Informing the role for North Africa in preparing the regional and international agendas. Johnson Akinbola Oguntola, Snr. Regional Adviser (Integrated Water.

Informing the role for North Africa in Informing the role for North Africa in preparing the regional and international preparing the regional and international agendas.agendas.

Johnson Akinbola Oguntola,Johnson Akinbola Oguntola,Snr. Regional Adviser (Integrated Water Resources Snr. Regional Adviser (Integrated Water Resources Management),Management),UN Economic Commission for Africa,UN Economic Commission for Africa,Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

International Solidarity Conference on Climate Change Strategies for the African and

Mediterranean Regions

The Problem Context: IPCC Assessment The Problem Context: IPCC Assessment Reports.Reports.

Natural systems are vulnerable to climate change and some will Natural systems are vulnerable to climate change and some will be irreversibly damaged;be irreversibly damaged;

Many human systems are sensitive to climate change, and the Many human systems are sensitive to climate change, and the potential for large-scale and possibly irreversible impacts poses potential for large-scale and possibly irreversible impacts poses risks that have yet to be reliably quantified;risks that have yet to be reliably quantified;

Five major reasons were given for concern, as follows:Five major reasons were given for concern, as follows: Risks to Unique and Threatened SystemsRisks to Unique and Threatened Systems Risks from Extreme Climate EventsRisks from Extreme Climate Events Distribution of ImpactsDistribution of Impacts Aggregate ImpactsAggregate Impacts Risks from Future Large-Scale Discontinuities.Risks from Future Large-Scale Discontinuities.

The key output is the relationship between vulnerability and global The key output is the relationship between vulnerability and global warming, where vulnerability increases with climate change.warming, where vulnerability increases with climate change.

The Problem Context: IPCC Assessment The Problem Context: IPCC Assessment Reports (cont’d).Reports (cont’d).

Different impacts such as snowfall, coral bleaching, most Different impacts such as snowfall, coral bleaching, most bioclimatic envelopes, heat and cold stress-related impacts are all bioclimatic envelopes, heat and cold stress-related impacts are all related to warming.related to warming.

Impacts to crops, pastures and forests are affected more by Impacts to crops, pastures and forests are affected more by higher COhigher CO22, and rainfall change more than temperature change., and rainfall change more than temperature change.

Water resources are mostly affected by rainfall change, and very Water resources are mostly affected by rainfall change, and very little by warming, except for water demand.little by warming, except for water demand.

Impacts such as storm damage, flooding, climate-driven disease Impacts such as storm damage, flooding, climate-driven disease outbreaks, and drought, are affected by changes in extreme outbreaks, and drought, are affected by changes in extreme events.events.

In some situations, climate variables may interact, where the In some situations, climate variables may interact, where the magnitude of change in one variable affects the response of the magnitude of change in one variable affects the response of the system to the other.system to the other.

The status-quo: Two different policy positions.The status-quo: Two different policy positions.

Two different positions or views have emerged on how to act on Two different positions or views have emerged on how to act on climate change, which influence the bargaining for an agreement climate change, which influence the bargaining for an agreement on Climate Change:on Climate Change: On the one hand, an aversion to economic loss focuses on the On the one hand, an aversion to economic loss focuses on the

damage that action on climate change may cause to the economy in damage that action on climate change may cause to the economy in the short term. These economically risk averse prefer quantified the short term. These economically risk averse prefer quantified economic estimates, most often based on cost-benefit analysis economic estimates, most often based on cost-benefit analysis (CBA).(CBA).

On the other hand, an aversion to environmental loss are highly On the other hand, an aversion to environmental loss are highly sensitive to long-term threats to natural and human systems, believing sensitive to long-term threats to natural and human systems, believing that significant economic intervention is warranted to prevent such that significant economic intervention is warranted to prevent such losses. The environmentally risk averse rely most on scientific advice losses. The environmentally risk averse rely most on scientific advice that assesses the possibility of critical environmental or socio-that assesses the possibility of critical environmental or socio-economic thresholds being exceeded at some time in the future.economic thresholds being exceeded at some time in the future.

The status-quo: Two different policy positions The status-quo: Two different policy positions (cont’d.).(cont’d.).

These two positions in turn gave rise to two policy positions:These two positions in turn gave rise to two policy positions: market-based and technology-driven strategies initiated with a market-based and technology-driven strategies initiated with a

wait and see approach to how serious climate change may wait and see approach to how serious climate change may become before applying any irreversible actions to the become before applying any irreversible actions to the economy. The protagonists argue that deep cuts may visit economy. The protagonists argue that deep cuts may visit harmful and irreversible impacts on the economy, which may harmful and irreversible impacts on the economy, which may limit society’s capacity to adapt and mitigate at later stages, limit society’s capacity to adapt and mitigate at later stages, and would be mistaken if impacts were less than anticipated.and would be mistaken if impacts were less than anticipated.

Targets for warming and atmospheric COTargets for warming and atmospheric CO22 concentrations concentrations being set with pathways towards those targets, designed to being set with pathways towards those targets, designed to minimize the risk of dangerous anthropogenic interference with minimize the risk of dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system occurring. Protagonists argue that the the climate system occurring. Protagonists argue that the consequences of dangerous anthropogenic interference are so consequences of dangerous anthropogenic interference are so severe that immediate and deep cuts in greenhouse gas severe that immediate and deep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions are required.emissions are required.

The status-quo: Two different policy positions The status-quo: Two different policy positions (cont’d.).(cont’d.).

The policy dichotomy points to a variant of Type I and Type II The policy dichotomy points to a variant of Type I and Type II errors, where:errors, where: A hypothesis is thought to be true, but is in fact false (Type I), orA hypothesis is thought to be true, but is in fact false (Type I), or Thought to be false, but is in fact true (Type II)Thought to be false, but is in fact true (Type II)

If the science surrounding greenhouse gas warming is contested, If the science surrounding greenhouse gas warming is contested, then engaging in Type I actions is posited as a significant policy then engaging in Type I actions is posited as a significant policy risk. However, if the science is accepted, the risk of committing a risk. However, if the science is accepted, the risk of committing a Type I error becomes negligible, and the argument is not about Type I error becomes negligible, and the argument is not about whether to take action, but when and how much.whether to take action, but when and how much.

It is recognized that dangerous anthropogenic interference may It is recognized that dangerous anthropogenic interference may be breached within the range of warming projected for 2100, be breached within the range of warming projected for 2100, subject to two major uncertainties:subject to two major uncertainties: The climate sensitivity to radiative forcing, andThe climate sensitivity to radiative forcing, and The sensitivity of key vulnerabilities to the resultant warming.The sensitivity of key vulnerabilities to the resultant warming.

The status-quo: Two different policy positions The status-quo: Two different policy positions (cont’d.).(cont’d.).

A Type II error is possible if dangerous anthropogenic interference A Type II error is possible if dangerous anthropogenic interference is preventable but too little is done too late. However, the fear is preventable but too little is done too late. However, the fear remains that early action may be regretted if dangerous remains that early action may be regretted if dangerous anthropogenic interference turns out to be less likely than thought, anthropogenic interference turns out to be less likely than thought, if there is a technological “magical bullet” developed by mid-if there is a technological “magical bullet” developed by mid-century that can drastically reduce emissions in time to avoid century that can drastically reduce emissions in time to avoid dangerous anthropogenic interference or that early actions serve dangerous anthropogenic interference or that early actions serve to reduce future mitigative and adaptive capacity.to reduce future mitigative and adaptive capacity.

The decision on how to address climate change is therefore not a The decision on how to address climate change is therefore not a simple problem, and four strategies have clearly emerged:simple problem, and four strategies have clearly emerged:

Strategies for managing risks related to Strategies for managing risks related to mitigation costs and likelihood of dangerous mitigation costs and likelihood of dangerous

anthropogenic interferenceanthropogenic interference

Strategy I:Strategy I: Wait and see on everything.Wait and see on everything. Reduce uncertainty through experience.Reduce uncertainty through experience. Reactive adaptation (min. loss/max. benefit).Reactive adaptation (min. loss/max. benefit). Modest mitigation – known low cost options.Modest mitigation – known low cost options.

Strategy II:Strategy II: Wait and see on climate and impacts.Wait and see on climate and impacts. Research economic, technical uncertaintyResearch economic, technical uncertainty Reactive adaptation (min. loss/max. benefits).Reactive adaptation (min. loss/max. benefits). Make efforts to reduce mitigation costs.Make efforts to reduce mitigation costs.

Strategies for managing risks related to Strategies for managing risks related to mitigation costs and likelihood of dangerous mitigation costs and likelihood of dangerous

anthropogenic interference (cont’d.).anthropogenic interference (cont’d.).

Strategy III:Strategy III: Act early to stabilise.Act early to stabilise. Research climate and impact uncertainty.Research climate and impact uncertainty. Embark on anticipatory adaptation.Embark on anticipatory adaptation. Strong mitigation – develop low cost options.Strong mitigation – develop low cost options.

Strategy IV:Strategy IV: Act on everything.Act on everything. Research everything.Research everything. Undertake anticipatory adaptation and cost reduction.Undertake anticipatory adaptation and cost reduction. Undertake anticipatory mitigation and cost reduction.Undertake anticipatory mitigation and cost reduction.

However, it is not yet possible to estimate the relative likelihoods However, it is not yet possible to estimate the relative likelihoods of success for these strategies, or to articulate the outcomes if one of success for these strategies, or to articulate the outcomes if one strategy is followed, and another eventuates (Type II error).strategy is followed, and another eventuates (Type II error).

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process.Process.

The High Level Event on Climate Change convened by the Secretary-The High Level Event on Climate Change convened by the Secretary-General at UNHQ on 24 September 2007, has unequivocally committed General at UNHQ on 24 September 2007, has unequivocally committed the world leaders to tackle climate change through concerted action.the world leaders to tackle climate change through concerted action.

The forum at which this issue can be decided upon is the United The forum at which this issue can be decided upon is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

The current intergovernmental negotiations under the UNFCCC are The current intergovernmental negotiations under the UNFCCC are based on four key areas:based on four key areas: Adaptation;Adaptation; Mitigation;Mitigation; Technology; and Technology; and Finance.Finance.

Adaptation and mitigation are goals, financing and technology are tools Adaptation and mitigation are goals, financing and technology are tools for achieving those goals.for achieving those goals.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process: General considerations.Process: General considerations.

There will be need to improve realism and policy relevance in There will be need to improve realism and policy relevance in future climate negotiations. Possible ways to achieve such realism future climate negotiations. Possible ways to achieve such realism include the realization that:include the realization that: Changes take the form of smooth trends and smooth substitution Changes take the form of smooth trends and smooth substitution

process, rather than sudden breaks. Economic change in particular is process, rather than sudden breaks. Economic change in particular is governed by prices signaling relative scarcity, including those of governed by prices signaling relative scarcity, including those of natural resources.natural resources.

Prices coordinate economic choices, including demand, supply, Prices coordinate economic choices, including demand, supply, investment in capital and outlays on Research and Development investment in capital and outlays on Research and Development (R&D).(R&D).

Negative externalities due to environmental pollution and positive Negative externalities due to environmental pollution and positive externalities of R&D and innovation need to be internalized.externalities of R&D and innovation need to be internalized.

Old, obsolete techniques need to be replaced by new more efficient Old, obsolete techniques need to be replaced by new more efficient techniques.techniques.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process: General considerations (cont’d.).Process: General considerations (cont’d.).

The ecological explanation that linked the Industrial Revolution to The ecological explanation that linked the Industrial Revolution to natural resource factors confirm the importance of resource natural resource factors confirm the importance of resource scarcity for human development.scarcity for human development.

Sustainable development depends on both good environmental Sustainable development depends on both good environmental regulation and resource management.regulation and resource management.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process (cont’d.): Adaptation.Process (cont’d.): Adaptation.

Adaptation increases the ability of a system to cope with climate Adaptation increases the ability of a system to cope with climate variability and extreme events.variability and extreme events.

It will be required to manage climate risks that are already It will be required to manage climate risks that are already committed to by historical emissions and those expected in the committed to by historical emissions and those expected in the near future.near future.

It is most urgent for risks that are already being experienced and It is most urgent for risks that are already being experienced and those that are sensitive to only small changes; adaptation to those that are sensitive to only small changes; adaptation to higher levels of warming will be difficult and costly, requiring a higher levels of warming will be difficult and costly, requiring a great deal of accepted loss.great deal of accepted loss.

Adaptation reduces the consequences of climate-related hazards, Adaptation reduces the consequences of climate-related hazards, manages the experienced or more probable changes occurring at manages the experienced or more probable changes occurring at the lower limit of the plausible range.the lower limit of the plausible range.

Its benefits are short to medium term, especially if designed to Its benefits are short to medium term, especially if designed to manage current climate risks. It is specific to local conditions.manage current climate risks. It is specific to local conditions.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process (cont’d.): Adaptation 2.and Process (cont’d.): Adaptation 2.

Issues that need to inform an African position during negotiations:Issues that need to inform an African position during negotiations: The total cost of global climate change need to be seen as the sum of The total cost of global climate change need to be seen as the sum of

mitigation, residual damage, and adaptation costs. The UNFCCC is mitigation, residual damage, and adaptation costs. The UNFCCC is primarily concerned with a need for limiting and ultimately stabilizing primarily concerned with a need for limiting and ultimately stabilizing future concentrations of greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere, future concentrations of greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere, and the role of industrialized countries in greenhouse gas mitigation. and the role of industrialized countries in greenhouse gas mitigation. Fairness has therefore been limited to how costs of greenhouse gas Fairness has therefore been limited to how costs of greenhouse gas mitigation are distributed across countries. Climate impacts, vulnerability mitigation are distributed across countries. Climate impacts, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change need to be accorded equal importance.and adaptation to climate change need to be accorded equal importance.

Even if fully implemented, the Kyoto Protocol will not prevent the Even if fully implemented, the Kyoto Protocol will not prevent the occurrence of negative impacts due to a warmer climate. Climate occurrence of negative impacts due to a warmer climate. Climate damages are unevenly distributed between the industrialized countries damages are unevenly distributed between the industrialized countries and the developing countries, which are most vulnerable. Fairness and the developing countries, which are most vulnerable. Fairness requires that economic, social and environmental losses in developing requires that economic, social and environmental losses in developing countries be taken into consideration in global climate policies.countries be taken into consideration in global climate policies.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process (cont’d.): Adaptation 3.Process (cont’d.): Adaptation 3.

Funding mechanisms established for adaptation since CoP-6 in 2001 Funding mechanisms established for adaptation since CoP-6 in 2001 are insufficient to meet future needs for adaptation. The World Bank are insufficient to meet future needs for adaptation. The World Bank estimate of annual cost of US$10-40 billion to “climate-proof” estimate of annual cost of US$10-40 billion to “climate-proof” development in low-income countries shows the magnitude of the development in low-income countries shows the magnitude of the problem and the urgent need for additional resources to be mobilized. problem and the urgent need for additional resources to be mobilized. The Nairobi Work Programme on impacts, vulnerability and The Nairobi Work Programme on impacts, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change, adopted in November 2006, offers adaptation to climate change, adopted in November 2006, offers services such as synthesis reports, technical papers, progress reports services such as synthesis reports, technical papers, progress reports and a web-based interface, but does not engage in concrete activities. and a web-based interface, but does not engage in concrete activities. The adaptation fund under the KP, replenished by a 2% levy on CDM The adaptation fund under the KP, replenished by a 2% levy on CDM transactions is not operational, and according to WB estimate, could transactions is not operational, and according to WB estimate, could generate US$100-500 million up to 2012, far short from the US$10-40 generate US$100-500 million up to 2012, far short from the US$10-40 billion required annually. A fund filled by mandatory contributions from billion required annually. A fund filled by mandatory contributions from industrialized countries, with a charge of $1 for each ton of COindustrialized countries, with a charge of $1 for each ton of CO22 equivalent emission, would generate $40 billion per annum.equivalent emission, would generate $40 billion per annum.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process (cont’d.): Adaptation 4.Process (cont’d.): Adaptation 4.

The current rules for funding adaptation through GEF, which include The current rules for funding adaptation through GEF, which include incremental costs and global benefits criteria for project approval, incremental costs and global benefits criteria for project approval, need to be modified to enable adaptation projects to be undertaken need to be modified to enable adaptation projects to be undertaken that result largely or exclusively in local benefits.that result largely or exclusively in local benefits.

Innovative insurance schemes, such as the Turkish catastrophe Innovative insurance schemes, such as the Turkish catastrophe insurance fund, combining risk transfer with risk reduction strategies insurance fund, combining risk transfer with risk reduction strategies in disaster-prone communities, need to be explored and piloted for in disaster-prone communities, need to be explored and piloted for climate risk management at local, national regional and international climate risk management at local, national regional and international levels.levels.

Binding obligations for Parties to fund adaptation could be crucial in Binding obligations for Parties to fund adaptation could be crucial in order to keep commitment and pressure on them to put efforts into order to keep commitment and pressure on them to put efforts into mitigation. Furthermore, an obligation to finance adaptation under a mitigation. Furthermore, an obligation to finance adaptation under a multilateral agreement would prevent countries regarding their multilateral agreement would prevent countries regarding their contribution to other development goals, such as ODA, as an effort to contribution to other development goals, such as ODA, as an effort to finance adaptation.finance adaptation.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process (cont’d.): Adaptation 5.Process (cont’d.): Adaptation 5.

The adaptation agenda needs further honing and clarity, and attempts The adaptation agenda needs further honing and clarity, and attempts to differentiate between countries on the basis of how intensely they to differentiate between countries on the basis of how intensely they would require adaptation, with LDCs and AOSIS countries claiming would require adaptation, with LDCs and AOSIS countries claiming first rights, may fissure the unity in the larger group of developing first rights, may fissure the unity in the larger group of developing countries. The developing countries are largely devoted to countries. The developing countries are largely devoted to multilateralism and also find comfort in the numbers to be able to multilateralism and also find comfort in the numbers to be able to negotiate better.negotiate better.

There is need for capacity building at different levels and in many There is need for capacity building at different levels and in many areas for adaptation purposes: capacity building to sensitize areas for adaptation purposes: capacity building to sensitize policymakers to the impacts of their decisions on adaptive capacity, policymakers to the impacts of their decisions on adaptive capacity, sector-specific capacity building on viable adaptation strategies and sector-specific capacity building on viable adaptation strategies and options, capacity building of countries’ ability to develop negotiating options, capacity building of countries’ ability to develop negotiating positions based on country priorities, etc.positions based on country priorities, etc.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process (cont’d.): Mitigation.Process (cont’d.): Mitigation.

Mitigation reduces climate change impacts by reducing the rate Mitigation reduces climate change impacts by reducing the rate and magnitude of global warming. This increases the chance that and magnitude of global warming. This increases the chance that the remaining risks can be adapted to. Mitigation reduces the the remaining risks can be adapted to. Mitigation reduces the uppermost possibilities of climate change by reducing the uppermost possibilities of climate change by reducing the potential volume of accumulated future emissions. Where the potential volume of accumulated future emissions. Where the limits of adaptation are exceeded, for example because limits of adaptation are exceeded, for example because adaptation is too expensive, impractical, or unfeasible, mitigation adaptation is too expensive, impractical, or unfeasible, mitigation may be the only realistic approach.may be the only realistic approach.

Mitigation reduces the likelihood and magnitude of climate-related Mitigation reduces the likelihood and magnitude of climate-related hazards and their resultant impacts. Its benefits are long-term hazards and their resultant impacts. Its benefits are long-term because of the delayed response of climate change.because of the delayed response of climate change.

Mitigation reduces climate change at the global scale because Mitigation reduces climate change at the global scale because greenhouse gases are well mixed in the atmosphere.greenhouse gases are well mixed in the atmosphere.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process (cont’d.): Mitigation 2.Process (cont’d.): Mitigation 2.

The EU and US-Australian positions on global climate policy differ The EU and US-Australian positions on global climate policy differ on the urgency of responding to climate change, they both concur on the urgency of responding to climate change, they both concur on two of the most fundamental issues in post-Kyoto policy on on two of the most fundamental issues in post-Kyoto policy on climate change:climate change: Neither side is arguing for a quantified ceiling on CO2 levels in the Neither side is arguing for a quantified ceiling on CO2 levels in the

atmosphere, andatmosphere, and Neither is arguing for developing countries to take-on quantified Neither is arguing for developing countries to take-on quantified

targets.targets.

The US announced just before the 2007 Heiligendam G8 Summit, The US announced just before the 2007 Heiligendam G8 Summit, that it recognized the need for a global climate policy framework, that it recognized the need for a global climate policy framework, and that it would convene the major emitters and energy and that it would convene the major emitters and energy consumers to advance and complete the new framework by the consumers to advance and complete the new framework by the end of 2008.end of 2008.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process (cont’d.): Mitigation 3.Process (cont’d.): Mitigation 3.

This clearly shows that the exact specifications of the details of This clearly shows that the exact specifications of the details of negotiation (timing of moves, information available, commitment negotiation (timing of moves, information available, commitment devices, outside options and threats) will be dictated by these two devices, outside options and threats) will be dictated by these two coalitions.coalitions.

The EU’s proposal is essentially another round of Kyoto: tougher The EU’s proposal is essentially another round of Kyoto: tougher targets for developed countries; no formal targets for developing targets for developed countries; no formal targets for developing countries, though there would be incentives for them to become countries, though there would be incentives for them to become more engaged through national plans or sectoral approaches; and more engaged through national plans or sectoral approaches; and a greatly expanded Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to a greatly expanded Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to reduce emissions and transfer technology.reduce emissions and transfer technology.

The US on the other hand favours a “pledge and review” The US on the other hand favours a “pledge and review” approach centered around the informal “AP6” group of Asian approach centered around the informal “AP6” group of Asian economies, with Australia.economies, with Australia.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process (cont’d.): Mitigation 4.Process (cont’d.): Mitigation 4.

The US approach is based not on targets and timetables, but The US approach is based not on targets and timetables, but instead on technology partnerships and national targets with no instead on technology partnerships and national targets with no formal international status. Its long-held position is that it will not formal international status. Its long-held position is that it will not take on formal targets unless developing countries do so too.take on formal targets unless developing countries do so too.

This basic difference of approach between the US and EU reflects This basic difference of approach between the US and EU reflects divergence about how urgent climate change is. Europe thinks divergence about how urgent climate change is. Europe thinks that time is short, and that it is cheaper to act now than later. The that time is short, and that it is cheaper to act now than later. The US believes the opposite. In the middle are developing countries, US believes the opposite. In the middle are developing countries, especially key emitters such as China, India, Brazil and Mexico.especially key emitters such as China, India, Brazil and Mexico.

For the US, action is not urgent and so, mandatory targets now For the US, action is not urgent and so, mandatory targets now would be too expensive.would be too expensive.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process (cont’d.): Mitigation 5.Process (cont’d.): Mitigation 5.

Suggested actions on mitigation at the international level include Suggested actions on mitigation at the international level include the following:the following: The need to reach agreement on a long-term greenhouse gas The need to reach agreement on a long-term greenhouse gas

trajectory for global emissions, stretching to 2050 at least, and to trajectory for global emissions, stretching to 2050 at least, and to encourage participation in global greenhouse gas markets.encourage participation in global greenhouse gas markets.

Ensure national governments recognize their own national Ensure national governments recognize their own national contribution to such a trajectory and commit themselves to developing contribution to such a trajectory and commit themselves to developing national energy and greenhouse gas mitigation policy aligned with national energy and greenhouse gas mitigation policy aligned with their national contributions.their national contributions.

Recognize the industrial sector approaches to greenhouse gas Recognize the industrial sector approaches to greenhouse gas mitigation.mitigation.

Include carbon capture and storage (CCS) in all greenhouse gas Include carbon capture and storage (CCS) in all greenhouse gas emissions trading schemes, and to coordinate the development of emissions trading schemes, and to coordinate the development of standard accounting and measurement protocols for CCS projects.standard accounting and measurement protocols for CCS projects.

The issue of long-term liability for stored COThe issue of long-term liability for stored CO22 should be addressed. should be addressed.

Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Climate Change Negotiation Framework and Process (cont’d.): Mitigation 6.Process (cont’d.): Mitigation 6.

There is need to encourage demand for low emission energy, There is need to encourage demand for low emission energy, energy efficiency, and energy conservation.energy efficiency, and energy conservation.

Four potential post-2012 negotiation approaches have been Four potential post-2012 negotiation approaches have been proposed:proposed: Contraption and convergence,Contraption and convergence, Common but differentiated convergence,Common but differentiated convergence, Triptych, andTriptych, and Multistage approach.Multistage approach.

Though also qualify for adaptation measures against soil erosion Though also qualify for adaptation measures against soil erosion and flooding, reforestation and afforestation need to be included and flooding, reforestation and afforestation need to be included under mitigation options because of positive effects on under mitigation options because of positive effects on greenhouse gas emissions resulting from carbon sequestration. greenhouse gas emissions resulting from carbon sequestration. Forest valuation studies need to be done for a fair forest trade.Forest valuation studies need to be done for a fair forest trade.

Informing specific roles at the national levelInforming specific roles at the national level

Climate change policies at the national level need to consider the Climate change policies at the national level need to consider the following:following: Think globally, plan nationally and act locally.Think globally, plan nationally and act locally. Link development to both adaptation and mitigation.Link development to both adaptation and mitigation. Change consumer preferences through public discussions on ethical Change consumer preferences through public discussions on ethical

consumption and sustainability.consumption and sustainability. Integrate use of renewable energies like solar, wind and biomass, and Integrate use of renewable energies like solar, wind and biomass, and

fuel-switch in households to more efficient cooking and heating fuel-switch in households to more efficient cooking and heating methods, as part of rural development programmes.methods, as part of rural development programmes.

Consider adaptation measures such as integrated river basin and Consider adaptation measures such as integrated river basin and coastal zone management, as a “no regret” strategy because it has a coastal zone management, as a “no regret” strategy because it has a purpose both now and in the future.purpose both now and in the future.

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Thank YouThank You