muscle cells, and fluid accumulates outside the myofibre
bundles and drips from the muscle, resulting in dry eating quality of the meat (Oddy
et al 2001). In this study the mean pH of BCS 3 bucks was within the optimal range
(5.4-5.7), therefore variation in pH cannot explain the result in this case. Does in this
study had higher mean freeze-thaw losses across all BCS than the BCS 3 fallow deer
bucks, while red stags had similar mean freeze-thaw losses. This was also reported
in roe deer does (Daszkiewicz et al 2012) where drip loss was higher when compared
to bucks. Wiklund et al (2010) speculated that seasonal variation in protein accretion
and catabolism, which relates to proteolysis and meat tenderness, would likely also
impact on WHC. Whether this has an effect on animals of higher BCS is unknown. A
similar finding in red deer venison (Wiklund et al 2010) demonstrated that animals
with higher BCS and higher carcass weights had the highest drip loss values, and
they speculated that high tenderness of the meat and loss of meat texture with
subsequent purge of moisture is a possible cause. This may also explain the higher
losses in venison from fallow deer does and bucks of BCS 3 in the current study,
however, this finding was not confirmed in any of the other venison analysed in the
study and would warrant further experimental investigation to confirm validity of the
result.
4.4.5: Colour
Colour measurements on the venison in this study revealed a decrease of redness (a*
value) as BCS increased. The lower redness values were only significant for BCS 4
red deer stags and BCS 4 fallow deer does compared with other BCS categories. This
decrease in redness may be related to fat deposition within the muscle. Hocqette et al
(2006) speculated that differences in levels of IMF and proportion of different
muscle fibre types may lead to differences in meat colour and tenderness. Meat from
goats (Madruga et al 2008) and lambs (Perlo et al 2008; Diaz et al 2002) with low
BCS had higher redness values. A study comparing meat from goats and lambs
Chapter Four
134
found that goats had higher redness values than lambs, and it was believed to be
associated with increased fatness in the lambs (Mushi et al 2008) and lower carcass
fatness in goats (Mushi et al 2008; Priolo et al 2002). Moloney et al (2008) also
found decreasing redness values over a longer concentrate feeding time in beef
correlated with increasing carcass weights. Stevenson-Barry et al (1999) determined
that increasing redness values correlated with an increase in animal age or pH, and
increased toughness in red deer venison and in beef (Triumf et al 2012). This
supports the findings for venison in this study where the lowest redness values were
measured in the most tender venison and therefore, lack of redness may be a possible
indicator of tenderness in venison. A pasture feeding study by Purchas and Zou
(2008) found that Wagyu-cross steers had lighter meat and the lowest shear force
values, while Friesen bull beef was darkest and least tender. The authors speculated
that the colour measures were due to high levels of fat marbling in the longissimus
muscle of the Wagyu-cross steers. In agreement with this study, there was no
significance difference in pHu between groups. Meat from lambs with lower GR
depths has also been shown to be leaner and more red (Perlo et al 2008; Diaz et al,
2002). Fallow deer haviers of BCS 2 and 3 had lower redness and yellowness than
fallow deer bucks of the same BCS, which may be attributable to hormonal status,
muscle activity and fat accretion. Animals in this study were slaughtered in April,
shortly after the completion of the rut, which may explain differences in meat colour,
because haviers are unaffected by breeding season. Stevenson et al (1992) reported
that leaner post-rut venison from red deer stags was redder than pre-rut meat which
also exhibited higher GR fat thickness. Redness of meat depends on the content and
state of heme pigments in the muscle. Meat with higher redness values, as with BCS
2 animals in this study, exhibits increased levels of oxymyoglobin and lower levels
of metmyoglobin (Fernandez-Lopez et al 2000). Animals that have higher levels of
myoglobin are likely to be more physically active and possibly more aggressive than
animals with lower levels (Mushi et al 2008). Animals grazing on pasture tend to be
more physically active and often leaner than those on feedlots, and have subsequent
higher amounts of heme pigments in the muscle.
Chapter Four
135
4.5: Conclusions
This study confirmed the inconsistent relationship between live weight and BCS. The
variation in BCS resulted in some differences in the measured meat quality
parameters for fallow and red deer. The fallow does with BCS 4 had higher IMF
content than BCS 3 and BCS 2. This difference in IMF content was also the most
obvious quality variation between BCS 3 and 4 for red deer. Sensory analysis and
consumer acceptance data were collected to test the hypothesis that BCS and venison
quality attributes are related to consumer expectation for the primary measures of
eating quality such as tenderness, juiciness and flavour (Chapter 7). A relationship
between BCS and consumer acceptance has previously been established for sheep
(Glimp et al 1998) and beef cattle (Gresham et al 1986; Hoving-Bolink et al 1999),
with USDA and Meat Standards Australia (MSA) grading systems well established
on domestic and international markets. This has re-established consumer confidence
and premium prices for product of consistent description and quality in those
industries. It remains to be seen if the BCS descriptor system established for deer and
the relationships now established with meat quality can be used by industry in a
similar way to bring about product consistency for venison.
In the present study red and fallow deer between 12 and 30 months of age raised on
pasture usually had a BCS between 2 and 3. In Australia, most deer are raised on
pasture and slaughtered for venison within this age range, and are unlikely to achieve
BCS 4 unless supplementary-fed in these age groupings (Chapter 5).
Venison quality within these age groupings and body condition scores is of
consistently high quality in terms of the major meat quality parameters of pH, colour,
tenderness and intramuscular fat. Venison that has increased tenderness and IMF
may be achieved by obtaining BCS 4 animals or processing does.
Venison producers are currently paid per kg of hot carcass weight. The target
premium carcass weight ranges specified by Tuckwell (2003) are 25 kg to 35 kg for
fallow deer, and 55 kg to 75 kg in red deer, regardless of sex, animal age and BCS.
By utilising the BCS system along with live weight, producers of venison can deliver
Chapter Four
136
an animal with the view to supplying optimal quality venison for specified markets
and then be paid accordingly. This system should aid producers and processors alike
in achieving better quality assurance for Australian venison.
Chapter Five
137
Chapter Five
Effect of concentrate feeding on meat quality
parameters of venison from fallow deer does
Fallow deer doe at the UWS Deer Research Unit
Chapter 5 Effect of concentrate feeding on meat quality parameters of venison from fallow deer does ............................................................................................. 137
Meat tenderness has been identified by consumers as having high importance in
terms of overall meat quality (Herrera-Mendez et al 2006). Variations in meat
tenderness are a result of a combination of pre- and post-slaughter parameters,
including how meat is prepared for consumption at the consumer end (Koohmaraie
1996). The meat industry has identified a number of factors which affect final meat
tenderness, such as species, breed, age, sex and muscle type. Tenderness of meat is
determined by the amount and solubility of connective tissue, sarcomere length, rate
of proteolysis, as well as the effect of intramuscular fat and post-mortem energy
metabolism (Warner et al 2010). An understanding of the mechanisms involved in
meat tenderness allows the meat industry the scope to improve consistency in terms
of eating quality for consumers (Huff Lonergan et al 2010). Pre-slaughter
management has a significant effect on the final tenderness of the product, including
animal age and condition, finishing regime and animal handling. Post-slaughter
management techniques are also employed in order to enhance final product quality,
such as electrical stimulation, hanging technique, chilling conditions and muscle
ageing (Smulders et al 1991).
Meat ageing is defined as improvements in eating quality that occur in meat as it is
held for a period of time post-mortem (Thompson 2002). Ageing of meat is related to
enzyme activity in the muscle post-mortem, specifically enzymic degradation of
myofibrillar and associated proteins (Koohmaraie 1996). The tenderising process is
recognised as an endogenous proteolytic system related to the action of cathepsins,
the calcium dependent calpains, and the proteasomes in softening the myofibrillar
structure (Herrera-Mendez et al 2006). The role of the calpain system is undisputed,
even though the mode of action is largely unknown, however, there is some question
as to the role of cathepsins in contributing to proteolysis in the early post-mortem
period (Thompson 2002). The rate and extent of tenderising varies to a large degree,
resulting in varied tenderness of meat at the consumer end (Koohmaraie 1996). The
rate of tenderising varies with different species and has been listed in order of speed
Chapter Six
161
as pork, venison, lamb and finally beef. These data and were correlated to the rate of
glycolysis post-mortem (Smulders et al 1995). Tenderising of meat via proteolysis is
controlled by protease levels in the muscle at slaughter and the ageing time post-
rigor, as well as protease activity during post-rigor ageing (Warner et al 2010). The
action of the enzymes is dependent upon the rate of decline of pH and temperature
(Figure 5.1). Higher temperatures induce more rapid changes, and cold shortening of
a carcass can diminish the effects of enzymes on the tenderising of muscles
(Dransfield 1994). Cold shortening occurs when muscle pH is greater than 6.0 with
ATP still available for muscle contraction, and the muscle temperature is below 10
ºC (Figure 6.1) (Thompson 2002). This phenomenon is most probable in lighter
carcasses with less fat cover (Thompson et al 2006), such as young deer carcasses.
Figure 6.1 : The pH /temperature window as it relates to meat tenderness. The solid line indicates optimal decline, the dashed line cold shortening and the dotted line heat
shortening (Thompson 2002).
Studies indicate that if meat is held at temperatures slightly higher than normal
chiller temperatures, muscle proteolysis will initially be enhanced and subsequently,
meat tenderness (Dransfield 1994). However, one must bear in mind the possibility
of bacterial growth at higher temperatures, so temperatures must be as cool as
possible without freezing the meat. Recommended temperatures for long-term ageing
are -0.5 ºC to 1.5 ºC, and for short-term ageing up to 2 weeks, temperatures of 2 ºC
to 3 ºC are deemed acceptable (MTU 2010). The rate of tenderising is highest during
Chapter Six
162
the early stages of ageing and diminishes with time (MTU 2010). A study by Young
et al (2005) found that rapid ageing of sheep carcasses optimised eating quality when
ageing was promoted by higher temperatures (2-4 ºC).
Tenderising by ageing is also believed to reflect ultrastructural changes in the meat
structure, including separation between myofibrils and sarcolemma, with longer
storage times of 7 and 14 days resulting in more detachment in moose and reindeer
meat (Taylor et al 2001). Different muscles will respond differently to the ageing
process (MTU 2010). Those with higher levels of connective tissue will not improve
as much as those with little connective tissue (MTU 2010). Amount and solubility of
the connective tissue component is related to the age of the animal at slaughter, as
well as activity of the muscle in structure and function in the live animal (Thompson
et al 2006).
Anecdotally, the optimum length of ageing time between slaughter of an animal and
boning the carcass into commercial cuts or storage in vacuum packaging has been a
source of constant debate across all sections of the meat industry for many years.
Sanudo et al (2004) suggested that optimum ageing time depends on many factors,
including breed and age at slaughter. Given the interest in this question, it is
surprising that there has not been more extensive work done to evaluate the effect of
hanging or ageing time on meat quality parameters. Lack of chiller storage space and
interruption to cash flow have been reasons given by abattoirs and wholesalers to
limit the time between slaughter and carcass boning, while retail traders have argued
that meat quality is more important than storage costs and should dictate when
carcasses and vacuum packaged cuts are on-sold (MTU 2010). The meat industry is
full of anecdotes relating to this question and there is little evidence to support many
of the claims on the relationship between length of post-slaughter hanging times of
carcasses or storage time of vacuum packaged cuts and meat quality parameters.
Post-mortem ageing is a well recognised method utilised for the improvement of
tenderness, flavour and overall acceptability of beef. Traditionally, the methods
employed were to hang the carcass, or parts thereof, in a cool room until it was
believed to be ready to be sold to consumers. Natural loss of moisture occurred in the
uncovered carcass leading to less saleable yields. This process is known as dry
Chapter Six
163
ageing (MTU 2010). With the development of vacuum packaging, it was possible to
age primal cuts in a vacuum bag under more controlled conditions, leading to
increased saleable yield and the possibility of longer storage times, due to anaerobic
conditions in the pack. This method of ageing is referred to as wet ageing (Smith et
al 2008). Dry ageing is still perceived, by the premium restaurant trade, to be the
preferred method of ageing beef, leading to enhanced tenderness and flavour, where
Angus and Wagyu beef primals are often used (MTU 2010).
Even more important for the deer industry is the question of whether commercial
practices applied to carcasses from traditional domesticated species such as sheep
and cattle are appropriate for the much leaner deer carcasses. Studies on reindeer
(Barnier et al 1999; Wiklund et al 1997a) meat quality have reported that the meat is
very tender as early as 3 days post-mortem, with no significant increase in tenderness
after 7 or 14 days. The small size of muscle fibres and low collagen content in that
species is thought to be partly responsible for the tenderness, and therefore the meat
does not require ageing (Barnier et al 1999). It has also been explained by high
activity of the calpains and cathepsins (Farouk et al 2007; Wiklund et al 1997a). A
study conducted on fallow deer by Freudenreich and Fischer (1989) reported that
sensory quality was better after wet ageing for 16 days with no significant effect after
9 days. A study on red deer stags, fallow deer bucks and elk bull venison (Drew et al
1988) found that ageing at 10 ºC for the first 24 hours post-mortem, followed by up
to 72 hours at 4 ºC, resulted in improved tenderness, particularly for loin muscles
when compared with venison held at 4 ºC for the same time period .
Most of the previous studies into the effect of aging on meat tenderness have been
done by excising muscles at 1-2 days post-mortem and ageing in vacuum bags, for
periods ranging from 2 to 35 days with the average being 14 to 21 days. Studies done
on lamb (Martinez-Cerezo et al 2002; Medel et al 2002; Thompson et al 2005b; Font
i Furnols et al 2006) and beef (Campo et al 2000; Maher et al 2004; Sanudo et al
2004; Moloney 2011, Monson et al 2005; and Revilla and Vivar-Quintana 2006)
found that as ageing time increased, so did meat tenderness in a variety of breeds and
sexes. Vieira et al (2007) found that there was no real benefit of ageing up to 7 days
for yearling Spanish oxen. Studies on other species such as water buffalo (Neath et al
2007; Irurueta et al 2008), ostrich (Botha et al 2007), goats (Kannan et al 2006),
Chapter Six
164
camel (Soltanizadeh et al 2008) and reindeer (Barnier et al 1999) have found that
optimal tenderness can be achieved in as little as 3 to 5 days with no significant
difference after this time.
While wet ageing (vacuum packaging) appears to be the most common method that
has been studied, dry ageing, where the carcass is hung whole or in parts without any
protective covering, such as in the experiment conducted as part of this work, is also
used in industry for ageing of meat. A study conducted by Laster et al (2008)
compared the two methods of wet and dry ageing, and they reported that wet aged rib
eye beef steaks had lower shear force values than dry aged rib eye. However, dry
aged sirloin had lower shear force values than wet aged sirloin in that study. In
concluding, Laster et al (2008) found that there was no real significant difference
between the two methods, however saleable yields were lower with dry ageing.
This section describes an experiment designed to test whether length of carcass
hanging time post-slaughter affects the main meat quality parameters in deer
venison. The animals tested represented commercial age and body condition scores
for fallow deer of two sexes. Only one deer species (fallow deer) was tested to
minimise costs.
6.1.2: Materials and methods
Entire (n=25) and castrated (n=ll) fallow bucks (haviers) ranging from 18-24 months
old and with body condition scores ranging between 2 and 3 (lean and prime), with
average live weight of 45 kg, were fasted for 16 h and slaughtered by captive bolt
stunning and thoracic stick exsanguination within 3 seconds of the stun. All carcasses
were hung by the Achilles tendon and measured for core body temperature and
muscle pH at 1 and 24 hours post-mortem. Body condition score was measured ante-
mortem and confirmed with carcass measurements post-mortem according to the
method of Flesch et al (2002). Carcasses were hung uncovered (dry aged) in a chiller
at ±2 ºC for 5 or 10 days. LD muscles were boned out from each carcass at 5 and
then 10 days post-slaughter and divided into 3 sections, one complying with the
specified standard for mid-loin according to AUS-MEAT (1995) guidelines, one
Chapter Six
165
from the foreloin section (cranial end) of the muscle, and a third from the hind loin
(caudal end). These selected cuts were vacuum packaged and frozen at -21 °C for no
more than 12 weeks until analysed. Samples were analysed in triplicate for pH,
intramuscular fat, colour, shear force, moisture and freeze-thaw loss and purge. All
analyses were carried out in triplicate.
6.1.3: Results
A number of meat quality attributes for bucks and haviers are shown in Tables 6.1
and 6.2. The data show that there was no statistical difference between bucks and
and moisture content (Table 6.1). The samples from haviers had lower a* (redness)
and higher b* (yellowness) values than entire bucks after 5 days of dry ageing
(p<0.05).
Table 6.1 : Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow bucks and haviers with BCS between 2 and 3.
Sex HCW
(kg)
pHµ
Raw Shear
(g)
Colour
L*
Colour
a*
Colour
b*
Moisture
(%)
IM Fat
(%)
Bucks 25.75a
(0.94)
5.45a
(0.08)
2404.2a
(217.67)
21.27a
(0.63)
12.05a
(0.40)
0.56a
(0.39)
74.99a
(0.17)
0.73a
(0.13)
Haviers 24.69a
(0.60)
5.42a
(0.06)
2073.9a
(283.0)
19.17a
(0.50)
10.60b
(0.41)
0.80b
(0.18)
75.04a
(0.16)
0.69a
(0.17)
Means and standard error of means (in parenthesis) are shown. Treatments followed by the same letter
in the columns are not significantly different (p<0.05)
There was also no difference in moisture content for samples collected between 5
days and 10 days post-mortem. Muscle tenderness was increased after 10 days
ageing (NS) (Table 6.2).
Chapter Six
166
Table 6.2 : Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow bucks and haviers with BCS between 2 and 3 measured at 5 days and 10 days post-mortem.
Parameters 5 days post-mortem 10 days post-mortem
Entire bucks Haviers Entire bucks Haviers
pH 5.45 a
(0.08)
5.42 a
(0.06)
5.63a
(0.03)
5.66a
(0.02)
IM fat (%) 0.73a
(0.13)
0.69a
(0.17)
0.75a
(0.14)
0.70a
(0.16)
Colour L* 21.27a
(0.63)
19.17a
(0.50)
not analysed not analysed
Colour a* 12.05a
(0.40
10.60b
(0.28)
not analysed not analysed
Colour b* 0.56a
(0.39)
0.80b
(0.18)
not analysed not analysed
Shear force (g)
2404.20a
(217.67)
2073.87a
(283.02)
2364.14a
(148.34)
1996a
(128.47)
Moisture (%) 74.99a
(0.17)
75.04a
(0.16)
74.77a
(0.78)
74.95a
(0.12)
Freeze-thaw
purge (%)
17.48
(1.62)
16.97
(1.50)
16.58a
(1.51)
15.37a
(2.35)
HCW (kg) 25.75a
(0.94)
24.69a
(0.60)
25.75a
(0.94)
24.69a
(0.60)
Means and standard error of means (in parenthesis) are shown. Treatments followed by the
same letter in the rows are not significantly different (p<0.05). Not analysed - samples
destroyed following bushfire and consequent power loss to freezers
There was significantly more intramuscular fat (p<0.05) and moisture (p<0.001) in
the forequarter loin when compared with mid and hind loin samples, although there
were no significant differences between mid and hind loin. Tenderness was increased
in all loin samples after 10 days (NS) (Table 6.3).
Chapter Six
167
Table 6.3 : Mean pH, moisture, shear force and intramuscular fat measurements for fore, mid- and hind loin samples for fallow bucks and haviers measured at 5 and 10
days post-mortem.
Parameters 5 days post-mortem 10 days post-mortem
foreloin mid-loin hind loin foreloin mid-loin hind loin
pH 5.46a
(0.08)
5.52a
(0.06)
5.45a
(0.08)
5.57a
(0.02)
5.62a
(0.02)
5.63a
(0.03)
Moisture (%) 75.28a
(0.18)
74.99b
(0.17)
74.95b
(0.15)
75.46a
(0.14)
74.78b
(0.08)
74.53b
(0.16)
Shear force (g) 3168.43a
(389.32)
2404.20a
(217.67)
2244.31a
(181.94)
2310.37a
(124.54)
2364.14a
(148.33)
2095.45a
(163.13)
IM fat (%) 1.20a
(0.14)
0.73b
(0.13)
0.79b
(0.12)
1.26a
(0.11)
0.69b
(0.13)
0.75b
(0.12)
Means and standard error of means (in parenthesis) are shown.
Treatments followed by the same letter in the rows are not significantly different (p<0.05).
Chapter Six
168
6.1.4: Discussion
6.1.4.1: Tenderness and meat ageing
There was no significant difference in most meat quality parameters, including
tenderness between carcasses sampled 5 days and 10 days post-slaughter, or between
entire bucks and haviers. There was a general tendency for the meat aged for 10 days
to be more tender than the 5 day aged meat, however, these differences were
statistically not significant (p>0.05). This is not consistent with findings in beef
(Destefanis et al 2003) who found no differences in meat quality attributes of steers
and bulls. Ahnstrom et al (2009) found that shear force values of yearling Charolais
heifers showed no significant differences over 7 days but were significantly more
tender after 14 days of ageing. There has long been anecdotal debate about the merits
of hanging venison carcasses longer, and the effect this has on meat tenderness, but
for animals in the current study with BCS between 2 and 3 there was no apparent
difference resulting from hanging carcasses longer. These results in fallow deer agree
with previous studies on reindeer where optimal tenderness in the meat was achieved
already after 1-3 days of ageing of the meat (Wiklund et al 1997a). A study by Shaw
(2000) also determined that venison from red deer had acceptable tenderness after
only 24 hours ageing. Studies on lamb have found that an ageing time of 20 days was
required for consumers to detect a significant difference in tenderness (Font i Furnols
et al 2006). Similarly, Freudenreich and Fischer (1989) found that wild harvested
fallow deer required at least 16 days for consumers to detect increased tenderness.
Perry et al (2001b) found that consumers ranked lamb aged for 14 days as more
tender than lamb aged for one day despite there being no significant difference in
instrumental measures of tenderness of the samples. Like fallow deer venison, water
buffalo is a low fat meat that has lower shear force values and is higher in iron and
protein than beef (Murthy and Devadason 2003). Neath et al (2007) found no
significant differences in tenderness when water buffalo meat was aged for 14 days.
However, tenderness increased in water buffalo meat after ageing over 25 days in a
study conducted by Irurueta et al (2008). Blackbuck antelope meat displayed
significant increases in pH, lower shear force values, and increased colour for all
values in meat aged for 10 days (Woodford et al 1996).
Chapter Six
169
Samples in the current study were frozen after ageing until analysed. Studies by
Drew et al (1988) found that tenderness increased 10-40% in deer venison when it
was frozen and slowly thawed. A Swedish study drew the same conclusion when
analysing shear force values of beef that had been frozen, where it was found that
frozen samples had significantly lower (p=0.005) shear force values than fresh beef
samples (MTU 2006b). This was confirmed in another study of beef where meat
aged for 2 days and then frozen had the same shear force values as chilled meat aged
for 7 days (Lagerstedt et al 2008) and similar results were reported for Korean
Hanwoo beef (Kim et al 2011). A study on lambs found that any differences
occurring as a result of freezing were small and not deemed to be significant by
consumers (Muela et al 2012). It is possible that samples were universally tender as a
result of the storage process in the current study.
Most commercial venison carcasses in Australia are broken into primal cuts between
1 and 3 days post-slaughter to avoid weight loss from dehydration in the chiller. It
would appear that commercial carcasses with BCS between 2 and 3 can be processed
at a range of times after slaughter without changing venison quality parameters, as
longer hanging times did not enhance or adversely effect parameters that are
associated with tenderness, juiciness and flavour for either of the sexes tested. This
adds considerable flexibility to commercial practice, especially given the
circumstance that deer are usually slaughtered in abattoirs primarily used for the
slaughter of other species and are operating under the commercial constraints
developed to service the wider meat industry.
6.1.4.2: Intramuscular fat
In this experiment there was no difference in intramuscular fat between entire and
castrated bucks, yet Mulley et al (1996) showed castrates to be fatter in all depots
than entires at this age, as has also been demonstrated in beef (Zhou et al 2011;
Zamiri et al 2012) from animals of the same age. Results in the current study may
just relate to animals of BCS 2 to 3, as BCS was not estimated for animals used by
Mulley et al (1996). It may also relate to poorer pasture conditions at the time of
slaughter as a result of drought. In previous studies of venison characteristics, for
most species of deer, there has been only rudimentary information given about the
Chapter Six
170
age, weight and management of the animals used to derive the data. From the data
provided by Flesch et al (2002) for fallow deer, and Audige et al (1998) for red deer
on physical and carcass differences between various BCS categories, it may be
necessary to redefine some of those meat quality measurements. In the commercial
deer industry carcass weight is a primary descriptor for payment to farmers, yet it is
possible that two animals with the same carcass weight could have very different
BCS and provide very different results for meat quality. Meat quality parameters
such as intramuscular fat, moisture, water holding capacity and possibly shear force
could change with BCS, along with changes that occur between sexes and between
seasons of the year.
The foreloin (cranial end) had significantly more fat and moisture than the mid- and
hind loin, a result consistent with the way in which fat accretion develops in other
livestock species (Butterfield 1988). These data are unlikely to be of any commercial
consequence in fallow deer given the small size of the meat cut and the way in which
this primal cut is marketed (i.e. as one whole piece, either bone-in (rack) or bone-
out).
6.1.4.3: Colour
Venison from castrated fallow deer bucks was shown to have less redness and
increased yellowness compared with entire bucks. A similar result was obtained in
fallow deer meat from castrated bucks, without ageing (Chapter 4). Similar results
were also reported for entire and castrated blackbuck antelope (Woodford et al 1996)
and goats (Kim et al 2010). Possible reasons for this may include reduced aggression
and activity in relation to adverse behavioural responses in lairage of castrated
animals. Increased muscle activity and aggression, as seen with entire male animals,
is associated with increased redness and brightness in their meat (MTU 2006a).
Given the outcomes of this study it was concluded that factors other than post-
slaughter hanging time of carcasses were more likely to effect venison quality.
However, further studies could be done utilising wet or vacuum pack ageing of cuts
over longer periods of time rather than the dry ageing methods utilised here.
Chapter Six
171
6.2: Pelvic suspension vs. Achilles tendon hanging of
carcasses
6.2.1: Introduction
Tenderness is one of the most important parameters rated by consumers in terms of
eating quality (Huff Lonergan et al 2010). Major factors which affect tenderness
include cut of meat, animal age, cold shortening that can occur during chilling and
pre-slaughter animal stress leading to high pH. Meat toughness can be reduced by the
use of techniques such as electrical stimulation, which accelerates rigor and pH
decline (Wiklund et al 2001a), or hanging the carcass in such a way that muscles will
be stretched and not allowed to contract, hence the term 'tenderstretch'. (Sorheim and
Hildrum 2002; Thompson et al 2006) (Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2 : Diagram of pelvic suspended (left) and Achilles hung carcass (Sorheim & Hildrum 2002).
Although it is well known that the tenderness of meat can be effected by a number of
pre- and post-slaughter management techniques, optimising post-slaughter
management will assist all sections of the supply chain to deliver meat that is tender
and of high eating quality. One such post-slaughter technique is pelvic suspension or
„tenderstretch‟. Traditionally, carcasses have been suspended by the Achilles tendon
(Plate 6.1) prior to boning out. The technique of pelvic suspension has been under
Chapter Six
172
examination since the early 1970s (Hostetler et al 1970; McCrae et al 1971; Bouton
et al 1973) and has come to the forefront of the Australian meat industry via the Meat
Standards Australia grading system and the Cooperative Research Centres for lamb
and beef (Thompson 2002).
Plate 6.1 : Fallow deer carcass suspended by the Achilles tendon.
Muscles in the butt and loin of a carcass can be restrained from shortening by
hanging the whole carcass by the pelvic or aitch bone (obturator foramen) or
alternatively, the pelvic ligament (Plate 6.2).
Plate 6.2 : Fallow deer carcass suspended by the pelvic bone.
Chapter Six
173
This process increases the tension mainly on the hind and loin muscles, physically
preventing them from shortening and toughening. This technique is referred to
commercially as tenderstetching or pelvic suspension, and has been shown to
increase meat tenderness in beef (Dransfield and Rhodes 1976; Husband and Johnson
1985; O‟Halloran et al 1998; Eikelenboom 1998; Sorheim et al 2001; Hwang et al
2002; Lundesjo et al 2001; Wahlgren et al 2002; Ahnstrom et al 2006; Hwang 2006;
Park et al 2008; Wolcott et al 2009; Bayraktaroglu and Kahraman 2011; Ahnström et
al 2012), lamb (Koohmaraie et al 1996; Thompson et al 2005b; Pinheior and de
Souza 2011) and pork (Rees et al 2003; Bertram and Aaslyng 2007), as well as
several other species such as reindeer (Wiklund et al 2011), blackbuck antelope
(Woodford et al 1996) and kangaroos (Beaton et al 2001).
Carcasses are hung by either the aitch bone or pelvic ligament, though studies
indicate that as the suspension fulcrum is not the same for these two positions, the
tension on various muscles differs (Hwang et al 2002). Studies have been conducted
on a technique known as super stretching where weights are added to the hind limb
of the pelvic suspended carcass. This technique was shown not to provide any
additional benefit over conventional pelvic suspension in beef carcasses (Hopkins et
al 2000). Another technique known as tendercut involves severing the backbone and
the connective tissue along with other minor muscle attachments, which allows the
weight of the forequarter of the carcass to place tension on the LD muscle, along
with breaking of the ischium to provide tension on the hindquarter muscles. This
technique has not proven to be as effective as the pelvic suspension technique and is
more difficult to implement in a commercial setting (Wang et al 1994). Recent
developments which involve stretching and shaping meat cuts, for example
SmartStretch™ (Taylor and Hopkins 2011), are being evaluated for quality
improvement in products from sheep and lamb carcasses (Hopkins 2011) and has
been utilised successfully for beef (Sorheim et al 2001). Recent research indicates
that there is a significant interaction between stretch treatment and ageing in hot
boned mutton, resulting in lower shear force values (Toohey et al 2012a; Toohey et
al 2012b). The carcass must be held in the pelvic suspension position until chilling or
rigor mortis has been established. After this it may be rehung by the Achilles tendon
for transport or boning (MTU 2004). Carcasses may be hung as a whole carcass or
split, depending upon the size of the carcass and available chiller space (Plate 6.3).
Chapter Six
174
Plate 6.3 : Whole fallow deer carcass suspended by the pelvic bone.
Pelvic suspension reduces shortening of the myofibrils and connective matrix when
compared to hanging by the traditional method of the Achilles tendon, particularly in
the loin and hindquarter regions of the carcass. The technique increases sarcomere
length, with a resultant reduction in overlap between actin and myosin, and rapid
degradation of structural proteins at the junction of the Z disk and intermyofibre
filaments (Thompson 2002). Pelvic suspension is particularly useful for carcasses,
such as deer, that may be affected by cold shortening (Thompson et al 2006). Cold
shortening is the process whereby muscle fibres contract when the carcass is chilled
rapidly below 12 °C before the onset of rigor, and this can result in toughness in the
meat (shortened sarcomeres). Lean, light carcasses, such as deer carcasses, chill more
rapidly than fat, heavy carcasses, and can yield tougher meat in muscles that are free
to shorten (Sorheim and Hildrum 2002). The process of pelvic suspension may
adversely affect the tenderloin (M. psoas major) cut of meat because of the way this
cut contracts in the pelvic hanging position, but this change may not be detectable by
the consumer because this cut is naturally very tender and represents a very small
proportion of each carcass. There is no effect on forequarter cuts from tenderstretch
as no extra tension is applied to these muscles (Park et al 2008). Pelvic suspension, if
found to be beneficial in producing consistently tender venison, may be a useful
alternative technique to electrical stimulation in Australia, where electrical
stimulation is generally unavailable for deer processing.
The technique of pelvic suspension has also been shown to improve water holding
capacity, including drip loss, cooking loss and purge in beef (Wahlgren et al 2002;
Chapter Six
175
Ahnstrom et al 2006) and lamb (Wiklund et al 2004). This results in a more tender
and juicier product. The technique also appears to be affected by temperature or
chilling rate as described by Thompson et al (2005b) and Sorheim et al (2001) with
the largest benefits seen at fast chilling rates.
Pelvic suspension has proven to be effective in a number of meat species, however
adoption by processors has been limited. Reasons for this include alteration of the
shape of primal meat cuts, particularly in the hind limbs, thereby reducing the speed
at which operators work in the boning room, and a potential for increased space for
hanging in abattoir chillers (Hopkins 2011). Alternatives to overcome these issues
include rehanging of carcasses by the Achilles tendon after a core body temperature
of less than 7 ºC is achieved, or making use of alternative technology where hot
boned cuts are stretched and ejected into packaging which maintains the cut in a
stretched form (Toohey et al 2008).
In Australia red deer now comprise half of the national herd of deer, and yield two
thirds of the venison harvested each year (Tuckwell 2003b). The deer herd in New
Zealand, one of the largest exporters of venison, is predominantly composed of red
deer (O‟Connor 2006). Studies on red deer carcasses and venison were therefore
included in the current project to complement the fallow deer work. Even though
more scientific literature on red deer venison is available compared with reports on
fallow deer venison, the pelvic suspension (tenderstretch) technique appears not to
have been previously evaluated for red deer carcasses and venison quality. Thus, this
study provides an important comparative approach to product quality and consumer
acceptance of two types of venison, and adds valuable information to the limited
overall knowledge about this product.
6.2.2 Materials and methods
6.2.2.1 Fallow Deer
Eight fallow deer bucks (18 months old, average live weight 42 kg, body condition
score (BCS) 2-3, 7 fallow deer bucks ( 36 months old, average live weight 57 kg,
Chapter Six
176
BCS 2-3) and 10 fallow deer does (≥24 months old, average live weight 38 kg, BCS
2-4), raised at the University of Western Sydney, were included in the study. The
animals were fasted for 16 h prior to slaughter, stunned with a captive bolt and bled
using thoracic stick exsanguination within 3 s of the stun. At slaughter the hot
carcass weight was recorded, as was pH in M.longissimus dorsi (LD, strip loin) and
core body temperature. Kidneys were excised for later KFI calculations. While hot,
carcasses were split along the mid ventral axis (spine) by bandsaw and one half
randomly assigned to Achilles tendon suspension whilst the other side was hung by
pelvic suspension through the aitch bone.
At 24 hours post-mortem carcasses were weighed to determine standard carcass
weight. Ultimate pH and final core body temperature was recorded. Fat depth
measurements were taken as described by Flesch (2001) to confirm BCS post-
mortem. KFI was also calculated to confirm live animal and carcass BCS
assessments.
Nine selected muscles were collected from each carcass-half (Mm.
lateralis, rectus femoris, psoas major, longissimus dorsi, and supra spinatus). The
meat samples were vacuum packaged, and then frozen and stored at -21 oC for no
more than 12 weeks, until analysis.
Samples of LD muscles were analysed in triplicate for intramuscular fat, colour,
shear force, moisture and freeze-thaw loss and purge. The data were analysed
statistically by residual maximum likelihood (Patterson & Thompson, 1971), with
the random effects given by reading within muscle within animal, and the fixed
effects by hanging treatment, muscle and their interaction, using the statistical
package GenStat (2002).
6.2.2.2 Red Deer
Fourteen rising 2 year old red deer stags averaging BCS 2 were sourced from
properties at Blayney and Young, NSW. Body condition score was estimated on the
live animal using palpation techniques as described by Flesch et al (2002). All
Chapter Six
177
animals were slaughtered as described for fallow deer in 6.2.2.1. Skinning and
evisceration were performed with carcasses hanging from a meat rail by the Achilles
tendon. At slaughter the hot carcass weight was recorded, as was pH in
M.longissimus dorsi (LD, strip loin) and core body temperature. Kidneys were
excised for later KFI calculations. While hot, carcasses were split along the spine by
bandsaw and one half randomly assigned to Achilles tendon suspension whilst the
other side was hung by pelvic suspension through the aitch bone.
At 24 hours post-mortem carcasses were weighed to determine standard carcass
weight. Ultimate pH and final core body temperature was recorded. Fat depth
measurements were taken at the GR site with a Hennessy probe to confirm BCS
post-mortem. KFI was also calculated to confirm live animal and carcass BCS
assessments. The LD muscle from each of the carcasses was removed along with the
GM muscle, for use in sensory trials (Chapter 7). Samples removed from the
carcasses for analysis were placed on marked trays and vacuum packaged, and then
frozen at -21 C for no more than 12 weeks, until used for analysis.
Samples were analysed in triplicate for intramuscular fat, colour, shear force
moisture and freeze-thaw loss and purge. The data were analysed statistically by
residual maximum likelihood (Patterson & Thompson, 1971), with the random
effects given by reading within muscle within animal, and the fixed effects by
hanging treatment, muscle and their interaction, using the statistical package GenStat
(2002).
6.2.3 Results
6.2.3.1 Fallow Deer Venison
The results suggest that pelvic suspension of the carcasses had the greatest impact on
meat tenderness in venison from the younger male fallow deer (Figure 6.3), some
impact on tenderness in venison from the older male deer (Figure 6.4) and significant
impact only on the tenderness of the LD muscle in venison from the female deer
(Figure 6.5).
Chapter Six
178
Figure 6.3 : Shear force mean values in 7 muscles (LD = M. longissimus, BF = M. biceps femoris, ST = M. semitendinosus, SM = M. semimembranosus, AF = M. adductor femoris, VL = M. vastus lateralis and RF = M. rectus femoris) from fallow bucks (18 months old,
n=8).
Figure 6.4 : Shear force mean values in 9 muscles (SS = M. supraspinatus, PS = M. psoas major, LD = M. longissimus, BF = M. biceps femoris, ST = M. semitendinosus, SM = M.
semimembranosus, AF = M. adductor femoris, VL = M. vastus lateralis and RF = M. rectus femoris) from fallow bucks (36 months old, n=7).
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
LD BF ST SM AF VL RF
Muscle
Achilles
Pelvic
Shear force (kg/cm2)
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
SS PM LD BF ST SM AF VL RF Muscle
Achilles Pelvic
Shear force (kg/cm 2 )
Chapter Six
179
Figure 6.5 : Shear force mean values in 9 muscles (SS = M. supraspinatus, PM = M. psoas
major, LD = M. longissimus, BF = M. biceps femoris, ST = M. semitendinosus, SM = M. semimembranosus, AF = M. adductor femoris, VL = M. vastus lateralis and RF = M. rectus
femoris) from fallow does (≥24 months old, n=10).
For fallow deer bucks, there was no interaction between body condition score and
method of hanging the carcass for all parameters measured. There were no statistical
differences between carcasses hung post-mortem by the Achilles tendon or by pelvic
suspension for the M. longissimus dorsi quality parameters of pH, colour, moisture or
fat. While there was no detectable difference of hanging method on raw muscle shear
force values (p>0.05), pelvic suspended carcasses had significantly lower cooked
shear force values than Achilles hung carcasses (p<0.001). In this experiment, no
significant differences were detected between animals of BCS 2 and BCS 3 in any of
the other parameters of meat quality, therefore data were combined for BCS 2 and
BCS 3 carcasses (Table 6.4).
Table 6.4 : Meat quality attributes of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow bucks hung by the Achilles tendon and pelvic suspension methods (n=15).
Hanging pH Cooked
Shear
(g)
Raw
Shear
(g)
Colour
L*
Colour
a*
Colour
b*
Moist
(%)
IM
Fat
(%)
Freeze
thaw
loss
(%)
Achilles
Hung
5.80a
(0.04)
5889.5a
(341.7)
2177.4a
(115.2)
20.46a
(0.39)
12.29a
(0.52)
0.088a
(0.20)
75.70a
(0.17)
2.74a
(0.16)
13.56a
(0.98)
Pelvic
suspension
5.80a
(0.03)
4402.2b
(157.8)
2598.4a
(165.6)
21.21a
(0.55)
11.56a
(0.36)
0.117a
(0.11)
76.02a
(0.15)
3.06a
(0.24)
13.69a
(0.76)
Means and standard error of means (in parenthesis) are shown
Treatments followed by the same letter in the columns are not significantly different
(p<0.05).
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
SS PM LD BF ST SM AF VL RF
k
g
/
c
m
2
Muscle
Achilles
Pelvic
Chapter Six
180
For fallow deer does, there was no interaction between body condition score and
method of hanging the carcass for all parameters measured. Data for BCS were
analysed for differences between carcasses hung by the Achilles tendon and
carcasses hung by pelvic suspension. There was a significant difference between
methods of suspension for cooked shear (F1,16 = 7.427, p<0.01) but not for other
parameters tested (Table 6.5), with meat from pelvic suspension carcasses being
more tender.
Table 6.5 : Meat quality attributes of M longissimus dorsi from fallow doe carcasses hung by either the Achilles tendon or by pelvic suspension (n=10).
Method
suspension
pH Cooked
Shear
(g)
Raw
Shear
(g)
Colour
L*
Colour
a*
Colour
b*
Moist
(%)
IM Fat
(%)
Freeze
Thaw
loss
(%)
Achilles
Tendon
5.73a
(0.03)
4558.6a
(217.2)
2545.9a
(277.3)
22.13a
(0.45)
13.56a
(0.39)
1.68a
(0.28)
75.49a
(0.47)
1.78a
(0.18)
16.67a
(1.04)
Pelvic
Suspension
5.69a
(0.02)
3778.6b
(155.9)
2721.6a
(271.5)
22.24a
(0.43)
13.56a
(0.37)
1.68a
(0.35)
74.35a
(0.28)
1.89a
(0.17)
13.76a
(1.08)
Means and standard error of means (in parenthesis) are shown
Treatments followed by the same letter in the columns are not significantly different
(p<0.05).
6.2.3.2 Red Deer Venison
There was a significant difference between carcasses hung by the Achilles tendon
compared with pelvic suspension for cooked shear (F1,26 =16.204, p<0.001) but not
for other parameters tested (Table 6.6), with meat from pelvic suspended carcasses
being more tender.
Chapter Six
181
Table 6.6 : Meat quality attributes of M. longissimus dorsi from red stags hung by the Achilles tendon or pelvic suspension after slaughter (n=14).
Method of
Hanging
pH Cooked
Shear
(g)
Raw
Shear
(g)
Colour
L*
Colour
a*
Colour
b*
Moist
(%)
IM
Fat
(%)
Freeze
Thaw
loss
(%)
HCW
(kg)
Achilles
tendon
5.63
(2.67)
5475.78 a
(298.13)
3535.01 a
(184.00)
23.01 a
(0.39)
11.44 a
(0.35)
2.96 a
(0.22)
75.95 a
(0.14)
1.72 a
(0.28)
12.06 a
(0.67)
51.56
(2.67)
Pelvic
Suspension
5.63
(2.67)
4124.12 b
(154.49)
3761.80 a
(167.87)
23.19 a
(0.28)
11.80 a
(0.21)
3.05 a
(0.15)
75.96 a
(0.20)
1.47 a
(0.22)
10.39 a
(0.57)
As
above
Means and standard error of means (in parenthesis) are shown.
Treatments followed by the same letter in the columns are not significantly different
(p<0.05).
6.2.4: Discussion
6.2.4.1: Shear force
The technique of hanging carcasses by the pelvic or aitch bone („tenderstretch‟)
instead of in the usual position by the Achilles tendon resulted in more tender meat in
the M. longissimus dorsi (strip loin) for fallow deer bucks, fallow deer does and red
deer stags. In the Australian beef grading system Meat Standards Australia (MSA),
consumer important sensory quality attributes have been weighted in an overall score
where tenderness represents 40%, flavour 20%, juiciness 10% and overall liking 30%
(MSA 2001). It is well known that the conditions during rigor development (e.g.
muscle pH decline, temperature/pH relationship and carcass treatment) are very
important in controlling meat tenderisation (Dransfield 1994). Therefore, carcass
suspension techniques have been studied for beef (Hostetler et al 1970; Lundesjö
Ahnström et al 2003; Ahnström et al 2012) where the variation in tenderness is
considered to be the main reason for consumer dissatisfaction (Koohmaraie 1996).
Results similar to the current study were shown in beef, where the pelvic suspension
technique generally improved tenderness in most of the studied muscles, but
responses to suspension method were inconsistent and differed by muscles and
genders (bulls, heifers and cows) (Lundesjö et al 2005; Ahnström et al 2012). The
tenderness in meat from bulls was increased as an effect of pelvic suspension
Chapter Six
182
compared with meat from the heifers (Fisher et al 1994; Lundesjö Ahnström et al
2003). Pelvic suspension was also found to increase tenderness of meat from Bos
indicus cattle (Wolcott et al 2009), hybrid Charolais heifers (Ahnström et al 2009),
non-electrically stimulated bulls (Sorheim et al 2001) and cull ewes (Pinheiro and de
Souza 2011).
In the carcasses from the young fallow deer bucks, the tenderness of the following
muscles was significantly improved (p0.05) as a result of pelvic suspension; Mm.
longissimus, biceps femoris, semimembranosus, adductor femoris and vastus
lateralis. These results are in good agreement with earlier studies on beef, where the
tenderness of Mm. longissimus, semimembranosus and adductor femoris was
increased by pelvic suspension (Hostetler et al 1970; Bouton et al 1973). For the
older fallow deer bucks, significant effects of pelvic suspension on meat tenderness
were found in Mm. biceps femoris and semimembranosus. The muscles that
increased in tenderness as a result of pelvic suspension in the present study are
considered the most valuable cuts in a deer carcass, i.e. M. longissimus (strip loin),
Mm. semimembranosus and adductor femoris (topside), M. biceps femoris
(silverside) and M. vastus lateralis (knuckle). The fallow deer does only showed
improvement in tenderness for Mm. Longissimus. There was no significant effect on
forequarter muscles, as is the case for beef (Park et al 2008). It was noted by
Thompson (2002) that poorer eating quality beef carcasses showed the greatest
response to pelvic suspension, as did Sorheim et al (2001), so it is not surprising that
already tender and high eating quality meat from fallow deer does was not as
significantly affected as that from fallow deer bucks and red stags.
Studies in beef (Hwang et al 2002) also found that pelvic suspension resulted in
longer sarcomeres and more tender meat for most hindquarter muscles when
compared to Achilles hanging. The effect was most significant in the Mm.
semimembranosus, longissimus dorsi, gluteus medius, biceps femoris and the vastus
group. As was the case in the current study, the tenderloin or Mm, psoas major was
allowed to shorten as a result of pelvic suspension, however, the decrease in
sarcomere length was small and did not significantly affect tenderness of this already
tender muscle.
Chapter Six
183
6.2.4.2: Freeze-thaw purge
There was no significant difference in the freeze-thaw purge losses in pelvic
suspended carcasses versus Achilles hung carcasses. It has been documented,
however, that water holding capacity in fresh, chilled beef is improved by pelvic
suspension of the carcass (Eikelenboom et al 1998; Ahnström et al 2006), while
other studies have found no significant effect (Bayraktaroglu and Kahraman 2011).
Wiklund et al (2004) reported that drip loss was significantly lower in fallow deer
venison that had been suspended by the Achilles tendon, however, vacuum package
purge was lower in pelvic suspended samples stored for 3 weeks.
The positive effect of pelvic suspension on tenderness in venison from young male
fallow deer and young red deer stags is important information to consider for the
Australian and New Zealand deer industries. This type of animal represents the deer
most likely to be supplied for commercial slaughter in Australia and New Zealand. In
addition, the important commercial cuts from female deer were generally more
tender than the same cuts from males. The slaughter of female deer therefore
provides a good option for farmers wishing to supply chilled venison year-round,
especially at times of the year when the quality of venison from male deer is
negatively affected by the breeding season.
Chapter Six
184
6.3: Differences between slaughter premises for
muscle pH
6.3.1: Introduction
Animals store glycogen in the muscle for energy that is used to support general body
function (Thompson 2001). Prior to slaughter animals may metabolize these energy
stores when dealing with stressors that occur with handling, transportation and
lairage. If an animal is severely stressed it may deplete the energy stores in the
muscles. Ferguson et al (2001) state that in relation to optimal meat quality, pre-
slaughter depletion of glycogen stores is unequivocally the most critical parameter.
Utilisation of glycogen stores (glycogenolysis) is believed to occur as a result of an
increase in activity and adrenal activation.
It is well known that muscle energy (glycogen) is required during the conversion of
muscle to meat, post-slaughter. When an animal is slaughtered the muscle continues
to metabolise glycogen stored in the muscle in a process known as glycolysis.
Glycolysis results in the production of lactic acid, thereby reducing muscle pH. The
rate at which glycolysis occurs is temperature dependent. The process of glycolysis
causes the muscle pH to decrease. In a live animal muscle pH is fairly neutral (7.1)
and optimal pH of meat is within the range of 5.3 to 5.6. This ultimate pH is
achieved when the carcass temperature falls below 7 ºC or at around 20 hours post-
slaughter and energy stores have been exhausted. If energy stores are insufficient at
slaughter, then insufficient lactic acid is produced during glycolysis and pH will be
high (Aberle et al 2001).
The negative impact and incidence of high muscle pHu on meat quality is well
documented in the major meat species, beef (Hood and Tarrant 1981; Thompson
2002) and lamb (Koohmaraie 1996, Thompson et al 2005b; Young et al 2005). It has
also been tested in buffalo (Neath et al 2007); gemsbok (Hoffman and Laubscher
Chapter Six
185
2010); fallow deer (Falepau 1999; Diverio et al 1998); red deer (Pollard et al 1999,
Stevenson-Barry et al 1999); and reindeer (Rehbinder, 1990; Wiklund 1996b;
Wiklund et al 1997b; 2003a).
Venison with high pH has undesirable characteristics, as is the case with other meats,
with a decreased shelf life as one of the major problems. The high pH will promote
microbial spoilage, an effect which is especially critical for vacuum packaged meat.
Meat with high pH is generally referred to as DFD (dry, firm and dark). The
frequency of occurrence of DFD (meat pH above 6.2 in M. longissimus dorsi) in
venison has been reported in Sweden (reindeer, n=3,500, Wiklund et al 1995) and
New Zealand (red and fallow deer, n=3,600, Pollard et al 1999) as 6% in reindeer,
1.5% in red deer and 1% in fallow deer venison. Higher pH values also often result
in less tender meat in beef (Purchas et al 1999), lamb (Watanabe et al 1996) and red
deer venison (Stevenson-Barry et al 1999; Wiklund et al 2010).
Stress is an unavoidable consequence of the process of transferring animals from the
farm to slaughter (Ferguson and Warner 2008). Meat Standards Australia (MSA)
have set criteria for supplying cattle to minimise pre-slaughter stressors and
subsequent depletion of muscle glycogen reserves. These criteria include adequate
feeding of cattle up until dispatch to ensure muscle glycogen levels are between 60
and 120 µmol/g. This ensures levels of muscle glycogen at the time of slaughter are
at least 57 µmol/g so that sufficient lactic acid may be formed to lower muscle pH
from around 7.1 in the live animal to 5.5 post-mortem. Short term stress can increase
the capacity of the muscle to decline in pH while long term stress can reduce it.
Muscle glycogen is depleted by stress through the action of adrenaline and
β2=adrenoreceptor densities (Oddy et al 2011). Stressors that need to be controlled to
minimise fluctuations in the emotional state of the animal are transport distances and
lairage conditions involving handling and human contact, unfamiliar environments,
fasting, changes in social structure as a result of mixing and/or separation of animals
and changes in climate (Thompson 2002; Ferguson and Warner 2008).
Chapter Six
186
6.3.2: Materials and methods
Entire (n=32) fallow bucks ranging from 18-24 months old and with body condition
scores ranging between 2 and 3 were slaughtered at three different slaughter
premises. One group (n=8) were slaughtered as described in Chapter 3 at the
University experimental abattoir. One group (n=12) was slaughtered at a domestic
commercial works using the slaughter technique described in Chapter 3. The final
group (n=12) were slaughtered at an export commercial works using the reversible
electric stun and gash cut method (Mulley and Falepau, 1999). All deer were
slaughtered at similar ambient temperatures, in the same month. Carcasses were
measured for pH and core body temperature at 1 and 24 hours post-slaughter.
6.3.3: Results
There was a significant difference between slaughter plant 3 (export) and the other
two premises examined (Table 6.7). This trial indicates that captive bolt stunning and
thoracic stick exsanguination resulted in carcasses with significantly lower ultimate
pHu values. Animals held in lairage at the export works were subjected to stresses
and noise from working dogs, and cattle and sheep held in close proximity. Slaughter
plants 1 and 2 were used exclusively for deer with no dogs present.
Table 6.7 : Ultimate pH of M.longissimus dorsi from fallow bucks slaughtered at three different slaughter plants.
Slaughter
Premises pHu
Abattoir 1 (UWS)
5.52a (0.05)
Abattoir 2 (Domestic)
5.80a (0.02)
Abattoir 3 (Export)
6 09b (0.09)
Means and standard error of means (in parenthesis) are shown. Treatments followed by the same letter in the columns are not significantly different (p<0.05).
Chapter Six
187
6.3.4: Discussion
In this experiment it was demonstrated that the prolonged pre-slaughter handling in
connection with slaughter at an export abattoir resulted in higher venison pH values.
Stress before slaughter can induce muscle glycogen depletion so meat pH stays
above 6.2 and DFD meat occurs. In a similar study, muscle glycogen was found to be
the highest and optimal pHu was achieved in fallow deer where animals were shot in
the paddock, thereby avoiding any handling prior to slaughter (Mojito et al 2007).
The next best result was obtained in animals that were moved into lairage and
processed without delay. The groups which resulted in the highest incidence of high
meat pH and DFD meat and lowest muscle glycogen levels was in the group where
animals were held in lairage overnight prior to slaughter as is the normal practice
with venison processing in Australia (Mojito et al 2007).
There are numerous studies in beef (Purchas and Aungsupakorn 1993), lamb (Bouton
et al 1971) and pork (Dransfield et al 1995) that have linked variation in ultimate
muscle pH and its relationship to meat tenderness. These studies concur that as pH
increases from 5.5 to 6.0, instrumental tenderness decreases. A study by Yu and Lee
(1986) suggests that proteolysis is reduced at higher pH levels, thereby reducing
tenderness. In red deer, a study by Stevenson-Barry et al (1999) reported that optimal
tenderness was achieved at a pH value of 5.5 with greater variability in tenderness in
the pH range of 5.8 to 6.0. This was confirmed by Hoffman et al (2007) in a study on
springbok, where an increase of ultimate pH from 5.5 to 5.9 resulted in increased
shear force values.
As the New Zealand red deer industry was being established, the use of a mobile
slaughter plant was trialled in order to reduce pre-slaughter handling and thereby
minimise the incidence of high pH in venison (Yerex 1979). However, its use was
soon dismissed as an option because it proved to be economically impractical
(Seamer 1986). More recently, mobile plants for deer have operated in Canada
(Diversified Animal Management, 1997), the UK (Anon 1993; Pollard et al 2002)
and Australia (Mulley 2011). Mobile slaughter facilities have been used for reindeer
in Sweden since 1993. When new directives regarding meat inspection at reindeer
Chapter Six
188
slaughter were instituted (National Food Administration 1998), many of the former
outdoor slaughter sites were closed and the numbers of reindeer transported to
slaughter increased (Wiklund 1996b). Slaughter age reindeer bulls exhibited lower
pHu values when handled carefully and transported for less than 5 hours compared to
bulls manually handled and transported over larger distances (Wiklund et al 2001a).
According to Wilson (1999), regular handling of deer can reduce the occurrence of
pre-slaughter stress since it improves the animals‟ ability to cope with management
practices. Selection of tamer and calmer breeding animals is also an important
measure to reduce stress (Wilson 1999). These practices should be implemented in
particular for fallow deer, since it has been demonstrated that they require very
careful, slow handling and are prone to panic (Diverio et al 1998; Pollard et al 2002).
6.4: Conclusions
Pelvic suspension of carcasses has been demonstrated to improve tenderness in meat
from young fallow deer bucks, older fallow deer bucks and does as well as young red
stags, the type of animals most likely to be supplied by deer farmers for commercial
slaughter in Australia. Results for fallow deer of different BCS, age and sex, and for
red deer, also indicate that pelvic suspension increases the tenderness of venison, the
quality attribute determined by consumers as being of most importance. Given the
consistency of this result and the importance of meat tenderness in the meat retail
sector, this technique should be adopted by the Australian deer industry, especially
given the low availability of other techniques associated with increasing meat
tenderness such as electrical stimulation. If electrical stimulation of carcasses were
to become more widely available in slaughter premises in Australia, it would also be
interesting to trial the techniques of pelvic suspension and electrical stimulation of
carcasses in combination to evaluate possible cumulative effects. Studies in lamb and
mutton by Young et al (2005) determined that electrical stimulation was not required
when pelvic suspension techniques were utilised, however, Thompson et al (2006)
found a cumulative effect when pelvic suspension was combined with other post-
slaughter management techniques for optimising tenderness.
Chapter Six
189
The present results also indicate that pelvic suspension has a positive effect on
water-holding properties by reducing moisture loss of fresh chill-stored fallow deer
venison, an important consideration given that juiciness is the second most important
characteristic of meat according to consumer surveys. Most venison produced is sold
frozen (Wiklund et al 2004), and in this study freeze-thaw losses were unaffected by
suspension method.
In both fallow deer and red deer venison pelvic suspension is an inexpensive and
reliable way to improve venison tenderness and palatability. The perceived
disadvantages in terms of labour and chiller capacity in a commercial setting are not
significant in terms of the potential for improved eating quality of venison from red
and fallow deer. It is possible to achieve similar levels of tenderness in fallow deer
bucks as fallow deer does by employing pelvic suspension techniques.
In these experiments it was also demonstrated that there is no commercial advantage
in hanging fallow deer carcasses for extended periods of time after slaughter to
increase tenderness, a technique that has been applied to carcasses from older
animals harvested from the wild in other parts of the world. Analysis of data from
this study indicated that carcasses from deer farmed commercially and slaughtered
for meat can be broken into primal cuts using the same time periods used on
carcasses from sheep and cattle with no loss of eating quality. This is an advantage
to the deer industry because no special longer-term storage requirements are
therefore necessary.
Minimising pre-slaughter stressors is also vital to ensure venison of ideal ultimate pH
and therefore, optimise meat quality.
Chapter Seven
190
Chapter Seven
Effect of pre- and post-slaughter management
on the sensory parameters of venison quality
Venison dish
Chapter 7 Effect of pre- and post-slaughter management on the sensory parameters of venison quality ............................................................................... 190
7.1: Introduction .................................................................................................. 191 7.2: Materials and methods ................................................................................. 198
8.2 : Recommendations to Industry ..................................................................... 229
Chapter Eight
227
8.1: Overall Conclusions
This study investigated a range of factors that can impact on meat quality in farmed
deer, and provides, for the first time, an evaluation of these factors by consumers of
venison. The data provide consumer evidence that supports niche marketing
opportunities, which if exploited, can create new areas of business for the Australian
deer industry. In this study deer responded in a manner similar to other domesticated
ruminants in terms of manipulating the factors affecting meat quality, and for most
parameters tested there was close agreement between instrumental and sensory
analyses. Factors tested in this study and described elsewhere for the major meat
species, cattle and sheep (Hoffman and Wiklund 2006), include effect of animal age,
sex, planes of nutrition, pre-slaughter stress, post-slaughter suspension methods and
the effect of grain feeding on the meat quality and composition. Consumer
preference, and overall liking of venison from red and fallow deer, indicated sensory
differences in several key areas. There was a difference for some parameters tested
between the sex and age of consumers. Further, there was a clear preference for
venison from carcasses hung by pelvic suspension post-slaughter, for both species of
deer across all parameters. These findings in particular provide important new
guidance for the marketing of venison in Australia and elsewhere.
Links between live animal body condition, along with pre- and post-slaughter
management with subsequent meat quality and consumer acceptance have not been
investigated previously for venison. In this and previous studies (Mulley and Falepau
1999; Flesch et al 2002) involving the slaughter of large numbers of farmed fallow
deer, it was evident that most fallow deer less than 24 months old presented for
slaughter have BCS between 2 and 3, with a relatively smaller proportion with BCS
between 3 and 4. In red deer, the most common BCS in slaughter animals less than 2
years old also ranged between BCS 2 and 3, with older stags and cull hinds reaching
BCS 4 at certain times of the year (stags) and particularly in the case of hinds that did
not carry or rear a calf the previous year. Younger animals with higher BCS may be
commercially more valuable, particularly in terms of yields, although animals with
BCS ranging between 2 and 4 were shown in this study to produce venison that was
evaluated by consumers as high quality. Hence, the hypothesis that changes in BCS
Chapter Eight
228
would affect eating quality and consumer preference has not been clearly established
for either red or fallow deer. This important finding gives deer farmers greater
flexibility when establishing marketing options. Animals of BCS 2 had good
instrumental tenderness and good overall liking by consumers. Animals with BCS 3
and 4, along with venison from female animals, may be able to provide a premium
product with enhanced tenderness if desired by niche markets.
The most important finding in this study was the enhancement of tenderness and
juiciness in all carcasses from red and fallow deer subjected to the pelvic suspension
method of hanging compared to the Achilles tendon method. This enhancement of
quality assurance provides the deer industry with an opportunity to increase
tenderness and juiciness of BCS 2 and male animals to the levels achieved by does
and animals of higher BCS. As stated previously, the aim of this work was to find
ways to improve quality assurance of venison produced by the Australian deer
industry, and the data for use of pelvic suspension as the preferred method of post-
slaughter carcass management are unequivocal.
This study showed that fallow deer does between BCS 2 and 4 can be slaughtered
with no impact on consumer acceptability of venison. While female deer tended to
produce venison of higher quality in terms of consumer acceptance and instrumental
measures of tenderness, the Australian deer industry needs to retain as many
reproductive age females as possible to increase the size of the national herd.
Processing large numbers of female deer, apart from cull does or hinds, would be
counterproductive to industry growth. The females need to be retained for breeding,
not processed for venison (Shapiro 2010). Techniques such as pelvic suspension are
invaluable to the deer industry because similar meat quality characteristics can be
achieved in young slaughter-aged male deer, compared with females, by using this
technique. This outcome increases the opportunity to slaughter male deer year round,
while maintaining consumer acceptance, and preserving female deer for breeding
stock.
Another important finding of this study was that instrumental meat quality and
consumer preferences were not significantly enhanced by finishing animals on
concentrate feeds prior to slaughter. Although optimal instrumental tenderness was
Chapter Eight
229
achieved in animals of BCS 4, which was achieved through concentrate feeding,
consumers rated all samples to be at the high end of the tenderness scale. Venison
from pasture based systems also exhibited a longer chilled display life. Pasture based
management systems are more economical for deer producers, and venison from deer
finished on pasture pre-slaughter has been evaluated by consumers in this study as
being of equally high quality compared with venison from animals finished on grain.
Overall, this study has shown that venison is a high quality product. Sensory
evaluation showed the product to be strongly appreciated by men and women
between the ages of 25 to 55, and differences in „overall liking‟ between red and
fallow deer venison were not detected.
Consumer perception of venison is a critical issue for the Australian deer industry.
The scientific contribution of this study will assist the venison industry to improve
consistency and quality of their product.
8.2: Recommendations to Industry
As a result of this study a number of key recommendations for the Australian deer
industry have been formulated.
The initial aim of this study was to identify any links between live animal BCS and
instrumental and sensory quality of venison. These links have been made, further
enhancing the use of a common BCS language across all sectors of the deer industry.
Recommendation 1: All animals within the BCS range of 2-4 can be slaughtered to
produce venison that is highly acceptable to consumers. For premium ends of the
market, producers may choose to attain BCS 4 by grain finishing their animals, or
process does in order to achieve increased tenderness.
This study showed that feeding concentrates can improve BCS and HCW in a desired
time frame, and that production of animals in a range of body conditions, with or
Chapter Eight
230
without the use of concentrate feeds, can result in high quality product. The cost
benefit of feeding programs is one to be determined by the producer and processor.
Recommendation 2: Concentrate feeding can be used to produce a premium product
with enhanced tenderness, as a result of increased BCS and a stronger flavour profile.
Pasture feeding produces venison of consistently good quality with longer chilled
display life. The decision to feed concentrates or use a pasture based system is left to
the discretion of the producer and the processors with no real adverse effects on
venison quality.
Recommendation 3: In situations where longer display life is an important
marketing requirement, animals should be finished on high quality pasture prior to
slaughter.
Possibly the most important finding emanating from this work is the need to utilise
the technique of pelvic suspension for deer carcasses. This post-slaughter
management technique was shown to increase tenderness of venison, in all sex and
age groups of animals, significantly so with males of both species.
Recommendation 4: Pelvic suspension should be used for post-slaughter hanging of
deer carcasses until the carcass reaches pHu.
Does, regardless of age, produced venison of increased tenderness and acceptability
for consumers, compared with bucks. Pelvic suspension of carcasses from males
increased tenderness to levels similar to those measured in females. This is a vital
piece of information for an industry that needs to maintain breeding stocks of
females, while producing meat of consistently high quality.
Recommendation 5: Pelvic suspension hanging should be applied to carcasses from
all male deer slaughtered.
Opportunities now exist for the industry to bring about greater consistency of
product, as has occurred in other livestock industries such as beef and sheep. The
Chapter Eight
231
relationship of BCS, instrumental measurements of deer venison quality and sensory
evaluation by consumers has important implications for all sections of the value
chain, especially in smaller industries such as the deer industry where it is critical
that product potential is maximised. This study has produced new information that
can underpin venison as a quality assured product, and is industry ready for adoption.
References
232
References
AACMI. 1994. Deer marketing and production study. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, No 91/1, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT.
AACMI. 1998. Australian deer industry manual. Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation, No 98/8, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT.
Aaslyng, MD, Oksama, M, Olsen, EV, Bejerholm, C, Baltzer, M, Andersen, G, Wender, LPB, Byrne, DV and Gabrielsen, G. 2007. „The impact of sensory quality of pork on consumer preference‟. Meat Science, 76, (1), pp. 61-73.
Abdullah, AY and Qudsieh, RI. 2009. „Effect of slaughter weight and ageing time on
the quality of meat from Awassi ram lambs‟. Meat Science, 82, pp. 309-316. Aberle, ED, Forrest, JC, Gerrard, DE and Mills, EW. 2001. Principles of Meat
Science. 4th edn, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Iowa, USA Adam, AAG, Atta, M. and Ismail, SH. 2010. „Quality and sensory evaluation from
Nilotic male kids fed on two different diets‟. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances, 9, (15), pp. 2008-2012.
Adamczewski, JZ, Flood, PF and Gunn, A. 1995. „Body composition of muskoxen
Ovibos moschatus and its estimation from condition index and mass measurements‟, Canadian Journal of Zoology, 73, (11), pp. 2021-2034.
Agga, GE, Udala, U, Regassa, F and Wudie, A. 2011. „Body measurements of bucks
of three goat breeds in Ethiopia and their correlation to breed, age and testicular measurements‟. Small Ruminant Research, 95, (2-3), pp. 133-138.
Ahnstrom, ML, Enfalt, AC, Hansson, I and Lundstrom, K. 2006. „Pelvic suspension
improves quality characteristics in M. Semimembranosus from Swedish dual purpose young bulls‟. Meat Science, 72, (3), pp. 555-559.
Ahnstrom, ML, Hessle, A, Johansson, L, Hunt, MC and Lundstrom, K. 2009.
„Influence of carcass suspension on meat quality of Charolais heifers from two sustainable feeding regimes‟. Animal, 3, (6), pp.906-913.
Aidoo, KE and Haworth, JP. 1995. „Nutritional content of farmed venison‟. Journal
of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 8, (6), pp.441-446.
Al Ibrahim, RM, Kelly, AK, O‟Grady, L, Gath, VP, McCarney, C and Mulligan, FJ. 2010. „The effect of body condition score at calving and supplementation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae on milk production, metabolic status, and rumen fermentation of dairy cows in early lactation‟. Journal of Dairy Science, 93, (11), pp. 5318-5328.
References
233
AMSA (American Meat Science Association). 1995. Research guidelines for cookery, sensory evaluation and instrumental tenderness measurements of fresh meat. National Livestock and Meat Board, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
Anderson, AE, Medin, DE and Bowden, CD. 1972. „Indices of carcass fat in a
Colorado mule deer population‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 36, pp. 579-594.
Anderson, JL. 1965. „Annual changes in testis and kidney fat weight of impala
(Aepyceros melampus Lichtenstein), Lammergeyer, 3, pp. 57-59. Anderson, R. 1978. Gold on four feet. R Anderson and Associates, Collingwood,
Victoria. Anderson, J.A. and Henderson, JB. 1961. Himalayan Tahr in New Zealand, New
Zealand Deerstalkers' Assoc. Spec. Bull., 2, 37, pp.69-77. Annison, EF. 1960. „Plasma non-esterified fatty acids in sheep‟. Australian Journal
of Agricultural Research, 11, pp. 58-64. Annison, EF, Gooden, JM, Hough, GM and Mcdowell, GH. 1984. „Physiological
cost of pregnancy and lactation in the ewe‟. In Reproduction in Sheep, DR Lindsay and DT Pearce (eds), Australian Academy of Science, pp. 174-181.
Anon. 2005. „Make mine venison. Marketing strategy puts deer on the top US tables‟. Strategic Direction, 21, (9), pp. 12-14.
Anon, MC and Calvelo, A. 1980. „Freezing rate effects on the drip loss of frozen
beef‟. Meat Science, 4, pp. 1-14. AOAC. 1990. Official methods of analysis. Association Official Analytical Chemists,
Washington , DC. Apple, JK, Davis JC, Stephenson, J, Hankins, JE, Davis, JR and Beaty, SL. 1999.
„Influence of body condition score on carcass characteristics and sub-primal yield from cull beef cows‟. Journal of Animal Science, 77, 10, pp. 2660-2620.
Archer, J, Asher, G and Ward, J. 2009. „Genetics of temperament in deer‟, In
Proceedings of a Deer Course for Veterinarians, 26, Christchurch, July, pp. 115-117.
Asher, GW. 1986. Studies on the reproduction of farmed fallow deer (Dama dama).
PhD thesis, Lincoln University.
Asher, GW, Archer, JA, Ward, JF, Mackintosh, CG and Littlejohn, RP. 2011. „The effect of prepubertal castration of red deer and wapiti-red deer crossbred stags on growth and carcass production‟. Livestock Science, 137, pp. 196-204.
References
234
Audenaerde, PMF. 1998. „European view on the deer farming industry of the world‟. In Advances in Deer Biology: Proceedings of the 4th International Deer Biology Congress, 30 June - 4th July, Kaposvar, Hungary.
Audige, L, Wilson, PR and Morris, RS. 1998. „A body condition score system and its
use for farmed red deer hinds‟. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 41, pp. 545-553.
Puglisi, G, Petriglieri, R and Licitra, G. 2011. „Objective estimation of body condition score by modelling cow body shape from digital images‟. Journal of Dairy Science, 94, (4), pp. 2126-2137.
AFG. 2009. „Body condition and productive performance of Alpine goats in early lactation‟. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, 38, (11), pp. 2137-2413.
Barnett, S. 2007. „Marketing of meat from New Zealand‟. In Proceedings of the Deer
Branch of the New Zealand Veterinary Association, 24, Palmerston North, May, p. 75.
Barnier, VMH, Wiklund, E, van Dijk, A, Smulders, FJM and Malmfors, G. 1999.
„Proteolytic enzyme and inhibitor levels in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L) vs. bovine longissimus muscle, as they relate to ageing rate and response‟. Rangifer, 19, pp. 13-18.
Barry, TN and Wilson, PR. 1984. „Venison production from farmed deer‟, Journal of
Agricultural Science, 12, (3), pp. 159-165.
Batcheler, CL and Clarke, CMH. 1970. „Note on kidney weights and the kidney fat index‟. New Zealand Journal of Science, 13, (4), pp. 663-668.
Bayraktaroglu, AG and Kahraman, T. 2011. „Effect of muscle stretching on meat
quality of biceps femoris from beef‟. Meat Science, 88, pp. 580-583. Bear, GD. 1971. „Seasonal trends in fat levels of pronghorns Antilocarpa
americana’, in Colorado‟. Journal of Mammalogy, 52, pp. 583-589. Beaton, A, Spiegel, N, Wynn, P and Thompson, JM. 2001. „Improving the quality of
kangaroo meat‟. Kangaroo Industry Association of Australia Newsletter, 24, pp. [4-8]
Bejerholm, C and Aaslyng, MD. 2004. „The influence of cooking technique and core
temperature on results of a sensory analysis of pork-depending on raw meat quality‟. Food Quality and Preference, 15, (1), pp 19-30.
Belitz, HD and Grosch, W. 2009. „Food Chemistry’. Springer, Berlin.
References
235
Bell, A. 2011. „ Deer progeny test launched‟. Deer Industry New Zealand News, 48, June/July, p. 9.
Bentley, A. 1978. An introduction to deer of Australia. Hawthorn Press, Melbourne. Berg, RT and Butterfield, RM. 1976, New concepts of cattle growth, Sydney
University Press, Sydney. Bertram, HC and Aaslyng, MD. 2007. „Pelvic suspension and fast post-mortem
chilling: effects on technological and sensory quality of pork - a combined NMR and sensory study‟, Meat Science, 76, (3), pp. 524-535.
Bewley, JM, Peacock, AM, Lewis, O, Boyce, RE, Roberts, DJ, Coffey, MP, Kenyon,
SJ and Schutz, MM. 2008. „Potential for estimation of body condition scores in dairy cattle from digital images‟. Journal of Dairy Science, 91, pp.3439-3453.
Bishop, CJ, Watkins, BE, Wolfe, LL, Freddy, DJ and White GC. 2009. „Evaluating
mule deer body condition using serum thyroid hormone concentrations‟. Journal of Wildlife management, 73, (3), pp. 462-467.
„The influence of sex and finishing system on carcass and meat quality of Texel x Corriedale lambs‟. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, 40, pp. 1242-1249.
Botha, SStC, Hoffman, LC and Britz, TJ. 2007. „Physical meat quality characteristics
of hot-deboned ostrich (Struthio camelus var. Domesticus) Muscularis gastrocnemius, pars interna during post-mortem ageing‟. Meat Science, 75, pp. 709-718.
Bouton, PE, Fisher, AL, Harris, PV and Baxter, RI. 1973. „A comparison of the
effects of some post-slaughter treatments on the tenderness of beef‟. Journal of Food Technology, 8, pp. 39-49.
Bouton, PE, Harris, PV and Shorthose, WR. 1971. „Effect of ultimate pH upon the
water-holding capacity and tenderness of mutton‟. Journal of Food Science, 36, pp. 435-439.
Brown, RD, Hellgren, EC, Abbott, M, Ruthven III, DC and Bingham, RL. 1995.
„Effects of dietary energy and protein restriction on nutritional indices of female white tailed deer‟. Journal of Wildlife management, 59, (3), pp. 595-609.
Bullock, KD, Bertrand, JK, Benyshek, LL, Williams, SE and Lust, DG. 1991.
„Comparison of real-time ultrasound and other live measures to carcass measures as predictors of beef cow energy stores‟. Journal of Animal Science, 69, pp. 3908-3916.
References
236
Busato, A, Faissler, D, Kupfer, U and Blum, JW. 2002. „Body condition scores in dairy cows: associations with metabolic and endocrine changes in healthy dairy cows‟. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series A: Physiology Pathology Clinical Medicine, 49, (9), pp. 455-460.
Butterfield, RM. 1988. New concepts of sheep growth, Griffin Press Ltd, South
Australia.. Butterfield, RM, Griffiths, DA, Thompson, JM, Zamora, J and James, AM. 1983.
„Changes in body composition relative to weight and maturity in large and small strains of Australian Merino rams 1 Muscle, bone and fat‟. Journal of Animal Production, 36, pp. 29-37.
Campo, MM, Santolaria, P, Sanudo, C, Lepetit, J, Olleta, JL, Panea, B and Alberti, P.
2000. „Assessment of breed type and ageing time effects on beef meat quality using two different texture devices‟. Meat Science, 55, pp. 371-378.
Carlucci, A, Girolami, A, Napolitano, F and Monteleone, E. 1998. „Sensory
evaluation of young goat meat‟. Meat Science, 50, (1), pp. 131-136. Carrilho, MC, Campo, MM, Olleta, JL, Beltran, JA and Lopez, M. 2009. „Effect of
diet, slaughter weight and sex on instrumental and sensory meat characteristics in rabbits‟. Meat Science, 82, pp. 37-43.
Chan-McLeod, AC, White, RG and Russell, DE. 1999. „Comparative body
composition strategies of breeding and nonbreeding female caribou‟. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 77, (12), pp. 1901-1907.
Chapman, N. 1993. „Distribution and biology of fallow deer‟, In Proceedings of the
First World Forum on Fallow Deer Farming, G W Asher (ed.), Mudgee, NSW, Australia, pp. 1-11.
Chardon, J. 2009. „Breeding goals for the deer industry‟. In Proceedings of a Deer
Course for Veterinarians, 26, Christchurch, July, pp. 118-120. Charles, DD. 1974. „A method of estimating carcase components in cattle‟. Research
in Veterinary Science, 16, pp. 89-94. Charley, H and Weaver, C. 1997. Foods: A Scientific Approach’. 3rd edn, Merrill
Publishing Company, Upper Saddle River, N.J. Combes, S, Gonzalez, I, Dejean, S, Baccini, A, Jehl, N, Juin, H, Cauquil, L,
Gabinaud, B, Lebas, F and Larzul, C. 2008. „Relationships between sensory and physicochemical measurements in meat of rabbit from three different breeding systems using canonical correlation analysis‟. Meat Science, 80, (3), pp. 835-841.
Cook, RC, Cook, JG and Mech, LD. 2004. „Nutritional condition of northern
Yellowstone elk‟. Journal of Mammalogy, 85, (4), pp. 714-722.
References
237
Cook, RC, Cook, JG, Murray, DL, Zager, P, Johnson, BK and Gratson, MW. 2001. „Nutritional condition models for elk: which are the most sensitive, accurate and precise?‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 65, (4), pp. 988-997.
Irwin, LL, Hall, PB, Spencer, RD, Murphie, SL, Schoenecker, KA and Miller, PJ. 2010. „Revisions of rump fat and body condition scoring indices for deer, elk and moose‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 74, (4), pp. 880-896.
Correale, KK, Savell, JW, Griffin, DB, Acuff, GR and Vanderzant, C. 1986.
„Microbiological and sensory characteristics of beef loin steaks: role of subcutaneous fat‟. Meat Science, 18, (4), pp. 241-253.
Couturier, S, Cote, SD, Huot, J and Otto, RD. 2009. „Body condition dynamics in a
northern ungulate gaining fat in winter‟. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 87, (5), pp. 367-378.
Cox, RJ, Watson, GK, McRae, TB and Cunial, CM. 2006. „An industry endorsed
strategic plan for the Australian venison industry‟. AFBM Journal, 3, (2), pp.14-22.
Cozzi, G, Brscic, M, da Ronch, F, Boukha, A, Tenti, S and Gottardo, F. 2009.
„Comparison of two feeding finishing treatments on production and quality of organic beef‟. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 9, (4), pp. 404-409.
Roehe, R, Morris, ST and Bunger L. 2012. „The effect of sex on some carcass and meat quality traits in Texel ewe and ram lambs‟. Animal Production Science, 52, pp. 601-607.
Dahlan, I. 2009. „Characteristics and cutability of farmed Rusa deer (Cervus
timorensis) carcasses for marketing of venison‟. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Science, 22, (5), pp. 740-746.
Dahlan, I. and Norfarizan Hanoon, NA. 2008. „Chemical composition, palatability
and physical characteristics of venison from farmed deer‟. Animal Science Journal, 79, (4), pp. 498-503.
Dannenberger, D, Nuernberg, K, Nuernberg, G and Ender, K. 2006. „Carcass and
meat quality of pasture vs. concentrate fed German Simmental and German Holstein bulls‟. Archiv fur Tierzucht, 49, (4), pp. 315-328.
Daszkiewicz, T, Janiszewski, P and Wajda, S. 2009. „Quality characteristics of meat
from wild red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) hinds and stags‟. Journal of Muscle Foods, 20, pp. 428-448.
Daszkiewicz, T, Kubiak, D, Winarski, M and Koba-Kowalczyk, M. 2012. „The effect
of gender on the quality of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) meat‟. Small Ruminant Research, 103, (2-3), pp. 169-175.
References
238
Daszkiewicz, T, Wajda, S and Kondratowicz, J. 2005. „Physico-chemical and sensory properties of meat from black and white and black and white x Limousine heifers differing in intramuscular fat content‟. Animal Science Papers and Reports, 23, (3), pp. 181-187.
Daszkiewicz, T, Wajda, S, Kubiak, D and Krasowska, J. 2009. „Quality of meat from
young bulls in relation to its ultimate pH value‟. Animal Science Papers and Reports, 27, (4), pp. 293-302.
Dauphine, TC Jr. 1975. „Kidney weight fluctuations affecting the kidney fat index in
caribou‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 39, (2), pp. 379-386. Dawood, AA. 1995. „Physical and sensory characteristics of Nadji - camel meat‟.
Meat Science, 39, (1), pp. 59-69. Dawson, F. 2011. „Supply issues hamper market growth for venison processors‟.
Food Manufacture, March issue, p 5.
Delgiudice, GD, Sampson, BA, Lenarz, MS, Schrage, MW and Edwards, AJ. 2011. „Winter body condition of moose (Alces alces) in a declining population in northeastern Minnesota‟. Journal of Wildlife Disease, 47, (1), pp. 30-40.
Depperschmidt, JD, Torbit, SC, Alldredge, AW and Deblinger, RD. 1987. „Body
condition indices for starved pronghorns‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 51, (3), pp. 675-678.
De Smet, S. 2011. „Editorial. 57th International Congress of Meat Science and
Technology-ICoMST 2011‟. Meat Science, 89, p. 243 Destefanis, G, Brugiapaglia, A, Barge, MT and Dal Molin, E. 2008. „Relationship
between beef consumer tenderness perception and Warner-Bratzler shear force‟. Meat Science, 78, (3), pp. 153-156.
Destefanis, G, Brugiapaglia, A, Barge, MT and Lazzaroni, C. 2003. „Effect of
castration on meat quality in Pietmontese cattle‟. Meat Science, 64, pp. 215-218.
Devine, CE. 2001. „International significance of Australian research on beef quality -
a view from the periphery‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 41, (7), pp. 1089-1098.
Dewhurst, RJ, Davies, DWR and Fisher, WJ. 2010. „Effects of forage NDF content
and body condition score on forage intake by Holstein-Friesian dairy cows in the dry period‟. Animal, 4, (1), pp. 76-80.
Diaz, MT, Caneque, V, Lauzurica, S, Velasco, S, Ruiz de Huidobro, F and Perez, C.
2004. „Prediction of suckling lamb carcass composition from objective and subjective carcass measurements‟. Meat Science, 66, (4), pp. 895-902.
References
239
Diaz, MT, Velasco, S, Caneque, V, Lauzurica, S, Ruiz de Huidobro, F, Perez, C, Gonzalez, J and Manzanares, C. 2002. „Use of concentrate or pasture for fattening lambs and its effect on carcass and meat quality‟. Small Ruminant Research, 43, (3), pp. 257-268.
DINZ (Deer Industry New Zealand). 2011. Venison market report‟. Deer Industry
New Zealand News, 48, June/July, p. 36. Diverio, S, Federici, C, Angelucci, G, Pelliccia, C, Vegni, F, Beghelli, V. 1998.
„Stress response in fallow deer Dama dama: effect of preslaughter management‟. In: Advances in Deer Biology, Proceedings of the 4th International Deer Biology Congress, Editor Z Zomborszky, Kaposvar, Hungary, pp. 319-321.
Diversified Animal Management. 1997. Good news for meat producers! Canadian
Elk and Deer Farmer, Early Summer, p. 108. Dixon, RM, Playford and Coates, DB. 2011. „Nutrition of beef breeder cows in the
dry tropics. 1. Effects of nitrogen supplementation and weaning on breeder performance‟. Animal Production Science, 51, (6), pp. 515-528.
Dransfield, E. 1994. „Optimization of tenderisation, ageing and tenderness‟, Meat
Science, 36, pp. 105-121. Dransfield, E, Nute, GR, Hogg BW and Walters, BR. 1990. „Carcass and eating
quality of ram, castrated ram and ewe lambs‟. Animal Production, 50, pp. 291-299.
Dransfield, E, Nute, GR, Mottram, DS, Rowan, TG and Lawrence, TLJ. 1985. „Pork
quality from pigs fed on low glucosinate rapeseed meal: influence of level in the diet, sex and ultimate pH‟. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 36, (7), pp. 546-556.
Dransfield, E and Rhodes, DN. 1976. „Effect of post rigor muscle length on the
texture of meat‟. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 27, (5), pp. 483-486.
Drew, KR. 1985. „Meat production from farmed deer‟. Biology of Deer Production,
22, pp. 285-290. Drew, KR, Crosbie, SF, Forss, DA, Manley, TR and Pearse, AJ. 1988. „Electrical
stimulation and ageing of carcasses from red, fallow and New Zealand Wapiti-type male deer‟. Journal of Science Food and Agriculture, 43, pp. 245-259.
Drew, KR, Fennessy, PF and Greer, GJ. 1978. „The growth and carcass
characteristics of entire and castrate red stags‟. In: Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production, 38, pp. 142-144.
References
240
Drew, KR and Seman, DL. 1987. „The nutrient content of venison‟. In: Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of New Zealand, 12, pp. 49-55.
Drew, KR and Stevenson, JM. 1992. „Venison processing, packaging and storage‟.
In: Proceedings of a Deer Course for Veterinarians, Deer Branch, NZVA, 9, pp. 10-12.
Dugdale, AHA, Curtis, GC, Harris, PA and Argo, CM. 2011. „Assessment of body
fat in the pony: Part 1. Relationships between the anatomical distribution of adipose tissue, body composition and body condition‟. Equine Veterinary Journal, 43, (5), pp. 552-561.
Dunne, PG, Monahan, FJ and Moloney, AP. 2011. „Current perspectives on the
darker beef often reported from extensively-managed cattle: does physical activity play a significant role?‟. Livestock Science, 142, pp. 1-22.
EN. 2007. „Accuracy of dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, weight, longissimus lumborum muscle depth and GR fat depth to predict half carcass composition in sheep‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 47, (10), pp. 855-859.
Duranti, E, Casoli, C, Coli, R, Cardinali, A and DFonnini, D. 1994. „Fallow deer
meat. Productive, qualitative and nutritional characteristics‟. Annali della Facolta’ di Agraria Universita’ degli Studi-Perugia, 48, pp. 75-98.
Edmonson, AJ, Lean, IJ, Weaver, LD, Farver, T and Webster, G. 1989. „A body
condition scoring chart for holstein dairy cows‟. Journal of Dairy Science, 72, pp. 68-78.
Egan, AF, Ferguson, DM and Thompson, JM. 2001. „Consumer sensory
requirements for beef and their implications for the Australian beef industry‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 41, pp. 855-859.
Eikelenboom, G, Barnier, VMH, Hoving-Bolink, AH, Smulders, FJM and Culioli, J.
1998. „Effect of pelvic suspension and cooking temperature on the tenderness of electrically stimulated and aged beef, assessed with shear and compression tests‟. Meat Science, 49, (1), pp. 89-99.
Ekiz, B, Yilmaz, A, Ozcan, M and Kocak, O. 2012. „Effect of production system on
carcass measurements and meat quality of Kivircik lambs‟. Meat Science, 90, pp. 465-471.
Elsley, FWH, McDonald, I and Fowler, VR. 1964. „The effect of plane of nutrition
on the carcasses of pigs and lambs when variations in fat content are excluded‟. Animal Production, 6, pp. 141-154.
References
241
Esmailizadeh, AK, Dayani, O and Mokhtari, MS. 2009. „Lambing season and fertility of fat tailed ewes under an extensive production system are associated with liveweight and body condition around mating‟. Animal Production Science, 49, (12), pp. 1086-1092.
Evans, DG. 1978. „The interpretation and analysis of subjective body condition
scores‟. Animal Production, 26, pp. 119-125. Falepau, DF. 1999. „Factors associated with the occurrence of ecchymosis blood
splash in fallow deer (Dama dama)’. Thesis, University of Western Sydney, Penrith.
Farouk, MM, Beggan, M, Hurst, S, Stuart, A, Dobbie, P and Bekhit, AED. 2007.
„Meat quality attributes of chilled venison and beef‟. Journal of Food Quality 30, pp. 1023-1039.
Faulkner, DB, Parrett, DF, McKeith, FK and Berger, LL. 1990. „Prediction of fat
cover and carcass composition from live and carcass measurements‟. Journal of Animal Science, 68, pp. 604-610.
FEDFA (Federation of European Deer Farming Association). 2010. „Minutes of the
spring meeting‟, Brussels, March 20-21, 2010. Ferguson, DM, Bruce, HL, Thompson, JM, Egan, AF, Perry, D and Shorthose, WR.
2001. „Factors affecting beef palatability - farmgate to chilled carcass. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 41, pp. 879-891.
Ferguson, DM and Warner, RD. 2008. „Have we underestimated the impact of pre
slaughter stress on meat quality in ruminants?‟. Meat Science, 80, pp.12-19. Fernandez-Lopez, J, Perez-Alvarez, JA and Randa-Catala, V. 2000. „Effect of
mincing degree on colour properties in pork meat‟. Colour Research and Application, 25, (5), pp. 376-380.
Ferrell, CL and Jenkins, TG. 1984. „Relationships among various body components
of mature cows‟. Journal of Animal Science, 58, pp. 222-227. Field, RA. 1971. „Effect of castration on meat quality and quantity‟. Journal of
Animal Science, 32, pp. 849-858. Finger, SE, Brisbin, IL and Smith, MH. 1981. „Kidney fat as a predictor of body
condition in white-tailed deer‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 45, (4), pp. 964-968.
Fisher, AV, Bayntun, JA and Enser, M. 1998. „Carcass and meat quality
characteristics: venison in a competitive market‟. In Proceedings of the 2nd World Deer Farming Congress, pp. 211-218.
Fisher, AV, Nute, GR, Fursey, GA and Cook, G. 1994. „Post mortem manipulation
of beef quality‟. Meat Focus International, 3, pp.62-65.
References
242
Flesch, JS. 2001. Nutritional Requirements of Pregnant and Lactating Fallow Deer (Dama dama). PhD thesis, University of Western Sydney, Penrith.
Flesch, JS, Mulley, RC and Asher, GW. 2002. „Development of a body condition
scoring system for farmed fallow deer (Dama dama)’. In 5th International Deer Biology Congress, 25-30 August 2002, Quebec City, Canada, pp. 20-26.
Fletcher, D. 1998. „The First New Domesticant for 5000 years?‟ In RIRDC Report on
the Second World Deer Farming Congress, Limerick, Ireland, p 8. Fletcher, J. 2004. „Deer veterinary issues in the United Kingdom and Europe‟ In
Proceedings of the 1st World Deer Veterinary Congress, 21, Queenstown, February, pp. 5-7.
Fletcher, S, Buetre, B and Morey, K. 2009. The value of the red meat industry to
Australia. Abare Research Report, 09.13, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. Canberra.
Fletcher, TJ. 2001. „Farmed deer: New domestic animals defined by controlled
breeding‟. Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 13, pp. 511-516. Flook, DR. 1967. The apparent unequal sex ratio of wapiti. PhD thesis, University of
Alberta. Florek, M and Litwinczuk, Z. 2002. „The quality of meat from carcasses of young
bulls and heifers classified according to the EUROP system‟. Animal Science Papers and Reports, 20, Suppl. 1, pp. 69-178.
Flux, JEC. 1971. „Validity of the kidney fat index for estimating the condition of
hares: a discussion‟. New Zealand Journal of Science, 14, (2), pp. 238-244. Font i Furnols, M, Realini, CE, Guerrero, L, Oliver, MA, Sanudo, C, Campo, MM,
Nute, GR, Caneque, V, Alvarez, A, San Julian, R, Luzardo, S, Brito, G and Montossi, F. 2009. „Acceptability of lamb fed on pasture, concentrate or combinations of both systems by European consumers‟. Meat Science, 81, pp. 196-202.
Font i Furnols, M, San Julian, R, Guerrero, L, Sanudo, C, Campo, MM, Olleta, JL,
Oliver, MA, Caneque, V, Alvarez, I, Diaz, MT, Branscheid, W, Wicke, M, Nute, GR and Montossi, F. 2006. „Acceptability of lamb meat from different producing systems and ageing time to German, Spanish and British consumers‟. Meat Science, 72, pp. 545-554.
Franco, D, Rodriguez, E, Purrinos, L, Crecente, S, Bermudez, R, and Lorenzo, JM.
2011. „Meat quality of “Galician Mountain” foals breed. Effect of sex, slaughter age and livestock production system‟. Meat Science, 88, pp. 292-298.
References
243
French, P, O‟Riordan, EG, Monahan, FJ, Caffrey, PJ, Mooney, MT, Troy, DJ and Moloney, AP. 2001. „The eating quality of meat of steers fed grass and/or concentrates‟. Meat Science, 57, (4), pp. 379-386.
Freudenreich, P nad Fischer, K. 1989. „Untersuchungen zur Fleischqualitatet von
Damtieren [Studies on the venison quality of fallow deer]‟. Mitteilungsblatt der Bundesanstalt fuer Fleischforschung Kulmbach, 104, pp. 176-183.
Gaden, R, Duddy, G and Irwin, J. 2005. Identifying live animal condition scoring
systems for the Australian livestock export industry’. Meat and Livestock Australia, North Sydney
Gaidet, N and Gaillard, JM. 2008. „Density dependant body condition and
recruitment in a tropical ungulate‟. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 86, (1), pp. 24-32.
Garnsworthy, PC and Jones, GP. 1987. „The influence of body condition at calving
and dietary protein supply on voluntary feed intake and performance in dairy cows‟. Animal Production, 44, pp. 347-353.
Garnsworthy, PC and Topps, JH. 1982. „The effect of body condition of dairy cows
at calving on their food intake and performance when given complete diets‟. Animal Production, 35, pp 113-119.
GenStat Committee. 2002. GenStat for Windows. 6th edn, VSN International, Oxford. Gerhart, KL, White, RG, Cameron, RD and Russell, DE. 1996. „Body composition
and nutrient reserves of Arctic caribou‟. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 74, (1), pp. 136-146.
Glimp, HA, Ringkob, TP, Bruce LB, Lawler, WC and Butler, RF. 1998. „Influence
of cull ewe body condition on carcass composition‟. Sheep and Goat Research Journal, 14, 3, pp. 180-184.
production and quality‟. Small Ruminant Research, 101, pp. 173-181. Greenwood, PL, Finn, JA, May, TJ and Nicholls, PJ. 2008. „Preslaughter
management practices influence carcass characteristics of young goats‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 48, (7), pp. 910-915.
Greer, KR. 1968. „A compression method indicates fat content of elk wapiti femur
marrows‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 32, pp. 747-751. Gregory, NG and Robins, JK. 1998. „A body condition scoring system for layer
hens‟. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 41, pp. 555-559. Gregory, NG, Robins, JK, Thomas, DG and Purchas, RW. 1998. „Relationship
between body condition score and body composition in dairy cows‟. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 41, pp. 527-532.
References
244
Gresham, JD, Holloway, JW, Butts, WT and McCurley, JR. 1986. „Prediction of mature cow carcass composition from live animal measurements‟. Journal of Animal Science, 63, pp. 1041-1048.
Griffiths, RE, Moffat, IW and O‟Connor, MJ. 2009. „Five year industry strategic
intents for New Zealand venison and velvet‟. In Proceedings of a Deer Course for Veterinarians, 26, Christchurch, July, pp. 1-4.
Grunert, KG, Bredahl, L and Brunso, K. 2004. „Consumer perception of meat quality
and implications for product development in the meat sector - a review‟. Meat Science, 66, pp. 259-272.
Hammond, J. 1932. Growth and development of mutton qualities in sheep. Oliver
and Boyd, London. Hannula, T and Puolanne, E. 2004. „The effect of cooling rate on beef tenderness: the
significance of pH at 7ºC‟. Meat Science, 67, (3), pp. 403-408. Hansen, AT. 2000. A study of reproductive performance and pre weaning mortality
in farmed red deer in Australia’. MVSC thesis, University of Sydney.
Hansen, AT. 2004. „Deer farming in Australia‟. In: Proceedings of the 1st World Deer Veterinary Congress, 21, Queenstown, February, pp. 15-17.
Hansen, S, Therkildsen, M and Byrne, DV. 2006. „Effects of compensatory growth
strategy on sensory and physical properties of meat from young bulls‟. Meat Science, 74, (2), pp. 628-643.
Hansen, T. 2011. Personal Communication. Mandagery Creek Venison, Orange,
NSW.
Harris, D. 1945. „Symptoms of malnutrition in deer‟. Journal of Wildlife Management’, 9, pp. 319-322.
Henneke, DR. 1985. „A condition score system for horses‟. Equine Practice, 7, pp.
13-15. Herrera, GI, Lopez, JRA, Burgoa, AA and Gonzalez-Bulnes, A. 2010. „Effect of
body condition and season of the year on oestrous cycle, oestrous, follicular development and ovulation rate in Pelibuey ewes under tropical conditions‟. Veterinaria Mexico, 41, (3), pp. 167-175.
Herrera-Mendez, CH, Becila, S, Boudjellal and Ouali, A. 2006. „Meat ageing:
reconsideration of the current concept‟. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 17, pp. 394-405.
Hessle, A, Nadeau, E and Johnsson, S. 2007. „Finishing of dairy steers having grazed
semi-natural grasslands‟. Livestock Science, 106, (1), pp. 19-27.
References
245
Hickey, G. 2011. „Firstlight to harness power of EID in integrated value chain‟. Deer Industry New Zealand News, 48, June/July, pp. 18-19.
Hildrum, KI, Rodbotten, R, Hoy, M, Berg, J, Narum, B and Wold JP. 2009.
„Classification of different bovine muscles according to sensory characteristics and Warner Bratzler shear force‟. Meat Science, 83, pp. 302-307.
Hinks, CE and Prescott, JHD. 1974. „A note on the prediction of carcass composition
in beef cattle‟. Animal Production, 19, pp. 115-117. Hocquette, JF, Renand, G, Leveziel, H, Picard, B, Cassar-Malek, I. 2006. „The
potential benefits of genetics and genomics to improve beef quality‟. Animal Science Papers and Reports, 24, (3), pp. 173-189.
Hoffman, LC. 2000. „Meat quality attributes of night cropped impala (Aepyceros
melampus). South African Journal of Animal Science, 30, pp. 133-137. Hoffman, LC, Kroucamp, M and Manley, M. 2007. „Meat quality characteristics of
springbok Antidorcas marsupialis. 4: Sensory meat evaluation as influenced by age, gender and production region‟. Meat Science, 78, (4), pp. 774-778.
Hoffman, LC and Laubscher, LL. 2010. „A comparison between the effects of day
and night cropping on gemsbok (Oryx gazella) meat quality‟. Meat Science, 85, pp. 356-362.
Hoffman, LC, Mostert, AC, Kidd, M and Laubscher, LL. 2009. „Meat quality of
kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and impala (Aepyceros melampus): carcass yield, physical quality and chemical composition of kudu and impala Longissimus dorsi muscle as affected by gender and age‟. Meat Science, 83, pp. 788-795.
Hoffman, LC, Mostert, AC and Laubscher, LL. 2009. „Meat quality of kudu
(Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and impala (Aepyceros melampus): the effect of gender and age on the fatty acid profile, cholesterol content and sensory characteristics of kudu and impala meat‟. Meat Science, 83, pp. 737-743.
Hoffman, LC, Muller, M, Cloete, SWP and Brand, M. 2008a. „Physical and sensory
meat quality of South African black ostriches Struthio camelus var domesticus, Zimbabwean blue ostriches Struthio camelus australis and their hybrid‟. Meat Science, 79, (20), pp. 365-374.
Hoffman, LC, Muller, M, Cloete, SWP and Schmidt, D. 2003. „Comparison of six
crossbred lamb types: sensory, physical and nutritional meat quality characteristics‟. Meat Science, 65, (4), pp. 1265-1274.
Hoffman, LC, van Schalkwyk, S and Muller, NM. 2008b. Physical and chemical
composition of male and female mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula) meat. South African Journal of Wildlife Research, 38, pp. 11-16.
References
246
Hoffman, LC and Wiklund, E. 2006. „Game and venison - meat for the modern consumer‟. Meat Science, 74, pp. 197-208.
Hogg, BW, Catchside, LM and Mercer, GJK. 1990. „Carcass composition in male
fallow deer (Dama dama): age and castration effects of dissected tissue distribution‟. Animal Production, 51, pp. 405-413.
Hogg, BW, Mortimer, BJ and Mercer, GJK. 1993. „The influence of the
Mesopotamian genotype on carcass quality and composition of fallow deer bucks‟. In Proceedings of the 1st World Forum on Fallow Deer Farming, Edit G W Asher, Ruakura Agricultural Centre, Hamilton, New Zealand, pp 191-196.
Honikel, KO. 1998. „‟Reference methods for the assessment of physical
characteristics of meat‟. Meat Science, 49, (4), pp. 447-457. Hood, D E and Tarrant, P V. 1981. „The problem of dark-cutting in beef’. Martinus
Nijhoff, Den Haag, The Netherlands. Hooper, S. 2010a. Australian lamb. Financial performance of slaughter lamb
producing farms, 2007-08 to 2009-10. May,, ABARE, Canberra. Hooper, S. 2010b. Australian beef. Financial performance of beef cattle producing
farms, 2007-08 to 2009-10. June, ABARE, Canberra. Hopkins, DL. 2008. „An industry applicable model for predicting lean meat yield in
lamb carcasses‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 48, (7), pp. 757-761.
Hopkins, DL. 2011. „Processing technology changes in the Australian sheep meat
industry: an overview‟. Animal Production Science, 51, pp. 399-405. Hopkins, DL. 2010. „Technology supporting the development of a product - the case
of Australian sheep meat. In Proceedings of the 14th AAAP animal science congress’, plenary 12, Pingtung, Taiwan, pp. 315-323.
Hopkins, DL, Anderson, MA, Morgan, JE and Hall, DG. 1995a. „A probe to measure
GR in lamb carcasses at chain speed‟. Meat Science, 39, 2, pp. 159-165. Hopkins, DL, Hall, DG and Luff, AF. 1996. „Lamb carcass characteristics: 3.
Describing changes in carcasses of growing lambs using real-time ultrasound and the use of these measurements for estimating the yield of saleable meat‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 36, (1), pp. 37-43.
between animal age, intra muscular fat, cooking loss, pH, shear force and eating quality of aged meat from sheep‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 46, (6-7), pp. 879-884.
References
247
Hopkins, DL, Littlefield, PJ and Thompson, JM. 2000. „The effect on tenderness of super tenderstretching‟. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 13, Suppl. C, p. 240.
Hopkins, DL, Safari, E, Thompson, JM and Smith CR. 2004. „Video image analysis
in the Australian meat industry - precision and accuracy of predicting lean meat yield in lamb carcasses‟. Meat Science, 67, pp. 269-274.
Hopkins, DL, Stanley, DF, Martin, LC, Toohey, ES and Gilmour, AR. 2007.
„Genotype and age effects on sheep meat production. 3. Meat quality‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 47, (10), pp. 1155-1164.
Hopkins, DL, Stanley, DF and Ponnampalam, EN. 2007. „Relationship between real-
time ultrasound and carcass measures and composition in heavy sheep‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 47, (11), pp. 1304-1308.
Hopkins, DL, Walker, PJ, Thompson, JM and Pethick, DW. 2005. „Effect of sheep
type on meat and eating quality of sheep meat‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 45, (5), pp. 499-507.
Hopkins, DL, Wootton, SA, Gamble, DJ and Atkinson, WR. 1995b. „Lamb carcass
characteristics. 2. Estimation of the percentage of saleable cuts for carcasses prepared as trim and traditional cuts using carcass weight, fat depth, eye muscle area, sex and conformation score‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 35, pp. 161-169.
Horsfield, S, and Taylor LJ. 1976. „Exploring the relationship between sensory data
and acceptability of meat‟. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 27, pp. 1044-1056.
Horsley, P. 2004. „Secure markets before delving into deer‟. Farming Ahead, 146,
pp. 42-57. Hostetler, R L, Landmann, W A, Link, B A and Fitzhugh Jr, H A. 1970. „Influence
on carcass position during rigor mortis on tenderness of beef muscles: comparison of two treatments‟. Journal of Animal Science, 31, pp. 47-50.
Houghton, PL, Lemenager, RP, Moss, GE and Hendrix, KS. 1990. „Prediction of
postpartum beef cow body composition using weight to height ratio and visual body condition score‟. Journal of Animal Science, 68, p. 1248.
Hoving-Bolink, AH, Hanekamp, WJA and Walstra, P. 1999. „Effects of diet on
carcass, meat and eating quality of once-bred Pietmontese x Friesen heifers‟. Livestock Production Science, 57, pp. 267-272.
Huff-Lonergan, E and Lonergan, SM. 2005. „Mechanisms of water holding capacity
of meat: the role of post mortem biochemical and structural changes‟. Meat Science, 71, pp. 194-204.
References
248
Huff-Lonergan, E, Zhang, W and Lonergan, SM. 2010. „Biochemistry of post-mortem muscle - Lessons on mechanisms of meat tenderization‟. Meat Science, 86, pp.184-195.
Hunt, HM. 1979. „Comparison of dry-weight methods for estimating elk femur
marrow fat‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 43, (2), pp. 560-562. Hunter, RA, Burrow, HM and McCrabb, GJ. 2001. „Sustained growth promotion,
carcass and meat quality of steers slaughtered at three live weights‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 41, pp. 1033-1040.
Husband, PM and Johnson, BY. 1985. „Beef tenderness: the influence of animal age
and post-mortem treatment‟. CSIRO Food Research Quarterly, 45, (1), pp. 1-4.
Hutchison, CL, Mulley, RC, Wiklund, E and Flesch, JS. 2010. „Consumer evaluation
of venison sensory quality: effects of sex, body condition score and carcase suspension method‟. Meat Science, 86, pp. 311-316.
Hwang, IH. 2006. „Post slaughter intervention techniques to ensure tenderness of
beef muscles for Korean consumers‟. Journal of Animal Science and Technology, 48, (6), pp. 921-932.
Hwang, IH, Gee, A, Polkinghorne, R and Thompson JM. 2002. „The effect of
different pelvic hanging techniques on meat quality in beef‟. In Proceedings of 48th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Rome, 25-30 August, pp. 220-221.
Hwang, IH, Polkinghorne, R, Lee JM and Thompson JM. 2008. „Demographic and
design effects on beef sensory scores given by Korean and Australian consumers‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 48, pp. 1387-1395.
International Organization for Standardization. 2007. Sensory analysis; general
guidance for the designing of test rooms. Geneva. ISO 8589:2007 International Organization for Standardization. 1993. Sensory analysis; general
guidance for the selection, training and monitoring of assessors Part I: selected assessors; Part II experts, Geneva. ISO 8586:1993
International Organization for Standardization. 1996. Meat and Meat products;
determination of free fat content, Geneva. ISO 4401.5:1996 Irurueta, M, Cadoppi, A, Langman, L, Grigioni, G and Carduza, F. 2008. „Effect of
ageing on the characteristics of meat from water buffalo grown in the Delta del Parana region of Argentina‟. Meat Science, 79, pp. 529-533.
Issanchou, S. 1996. „Consumer expectations and perceptions of meat and meat
product quality‟. Meat Science, 43, Suppl., pp. S5-S19.
References
249
Janes, R. 1993. „International Marketing of New Zealand‟s Farmed Venison‟. In : Proceedings of the First World Deer Congress, Christchurch, New Zealand, pp. 237-241.
„In vivo estimation of the body composition in young bulls for slaughter I The repeatability and reproducibility of a scoring system, an ultrasonic scanning technique and body measurements‟. Livestock Production Science, 12, pp. 221-230.
Jefferies, BC. 1961. „Body condition scoring and its use in management‟. Tasmanian
Journal of Agriculture, 32, pp. 19-21. Jelenikova, J, Pipek, P and Staruch, L. 2008. „The influence of ante mortem
treatment on relationship between pH and tenderness of beef‟. Meat Science, 80, pp. 870-874.
Johansen, J, Aastveit, AH, Egelandsdal, B, Kvaal, K and Roe, M. 2006. „Validation
of the EUROP system for lamb classification in Norway; repeatability and accuracy of visual assessment and prediction of lamb carcass composition‟. Meat Science, 74, (3), pp.497-504.
Johns, PE, Smith, MH and Chesser, RK. 1984. „Annual cycles of the kidney fat
index in a south eastern white-tailed deer herd‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 45, (1), pp. 172-186.
Johnson, ER, Pryor, WJ and Butterfield, RM. 1972. „Studies of fat distribution in the
bovine carcass. II Relationship of the intramuscular fat to the quantitative analysis of the skeletal musculature‟. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 24, pp. 287-296.
Jopson, NB, Behrent, M and McEwan, JC. 2005. New marketing initiatives in New
Zealand; payment schemes on predicted cut weights. In: Proceedings of the International Skjervold symposium: ‘Lamb Innovation - breeding for high quality lamb carcasses, Hamar, Norway 2-3 June.
Jopson, NB, Thompson, JN and Fennessy, PF. 1997. „Tissue mobilization rates in
male fallow deer Dama dama as determined by computed tomography - the effects of natural and enforced food restriction‟. Journal of Animal Science, 65, pp. 311-320.
Joubert, S. 2004. „Australian deer welfare‟. In: Proceedings of the 1st World Deer
Veterinary Congress, 21, Queenstown, February, pp. 144-146. Juarez, M, Horcada, A, Alcalde, MJ, Valera, M, Polvillo, O and Molina, A. 2009.
„Meat and fat quality of unweaned lambs as affected by slaughter weight and breed‟. Meat Science, 83, pp. 308-313.
References
250
Kannan,G, Gadiyaram, KM, Galipalli, S, Carmichael, A, Kouakou, B, Pringle, TD, McMillin, KW and Gelaye, S. 2006. „Meat quality in goats as influenced by dietary protein and energy levels, and post-mortem ageing‟. Small Ruminant Research, 61, pp. 45-52.
Kay, RNB, Sharman, GAM, Hamilton, WJ, Goodall, ED, Peenie, K and Coutts,
AGP. 1981. „Carcass characteristics of young red deer farmed on hill pasture‟. Journal of Agricultural Science, , 96, pp. 79-87.
Kenyon, PR, Morel, PCH and Morris, ST. 2004. „The effect of individual liveweight
and condition scores of ewes at mating on reproductive and scanning performance‟. New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 52, (5), pp. 230-235.
Kenyon, PR, Morris, ST, Stafford, KJ and West, DM. 2011. „Effect of ewe body
condition and nutrition in late pregnancy on the performance of triplet bearing ewes and their progeny‟. Animal Production Science, 51, (6), pp. 557-564.
Kerth, CR, Braden, KW, Cox, R Kerth, LK and Rankins Jr, DL. 2007. „Carcass,
sensory, fat color, and consumer acceptance characteristics of Angus-cross steers finished on ryegrass Lolium multiflorum forage or on a high-concentrate diet‟. Meat Science, 75, (2), pp. 324-331.
Kie, JG, White, M and Drawe, DL. 1983. „Condition parameters of white-tailed deer
in Texas‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 47, (3), pp. 583-594. Kim, BK, Hwang, EG and Kim, SM. 2010. „Meat quality and sensory properties of
Korean native black goat by different castration age‟. Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources, 30, (3), pp. 419-426.
Kim, HW, Lee, ES, Choi, YS, Choi, JH, Han DJ, Kim, HY, Song, DH, Choi, SG and
Kim, CJ. 2011. „Effects of aging period prior to freezing on meat quality of Hanwoo muscle (Longissimus dorsi)‟. Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources, 31, (6), pp. 799-806.
Kirton, AH, Mercer, GJK, Duganzich, DM and Uljee, AE. 1995. „Use of electronic
probes for classifying lamb carcasses‟. Meat Science, 39, (2), pp. 167-176. Kistner, TP, Trainer, CE and Hartmann, NA. 1980. „A field technique for evaluating
physical condition of deer‟. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 8, pp. 11-17. Klosterman, EW, Sanford, LG and Parker, CF. 1968. „Effects of cow size and
condition and ration protein content upon maintenance requirements of mature beef cows‟. Journal of Animal Science, 27,pp. 242-248.
Kochanowska-Maturszewska, A. 2004. Quality of carcasses and meat from wild and
farm Cervidae. PhD thesis, University of Warmia and Mazury. Koohmaraie, M. 1996. „Biochemical factors regulating the toughening and
tenderisation processes of meat‟. Meat Science, 43, pp. 193-201.
References
251
Koohmaraie, M, Doumit, ME and Wheeler, TL. 1996. „Meat toughening does not occur when rigor shortening is prevented‟. Journal of Animal Science, 74, pp. 2935-2942.
Lagerstedt, A, Enfalt, L, Johansson, L and Lundstrom, K. 2008. „Effect of freezing
on sensory quality, shear force and water loss in beef M. Longissimus dorsi’, Meat Science, 80, (2), pp. 457-461.
Lambe, NR, Navajas, EA, Bunger, L, Fisher, AV, Roehe, R and Simm, G. 2009.
„Prediction of lamb carcass composition and meat quality using combinations of post mortem measurements‟. Meat Science, 81, pp. 711-719.
Lambe, NR, Navajas, EA, Schofield, CP, Fisher, AV, Simm, G, Roehe, R and
Bunger, L. 2008. „The use of various live animal measurements to predict carcass and meat quality in two divergent lamb breeds‟. Meat Science, 80, pp. 1138-1149.
Lanari, MC, Brewster, M, Yang, A. and Tume, RK. 2002. „Pasture and grain
finishing affect the colour stability of beef‟. Journal of Food Science, 67, (7), pp. 2467-2473.
Harris, KB and Savell, JW. 2008. „Dry versus wet ageing of beef: retail cutting, yields and consumers sensory attribute evaluations of steaks from ribeyes, strip loins and top sirloins from two quality grade groups‟. Meat Science, 80, pp. 795-804.
Lawrie, RA and Ledward, DA. 2006. Lawrie’s Meat Science. 7th edn. CRC Press
:Woodhead Publishing, Boca Raton, Fla : Cambridge, England. Ledger, HP and Hutchison, HG. 1962. „The value of the tenth rib as a sample joint
for the estimation of lean, fat and bone in carcasses of East African Zebu cattle‟. Journal of Agricultural Science, 58, pp. 81-88.
Lee, JM, Kim, TW, Kim, JH, Cho, SH, Seong, PN, Jung, MO, Cho , YM, Park, BY,
& Kim, DH. 2009. „Comparison of chemical, physical and sensory traits of longissimus lumborum Hanwoo beef and Australian Wagyu beef‟. Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources, 29, pp. 91-98.
Leygonie, C, Britz, TJ and Hoffman, LC. 2012. „Impact of freezing and thawing on
the quality of meat: review‟. Meat Science, 91, pp. 93-98. Lloveras, MR, Goenaga, PR, Irurueta, M, Carduza, F, Grigioni, G, Garcia, PT and
Mendola, A. 2008. „Meat quality traits of commercial hybrid pigs in Argentina‟. Meat Science, 79, pp. 458-462.
Lowman, BG, Scott, NA and Somerville, SH. 1972. „Condition Scoring of Cattle’.
Rev edn, Edinburgh School of Agriculture, Edinburgh
References
252
Loza, MJ. 2001. „Sensitive issues for the deer industry‟. In Proceedings of a deer course for veterinarians, 18, Palmerston North, May, pp.73-78.
Loza, MJ. 2003. „Reflections and visions in the deer industry‟. In Proceedings of the
New Zealand Society of Animal Production, 63, Queenstown, June 25-27, pp.212-217.
Lundesjö, M, Lundstrom, K and Hansson, I. 2001. „Effect of pelvic suspension in
beef on yield, shear force and sarcomere length of valuable cuts with emphasis on M. Semimembranosus‟. In Proceedings of 47th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland.
Lundesjö Ahnström, M, Enfält, L, Johansson, J, Virhammar, K, Hansson, I,
Johansson, L and Lundström, K. 2003. „Effect of pelvic suspension on sensory and instrumental evaluation on four beef muscles in heifers and young bulls‟. In Proceedings 49th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Sao Paolo, Brazil, pp 161-162.
Lundesjö Ahnström, M, Hansson, I, Wiklund, E and Lundström, K. 2005. „Shear
force and sarcomere length of five pelvic suspended muscles from different bovine genders‟, In Proceedings 51st International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Baltimore, USA, p. 20.
Lundesjö Ahnström, M, Hunt, MC and Lundström, K. 2012. „Effects of pelvic
suspension of beef carcasses on quality and physical traits of five muscles from four gender-age groups‟. Meat Science, 90, pp. 528-535.
Souza Neto, MA, Mattos, CW and Costa, RG. 2008. „Meat quality of Moxotó and Canindé goats as affected by two levels of feeding‟. Meat Science, 80, (4), pp. 1019-1023.
MAF, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. 2011. Situation and Outlook for New
Zealand Agriculture and Forestry (SONZAF) for 2011. MAF, Wellington. Maher, SC, Mullen, AM, Keane, MG, Buckley, DJ, Kerry, JP and Moloney, AP.
2004. „Decreasing variation in the eating quality of beef through homogenous pre and post slaughter management‟. Meat Science, 67, pp. 33-43.
Marino, R, Albenzio, M, Girolami, A, Muscio, A, Sevi, A and Braghieri, A. 2006.
„Effect of forage to concentrate ratio on growth performance, and on carcass and meat quality of Podolian young bulls‟. Meat Science, 72, pp. 415-424.
Markusfeld, O, Galon, N and Ezra, E. 1997. „Body condition score, health, yield and
fertility in dairy cows‟. Veterinary Record, 141, pp. 67-72. Martinez-Cerezo, S, Sanudo, C, Olleta, JL, Medel, I, Panea, B, Macie, S and Sierra,
I. 2002. „Breed, weight and ageing effects on meat lamb tenderness assessed by consumers‟. In Proceedings 48th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Rome, Italy.
References
253
Matousek, V, Kernerova, N, Machal, L and Vaclavovsky, J. 2011. „The fat cover in gilts in relation to body condition and reproduction‟. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 59, (1), pp. 163-172.
Maurya, VP, Kumar, S, Kumar, D, Gulyani, R, Joshi, A, Naqvi, SMK, Arora, AL
and Singh, VK. 2009. „Effect of body condition score on reproductive performance of Chokla ewes‟. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 79, (11), pp.1136-1138.
Maurya, VP, Sejian, V, Kumar, D, and Naqvi, SMK. 2010. „Effect of induced body
condition score differences on sexual behaviour, scrotal measurements, semen attributes and endocrine responses in Malpura rams under hot semi-arid environment‟. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 94, (6), pp. e308-e317.
May, T, Greenwood, P and Finn, J. 1995. Fat scoring goats. Agfact A7110, 1st edn,
New South Wales Department of Agriculture, Sydney McCaughey, WP and Cliplef, RL. 1996. „Carcass and organoleptic characteristics of
meat from steers grazed on alfalfa/grass pastures and finished on grain‟. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 76, (1), pp. 149-152.
McCrae, SE, Seccombe, CG, Marsh, BB and Carse, WA. 1971. „Studies in meat
tenderness. The tenderness of various lamb muscles in relation to the skeletal restraint and delay before freezing‟. Journal of Food Science, 36, pp. 566-567.
McGee, H. 2004. ‘On food and cooking: the science and lore of the kitchen’. Hodder
and Stoughton, London, UK McGregor, BA. 2010. „Influence of stocking rate and mixed grazing of Angora goats
and merino sheep on animal and pasture production in southern Australia. 2. Liveweight, body condition score, carcass yield and mortality‟. Animal Production Science, 50, (2), pp. 149-157.
McKendry, B. 1993. „Venison Quality Assurance‟. In Proceedings of the First World
Deer Congress, Christchurch, New Zealand, pp. 225-226. McKinnon, M. 2011. Personal Communication. Deer Industry Association of
Australia. McRae, TB, Cox, RJ and Watson, GK. 2006. „A situational analysis of the Australian
venison industry‟. AFBM Journal, 3, (1), pp.5-10.
Medel, I, Sanudo, C, Martinez, S, Panea, B, Roncales,P and Beltran, JA. 2002. „Quality of vacuum packaged lamb meat after different ageing times‟. In Proceedings of 48th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Rome, Italy, pp. 346-347.
References
254
Meilgaard, MC, Civille, GV and Carr, B. 2007. Sensory evaluation techniques. 4th edn. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton.
Mendizabal, JA, Delfa, R, Arana, A and Purroy, A. 2011. „Body condition score and
fat mobilization as management tools for goats on native pastures‟. Small Ruminant Research, 98, (1-3), pp. 121-127.
Millspaugh, JJ and Brundige, GC. 1996. „Estimating elk weight from chest girth‟.
Wildlife Society Bulletin, 24, (1), pp. 58-61. Minchin, W, Buckley, F, Kenny, DA, Monahan, FJ, Shalloo, L and O‟Donovan, M.
2009. „Effect of grass silage and concentrate based feeding strategies on cull dairy cow performance, carcass and meat quality characteristics‟. Meat Science, 81, pp. 93-101.
Mitchell, B, McCowan, D and Nicholson, IA. 1976. „Annual cycles of bodyweight
and condition in Scottish red deer‟. Journal of Zoology, 180, pp. 107-127. Mitchell, T. 1986. Condition scoring goats. Agfact A723, 2nd edn, New South
Wales Department of Agriculture, MLA (Meat and Livestock Australia). 2000. Meat Standards Australia information
kit, Meat and Livestock Australia, North Sydney. Mlynek, K, Elminowska-Wenda, G and Gulinski, P. 2006. „The relationship between
microstructure of Longissimus lumborum muscle and carcass quality of bulls slaughtered at three ages‟. Animal Science Papers and Reports, 24, (1), pp. 57-63.
Moffat, D. 2005. A domestic marketing positioning strategy for Australian venison.
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, ACT.
Moffat, IW. 2011. „Venison enjoying period of stability‟. Deer Industry New Zealand News, 48, June/July, p. 15.
Mojita, J, Slamecka, J, Hell, P and Zaujec, K. 2007. „Influence of killing methods on
the quality of fallow deer meat. Comparison of the physical - technological quality of fallow deer meat from managed preserves with different killing methods. Fleischwirtschaft, 87, (10), pp. 118-120.
of concentrate feeding pattern in a grass silage/concentrate beef finishing system on performance, selected carcass and meat quality characteristics‟. Meat Science, 79, (2), pp. 355-364.
Moloney, AP, Mooney, MT, Troy, DJ and Keane, MG. 2011. „Finishing cattle at
pasture at 30 months of age or indoors at 25 months of age: effects on selected carcass and meat quality characteristics‟. Livestock Science, 141, pp.17-23.
References
255
Monson, F, Sanudo, C and Sierra, I. 2005. Influence of breed and ageing time on the sensory meat quality and consumer acceptability in intensively reared beef‟. Meat Science, 71, pp.471-479.
Moore, VJ and Young, OA. 1991. „The effect of electrical stimulation, thawing,
ageing and packaging on the colour and display life of lamb chops‟. Meat Science, 30, pp. 131-145.
Moriarty, AJ. 2004. Ecology and environmental impact of Javan rusa deer (Cervus
timorensis russa) in the Royal National Park, PhD thesis, University of Western Sydney, Penrith.
MSA (Meat Standards Australia). 2001. How to do it, Beef CRC, Armidale, NSW. MSA (Meat Standards Australia). 2010. Meat Standards Australia. Viewed October,
Australia. MTU 2005. „Marbling and quality of beef‟. Meat Technology Update, 3/05 June,
Tingalpa, Qld, Australia. MTU 2006a. „Colour defects in meat: Part 1 Browning of fresh meat‟. Meat
Technology Update, 5/06 October, Tingalpa, Qld, Australia. MTU 2006b. „Effect of freezing on shear force and sensory quality of beef‟. Meat
Technology Update, 6/06 December, Tingalpa, Qld, Australia. MTU 2010. „Dry Ageing of beef‟. Meat Technology Update, 2/10 April, Tingalpa,
Qld, Australia. Muela, E, Sanudo, C, Campo, MM, Medel, I and Beltran, JA. 2012. „Effect of
freezing method and frozen storage duration on lamb sensory quality‟. Meat Science, 90, pp. 209-215.
Muir, PD, Deaker, JM and Bown, MD. 1998. „Effects of forage- and grain-based
feeding systems on beef quality: a review‟. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 41, (4), pp. 623-635.
Mulley, RC. 1989. Reproduction and performance of farmed fallow deer, PhD thesis,
University of Sydney, Sydney. Mulley, RC. 1993. „Venison Production from farmed fallow deer‟. In Proceedings of
the First World Forum on Fallow Deer Farming, G W Asher (ed.), Mudgee, NSW, Australia, pp. 183-189.
References
256
Mulley, RC. 2011. Personal communication: Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Deer Industry committee member.
Mulley, RC and English, AW. 1985. „The effects of castration of fallow deer (Dama
dama) on body growth and venison production‟. Animal Production, 41, pp. 359-361.
Mulley, RC, English, AW Thompson, JM, Butterfield, RM and Martin, P. 1996.
„Growth and body composition of entire and castrated fallow bucks Dama dama treated with zeranol‟, Animal Production, 63,(1), pp. 159-165.
Mulley, RC and Falepau, DF. 1999. Identification of factors associated with
ecchymosis blood splash in deer, Canprint, ACT, Australia p. 206. Mulley, RC, Falepau, DF, Flesch, JS and Wiklund, E. 2010. „Rate of blood loss and
timing of exsanguination on prevalence of ecchymosis in fallow deer (Dama dama)’. Meat Science, 85, (1), pp. 21-25.
Mulley, RC and Flesch, JS. 2001. Nutritional requirements for pregnant and
lactating red and fallow deer. Canprint, ACT, Australia p. 136. Munoz, AM. 1998. „Consumer perceptions of meat, understanding these results
through descriptive analysis‟. Meat Science, 49, Supp. 1, pp. S287-S295. Murthy TRK and Devadason, IP. 2003. „Buffalo meat and meat products - an
overview‟. In Proceedings of the Fourth Asian Buffalo Congress on Buffalo for Food, Security and Employment, 25-28 February 2003, New Delhi, India, Asian Buffalo Association, New Delhi, pp. 193-199.
Mushi, DE, Elk, LO, Thomassen, MS, Serheim, O and Adney, T. 2008. „Suitability
of Norwegian short-tail lambs, Norwegian dairy goats and cashmere goats for meat production - carcass, meat, chemical and sensory characteristics‟. Meat Science, 80, (3), pp. 842-850.
National Food Administration. 1998. „Regulations regarding slaughter, meat
inspection and handling of reindeer meat’. SLVFS 1998:17 H 197 in Swedish.
Neath, KE, Del Barrio, AN, Lapitan, RM, Herrera, JRV, Cruz, LC, Fujihara, T,
Muroya, S, Chikuni, K, Hirabayashi, M and Kanai, Y. 2007. „Difference in tenderness and pH decline between water buffalo meat and beef during post-mortem ageing‟. Meat Science, 75, pp. 499-505.
Nelsen, TC, Short, RE, Reynolds, WL and Urick, JJ. 1985. „Palpated and visually
assigned condition scores compared with weight, height and heart girth in Hereford and crossbred cows‟. Journal of Animal Science, 60, pp. 363-366.
NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council). 2003. „Dietary guidelines
for Australian adults’. NHMRC, Canberra, ACT..
References
257
Nicholson, MJ and Sayers, AR. 1987. „Repeatability, reproducibility and sequential use of condition scoring of Bos indicus cattle‟. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 19, pp. 127-135.
O‟Connor, MJ. 2006. „Current deer industry issues‟, Proceedings of a Deer Course
for Veterinarians. Deer Branch, New Zealand Veterinary Association, 23, May, Wellington, NZ, pp. 26-28.
Oddy, VH, Harper, GS, Greenwood, PL and McDonagh, MB. 2001. „Nutritional and
developmental effects on the intrinsic properties of muscles as they relate to the eating quality of beef‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 41, pp. 921-942.
Offer, G and Knight, P. 1988. The structural basis of water holding in meat. Part II:
drip losses. In R.Lawrie, Developments in Meat Science, pp. 63-243. O‟Halloran, JM, Ferguson, DM, Perry, D and Egan, AF. 1998. „Mechanism of
tenderness improvement in tenderstretched beef carcasses‟. In Proceedings of the 44th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain, pp. 712-713.
Okeudo, NJ and Moss, BW. 2005. „Interrelationships amongst carcass and eat quality
characteristics of sheep‟. Meat Science, 69, (1), pp. 1-8.
Park, BY, Hwang, IH, Cho, SH, Yoo, YM, Kim, JH, Lee, JM, Polkinghorne, R and Thompson JM. 2008. „Effect of carcass suspension and cooking method on the palatability of three beef muscles as assessed by Korean and Australian consumers‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 48, pp 1396-1404.
Patterson, HD and Thompson, R. 1971. „Recovery of inter-block information when
block sizes are unequal‟. Biometrika, 58, pp. 545-554. Pearce, KL, Rosenvold, K, Andersen, HJ and Hopkins, DL. 2011. „Water distribution
and mobility in meat during the conversion of muscle to meat and ageing and the impacts on fresh meat quality attributes - a review‟. Meat Science, 89, pp. 111-124.
Pearse, AJ, Drew, KR and Whaanga, AJ. 1994. „Advances in New Zealand farm
management to enhance deer production to fulfil international market demands‟. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on the Biology of Deer, Edinburgh, UK, p. 350.
Pearse, AJ and Fung, LE. 2008. „The deer industry‟s productivity strategy: concepts
and development‟. In Proceedings of a Deer Course for Veterinarians, 25, Christchurch, July, pp. 1-5.
Perezbarberia, FJ, Mutuberria, G and Nores, C. 1998. „Reproductive parameters, kidney fat index and grazing activity relationships between the sexes in Cantabrian chamois Rupicapra pyrenaica parva’. Acta Theriologica, 43,(3), pp. 311-324.
Perlo, F, Bonato, P, Teira, G, Tisocco, O, Vicentin, J, Pueyo, J and Mansilla, A.
2008. „Meat quality of lambs produced in the Mesopotamia region of Argentina finished on different diets‟. Meat Science, 79, (3), pp. 576-581.
Perry, D, Shorthose, WR, Ferguson, DM, and Thompson, JM. 2001a. „Methods used
in the CRC program for the determination of carcass yield and beef quality‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 41, pp. 953-957.
Perry, D, Thompson, JM, Hwang, IH, Butchers, A and Egan, AF. 2001b.
„Relationship between objective measurements and taste panel assessment of beef quality‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 41, pp. 981-989.
Perry, P, 2010. „Livestock: Beef and veal‟. Australian Commodities, 17, (3), pp. 502-
508. Perry, TC and Fox, DG. 1996. „Predicting carcass composition and individual feed
requirement in live cattle widely varying in body size‟. Journal of Animal Science, 75, pp. 300-307.
Pethick, DW, Ball, AJ, Banks, RG and Hocquette, JF. 2011. „Current and future
issues facing red meat quality in a competitive market and how to manage continuous improvement‟. Animal Production Science, 51, pp. 13-18.
Pethick, DW, Banks, RG, Hales, J and Ross, IR. 2006. „Australian prime lamb - a
vision for 2020‟. International Journal of Sheep and Wool Science, 54, (1), pp. 66-73.
Pethick, DW, Baud, S, Walker, P, Thompson, JM, Hopkins, DL and Skerritt, J. 2002.
„Defining and quantifying some on-farm factors influencing sheepmeat eating quality‟. Wool Technology and Sheep Breeding, 50, (4), pp. 608-614.
and Walker, PJ. 2005a. „The effect of dietary treatment on meat quality and on consumer perception of sheep meat eating quality‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 45, pp. 517-524.
Pethick, DW, Hopkins, DL, D‟Souza, DN, Thompson JM and Walker, PJ. 2005b.
„Effects of animal age on the eating quality of sheep meat‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 45, (5), pp. 491-498.
Pflanzer, SB and de Felicio, PE. 2009. „Effects of teeth maturity and fatness of
Nellore (Bos indicus) steer carcasses on instrumental and sensory tenderness‟. Meat Science, 83, pp. 697-701.
References
259
Phillip, EL, Oresanya, TF and St. Jacques, J. 2007. „Fatty acid profile, carcass traits and growth rate of red deer fed diets varying in the ratio of concentrate: dried and pelleted roughage, and raised for venison production‟. Small Ruminant Research, 71, pp. 215-221.
„Reliability of body condition scoring of sheep for cross-farm assessments‟. Small Ruminant Research, 104, (1), pp.156-162.
Piasecke, JR and Bender, LC. 2009. „Relationships between nutritional condition of
adult females and relative carrying capacity for rocky mountain elk‟. Rangeland Ecology and Management, 62, (2), pp. 145-152.
Piasentier, E, Bovolenta, S and Viliani, M. 2005. „Wild ungulate farming systems
and product quality‟. Veterinary Research Communications, 29, (Suppl. 2), pp. 65-70.
Pinheiro, RSB and de Souza, HBA. 2011. „Methods of discard ewe carcass
suspension and the quality of meat‟. Ciencia e Tecnologia de Alimentos, 31, (1), pp. 221-224.
Pinto, F, Tarricone, S, Marsico, G, Forcelli, MG, Celi, R and Rasulo, A. 2009.
„Nutritional quality of meats from young fallow deer (Dama dama) of different ages‟. Progress in Nutrition, 11, (1), pp. 57-67.
Pleasants, AB, Thompson, JM, and Pethick, DW. 2005. „A model relating a function
of tenderness, juiciness, flavour and overall liking to the eating quality of sheep meat‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 45, pp. 483-489.
Polak, T, Rajar, A, Gasperlin, L and Zlender, B. 2008. „Cholesterol concentration
and fatty acid profile of red deer (Cervus elaphus) meat‟. Meat Science, 80, pp. 864-869.
Polkinghorne, RJ. 2006. „Implementing a palatability assured critical control point
(PACCP) approach to satisfy consumer demands‟ Meat Science, 74, (1), pp. 180-187.
Polkinghorne, RJ and Thompson, JM. 2010. „Meat standards and grading. A world
view‟. Meat Science, 86, pp. 227-235. Polkinghorne, RJ, Thompson JM, Watson, R, Gee, A and Porter M. 2008a.
„Evolution of the Meat Standards Australia (MSA) beef grading system‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 48, pp. 1351-1359.
Polkinghorne, RJ, Watson, R, Thompson, JM and Pethick DW. 2008b. „Current
usage and future development of the Meat Standards Australia (MSA) grading system‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 48, pp. 1459-1464.
References
260
Pollard, JC, Littlejohn, RP, Asher, GW, Pearse, AJT, Stevenson-Barry, JM and Manley, TR. 2000. „Physiological quantification of pre-slaughter handling stress in red deer‟. In Proceedings of a Deer Course for Veterinarians, Deer Branch, NZVA, 17, pp. 123-129.
Pollard, JC, Littlejohn, RP, Scobie, DR, Pearse, AJ and Stevenson-Barry, JM. 2003.
„Maintaining product quality from the farm gate to the processing facility‟. In Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production, 63, Queenstown, June 25-27, pp. 237-242.
Barry JM, Mackintosh CG, Matthews LR, Fisher AD, Fisher MW, Stafford KJ, Wilson PR, Tacon JR, and Scott I. 2002. Review of Deer Welfare. Confidential Report to DeerResearch, New Zealand.
bruising and pHu in a deer slaughter premises‟. In Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production, 59, pp.148-151.
Pollott, GE and Kilkenny, JB. 1976. „A note on the use of condition scoring in
commercial sheep flocks‟. Animal Production, 23, pp. 261-264. Ponnampalam, EN, Hopkins, DL, Butler, KL, Dunshea, FR and Warner, RD. 2007.
„Genotype and age effects on sheep meat production. 2. Carcass quality traits‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 47, (10), pp. 1147-1154.
Ponnampalam, EN, Trout, GR, Sinclair, AJ, Egan AR and Leury, BJ. 2001.
„Comparison of the colour stability and lipid oxidative stability of fresh and vacuum packaged lamb muscle containing elevated omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acid levels from dietary manipulation‟. Meat Science, 58, 151-161.
Pordomingo, AJ, Grigioni, G, Carduza, F and Volpi Lagreca, G. 2012. „Effect of
feeding treatment during the backgrounding phase of beef production from pasture on: I. Animal performance, carcass and meat quality‟. Meat Science, 90, pp. 939-946.
Poste, LM, Mackie, DA, Butler, G and Larmond, E. 1991. Laboratory methods for
sensory analysis of food, Research Branch Agriculture Canada, Publication 1864/E, Canada Communication Group, Ottawa, Canada.
Priolo, A, Micol, D, Agabriel, J, Prache, S and Dransfield, E. 2002. „Effect of grass
or concentrate feeding systems on lamb carcass and meat quality, Meat Science, 62, (2), pp. 179-185.
Purchas, RW and Aungsupakorn, R. 1993. „Further investigations into the
relationship between ultimate pH and tenderness for beef samples from bulls and steers‟. Meat Science, 34, (2), pp. 163-178.
References
261
Purchas, RW, Triumf, EC and Egelandsdal, B. 2010. „Quality characteristics and composition of the longissimus muscle in the short loin from male and female farmed red deer in New Zealand‟. Meat Science, 86, pp. 505-510.
Purchas, RW, Yan, X and Hartley, DG. 1999. „The influence of a period of ageing on
the relationship between ultimate pH and shear force values of beef M. longissimus thoracis’. Meat Science, 51, pp. 135-141.
Purchas, RW and Zou, M. 2008. „Composition and quality differences between the
longissimus and infraspinatus muscles for several groups of pasture-finished cattle‟. Meat Science, 80, pp. 470-479.
Purslow, PP. 2005. „Intramuscular connective tissue and its role in meat quality‟.
Meat Science, 70, (3), pp. 435-447. Quinn-Walsh, EC, Johnson, DL, Chardon, J and Spelman, RJ. 2010. „Deer
improvement‟s breeding programme for venison production in red deer (Cervus elaphus)’.In Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production, 70, Massey University, 23-25 June, pp. 275-277.
Radder, L and le Roux, R. 2005. „Factors effecting food choice in relation to
venison: a South African example‟. Meat Science, 71, pp. 583-589. Ranken, MD. 2000. Handbook of meat product technology. Blackwell Science, USA, Ransom, AB. 1965. „Kidney and marrow fat as indicators of white-tailed deer
condition‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 29, pp. 397-398. Realini, CE, Duckett, SK, Brito, GW, Dalla Rizza, M and De Mattos, D. 2004.
„Effect of pasture vs. concentrate feeding with or without antioxidants on carcass characteristics, fatty acid composition, and quality of Uruguayan beef‟. Meat Science, 66, (3), pp. 567-577.
Realini, CE, Font i Furnols, M, Guerrero, L, Montossi, F, Campo, MM, Sanudo, C,
Nute, GR, Alvarez, I, Caneque, V, Brito, G and Oliver MA. 2009. „Effect of finishing diet on consumer acceptability of Uruguayan beef in the European market‟. Meat Science, 81, pp. 499-506.
Rees, G. 2010. „Sheep Meat‟. Australian Commodities, 17, (4), pp. 690-695. Rees, MP, Trout, GR and Warner, RD. 2003. „The influence of the rate of pH decline
on the rate of ageing for pork. I: Interaction with method of suspension‟. Meat Science, 65, pp.791-804.
Rehbinder, C. 1990. „Management stress in reindeer‟. Rangifer, Special Issue 3, pp.
267-288. Reinken, G. 1997. „Re-distribution, use and naming of fallow deer Cervus Dama L in
Europe‟, Zeitschrift Fur Jagdwissenscaft, 43, (3), pp. 197-206.
References
262
Reinken, G. 1998. Deer Farming. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Report on the Second World Deer Farming Congress, 24-28 June, 1998, Limerick, Ireland, RIRDC, Canberra, p. 6.
Resconi, VC, Campo, MM, Font i Furnols, M, Montossi, F and Sanudo, C. 2009.
„Sensory evaluation of castrated lambs finished on different proportions of pasture and concentrate feeding systems‟. Meat Science, 83, (1), pp. 31-37.
Resconi, VC, Campo, MM, Font i Furnols, M, Montossi, F and Sanudo, C. 2010.
„Sensory quality of beef from different finishing diets‟. Meat Science, 86, (3), pp. 865-869.
Revilla, I and Vivar-Quintana, AM. 2006. „Effect of breed and ageing time on meat
quality and sensory attributes of veal calves of the “Ternera de Aliste” Quality Label‟. Meat Science, 73, pp. 189-195.
Rincker, PJ, Bechtel, PJ, Finstad, G, van Buuren, RGC, Killefer, J. and McKeith, FK.
2006.„Similarities and differences in composition and selected sensory attributes of reindeer, caribou and beef‟. Journal of Muscle Foods, 17, pp. 65-78.
Riney, T. 1955. „Evaluating condition of free-ranging red deer Cervus elaphus with
special reference to New Zealand‟, New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology, 36 B, pp. 429-463.
Ripoll, G, Alberti, P and Joy, M. 2012. „Influence of alfalfa grazing-based feeding
systems on carcass fat colour and meat quality of light lambs‟. Meat Science, 90, pp. 457-464.
RIRDC. 1994. Venison Market Development Plan. Paper No 92/6, RIRDC,
Canberra, Australia. RIRDC. 2000. Research and development plan for the deer program 2000-2005,
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra, Australia.
RIRDC. 2001. Venison Processing Standards. Venison Marketers and Processors
Specification Manual. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra, Australia.
RIRDC. 2007. Deer industry R&D plan 2006 to 2011. Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation, No 06/113, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT. Risvik E. 1994. „Sensory properties and preferences‟, Meat Science, 36, p. 6777. Rius-Vilarrasa, E, Bunger, L, Matthews, K, Maltin, CA, Hinz, A and Roehe, R.
2007. „Evaluation of video image analysis (VIA) technology to predict lean meat yield of sheep carcasses online under abattoir conditions‟. In Proceedings of the British Society of Animal Science, Southport, April, pp. 321-336.
References
263
Rivas-Munoz, R, Carrillo, E, Rodriguez-Martinez, R, Leyva, C, Mellado, M and Veliz, FG. 2010. „Effect of body condition score of does and use of bucks subjected to added artificial light on oestrus response of Alpine goats‟. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 42, (6), pp. 1285-1289.
Robbins, C T, Moen, A N and Reid, JT. 1974. „Body composition of white-tailed
deer‟. Journal of Animal Science, 38, (4), pp. 871-876. Rodas-Gonzalez, A, Huerta-Leidenz, N, Jerez-Timaure,N and Miller MF. 2009.
„Establishing tenderness thresholds of Venezuelen beef steaks using consumer and trained panels‟, Meat Science, 83, pp. 218-223.
Rodbotten, M, Kubberod, E, Lea, P, and Ueland, O. 2004. „A sensory map of the
meat universe. Sensory profile of meat from 15 species‟, Meat Science, 68, pp 134-137.
Rodrigues, L, Goncalves, HC, Medeiros, BBL, Martins, MF, Komiyama, CM and
Canizares, MC. 2011. „Effect of genotype, finishing system and sex on physiochemical characteristics of goat meat‟. Ciencia e Technologia de Alimentos, 31, (4), pp. 992-997.
Rosenvold, K, van den Berg, F, Andersen, HJ, Johansson, L and Lundstrom, K.
2002. „Beef, Warner-Bratzler shear force measurements, in relation to sensory-determined tenderness; does measurement temperature influence the interpretation?‟. Proceedings 48th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Rome, Italy.
Russel, AJF, Doney, JM and Gunn, RG. 1969. „Subjective assessment of body fat in
live sheep‟. Journal of Agricultural Science, 72, pp. 451-454. Russel, AJF, Doney, JM and Reid, RL. 1967. „Energy requirements of the pregnant
ewe‟. Journal of agricultural Science, 68, pp. 359-363. Russell, BC, McAlister, G, Ross, IS and Pethick, DW. 2005. „Lamb and sheep meat
eating quality - industry and scientific issues and the need for integrated research‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 45, pp 465-467.
Safari, E, Hopkins, DL, Fogarty, NM and Hoist, PJ. 2000. „The significance of
including breed in the prediction of trimmed fat from lamb carcasses using different indicators of fatness‟. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Science, 13 (Suppl.1), pp. 373-376.
Sami, AS, Augustini, C and Schwarz, FJ. 2004. „Effects of feeding intensity and time
on feed on performance, carcass characteristics and meat quality of Simmental bulls‟. Meat Science, 67, (2), pp. 195-201.
Sampels, S, Pickova, J and Wiklund, E. 2004. Fatty acids, antioxidants and oxidation
stability of processed reindeer meat. Meat Science, 67, pp. 523-532.
References
264
Sanson, DW, West, TR, Tatman, WR, Riley, ML, Judkins, MB and Moss, GE. 1993. „Relationship of body composition of mature ewes with condition score and body weight‟. Journal of Animal Science, 71, pp. 1112-1116.
Sanudo, C, Macie, ES, Olleta, JL, Villarroel, M, Panea, B and Alberti, F. 2004. „The
effects of slaughter weight, breed type and ageing time on beef meat quality using two different texture devices‟. Meat Science, 66, pp.925-932.
Sanudo, C, Nute, GR, Campo, MM, Maria, G, Baker, A Sierra, I, Enser, ME, and
Wood, JD. 1998. „Assessment of commercial lamb meat quality by British and Spanish taste panels‟, Meat Science, 48, (1), pp. 91-100.
Sapp, PH, Williams, SE and McCann, MA. 1999. „Sensory attributes and retail
display characteristics of pasture- and/or grain-fed beef aged 7, 14 or 21 days‟. Journal of Food Quality, 22, (3), pp. 257-274.
Sarries, MV and Berlain MJ. 2005. „Carcass characteristics and meat quality of male
and female foals‟, Meat Science, 70, (1), pp. 141-152. Sawyer, JT, Baublits, RT, Apple, JK, Meullenet, JF, Johnson,ZB and Alpers, TK.
2007. „Lateral and longitudinal characterization of color stability, instrumental tenderness and sensory characteristics in the beef M. semimembranosus’. Meat Science, 75, (4), pp. 575-584.
Seamer, DJ. 1986. „The welfare of deer at slaughter in New Zealand and Great
Britain‟. The Veterinary Record, 118, pp. 257-258. Seideman, SC, Cross, HR, Oltjen, RR, Schanbacher, BD. 1982. „Utilisation of the
intact male for red meat production: a review‟. Journal of Animal Science, 55, pp. 826-840.
Serin, I, Serin, G, Yilma, M, Kial, F and Ceylan, A. 2010. „The effects of body
weight, body condition score, age, lactation, serum triglyceride, cholesterol and paraoxanase levels on pregnancy rate of saanen goats in breeding season‟. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances, 9, (13), pp. 1848-1851.
Schonfeldt, HC and Gibson, N. 2008. „Changes in nutrient quality of meat in an
obesity context‟. Meat Science, 80, pp.20-27. Shapiro, S. 2010. Deer Industry Database. Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation, No 09/175, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT.
Shaw, F. 2000. Eating qualities of venison from red and fallow deer. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, No 00/49, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT.
Sims, KL, Wiklund, E, Hutchison, CL, Mulley, RC and Littlejohn, RP. 2004. „Effect
of pelvic suspension on the tenderness of meat from fallow deer Dama dama’. In Proceedings 50th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Helsinki, Finland, pp. 12-13.
References
265
Smart, CW, Giles, RH and Guynn, DC. 1973. „Weight tape for white-tailed deer in Virginia‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 37, pp. 553-555.
Smith RD, Nicholson, KL, Nicholson, JDW, Harris, KB, Miuller, RK, Griffin, DB
and Savell, JW. 2008. „Dry versus wet ageing of beef: retail cutting yields and consumer palatability evaluations from steaks from US choice and US select short loins‟. Meat Science, 79, pp. 631-639.
Smith, GC, Tatum, JD and Belk, KE. 2008. „International perspective:
characterisation of United States Department of Agriculture and Meat Standards Australia systems for assessing beef quality‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 48, pp.1465-1480.
Smulders, FJM, Barnier, VMH, Geeshink,GH and van Laack, R. 1995. „The muscle
biological background of meat tenderness‟. In K.Lundstrom, I.Hansson and E. Wiklund (Eds.), Composition of meat in relationship to processing, nutritional and sensory quality: from farm to fork, ECCEAMST, Utrecht, pp. 103-117.
Smulders, FJM, van Laack, R and Eikelenboom, G. 1991. „Muscle and meat quality:
biological basis, processing, preparation‟. In The European meat industry in the 1990’s’. Audet, Nijmegen, pp. 121-159.
Soltanizadeh, N, Kadivar, M, Keramat, J and Fazilati, M. 2008. „Comparison of fresh
beef and camel meat proteolysis during cold storage‟. Meat Science, 80, pp. 892-895.
Sorheim, O and Hildrum, KI. 2002. „Muscle stretching techniques for improving
meat tenderness‟. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 13, pp. 127-135. Sorheim, O, Idland, J, Halvorsen, EC, Froystein, T, Lea, P and Hildrum, KI. 2001.
„Influence of beef carcass stretching and chilling rate on tenderness of m.longissimus dorsi‟. Meat Science, 57, (1), pp. 79-85.
SPSS. 2002. SPSS for Windows Version 115, SPSS Inc, Chicago, Illinois, USA. Stevenson, JM, Drew, KR, Duncan, SJ and Litteljohn, RP. 1989a. „The relationship
of meat quality to age at slaughter in red deer stags and hinds‟. Report for the New Zealand Game Industry Board.
Stevenson, JM, Seman, DL and Littlejohn, RP. 1992. „Seasonal variation in venison
quality of mature, farmed red deer stags in New Zealand‟. Journal of Animal Science, 70, pp. 1389-1396.
Stevenson, JM, Seman, DL, Weatherall, IL and Littlejohn, RP. 1989b. „Evaluation of
venison colour by an objective method using CIELAB values‟. Journal of Food Science, 54, pp. 1661-1662.
Stevenson-Barry, JM. 2000a. „Systems for Quality Venison‟. In Proceedings of a
Deer Course for Veterinarians, Deer Branch, NZVA, 17, pp. 117-122.
References
266
Stevenson-Barry, JM. 2000b. „Venison - quality issues‟. In Proceedings of a Deer Course for Veterinarians, Deer Branch, NZVA, 17, pp. 131-136.
Stevenson-Barry, JM, Carseldine, WJ, Duncan, SJ and Littlejohn, RP. 1999.
„Incidence of high pH venison: implications for quality‟. In Proceedings New Zealand Society of Animal Production, 59, pp. 145-147.
Stevenson-Barry, JM, Drew, KR, Duncan, SJ and Littlejohn, RP. 1999. „The
relationship of meat quality to age at slaughter and indicators of animal age in red deer stags and hinds‟. In Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production, 59, pp. 137-139.
Stewart, P. 2011. „Who deers wins! Special conference report‟. Deer Industry New
Zealand News, 48, June/July, p. 4.
Suttie, JM. 1983. „The relationship between kidney fat index and marrow fat percentage as indicators of condition in red deer stags Cervus elaphus’. Journal of Zoology, 20, (1), pp. 563-565.
Swan, JE, Esguerra, CM and Farouk, MM. 1998. „Some physical, chemical and
sensory properties of chevon products from three New Zealand goat breeds‟. Small Ruminant Research, 28, pp. 273-280.
Taylor, JM and Hopkins, DL. 2011. „Patents for stretching and shaping meats‟.
Recent patents on food, nutrition and agriculture, 3, (2), pp. 91-101. Taylor, RG, Labas, R, Smulders, FJM and Wiklund, E. 2001. „Ultrastructural
changes during ageing in M. Longissimus thoracis from moose and reindeer‟. Meat Science, 60, pp. 321-326.
Taylor, WA, Skinner, JD and Krecek, RC. 2005. „Seasonal body condition indices of
mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula) in two areas of South African highveld: The grassland and Karoo biomes‟. South African Journal of Animal Sciences, 35, (1), pp.19-29.
Tejeda, JF, Pena, RE and Andres, AI. 2008. „Effect of live weight and sex on
physico-chemical and sensorial characteristics of Merino lamb meat‟. Meat Science, 80, pp. 1061-1067.
Tesanovic, D, Kalenjuk, B, Tesanovic, D, Psodorov, D, Ristic, Z and Markovic, V.
2011. „Changes of biochemical and sensory characteristics in the musculus longissimus dorsi of the fallow deer in the early phase post-mortem and during maturation‟. African Journal of Biotechnology, 10, (55), pp. 11668-11675.
Testa, JW and Adams, GP. 1998. „Body condition and adjustments to reproductive
effort in female moose Alces alces’. Journal of Mammalogy, 79, (4), pp. 1345-1354.
References
267
Thenard, V, Dumont, R, Grosse, M, Trommenschlager, JM, Fiorelli, JL and Roux, M. 2006. „Grass steer production system to improve carcass and meat quality‟. Livestock Science, 105, (1-3), pp. 185-197.
Thompson, JM. 2001. ‘Meat science and technology - meat’. CD Rom, University of
New England, Armidale, NSW. Thompson, JM. 2002. „Managing meat tenderness‟. Meat Science, 62, pp. 295-308. Thompson, JM, Gee, A, Hopkins, DL, Pethick, DW, Baud, SR and O‟Halloran, WJ.
2005c. „Development of a sensory protocol for testing palatability of sheep meats‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 45, pp. 469-476.
Thompson, JM, Hopkins, DL, D‟Souza, DN, Walker, PJ, Baud, SR and Pethick,
DW. 2005b. „The impact of processing on sensory and objective measurements of sheep meat eating quality‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 45, pp. 561-573.
Thompson, JM, Pleasants, AB and Pethick, DW. 2005a. „The effect of design and
demographic factors on consumer sensory scores‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 45, pp. 477-482.
Thompson, JM, Perry, D, Daly, B, Gardner, GE, Johnston, DJ and Pethick, DW.
2006. „Genetic and environmental effects on the muscle structure response post mortem‟. Meat Science, 74, pp. 59-65.
Thompson JM and Polkinghorne, R. 2008. „Preface‟. Journal of Experimental
Agriculture, 48, pp. iii-iv. Thompson, JM, Polkinghorne, R, Hwang, IH, Gee, AM, Cho, SH, Park, BY and Lee,
JM. 2008. „Beef quality grades as determined by Korean and Australian consumers‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 48, pp. 1380-1386.
Tollefson, TN, Shipley, LA, Myers, WL, Keisler, DH and Dasgupta, N. 2010.
„Influence of summer and autumn nutrition on body condition and reproduction in lactating mule deer‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 74, (5), pp. 974-986.
Toohey, ES, Hopkins, DL, Lamb, TA, Nielson, SG and Gutkze, D. 2008.
„Accelerated tenderness of sheep topsides using a meat stretching device‟. In Proceedings of the 54th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, 7B, Cape Town, South Africa, pp. 1-3.
Toohey, ES, van de Ven, R, Thompson, JM, Geesink, GH and Hopkins, DL. 2012a.
„SmartStretch™ Technology. I. Improving the tenderness of sheep topsides (m. Semimembranosus) using a meat stretching device‟. Meat Science, 91, pp. 142-147.
References
268
Toohey, ES, van de Ven, R, Thompson, JM, Geesink, GH and Hopkins, DL. 2012b. „SmartStretch™ Technology. II. Improving the tenderness of leg meat from sheep using a meat stretching device‟. Meat Science, 91, pp. 125-130.
Torbit, SC, Carpenter, LH, Alldredge, AW and Swift, DM. 1985. „Mule deer body
composition - a comparison of methods‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 49, pp. 86-91.
Torbit, SC, Carpenter, LH, Bartman, RM, Alldredge, AW and White, GC. 1988.
„Calibration of carcass fat indices in wintering mule deer‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 52, (4), pp. 582-588.
Tornberg, E. 1996. „Biophysical aspects of meat tenderness‟. Meat Science, 43, (S),
pp. S175-S191. Triumf, EC, Purchas, RW, Mielnik, M, Maehre, HK, Elvevoll, E, Slinde, E and
Egelandsdal, B. 2012. „Composition and some quality characteristics of the longissimus muscle of reindeer in Norway compared to farmed New Zealand red deer‟ Meat Science, 90, pp. 122-129.
Troy, DJ and Kerry, JP. 2010. „Consumer perception and the role of science in the
meat industry‟. Meat Science, 86, pp. 214-226. Tuckwell, C. 1999. Development of the deer industry as a major Australian livestock
industry. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, No 99/92, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT.
Tuckwell, C. 2001a. Deer: quality assurance, strategic alliances and industry
development. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, No 01/120, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT.
Tuckwell, C. 2001b. Venison quality assurance. Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation, No 01/94, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT. Tuckwell, C. 2003a. Deer farming in Australia: production and markets for venison,
velvet antler and co-products in 2001-02. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, No 02/128, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT.
Tuckwell, C. 2003b. The deer farming handbook. Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation, No 02/128, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT.
Tuckwell, C. 2007. Deer industry statistics. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, No 07/174, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT.
Tuckwell, C, Flesch, JS and Mulley, RC. 2000a. „Body condition scoring chart for
fallow deer’. RIRDC, Canberra, ACT. Tuckwell, C, Hansen A and McKay, B. 2000b. „Body condition scoring chart for red
deer’. RIRDC, Canberra, ACT.
References
269
Tuckwell, C and Tume, L 2000, Niche markets for venison, RIRDC, Canberra, ACT. Turner, T, Hessle, A, Lundstroom, K and Pickova, J. 2011. „Silage-concentrate
finishing of bulls versus silage or fresh forage finishing of steers: effects on fatty acids and meat tenderness‟. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A - Animal Science, 61, pp. 103-113.
Van Vuren, D and Coblentz, BE. 1985. „Kidney weight variation and the kidney fat
index: an evaluation‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 49, (1), pp. 177-179. Van Schalkwyk, S. 2004. „Meat quality characteristics of three South African game
species: black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou), blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula)’. MSc thesis, University of Stellenbosch.
Varela, A, Oliete, B, Moreno, T, Portela, C, Monserrat, L, Carballo, JA and Sanchez,
L. 2004. Effect of pasture finishing on the meat characteristics and intramuscular fatty acid profile of steers of the Rubia Gallega breed‟. Meat Science, 67, pp. 515-022.
Vasanthi, C, Venkataramanujam, V and Dushyanthan, K. 2007. „Effect of cooking
temperature and time on the physico-chemical, histological and sensory properties of female carabeef buffalo meat‟. Meat Science, 76, (2), pp. 274-280.
Vieiria,C, Cerdeno, A, Serrano, E, Lavin, P. And Mantecon, AR. 2007. „Breed and
ageing extent on carcass and meat quality of beef from adult steers (oxen)‟. Livestock Science, 107, pp. 62-69.
WR, Johnson, DD, Lorenzen, CL, Maddock, RJ, Miller, RK, Morgan, JB, Baird, BE, Gwartney, BL and Savell, JW. 2007. „National beef tenderness survey-2006: assessment of Warner-Bratzler shear and sensory panels ratings for beef from US retail and foodservice establishments‟. Meat Science, 77, (3), pp. 357-364.
Volpelli, LA, Failla, S, Sepulcri, A and Piasentier, E. 2005. „Calpain system in vitro
activity and myofibril fragmentation index in fallow deer (Dama dama); effects of age and supplementary feeding‟. Meat Science, 69, pp. 579-582.
Volpelli, LA, Valusso, R, Morgante, M, Pittia, P and Piasentier, E. 2003. „Meat
quality in male fallow deer (Dama dama): effects of age and supplementary feeding‟. Meat Science, 65, pp. 555-562.
Volpelli, LA, Valusso, R and Piasentier, E. 2002. „Carcass quality in male fallow
deer (Dama dama): effects of age and supplementary feeding‟. Meat Science, 60, pp. 427-432.
References
270
Wahlgren, NM, Goransson, M, Linden, H and Willhammar, O. 2002. „Reducing the influence of animal variation and ageing on beef tenderness‟. In Proceedings of 48th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Rome, 25-30 August, pp. 240-241.
„Can ultrasound eye muscle area scanning be used in the New Zealand deer industry?‟ In Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production, 70, Massey University, 23-25 June, pp. 275-277
Warner, RD, Greenwood, PL, Pethick, DW and Ferguson, DM. 2010. „Genetic and
environmental effects on meat quality‟. Meat Science, 86, pp. 171-183.
Warner, RD, Kearney, GA, Thompson, JM and Polkinghorne, R. 2009. „Rigor temperature influences objective and consumer quality traits of beef striploin‟. In Proceedings of the 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, August, Copenhagen , Denmark. pp.16-21.,
Watanabe, A, Daly, CC and Devine, CE. 1996. „The effects of ultimate pH of meat on
tenderness changes during ageing‟. Meat Science, 42, pp. 67-78. Watkins, BE, Witham, JH, Ullrey, SJ, and Jones, M. 1991. „Body composition and
condition evaluation of white-tailed deer fawns‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 55, pp. 39-51.
Watson, A. 1971. „Climate and antler shedding and performance of red deer in north
east Scotland‟. Journal of Applied Ecology, 8, pp. 53-67. Watson, R, Gee, A, Polkinghorne, R and Porter, M. 2008. „Consumer assessment of
eating quality-development of protocols for Meat Standards Australia (MSA) testing‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 48, pp. 1360-1367.
Weckerly, FW, Leberg, PL and Van Den Bussche, RA. 1987. „Variation of weight
and chest girth in white-tailed deer‟. Journal of Wildlife Management, 51, (2), pp. 334-337.
Weglarz, A. 2010. „Quality of beef from semi-intensively fattened heifers and bulls‟.
Animal Science Papers and Reports, 28, (3), pp. 207-218.
Weglarz, A, Zapletal, P, Gil, Z, Skrzynski, G and Adamczyk, K. 2002. „The effect of sex and age on beef quality‟. Zeszyty Naukowe Przegladu Hododowlanego, 62, pp. 211-216.
Wheeler, TL, Shackelford, SD, and Koohmaraie, M. 2004. „The accuracy and
repeatability of untrained laboratory consumer panelists in detecting differences in beef Longissimus tenderness‟. Journal of Animal Science, 82, (2), pp. 557-562.
Whitehead, GK. 1972. Deer of the world. Constable, London, UK.
References
271
Whitehead, GK. 1993. The Whitehead encyclopaedia of deer. Swan Hill Press, Shrewsbury, England.
Wiklund, E. 1996. Pre-slaughter handling of reindeer Rangifer tarandus tarandus L
- effects on meat quality, thesis, Department of Food Science, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden.
Wiklund, E. 2009. „Venison quality, from plate to gate‟. In Proceedings of a Deer
Course for Veterinarians, 26, Christchurch, July, pp. 24-26. Wiklund, E, Andersson, A, Malmfors, G and Lundstrom, K. 1996a. „Muscle
glycogen levels and blood metabolites in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus atrandus L.) after transport and lairage‟. Meat Science, 42, (2), pp. 133-144.
Wiklund, E, Andersson, A, Malmfors, G, Lundstrom, K and Danell, O. 1995.
„Ultimate pH values in reindeer meat with particular regard to animal sex and age, muscle and transport distance‟. Rangifer, 15, (2), pp. 47-54.
Wiklund, E, Asher, GW, Archer, JA, Ward, JF and Littlejohn, RP. 2008. „Carcass
and meat quality characteristics in young red deer stags of different growth rates‟. In Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal production, 68, Brisbane, Australia, 24-27 June, pp.174-177.
Wiklund, E, Barnier, VMH, Smulders, FJM, Lundstrom, K and Malmfors, G. 1997a.
„Proteolysis and tenderisation in reindeer Rangifer tarandus tarandus L bull longissimus thoracis muscle of various ultimate pH‟. Meat Science, 46, pp. 33-43.
Wiklund, E, Dobbie, P, Stuart, A and Littlejohn, RP. 2010. „Seasonal variation in red
deer (Cervus elaphus) venison drip loss, calpain activity, colour and tenderness‟. Meat Science, 86, (3), pp. 720-727.
Wiklund, E, Farouk, M., Stuart, A. and Dobbie, P. 2009. „Consumer evaluation of
chilled-never-frozen versus chilled-frozen-thawed beef and venison‟. Proceedings, 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, 16-21 August, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Wiklund, E, Finstad, G, Aguiar, G and Bechtel, PJ. 2011. „Does carcass suspension
technique influence reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) meat quality attributes?‟ Animal Production Science, 51, (4), pp. ci-civ.
Wiklund, E, Hansson, I and Åhman, B. 2002. „Sensory quality of meat from reindeer
bulls, cows and calves‟. In Proceedings, 12th Nordic Conference on Reindeer Research, Kiruna, Sweden, pp. 115-116.
Wiklund, E, Hutchison, CL, Flesch, JS, Mulley, RC and Littlejohn, RP. 2005.
„Colour stability and water-holding capacity of M. Longissimus and carcass characteristics in fallow deer Dama dama grazed on natural pasture or fed barley‟. Rangifer, 25, (2), pp. 97-105.
References
272
Wiklund, E and Johansson, L. 2011. „Water holding capacity, colour stability and sensory characteristics in meat (M. longissimus dorsi) from reindeer fed two different commercial feeds‟. Rangifer, 31, (1), pp.49-60.
Wiklund, E, Johansson, L and Malmfors, G. 2003a. „Sensory meat quality, ultimate pH
values, blood parameters and carcass characteristics in reindeer Rangifer tarandus tarandus L grazed on natural pastures or fed a commercial feed mixture‟. Food Quality and Preference, 14, pp.573-581.
Wiklund, E, Malmfors, G and Lundström, K. 1997b. „The effects of pre-slaughter
selection of reindeer bulls Rangifer tarandus tarandus L on technological and sensory meat quality, blood metabolites and abomasal lesions‟. Rangifer, 17, pp. 65-72.
Wiklund, E, Malmfors, G, Lundström, K and Rehbinder, C. 1996b. „Pre-slaughter
handling of reindeer bulls Rangifer tarandus tarandus L - effects on technological and sensory meat quality, blood metabolites and muscular and abomasal lesions‟. Rangifer, 16, pp. 109-117.
Wiklund, E, Manley, TR, Littlejohn, RP and Stevenson-Barry, JM. 2003b. „Fatty
acid composition and sensory quality of M longissimus and carcass parameters in red deer Cervus elaphus grazed on natural pasture or fed a commercial feed mixture‟. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 83, pp. 419-424.
Wiklund, E, Mulley, RC, Hutchison, CL and Littlejohn, RP. 2004. „Effect of carcass
suspension method on water holding capacity of fallow deer Dama dama and lamb meat M. Longissimus’. In Proceedings of the 50th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Helsinki, Finland.
Wiklund, E, Nilsson, A and Åhman, B. 2000. „Sensory meat quality, ultimate pH
values, blood metabolites and carcass parameters in reindeer Rangifer tarandus tarandus L fed various diets‟. Rangifer, 20, pp. 9-16.
Wiklund, E, Pickova, J, Sampels, S, and Lundström, K. 2001a. „Fatty acid
composition in M longissimus lumborum, ultimate muscle pH values and carcass parameters in reindeer Rangifer tarandus tarandus L grazed on natural pasture or fed a commercial feed mixture‟. Meat Science, 58, pp. 293-298.
Wiklund, E, Rehbinder, C, Malmfors, G, Hansson, I and Danielsson-Tham, ML.
2001b. „Ultimate pH values and bacteriological condition of meat and stress metabolites in blood of transported reindeer bulls‟. Rangifer, 21, (1), pp. 3-12.
Wiklund, E, Sampels, S, Manley, TR, Pickova, J and Littlejohn, RP. 2006. „Effects
of feeding regimen and chilled storage on water holding capacity, colour stability, pigment content and oxidation in red deer (Cervus elaphus) meat‟. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 86, pp. 98-106.
References
273
Wiklund, E, Stevenson-Barry, JM, Duncan, SJ and Littlejohn, RP. 2001c. „Electrical stimulation of red deer Cervus elaphus carcasses – effects on rate of pH-decline, meat tenderness, colour stability and water-holding capacity‟. Meat Science, 59, pp. 211-220.
Williams, P and Droulez, V. 2010. „Australian red meat consumption - implications of
changes over 20 years on nutrient composition‟. Food Australia, 63, (3), pp. 87-94.
Wilson, P. 1999. „Regular handling reduces blood splash in meat‟. Farming Ahead,
85, p. 23. Wilson, PR and Audige, LJ. 1996. „Target setting: body condition scores and
weights‟. In Proceedings of a Deer Course for Veterinarians, Deer Branch, NZVA, 13, pp. 27-37.
Wolcott, ML, Johnston, DJ, Barwick, SA, Iker, CL, Thompson, JM and Burrow,
HM. 2009. „Genetics of meat quality and carcass traits and the impact of tenderstretching in two tropical beef genotypes‟. Animal Production Science, 49, pp. 383-398.
composition and meat quality parameters of entire and castrate farmed blackbuck antelope (Antilope cervicapra)’. Meat Science, 43, (1), pp. 25-36.
Wright, W. 1993. „Venison Processing in New Zealand‟. In Proceedings of the First
World Deer Congress Christchurch, New Zealand, pp. 217-220. Wynn, P, Beaton, A and Spiegel, N 2004, Meat quality of kangaroos, Canprint,
ACT, Australia p.61. Yadata, MA, Werner, C, Tibbo, M, Wollny, CBA and Wicke, M. 2009. „Assessment
of the sensory quality and shelf stability of selected Horro beef muscles in Ethiopia‟. Meat Science, 83, pp.113-119.
Yang, A, Lanari, MC, Brewster, M and Tume RK. 2002. „Lipid stability and meat
colour of beef from pasture and grain fed cattle with or without vitamin E supplement‟. Meat Science, 60, pp. 41-50.
Yerex, D. 1979. Deer Farming in New Zealand. Wellington Deer Farming Services,
Division of Agricultural Promotion Associates, Wellington, NZ, p. 120. Young, OA, Hopkins, DL and Pethick, DW. 2005. „Critical control points for meat
quality in the Australian sheep meat supply chain‟. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 45, pp. 593-601.
Yu, LP and Lee YB. 1986. „Effects of post mortem pH and temperature muscle
structure on meat tenderness‟. Journal of Food Science, 51, (3), pp.774-780.
References
274
Zamiri, MJ, Eilami, B and Kianzad, MR. 2012. „Effects of castration and fattening period on growth performance and carcass characteristics in Iranian goats‟. Small Ruminant Research, 104, (1), pp. 55-61.
Zemke-Smith, G. 2009. „Deer product exports‟. In Proceedings of a Deer Course for
Veterinarians, 26, Christchurch, July, pp. 28-30. Zhou, ZK, Gao, X, Li, JY, Chen, JB and Xu, SZ. 2011. „Effect of castration on
carcass quality and differential gene expression of longissimus muscle between steer and bull‟. Molecular Biology Reports, 38, (8), pp. 5307-5312.
Appendix
275
Appendices
The author’s four children with two hand raised fallow deer haviers.
Sample Code: __________________ Please rate the sample for the following characteristics by marking on the line scale where it best describes your impressions.
1. Please do not taste yet! Please look at the sample and rate its colour
COLOUR Extremely Pale Extremely Dark
________________________________________________
2. Please smell the sample and rate its aroma
AROMA Dislike Extremely Neither Like nor dislike Like Extremely
________________________________________________
AROMA STRENGTH None Extremely Strong
________________________________________________
3. Now taste the sample of venison and rate the following characteristics:
FLAVOUR Dislike Extremely Neither like nor dislike Like Extremely
________________________________________________
FLAVOUR STRENGTH None Extremely Strong
________________________________________________
GAME FLAVOUR None Extremely Strong
________________________________________________
TENDERNESS Extremely Tough Extremely Tender
________________________________________________
JUICINESS Extremely Dry Extremely Juicy
________________________________________________
OVERALL LIKING Dislike Extremely Neither like nor dislike Like Extremely