Indian Culture and Heritage - SelfStudys

SecondaryCourse-223

IndianCultureandHeritageCourseCoordinatorR.N.Meena

NATIONALINSTITUTEOFOPENSCHOOLING(AnautonomousorganisationunderMHRD,Govt.ofIndia)A-24-25,InstitutionalArea,Sector-62,NOIDA-201309(U.P.)Website:www.nios.ac.in,TollFreeNo.18001809393

©NationalInstituteofOpenSchoolingAugust,2012(7,000copies)Publishedby theSecretary,National Institute ofOpenSchooling,A-24/25, InstitutionalArea,Sector-62,Noida-201309andPrintedatNewChanabOffsetPrinters,C-91,OkhlaIndustrialArea,Phase-I,NewDelhi–110020

ADVISORYCOMMITTEEDr.SitansuS.Jena,Chairman,NationalInstituteofOpenSchooling,NOIDADr. Kuldeep Agarwal, Director (Academic), National Institute of Open Schooling,NOIDAMs.GopaBiswas,Jt.Director(Academic),NationalInstituteofOpenSchooling,NOIDACURRICULUMCOMMITTEEDr.ShyamSinghShashi,DirectorGeneral,PublicationDivision,MIB,Govt.ofIndiaProf.R.P.Sharma,FormerHead&Dean,DepartmentofEducation,UniversityofDelhi,NewDelhiProf. Bhikshu Satyapal, Department of Buddhist Studies, University of Delhi, Sh.I.S.Asthana,FormerPrincipal,BhartiyaDegreecollege,Farrukhabad,U.P.Prof.M.K.Das,Dean,FacultyofEducation,M.GKashiVidyapeeth,Varanasi,U.P.Dr.HumaMasood,ProgrammeOfficer,(Education),UNESCO.Dr.PratyushK.Mandal,AssociateProfessor(History),DESSH,NCERT,NewDelhiDr.InduVirendra,AssociateProfessor,JamiaMiliaIslamia,University,NewDelhiMs.AnitaDevraj,Principal,D.A.V.PublicSchool,Bahadurgarh,HariyanaDr.S.S.Hasan,SanskritiFoundation,NewDelhiDr.RameshChandra,FormerReader(Economics),DESSH,NCERT,&SEO,NIOS,NewDelhiMr. Ram Narayan Meena, Academic Officer (Sanskrit) & Course co-ordinator (ICH),AcademicDepartment,NIOSDr.C.M.Khanna,Chairman,MDPP&SK,NewDelhiLESSONWRITERS&REVIEWERSDr.I.S.Asthana,FormerPrincipal,BhartiyaDegreecollege,Farrukhabad,U.P.Ms.AnitaDevraj,Principal,D.A.V.,PublicSchool,Bahadurgarh,Hariyana.Dr.RameshChandra,FormerReader(Economics),DESSH,NCERT,NewDelhi&SEO,NIOS.Sh.HitendraSrivastava,Principal,SpaceIndiaSchool,Kanjhawala,Delhi-81.Sh.C.M.Khanna,ChairmanMDPP&SK,NewDelhiDr.InduVirendra,AssociateProfessor,JamiaMiliaIslamia,University,NewDelhiPratyushK.Mandal,AssociateProfessor(History),DESSH,NCERT,NewDelhiDr.SarvadamanMishra,LecturerinHistory,Govt.College,Ajmer(Raj.)RamNarayanMeena,AcademicOfficer(Sanskrit),AcademicDeptt.,NIOS.EDITORSDr.I.S.Asthana,FormerPrincipal,BhartiyaDegreecollege,Farrukhabad,U.P.Ms.AnitaDevraj,Principal,D.A.V.,PublicSchool,Bahadurgarh,Hariyana

Dr.RameshChandra,FormerReader(Economics),DESSH,NCERT,NewDelhi&SEO,NIOSMr. Ram Narayan Meena, Academic Officer (Sanskrit) & Course co-ordinator (ICH),AcademicDepartment,NIOSCOURSECOORDINATORRamNarayanMeena,AcademicOfficer(Sanskrit),AcademicDeptt.,NIOS.GRAPHICARTISTMr.MaheshSharma,GraphicArtist,NationalInstituteofOpenSchooling,NOIDALaserTypesettedbyGraphic&DataSystesms

Chairman’sMessage

Dearlearner,As theneedsof thesociety ingeneral,andsomegroups inparticular,keeponchangingwithtime,themethodsandtechniquesrequiredforfulfillingthoseaspirationsalsohavetobe modified accordingly. Education is an instrument of change. The right type ofeducationatright timecanbringaboutaspirationsofsociety,attitudinalchanges to facethe new/fresh challenges and the courage to face difficult situations. This can be veryeffectivelyachievedbyregularperiodiccurriculumrenewal.Astaticcurriculumdoesnotserve any purpose, as it does not cater to the current needs and aspirations of theindividualandsociety.For this purpose only, educationists from all over the country come together at regularintervals to deliberate on the issues of changes needed andrequired.As an outcome ofsuch deliberations, the National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005) came out, whichspellsoutindetailthetypeofeducationdesirable/neededatvariouslevelsofeducation-primary,elementary,secondaryorseniorsecondary.Keeping this framework and other national and societal concerns in mind, we havecurrently revised the curricula of all the subjects at the secondary level,making themupdatedandneedbased.TextualmaterialproductionisanintegralandessentialpartofallNIOSprogrammesofferedthroughopenanddistancelearningsystem.Therefore,wehavetakenspecialcaretomakethelearningmaterialuserfriendly,interestingandattractiveforyou.Iwouldliketothankalltheeminentpersonsinvolvedinmakingthismaterial interestingandrelevanttoyourneeds.Ihopeyoufinditappealingandabsorbing.OnbehalfofNationalInstituteofOpenSchooling,Iwishyouallabrightandsuccessfulfuture.(Dr.S.S.Jena)Chairman,NIOS

ANotefromtheDirector

DearLearner,TheAcademicDepartmentattheNationalInstituteofOpenSchoolingtriestobringyounewprogrammeseverynowand then in accordancewith your needs and requirements.Wearenowrevisingthecurriculuminallthesubjectsatthesecondarylevel.Inorder tobringtoyouacurriculumwhichisatparwithotherboardsinthecountry,weconsultedthecurriculumindifferentsubjectsat theCBSEandSeveralStateBoardsofSecondaryEducation.TheNationalCurriculumFrameworkdeveloped by theNationalCouncil forEducational Research and Training was kept as a reference point. After making acomprehensive comparative study, we developed the curriculum that was functional,related to lifesituationsandsimple.Leadingeducationistsof thecountrywere involvedandundertheirguidance,wehavebeenabletoreviseandupdatethecurriculum.At the same time,we also had a look at the learning material.We have removed old,outdatedinformationandaddednew, relevant thingsandhave tried tomake itattractiveandappealingforyou.IndianCultureandHeritageisaninterestingandenjoyablesubjectwhereyougetandknowaboutyourcountry’ssuchcontributionsinthisarea.Ihopeyouwillfindthenewmaterialthat isnowinyourhands interestingandexciting.Anysuggestionsforfurtherimprovementarewelcome.Letmewishyouallahappyandsuccessfulfuture.(Dr.KuldeepAgarwal)Director(Academic)

AWordWithyou

Dearlearner,Congratulationsforselectingthisinterestingsubject-IndianCulture&Heritage.Youmaybe aware that our beloved country, India, has a long history, being one of the oldestcivilizationsintheworld.InthisCourse,youwillstudyabouttherichandfertileculture&heritageofourgloriousnation.AndI’msureyouwillbeproudofbeingapartofthisancient, grand civilization. You could not have imagined, on your own, the amazingprogressthatourancestors,ashumanbeings,madeinvariousspheresoflife-beitinthefield of languages and the vast literature that we have, or that in Art & Architecture,Music,Dance & Drama, Science, Education, Philosophy & Religion. Our culture andheritagewassoattractivethatitwasevenadoptedoradaptedbyothercountriestoo.Youwillreadaboutallthisinthiscoursematerial.I’msureyouwillgetimmensepleasureandhappinessinreadingit.Everythingaboutourvastcultureandheritagecannotbetoldinthisshortcourse.ButI’msureitwillmotivateyoutolearnmorebyvisitinglibrariesandreadingotherbooksonit.Youcanfindalotofinformationontheinternettoo,ifyouhave themeans toaccess it.Someofyoumaybefortunateenoughtovisitthesitesyourselfandgettoseeitwithyourown eyes, getting first hand experience. Another source is the museums that arestorehousesofartifactsandremnantsofourculture&heritage,lovinglyandpainstakinglypreserved,bythecuratorsthere.Thismaterial is intended toserveasa friend, philosopher and guide in your search forknowledgeandforgettinganinsight into thisvery interestingfield. If thishappens,we,hereatNIOS,willbegladtoknowthatwehavesucceededinourendeavourtomakeyouawareofsucharichlegacyyou,allofus,haveinheritedfromourancestors.Any comments and suggestionswill be welcome. I wish you success in your studies,careerandlife.(R.N.Meena)AcademicOfficer(Sanskrit)

HowtousetheStudyMaterial

Congratulation!Youhaveacceptedthechallengetobeaself-learner.NIOSiswithyouateverystepandhasdevelopedthematerialinIndianCultureandHeritagewiththehelpofa teamof experts, keeping you inmind.A format supporting independent learning hasbeenfollowed.Youcan take the best out of thismaterial if you follow the instructionsgiven.Therelevanticonsusedinthematerialwillguideyou.Title:willgiveaclearindicationofthecontentswithin.Doreadit.Introduction:Thiswillintroduceyoutothelessonandalsolinkittothepreviousone.Objectives: These are statements of outcomes of learning expected from you afterstudying the lesson.You are expected to achieve them, do read them and check if youhaveachieved.Content:Totalcontenthasbeendividedintosectionsandsubsections.Sectionleadsyoufrom one content element to another and subsections help in comprehension of theconceptsinthecontentelements.Notes: Each page carries empty space in the side margins, for you to write importantpointsormakenotes.Activities:Certainactivitieshavebeensuggestedforbetterunderstandingoftheconcept.IntextQuestions:Veryshortanswerselfcheckquestionsareaskedaftereverysection,theanswers towhicharegivenat theendof the lesson.Thesewillhelpyou tocheckyourprogress. Do solve them. Successful completion will allow you to decide whether toproceedfurtherorgobackandlearnagain.WhatYouHaveLearnt:Thisisthesummaryofthemainpointsofthelesson.Itwillhelpinrecapitulationandrevision.Youarewelcometoaddyourownpointstoitalso.Terminal Questions: These are long and short questions that provide an opportunity topracticeforaclearunderstandingofthewholetopic.Answers to Intext Questions: These will help you to know how correctly you haveansweredtheintextquestions.HintsforTerminalQuestions:Thiswillhelpyoutofindcorrectanswer.

Contents

MODULE1.CULTURELesson1:Culture:AnIntroductionLesson2:IndianCultureMODULE2.HISTORYANDCULTURETHROUGHTHEAGESLesson3:AncientIndiaLesson4:MedievalIndiaLesson5:ModemIndiaMODULE3.LANGUAGESANDLITERATURELesson6:IndianLanguagesandLiterature-ILesson7:IndianLanguagesandLiterature-IIMODULE4.RELIGIONANDPHILOSOPHYLesson8:ReligionandPhilosophyinancientIndiaLesson9:ReligionandPhilosophyinMedievalIndiaLesson10:ReligiousReformMovementsinModemIndiaMODULE5.PAINTING,PERFORM1NGARTSANDARCHITECTURELesson11:IndianPaintingLesson12:PerformingArts:Music.DanceandDramaLesson13:IndianArchitecture

MODULE6.SCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYLesson14:ScienceandTechnologyinIndiaLesson15:ScientistsofAncientIndiaLesson16:ScienceandScientistsofMedievalIndiaLesson17:ScientistsofModernIndiaMODULE7.EDUCATIONLesson18:EducationinIndiaMODULE8.SOCIALSTRUCTURELesson19:IndianSocialStructureLesson20:Socio-CulturalIssuesinContemporaryIndiaMODULE9.SPREADOFINDIANCULTUREABROADLesson21:SpreadofIndianCultureAbroadCurriculumSampleQuestionPaperFeedbackForm

MODULE-1CULTURE

1.CULTURE:ANINTRODUCTIONTheEnglishword‘Culture’isderivedfromtheLatinterm‘cultorcultus’meaningtilling,orcultivatingorrefiningandworship.Insumitmeanscultivatingandrefiningathingtosuchanextentthatitsendproductevokesouradmirationandrespect.This ispracticallythe same as ‘Sanskriti’ of the Sanskrit language. The term ‘Sanskriti’ has been derivedfrom the root ‘Kri (to do) ofSanskrit language.Threewords came from this root ‘Kri;prakriti’(basicmatterorcondition),‘Sanskriti’(refinedmatterorcondition)and‘vikriti’(modifiedordecayedmatterorcondition)when‘prakriti’ora rawmaterial is refined itbecomes‘Sanskriti’andwhenbrokenordamageditbecomes‘vikriti’.

OBJECTIVES

Afterstudyingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

understandtheconceptandmeaningofculture;establishtherelationshipbetweencultureandcivilization;Establishthelinkbetweencultureandheritage;discusstheroleandimpactofcultureinhumanlife.

1.1CONCEPTOFCULTURE

Cultureisawayoflife.Thefoodyoueat,theclothesyouwear,thelanguageyouspeakinandtheGodyouworshipallareaspectsofculture.Inverysimpleterms,wecansaythatcultureistheembodimentofthewayinwhichwethinkanddothings.Itisalsothethings

thatwehave inheritedasmembersofsociety.All theachievementsofhumanbeingsasmembers of social groups can be called culture. Art, music, literature, architecture,sculpture,philosophy, religion and science can be seen as aspects of culture.However,culturealsoincludesthecustoms,traditions,festivals,waysoflivingandone’soutlookonvariousissuesoflife.Culture thus refers to a human-made environment which includes all the material andnonmaterialproductsofgroup life that are transmitted fromonegeneration to thenext.Thereisageneralagreementamongsocialscientists thatcultureconsistsofexplicitandimplicit patterns of behaviour acquired by human beings. These may be transmittedthrough symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, includingtheirembodimentasartefacts.Theessentialcoreofculture thus lies in thosefiner ideaswhich are transmittedwithin a group-both historically derived aswell as selectedwiththeir attached value. More recently, culture denotes historically transmitted patterns ofmeaningsembodiedinsymbols,bymeansofwhichpeoplecommunicate,perpetuateanddeveloptheirknowledgeaboutandexpresstheirattitudestowardlife.Cultureistheexpressionofournatureinourmodesoflivingandthinking.Itmaybeseenin our literature, in religious practices, in recreation and enjoyment. Culture has twodistinctive components, namely, material and non-material.Material culture consists ofobjects that are related to the material aspect of our life such as our dress, food, andhouseholdgoods.Non-materialculturereferstoideas,ideals,thoughtsandbelief.Culturevariesfromplacetoplaceandcountrytocountry.Itsdevelopmentisbasedonthehistoricalprocessoperatinginalocal,regionalornationalcontext.Forexample,wedifferinourwaysofgreetingothers,ourclothing,foodhabits,socialandreligiousustomsandpractices from theWest. Inotherwords, thepeopleof anycountryarecharacterisedbytheirdistinctiveculturaltraditions.

INTEXTQUESTIONS1.1

1.HowcanyousaythatCultureandSanskriticarrythesamemeaning?_______________________________________________________________2.Fillintheblanks:a.Alltheachievementsofhumanbeingsandgroupscanbecalled__________b.Culturehastwodistinctivecomponentsviz.materialand_____________

1.2CULTUREANDCIVILIZATION

Theword ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’ are often used synonymously.However, they haveclearlydefinedmeaningsdifferentiatingthem.‘Civilization’meanshavingbetterwaysoflivingandsometimesmakingnaturebendtofulfilltheirneeds.Italsoincludesorganizingsocietiesintopoliticallywell-definedgroupsworkingcollectivelyforimprovedconditionsof life inmattersof food,dress,communication,andsoon.Thussomegroupsconsiderthemselvesascivilizedandlookdownuponothers.Thisdispositionofcertaingroupshasevenledtowarsandholocausts,resultinginmassdestructionofhumanbeings.Ontheotherhand‘culture’referstotheinnerbeing,arefinementofheadandheart.Thisincludes arts and sciences, music and dance and various higher pursuits of human lifewhicharealsoclassifiedasculturalactivities.Onewhomaybepoorandwearingcheapclothes may be considered ‘uncivilized’, but still he or she may be the most culturedperson.Onepossessingostentatiouswealthmaybeconsideredas‘civlilized’buthemaynot be cultured’ Therefore, whenwe think of culture, we have to understand that it isdifferentfromcivilization.As we have seen, culture is the ‘higher levels of inner refinement’ of a human being.Humansarenotmerelyphysicalbeings.Theyliveandactatthreelevels:physical,mentalandspiritual.Whilebetterwaysoflivingsociallyandpoliticallyandbetterutilizationofnaturearoundusmaybe termedascivilization.This isnotenough tobecultured.Onlywhenthedeeperlevelsofaperson’sintellectandconsciounessarebroughtintoexpressioncanwecallhim/her‘cultured’.

INTEXTQUESTIONS1.2

1.Whatisthedifferencebetweencultureandcivilization?2.Givetwosimilaritiesofcultureandcivilization

1.3CULTUREANDHERITAGE

Culturaldevelopmentisahistoricalprocess.Ourancestorslearntmanythingsfromtheirpredecessors.Withthepassageoftimetheyalsoaddedtoitfromtheirownexperienceandgaveupthosewhichtheydidnotconsideruseful.Weinturnhavelearntmanythingsfromourancestors.Astimegoeswecontinuetoaddnewthoughts,newideastothosealreadyexistentandsometimeswegiveupsomewhichwedon’tconsiderusefulany

more. This is how culture is transmitted and carried forward from generation to nextgeneration.The culturewe inherit fromourpredecessors is calledour cultural heritage.Thisheritageexistsatvariouslevels.Humanityasawholehasinheritedaculturewhichmaybecalledhumanheritage.Anationalso inheritsaculturewhichmaybe termedasnationalculturalheritage.Cultural heritage includes all those aspects or values of culture transmitted to humanbeingsbytheirancestorsfromgenerationtogeneration.Theyarecherished,protectedandmaintainedbythemwithunbrokencontinuityandtheyfeelproudofit.A fewexampleswouldbehelpful in clarifying the conceptofheritage.TheTajMahal,Swami Narayan Temple of Gandhinagar and Delhi, Red Fort of Agra, Delhi’s QutubMinar,MysorePalace,JainTempleofDilwara(Rajasthan)NizamuddinAulia’sDargah,GoldenTempleofAmritsar,GurudwaraSisganjofDelhi,SanchiStupa,ChristianChurchinGoa,IndiaGateetc.,areallimportantplacesofourheritageandaretobeprotectedbyallmeans.Besides the architectural creations, monuments, material artifacts, the intellectualachievements, philosophy, treasures of knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveriesarealsothepartofheritage.InIndiancontextthecontributionsofBaudhayan,Aryabhatta,Bhaskaracharya in the field of Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology; Kanad andVarahmihir in the field of Physics; Nagarjuna in the field of Chemistry, Susruta andCharakinthefieldofMedicinesandPatanjaliinthefieldofYogaareprofoundtreasuresofIndianCulturalheritage.Culture is liable tochange,butourheritagedoesnot.We individuals,belongingtoacultureoraparticulargroup,mayacquireorborrowcertainculturaltraitsof other communities/cultures, but our belongingness to Indian cultural heritage willremainunchanged.OurIndianculturalheritagewillbindustogethere.g.IndianliteratureandscripturesnamelyVedas,UpanishadsGitaandYogaSystemetc.havecontributedalotbywayofprovidingrightknowledge,rightaction,behaviorandpracticesascomplementarytothedevelopmentofcivilization.

INTEXTQUESTIONS1.3

1.Whatisculturalheritage?_______________________________________________________________2.Givesomeexamplesofculturalheritage._______________________________________________________________

1.4GENERALCHARACTERISTICSOFCULTURE

Nowletusdiscusssomegeneralcharacteristics,whicharecommontodifferentculturesthroughouttheworld.1.Cultureislearnedandacquired:Cultureisacquiredinthesensethattherearecertainbehaviourswhichareacquiredthroughheredity.Individualsinheritcertainqualitiesfromtheir parents but socio-cultural patterns are not inherited. These are learnt from familymembers, fromthegroupand thesociety inwhich they live. It is thusapparent that theculture of human beings is influenced by the physical and social environment throughwhichtheyoperate.2.Cultureissharedbyagroupofpeople:Athoughtoractionmaybecalledcultureifitissharedandbelievedorpracticedbyagroupofpeople.3.Cultureiscumulative:Differentknowledgeembodied inculturecanbepassedfromonegenerationtoanothergeneration.Moreandmoreknowledgeisaddedintheparticularcultureasthetimepassesby.Eachmayworkoutsolutiontoproblemsinlifethatpassesfrom one generation to another. This cycle remains as the particular culture goes withtime.4. Culture changes: There is knowledge, thoughts or traditions that are lost as newcultural traits are added.Therearepossibilitiesof cultural changeswithin theparticularcultureastimepasses.5.Culture isdynamic:Noculture remainson thepermanentstate.Culture ischangingconstantly as new ideas and new techniques are added as time passes modifying orchangingtheoldways.Thisisthecharacteristicsofculturethatstemsfromtheculture’scumulativequality.6. Culture gives us a range of permissible behaviour patterns: It involves how anactivityshouldbeconducted,howanindividualshouldactappropriately.7. Culture is diverse: It is a system that has several mutually interdependent parts.Although these parts are separate, they are interdependent with one another formingcultureaswhole.8. Culture is ideational: Often it lays down an ideal pattern of behaviour that areexpected to be followedby individuals so as to gain social acceptance from the peoplewiththesameculture.

INTEXTQUESTIONS1.4

1.Whatismeantbypermissiblebehaviourpatterns?_______________________________________________________________

2.Howcanyousaythatcultureisdynamic?_______________________________________________________________

1.5IMPORTANCEOFCULTUREINHUMANLIFE

Culture is closely linkedwith life. It is not an add-on, an ornament that we as humanbeingscanuse. It is notmerely a touchof colour. It iswhatmakesushuman.Withoutculture,therewouldbenohumans.Cultureismadeupoftraditions,beliefs,wayoflife,fromthemost spiritual to themostmaterial. It gives usmeaning, awayof leadingourlives.Humanbeingsarecreatorsofcultureand,atthesametime,cultureiswhatmakesushuman.A fundamental element of culture is the issue of religious belief and its symbolicexpression. We must value religious identity and be aware of current efforts to makeprogressintermsofinterfaithdialogue,whichisactuallyaninterculturaldialogue.Astheworldisbecomingmoreandmoreglobalandwecoexistonamoregloballevelwecan’tjust think there’s only one right way of living or that any one is valid. The need forcoexistencemakesthecoexistenceofculturesandbeliefsnecessary.Inordertonotmakesuchmistakes,thebestthingwecandoisgettoknowothercultures,whilealsogettingtoknowourown.Howcanwedialoguewithothercultures,ifwedon’treallyknowwhatourowncultureis?ThethreeeternalanduniversalvaluesofTruth,BeautyandGoodnessarecloselylinkedwithculture.Itisculturethatbringsusclosertotruththroughphilosophyandreligion;itbringsbeautyinourlivesthroughtheArtsandmakesusaestheticbeings;anditisculturethatmakesusethicalbeingsbybringingusclosertootherhumanbeingsandteachingusthevaluesoflove,toleranceandpeace.

INTEXTQUESTIONS1.5

1.Whatdoescultureprovideforadecentlife?_______________________________________________________________2.Whichindividualwouldbecalledunculturedinsociety?_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

CulturehasbeenderivedfromLatinterm‘Cult’or‘Cultus’meaningtillingorrefining.‘Sanskriti’isderivedfromSanskritroot‘Kri’meaningtodo.

Culturemaybedefinedas thewayan individualandespeciallyagroup live, think, feelandorganizethemselves,celebrateandsharelife.Culturehasdifferentcharacteristics.Itcanbeacquired,lostorshared.Itiscumulative.Itisdynamic,diverseandgivesusarangeofpermissiblebehaviour-pattern.Itcanchange.Cultureincludesbothmaterialandnon-materialcomponents.Indeepersenseit isculturethatproducesthekindof literature,music,dance,sculpture,architectureandvariousotherartformsaswellasthemanyorganizationsandstructuresthatmakethefunctioningofthesocietysmoothandwell-ordered.Cultureprovidesuswithideas,idealsandvaluestoleadadecentlife.Self-restraintinconduct,considerationforthefeelingsofothers,fortherightsofothers,arethehighestmarksofculture.Aculturalheritagemeansalltheaspectsorvaluesofculturetransmittedtohumanbeingsbytheirancestorstothenextgeneration.Architectural creations, monuments, material artifacts, the intellectual achievements,philosophy, pleasure of knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveries are parts ofheritage.

TERMINALQUESTIONS

1.Howwillyoudefinetheconceptofculture?2.Howiscultureandcivilizationsynonymous?3.Whatisculturalheritage?4.Whatarethegeneralcharacteristicsofculture?

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

1.1

1. Culture’s literal meaning is to do and Sanskriti also literally means refining andcultivating.2.a.Cultureb.Non-material.

1.2

1.Cultureiswhatweareandcivilizationiswhatwepossesorwemakeuseof.2.Changesinbothcultureandcivilizationoccur.Civilizationisadvancedstateofculture.

1.31.Culturethatweinheritfromourancestorsiscalledourculturalheritage.2.TajMahal,RedFortofagra,Vedas,UpanishadsandGita(Architectural monuments, Treasures of knowledge, Scientific and intellectualachievements)

1.4

1. Culture forms an ideal pattern of behaviour that is expected to be followed byindividuals.2.Cultureischangingconstantly.Newideasandnewtechniquesareaddedfromtimetotime.

1.5

1.Cultureprovidesuswithideas,idealsandvaluestoleadadecentlife.2.Onewhodoesnothaveself-restraintinthoughtinfeelingsandinaction,maybecalledanunculturedindividual.

2.INDIANCULTUREHave you ever thought of the amazing progress we, as human beings, have made invariousspheresoflife,beitlanguage,literature,artandarchitecture,scienceorreligion?Haveyoueverwonderedhowallthishasbeenpossible?Thishappenedbecause,wedidnothavetomakeafreshbeginningeachtime,butwereabletomakeuseofandbuildontheworkofpastgenerations.Youhaveneverhad tobother abouthaving tomake yourownscriptorcreatinganewlanguagesystemforyourself.Thesearealreadygiventoyouwhich you enjoy as a member of society. Then you build on it by making yourcontributionoradditionwhichfurtherbecomesanassetforthecominggenerations.Thisis a continuous and never-ending process. It is a precious possession unique to humanbeingsandisknownasculture.Cultureisawayoflife.You,yourfamilyhasacultureandsodoesyourregionandyourcountry.Youmaybecurioustoknowabouttheuniquenessof Indiancultureand findout itsdistinct characteristics. In thisunitwewillunderstandhowIndiancultureisuniqueandwhatareitscharacteristics.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

describethedistinctivefeaturesofIndianculture;identifythecentralpointsanduniquenessofIndianculture;discusstheimportanceofspiritualityinIndianculture;explainthepointsofdiversityandunderlyingunityinit;andtracetheprocessofinfusionintoandintegrationofelementsfromothercultures

inIndianculture.

2.1CHARACTERISTICSOFINDIANCULTURE

Indianculture is asmanysidedas life. It includes intellectual and social aspectsof anyhumanbeing.Italsotakesaccountoftheaestheticinstinctaswellasthespiritualimpulsesofhumanbeing.Ithasalso,ineffect,anappealtothesubconsciousasaforcemakingfortheformationofcharacter.

LookatthemapofIndiaandyouseeIndiaisavastcountrywithalotofdiversityinherphysicalandsocialenvironment.Weseepeoplearoundusspeakingdifferent languages,havingdifferentreligionsandpractisingdifferentrituals.Youcanalsoseethesediversitiesin their food habits and dress patterns.Besides, look at themyriad forms of dance andmusic inourcountry.Butwithinall thesediversities there isanunderlyingunitywhichactsasacementingforce.The interminglingofpeoplehasbeensteadily takingplace inIndiaovercenturies.Anumberofpeopleofdifferentracialstock,ethnicbackgroundsandreligiousbeliefshavesettleddownhere.LetusnotforgetthatthecompositeanddynamiccharacterofIndiancultureisaresultoftherichcontributionsofallthesediverseculturalgroups over a long period of time. The distinctive features of Indian culture and itsuniquenessarethepreciouspossessionofallIndians.

2.1.1ContinuityandChange

Manygreatcultureshaddevelopedindifferentcountriesandregionsoftheworld.Manyof themhaveperishedorhavebeen replacedbyother cultures.However Indianculturehashadanenduringcharacter.DespitemajorchangesandupheavalssignificantthreadsofcontinuitycanbetracedthroughoutthecourseofIndianhistoryrightuptothepresentday.You may have read about the Harappan civilization which flourished in the Indiansubcontinent over 4500 years ago. Archaeologists have found evidences to show thatculturesexistedhereevenbeforethematuredphaseoftheHarappancivilization.Thistellsusthatwehaveaverylonghistorybehindus.Andyetwhatisamazingisthateventodaythepatternofahouse inan Indianvillage isnotverydifferent fromthatofaHarappanhouse.SomeaspectsofHarappanculturearestillpractised,suchas, theworshippingofMotherGoddessandPashupati.Similarly,Vedic,Buddhist,Jainandmanyothertraditionscontinue to be followed even today.At the same time one should not lose sight of thechangesasareevidentinthemultistoriedbuildingsinthemetropolitancitieslikeMumbaiandDelhi, quite unlike theHarappan houses that had only one storey. The point to benotedhereisthatcontinuityandchangeinourcivilizationhasgonehandinhand.Infact,a remarkable feature of Indian culture is that along with continuity it has kept onchanging,whereasthebasicspiritofourculturecontinued.Ithaskeptondiscardingwhatwasbecomingirrelevantinthemodernage.Inourlonghistory,therehavebeenperiodsofups and downs. As a result, movements have grown and reforms brought about. ThereformmovementsintheVedicreligionbroughtaboutbyJainismandBuddhisminsixthcentury BC and the religious and social awakening in the eighteenth and nineteenthcenturiesin

modern India are a few examples when revolutionary changes were brought about inIndian thought and practices. Yet the thread of basic philosophy of Indian culturecontinuedand still persists.Thus aprocessof continuity andchangehas alwaysbeenafeatureofIndianculture.Thisshowsthedynamiccharacterofourculture.

2.1.2VarietyandUnity

Indianculture,overthelastthreemellenia,hassuccessfully,butquietly,observedthebestassimilablepartsfromotherreligionsandcultures,fromtimetotimeandintegated themintoitself.Indeedfewcultures in theworldhavesuchvarietyas theIndianculture.YoumayperhapswonderwhythepeopleofKeralausecoconutoilwhilethepeopleofUttarPradeshusemustardoilforcooking.ThisisbecauseKeralaisacoastalstateandcoconutgrows here in plenty. While Uttar Pradesh is a plain area which is favourable for thegrowthofmustard.WhatisthesimilarityintheBhangradanceofPunjaborthePongalofTamilNaduortheBihudanceofAssam?Botharecelebratedafterarichharvestofcrops.Haveyounoticed thedifferent languages thatwespeak likeBengali,Tamil,GujaratiorOriya?Indiaisthehomeofmanyformsofdanceandmusicwhichwenormallyuseforfestivalsandsocialfunctionslikemarriagesorthebirthofachild.Alargenumberoflanguagesanddialectsarespokeninourcountrywhichhasledtothegrowth of a great variety of literature. People belonging to eight great religions of theworldco-exist here in a harmoniousmanner.Doyouknow that India is home tomanyreligions of the world like Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism and of course Hinduism.Numerous styles of architecture, sculpture and painting have developed here. Differentstyles of music and dance, both folk and classical, exist in the country. So also arenumerousfestivalsandcustoms.ThiswidevarietyhasledtothemakingofIndianculturebothcompositeoneandrichandbeautifulatthesametime.Whyistheresomuchvarietyinourculture?Therearemanyreasonsforthis.Thevastnessofthecountryandvariationinitsphysicalandclimaticfeaturesisanobviousreasonforthevariety.The second important reason for the variety in our culture is the intermingling amongvarious ethnic groups. Since time immemorial, people from far and near have beencoming and settling here. We find people belonging to different racial stocks like theProto-Australoids,theNegroidsandtheMongoloidslivinginIndia.VariousethnicgroupslikeIranians,Greeks,Kushanas, Shakas, Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals and Europeans also came to India,settled here and intermixed with the local population. The people belonging to otherculturesbroughttheirculturalhabits,thoughtsandideas,whichgotamalgamatedintotheexistingculture.YouwillbesurprisedtoknowthatitwasonlyaroundsecondcenturyBCthat stitched clothes such as salwars, kurtas, topees, etc. were brought to India, by theKushanas,ShakasandParthians.PriortothatIndiansworeclotheswhichwereunstitched.The latest is the introduction of shirts, trousers, skirts, etc. whichwere brought by theEuropeansin

the eighteenth century. India through the ages has shown a remarkable capacity forassimilationofideas.Thishascontributedtothevarietyandrichnessofourculture.Alongwithcontactswithoutsidecultures,culturalexchangebetweendifferentregionsofIndiahasalsocontinued.TheChikanworkofLucknow,PhulkariembroderyofPunjab,KanthaembroideryofBengal,PatolaofOrissashowadistinctregionalflavour.AlthoughthecentresintheSouth,North,EastandWestofIndiahavetheircharacteristiccultures,yetthesedidnotdevelopinabsoluteisolation.Inspiteofphysicalbarriers,Indiansusedtotravelfromonepartofthecountrytoanotherfortradeorpilgrimage.Someregionswerejoinedtogether throughconquestsorbyalliance.Asaresult,peopletransmittedculturalhabitsandthoughtsfromonepartofthecountrytotheother.Militarycampaignstootookpeoplefromoneplacetoanother.Thishelpedinexchangingideas.Suchcontactshaveledto the development of commonness in Indian culture, which has been maintainedthroughoutourhistory.Anotherunifyingfactorisclimate.DespitegeographicaldiversityandclimaticvariationsIndiaexperiencesaninherentunity.ThesystemofmonsoonsisthemostimportantcomponentoftheIndianclimaticpatternandthisgivesunitytothewholecountry. The coming of the monsoon has ensured that agriculture remains the mainoccupationofthepeopleofIndia.Ontheotherhandthedifferences inphysical featureshaveaffectedthefoodhabits,dress,housesandeconomicactivitiesofpeopleleadingtothe formation of social, economic and political institutions. These factors in turninfluencedthethinkingandphilosophyofthepeople.Thevarietyinphysicalfeaturesandclimate of India has thus led to the development of a variety of cultures in differentregions. The typical features of different regions have given some identity to thesecultures.Thecompositenatureofourcultureisreflectedinourmusic,danceforms,dramaandartforms like paintings, sculpture and architecture as well. Our literature in differentlanguagesalsoreflectsthiscompositenature.Unityindiversityisreflectedinourpoliticalformsaswell.DuringtheearlyVedicperiod,societywaspastoral,thatis,peopleusedtomovefromplacetoplaceinsearchofpastures.Butasthethesepeoplestartedpractisingagriculture, theysettleddown.Thissettledlifeledtocommunitydevelopmentandgrowthoftownswhichneededrulesandregulations.Thusemergedapoliticalorganisation.This included thesabhasandsamitiswhichwerepoliticalbodies throughwhichpeopleparticipated ingovernance. Incourseof time, theconceptofrashtraemergedandpossessionofterritorybecamethenewmeasureofpower.Insomeplaces,republicscameup.TheperiodfromsixthtofourthcenturyBCisknownas the age of mahajanapadas in India. In these kingdoms kings had more powers.Subsequently large empires were also established with emperors exercising absolutepowers. You may be aware of ancient rulers such as Ashoka, Samudragupta andHarshavardhana. The Mughals also established a vast empire in India. The BritishestablishedthemselvesinIndiaandinl858,IndiabecameapartoftheBritishEmpire.Howeverin1947,wewereabletogainourfreedomafteralongstruggle.Todayweareasovereign,socialist,secularanddemocraticrepublicandauniformsystemofgovernmentprevailsoverthelengthandbreadthofthecountry.

INTEXTQUESTIONS2.1

1.NamethestatewhereBhangraisapopulardanceform.2.WhatisthedanceformofAssamknownas?3.Whobroughtsalwars,kurtas,topeesetc.toIndiaaroundsecondcenturyBC?4.WhichregionisfamousforPatola?

2.1.3SecularOutlook

ThesecularcharacterofIndiancultureisaresultoftheinterminglingofpeoplebelongingto diverse cultural groups over a long period of time. There have been instances ofoccasionalconflictshereandthere,butbyandlarge,peoplehavelivedtogetherpeacefullyforcenturies.ThepopularculturaltraditionsofIndiaarethebestexamplesofsuchculturalsynthesisinwhichalargenumberofpeoplebelongingtodifferentreligiousgroupscometogether.Youareawarethatthereisagreatvarietyofthoughtsandhabitsinourcountry.Amongsuchavariety, dominanceofoneparticular thought is not possible.Youwill recall thatHindus,Muslims,Christians,Sikhs,Buddhists,Jains,ParseesandJewsliveinIndia.TheconstitutiondeclaresIndiatobeasecularcountry.Everyoneisfreetoprofess,practiseandpropagateanyreligionofhis/herownchoice.Thestatehasnoreligionofitsownandallreligions are treated equally by the state.Noone is to be discriminated on the basis ofreligion.Thepeoplehave,toalargeextent,developedabroadoutlookandtheybelieveintheconceptofliveandletotherslive.Right tofreedomofreligionensuressecularnatureofourpolity.In theWesterncontextdevelopmentofsecularismmeantcompleteseparationofthechurchandthestate.InIndiasecularismistakenasamorepositiveconcepttocopewiththecomplexsocialstructureinthecountrywithaviewtoprotectingtheinterestsofall,particularlytheminorities.

2.1.4Universalism

The concept of coexistence has not been confined to the geographical and politicalboundariesof thecountryonly. Indiahasauniversaloutlookand ithasbeenpromotingthemessage of peace and harmony to the entireworld. India has been raising a strongvoiceagainst racialismandcolonialism. It hasprotestedagainst the formationofpowerblocksintheworld.InfactIndiabecameoneofthefoundermembersofthenon-alignedmovement.Indiaiscommittedtothedevelopmentofotherunderdevelopednations.Inthismanner,Indiahasbeendischargingherresponsibilitiesasapartoftheworldfraternityandhasbeencontributingtotheprogressoftheworld.

It has to be remembered that the subcontinent of India has been one cultural unitthroughouttheages,cuttingacrosspoliticalboundaries.

2.1.5MaterialisticandSpiritualistic

Cultureisspiritualdevelopmentofaraceornationinthefieldofmind,interests,conduct,thought,art,skillsandcivilization.India is popularly known to be a landof spirituality particularly to theWest.However,Indian history from ancient times to present day shows that the developments ofmaterialisticandnon-materialisticculturehavebeengoingonalongside.Youwill recallthattheHarappancivilizationwasanurbanone.Ithadasystematictownplanningwhereroads cut each other at right angles. They had a profound knowledge of mathematics,weightsandmeasures.Theyhadbuilt their towns inascientificmannerandhadanelaboratedrainagesystem.The Harappans had external trade and travelled across the seas to trade with theSumerians.Excellent books on medicines, planets, stars, and plants were written. Discoveries oftheories-like“earthrotatesaroundthesun”or“earthisround”weremadebyIndianslongbefore Europe accepted them. Similarly in the area ofmathematics and in the field ofmedicineandothersciencesIndia’sachievementsinancienttimeshavebeenremarkable.There was no opposition or resistance by religious or other thoughts in pursuing suchknowledge.InphilosophicalthoughtevenatheisticthinkingdevelopedandgrewinIndia.YoumaybeawarethatJainismandBuddhismaresilentabouttheexistenceofGod.Whatdoesallthistell us? Indeed, that Indian culture has been bothmaterialistic and non-materialistic orspiritualistic.The culture of India is the living expression of the simplicity and profoundity of herpeople.

2.2 CULTURAL IDENTITY, RELIGION, REGION ANDETHNICITY

Ourculturalidentitiesarebasedonvariousfactorssuchasreligionandregion.Asaresulteach Indian possesses multiple identities. Which of these identities asserts itself at acertain point of time and prevails over the others, depends on the political, social oreconomiccontext inwhichthepersonfindshimself/herself.Thuseachpersonmayhavesomethingsincommonwithanother,butmaybevastlydifferent insomeotheraspects.For example, except belief, forms of worship and rituals, there may be little that iscommonamongthosewhofollowaparticularfaithfromthepointofviewof thewholecountry. Even in the forms of worship and rituals there are sectorian and regionaldifferences.

Thus culturally,Hindus are not all similar, nor are all theMuslims.Brahmins inTamilNaduarequitedifferentfromtheircounterpartsinKashmir.Similarly,MuslimsinKeralaandUttarPradesharedissimilarinseveralaspectsoftheirculture.Regionalidentitiesaremorereal.Peopleofdifferentreligionsandjatismayhavecommonregionalculturaltraitslike language, food, dress, values and also theworldview. In Bengal, bothHindus andMuslims take pride in being Bengalis. Elsewhere one finds Hindus, Christians andMuslimssharingseveralelementsofregionalculture.Inprinciple,differentreligiousgroupsowetheirallegiancetodifferentreligiousdoctrines.ForinstancetheVedasandShastrasmaybesourcesofinspirationforHindus,KoranandHadeesforMuslims,andtheBibleforChristians.However,atthelevelofritualsandlifestylesthereisalotofinterminglingamongfollowersofdifferentreligions.Ethnic culture is strong among the tribal groups. For example, in the small state ofNagaland,therearemorethanadozentribesandtheydifferfromeachotherintheirdress,speechand beliefs.Bastar district ofChhattisgarh has several groups claiming differentethnicorigins.

2.3CULTURALINFLUENCES

Inthemoderncontext,thereareatleastthreesignificantinfluencesonourculture.Theyarewesternisation,emergentnationalculturalstylesandpopularculture.BeforeindependencesomeWesternmodeswereadoptedbythearistocracyandmembersofthecivilservices.Theinfluence,overtheyears,hasspreadtothemiddleclassesandtoasmallextent,tothevillagesaswell.ThegrowingdemandforEnglishmediumschoolsinthevillagesisaproofofthisstatement.During thestruggleforfreedomanewstyleemerged.Thisbecameanationalstyle.Forexample the Gandhi cap and khadimay now be only ceremonial and a symbol, but itcontributedtotheunityofthecountryandprovidedcommonnesstoculture.Popularculturewhichistheproductofmassmediaisanotherunifyingfactor.Theimpactof films has been tremendous. Radio and television also reshape images and attitudes.Their hold on us is undeniable. Modern media has promoted issues that are of bothtraditionalandpublicinterest.

INTEXTQUESTIONS2.2

1.GivetwoexamplesofpeoplewhocametoIndiafromoutsideandsettledhere.2.WhichcomponentofclimategivesunitytoIndia?3.NamethecivilizationwithwhichtheHarappanswereknowntohavehadtraderelationsacrosstheseas.

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

Themeaningofcultureisverywideandcomprehensive.Ithasbeendefinedasasumtotalofintegratedlearnedbehaviour.Itconnotesawayoflifeofthepeoplelivinginasociety.Cultureconstitutesknowledge,belief,arts,morals,law,customsandanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbyhumansasmembersofsociety.Due to its adaptability and comprehensiveness, Indian culture has survived through theages.Unity in diversity is one of the major characteristics of Indian culture whichmakes itunique.A synthesis of various cultures came about through the ages to give shape to what isrecognisedasIndianculturetoday.Spiritualityandvaluebased life style is thecoreof Indianculturebut ithasa scientifictemperamenttoo.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.Whatarethedifferentcomponentsofculture?2.Givethemeaningofmaterialandnon-materialculture.3.DefinethesecularcharacterofIndianculture.4.DescribethedistinctivefeaturesofIndianculture.5.Writeshortnotesonthefollowing:a.CulturalsynthesisinIndiab.Spiritualityc.AdapatabilityasacharacteristicofIndianculture6.ExplainindetailunityindiversityinthecontextofIndianculture.

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

2.11.Punjab

2.Bihu3.Kushans,ShakasandParthians4.Orissa2.21.KushansandMughals2.Monsoons3.Sumerian

MODULE2.HISTORYANDCULTURETHROUGHTHEAGES

3.ANCIENTINDIADoyouthinkthatthecultureofIndianpeoplehasbeenthesamesincethebeginning?Theanswerisno.Nocultureremainsthesame.AndthisistrueofIndiaaswell.Ithasgonethroughmanyphasesofchange.Doyouknowwhythesechangesoccur?Thisisbecauseevery dynasty, every invader who comes and settles down in the country leaves theirmarksonthecultureofthatcountry.Inordertounderstandthepresentcultureof Indianpeople,itisnecessarytounderstandtheprocessithasgonethroughinthepast.Thus,inthislessonwewillattempttotakealookat thelifeofthepeopleofAncient India.YouwillreadaboutthevariousstagesofancientIndianhistoryfromtheHarappan times through Vedic, Mauryan and Gupta periods. The emphasis is on thechanging nature of Indian society with corresponding changes in society and culture.Whenwereadhistorywecanunderstandhowthemodernworldhasemergedoverlongcenturiesofdevelopment.Itisimportanttoappreciatewhatwehaveachievedinthepasttomakeourfutureworthwhile.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

appreciatetheimportanceandrelevanceofstudyinghistory;recognisetheHarappancultureasthefirstknownurbancultureinIndia;examinethenatureofVedicsociety,religionandphilosophy;explainreasonsfortheriseofJainismandBuddhism;tracetheearlyhistoryofsouthIndiaduringthisperiod;review significant cultural developments during the rule of successive empires;

andexaminethegeneraldynamismofculturaldevelopmentsinancientIndia.

3.1IMPORTANCEOFSTUDYINGHISTORY

Iamsureyouhaveoftenaskedyourselfwhyyouarestudyinghistory.Studyinghistoryisonewayofgettingtoknowthepast.Historyisanattempttounderstandhowandwhyourancestors lived as they did, what difficulties they met with and in what manner theyovercamethem.ItisimportantforyoutobeacquaintedwiththepasttounderstandbetterwhatishappeningintheIndiaoftoday.Aftergoingthroughthislessonyouwillcometoknowthestoryofyourcountry,whichstartedmanycenturiesago.Historyisnolongertreatedasmerelyastudyofdatesandeventsandthattoolargelyonlypoliticalevents.Itsscopehasbeenwidenedtoincludemanyaspectsoflife.Theseincludethestudyofpatternsoflife,whichwecallculture.Culturewasoncedefinedasthatwhichrelatestoart,architecture,literatureandphilosophy.Nowitincludesalltheactivitiesofasociety.Therefore the emphasis of history has shifted from the study of only the uppergroupsofsocietytoalllevelsofsociety.Itnowcoversinformationonkingsandstatesmenas well as on ordinary people who make history. It includes the study of art andarchitecture,oftheevolutionoflanguagesinIndia,literatureandreligion.Nowwedonotlook only at what was happening at the aristocratic level of society. We also try toreconstructtheinterestsandconcernsofpeopleatlowerlevels.Thismakeshistorymoreinterestingandhelpsusunderstandoursocietyforbetter.The people that went into the making of our society, at both the aristocratic and theordinary level, were not all indigenous to India, to start with. Many came from otherregions and settled down in India. They married locally, intermixed with the exisitingpeopleandbecameapartofIndiansociety.Oursociety,therefore,hasarichheritageofdifferentkindsofpeople.Becauseofthislargevarietyofpeople,therehasbeenanequallylargevarietyofreligions,languages,andcustomsinourcountry.Thecorrectunderstandingofhistorydependsontwothings.Oneisacarefulandcriticaluseofsourcematerialgiventousbyhistoriansdefendingcertainstatementswhichshouldbedecidedonrationalanalysis.Secondly,historicaleventshavecausesandthesecausesshouldbefullyexamined.Aboveall,eventhepastmustbesubjectedtoacriticalanalysis.Itisonlyinthiswaythathistoricalknowledgewilladvance.ThepastofIndiagoesbackseveralthousandyears.Welearnaboutitfromtheevidencewhich our ancestors have left behind. For the near past we have written and printedrecords. For timeswhen printingwas not known, there are recordswritten by hand onpaper. But earlier still, when paper was notmade, records were written on dried palmleaves, the bark of the birch tree and plates of copper and in some cases, they wereinscribedonlargerocks,pillars,stoneswallsortabletsmadeofclayandstone.Therewasa timestill furtherbackwhenevenwritingwasunknown.Ourknowledgeof the lifeofpeopleinthoseancientdayscomesfromtheobjectswhichtheyleftbehind,forexample,

theirpotteryortheirweaponsandtools.Thesearethingswhicharesolidandwhichyoucanseeandtouchandthesehavesometimestobeliterallydugoutoftheearth.Theyareallcluesinthegameofahistoricaltreasurehuntbuttheyformapartofourculture.Butthese clues can be of many kinds. The clues most commonly used are manuscripts.Manuscriptsareancientbooks,writteneitherondriedpalmleavesorthethickbarkofthebirchtree,oronpaper.(Generallythelatterkindhavesurvived,thoughbookswrittenonpaperarenotasoldastheothers).SomeofthelanguagesinwhichtheveryoldbooksarewrittenarelanguageswhichweinIndiadonotuseineverydaylifeanymore,suchasPaliandPrakrit.OthersarewritteninSanskritandArabic,whichwestillstudyandsometimesuseinourreligiousceremoniesalthoughwedonotusethemathome.AnotherlanguageTamil,whichisspokeninSouthIndiaandwhoseliteraturegoestoanearlyperiodinusedeven today. These are called ‘classical languages’ and the history ofmany parts of theworld is recorded in various classical languages. In Europe, ancient manuscripts wereoften written in Greek and Latin; in western Asia, they were written in Arabic andHebrew,andinChina,classicalChinesewasused.

3.2ANCIENTINDIA

India has a continuous history covering a very long period. Evidence of neolithichabitation dating as far back as 7000 BC has been found inMehrgarh in Baluchistan.However, thefirst notable civilization flourished in India around 2700BC in the northwesternpartoftheIndiansubcontinent,coveringalargearea.Thecivilizationisreferredto as the Harappan civilization.Most of the sites of this civilization developed on thebanksofIndus,Ghaggaranditstributaries.Thecultureassociatedwith theHarappancivilizationis thefirstknownurbanculture inIndia. The Harappans built the earliest cities complete with town planning, sanitation,drainage system and broad well-laid roads. They built double storied houses of burnt-brickseachoneofwhichhadabathroom,akitchenandawell.ThewalledcitieshadotherimportantbuildingssuchastheGreatBath,GrannariesandAssemblyHalls.Agriculturewas themain occupation of theHarappanswhowere living in rural areas.Those living in the cities carried on internal and external trade and developed contactswithothercivilizationssuchasMesopotamia.Theywereexcellentpotters.Varioustypesofutensils,toys,seals,figurineshavebeenexcavatedfromdifferentsites.Harappansalsohadthetechnicalknowledgeofmetalsandtheprocessofalloying.ThebronzesculptureofadancinggirlfoundinMohenjodarotestifiesthesculpturalskillsandaestheticsenseoftheHarappans.Shell,ivory,boneandfaiencewereusedasmaterialfordifferentcraftsandobjects.LothalwasadockyardsituatedinDholakaTalukofAhmedabadinGujarat.Itwasalso awell plannedwall city. Itwas an important centre of sea tradewith thewesternworld. Another important town in Gujarat was Dhaulavira while Kalibangam was inRajasthan.

Numerous seals carrying the images of the one-horned rhinocerous known as unicorn,peepal leaves and amale god throw light on the religious beliefs of the Harappans. Itappears that they worshipped plants and animals and the forces of nature. TheyworshippedamalegodresemblingLordShivaoflatertimesandamothergoddessamongothers. They probably believed in life after death and also in charms and spells. Sealsengravedwithanimalfigureslikethehumpedbull,elephantandrhinoceroussuggestthattheseanimalswereconsideredsacred.‘Peepal’hasbeenfounddepictedonmanyseals.Harappansknewhow towrite andmost of their seals contain some formof script.Butunfortunatelynoonehasyetbeenabletodecipherthatscript.Asaresult,ourknowledgeoftheHarappancivilizationisbasedonthearchaeologicalevidencealone.Thefiguresofmenandwomenonvarioussealsfoundintheexcavationsrevealthatthepeopleknewtheart of spinning andweaving. Theywere perhaps the first people to cultivate cotton. Alargenumber of Indus seals found inMesopotamiawhich indicated of a possible tradebetweentheIndusvalleyandMesopotamiancivilization.By 1800BC theHarappan civilization began declining.However,we do not know theexactreasonswhythishappened.

3.3VEDICCULTURE

AfewcenturiesafterthedeclineoftheHarappancivilization,anewcultureflourishedinthesameregionandgraduallyspreadacrosstheGanga-Yamunaplains.ThisculturecametobeknownastheAryanculture.Thereweresignificantdifferencesbetweenthiscultureandtheculturewhichprecededit.Aryans settledon thebanksof rivers Indus (Sindhu)andSaraswati (which isnownon-existent). They composed many hymns in honour of the gods and goddesses theyworshipped.Thesewere compiled in fourVedas-theRigVeda, SamaVeda,YajurVedaandAtharvaVeda.Thewordvedameansknowledgeof the sacred spiritual knowledge.Thesevedaswereconsideredinfallibleastheyimpartedthehighestspiritualknowledge.Initially theVedaswere transmitted orally. Since our knowledge of the earlyAryans isbased on these Vedas, the culture of this period is referred to as the Vedic Culture.Scholars divide the vedic period into the earlier and later Vedic period. The earlier isrepresented by the RigVedawhile the latter by all otherVedic literature including theBrahmanas,AranyakasandUpanishads.Twoepics, theRamayanaand theMahabharataandthePuranas,thoughcompiledmuchlater,alsothrowlightonthelifeandsocietyofanearlierperiod.ForthisperiodarchaeologicalevidencehasalsobeenfoundinsomeareasofUttarPradesh.RigVedacontainsabout250hymnsinpraiseofIndrawhoisdescribedasadestroyerofcitiesandthereare200hymnsinpraiseofGodAgni.DoyouknowthatAgniis lookeduponasanintermediarybetweengodsandhumans?

Societyandreligion

ThoughAryansocietywaspatriarchal,womenweretreatedwithdignityandhonour.Thefamilywas the smallest social unit; several families (kula)made a village (grama) andseveralvillagesformedavis.Anumberofvillagesformedatribeorjanawhichwasruledbyachiefcalledrajan.Hischieffunctionwastoprotectthetribefromexternalattackandmaintainlawandorder.Hewasassistedbythemembersoftwocouncilscalledsabhaandsamiti.ThePurohitaperformedreligiousfunctionswhilethesenanilookedaftermilitaryactivities.Therewasnoconceptofthestateorkingdomatthisstage.AlthoughthepostofRajan had become hereditary, he could be removed from power if found weak andinefficientorcruel.Towards the later Vedic period, society was divided into four varnas-Brahamanas,Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. This was also called theVarna-Vyavastha. To beginwithitdenotedcategoriesofpeopledoingdifferentkindsoffunctionsbutwiththepassageoftimethisdivisionbecamehereditaryandrigid.TheteacherswerecalledBrahmans,therulingclasswascalledKshatriyas,farmers,merchantsandbankerswerecalledVaishyaswhiletheartisans,craftsmen,labourerswerecalledShudras.Movingfromoneoccupationto another became difficult. Simultaneously, the Brahmans also occupied a dominantpositioninthesociety.Another important social institutionof the timewas the systemofchaturashramaor thedivision of life span into four distinct stages i.e. brahmacharya (period of celibacy,education and disciplined life in guru’s ashram), grihastha (a period of family life),vanaprastha (a stage of gradual detachment and sanyasa (a life dedicated to spiritualpursuitawayfromworldly life).However it should be noted that these stageswere notapplicable to women or to the people of lower varnas.Women were respected by thesociety, enjoyed freedom, had access to education and were often free to choose theirpartnersthroughswayamvara.Purdahandsatiwasnotprevalent.Theultimateaimoflifewastoattainmokshaorsalvationthroughthepursuitofdharma,arthaandkama.Karmaorperformanceofdutywithoutanyexpectationorreturnwaspreachedin theBhagavadGita.The earlyVedic peopleworshipped forces of nature and personified them as gods andgoddesses.Indra,Agni,Varuna,MarutweresomeoftheirgodswhileUsha:Aditi,Prithviweresomeoftheirgoddesses.SomeofthesolarGodsandgoddessesreferredtointheRigVedaareSurya,SavitriandPushau.Yajna(sacrifice)wasperformedalongwithchantingofVedichymns.Peoplepouredghee(clarifiedbutter)andotheringredientsintothefiretoinvoke theblessingsofgods.Agnior firewas lookeduponasan intermediarybetweenGods and humans. The vedic people prayed individually aswell as collectively for thewelfareofthejana.Therewas a change in religious practices during the laterVedic period.The prominentGodsoftheearlyVedicperiodlikeIndra,AgniandVarunalosttheirprominenceand

popularity. Their placewas taken by a new trinity ofGodswhereBrahma enjoyed thesupremeposition,whileVishnubecamethepreserverandShivacompletedthetrinity.Thereligion became extremely ritualistic. Sanskrit mantras, which were the monopoly ofBrahmins, became an essential part of all religious functions. Thismade the BrahminsverypowerfulandtheYajnasexpensive.Participationinthemwasrestrictedtotheupperthree classes. The kings performed Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya sacrifies toestablishtheirposition.ItisveryinterestingtoknowthatsomeelementsofthecultureoftheVedicAgehavesurvivedoveraperiod3,000yrsandcontinuestobeapartofIndianculture even today. By the end of the latter Vedic age changes started occuring in thesociety.Forthefirsttimepeoplestarteddiscussingcertainbeliefssuchascreationoftheuniverse,lifeafterdeathandessenceoflife.ThesewerequestionswhichweredealtwithingreatdetailintheUpanishads.

Materiallifeandeconomy

TheAryanswereprimarilypastoral andagriculturalpeople.Theydomesticatedanimalslike cows, horses, sheeps, goats and dogs. They ate simple food consisting of cereals,pulses, fruits,vegetables,milkandvariousmilkproducts.TheydrankabeveragecalledSoma.Gamesofchess,chariotracingetc.weretheirmodesofentertainment.In theearlyperiod therewasnomoney transactionor taxes.Baliorvoluntarydonationwas prevalent.Cowswere themeasure ofwealth.As the timepassed, extensive use ofironbroughtgreatchanges in theirmaterial life. Ironaxesenabled them toclear forestsleadingtotheexpansionofagriculturethroughouttheGangeticplains.Irontoolsresultedin varied crafts and technology.Use of ironweapons and horses enabled them to fightwars and defend themselves better against enemies. Increasing number of crafts,availabilityof surplus food and growth of population led to specialisation of skills andurbanisation. Towns and cities grew and territorial states emerged. High qualityearthenwarecalled‘PaintedGreyWare’ and ‘NorthernBlackPolishedWare’ havebeenfoundinmanyareas.Coinscameintocirculation.Tradewascarriedon,bothoverlandandthroughwaterways,enhancingmaterialprosperity.By sixth centuryBC, therewere some sixteen large territorial states inNorth India andupperDeccan known asMahajanapadas. Important among themwereAnga,Magadha,Kosala,Kashi,Kuru,andPanchala.

3.4POPULARRELIGIOUSREFORMS

Thisperiod(B.C.600toB.C.200)isimportantnotonlyforpoliticalunityofthecountrybut also for cultural unity. Ancient India saw the rise of two very important religions,Jainism and Buddhism which left a lasting influence on Indian life and culture. Vedicreligionwas

earlieralsoknownasBrahmanismbecausetheBrahminsplayedamajorroleinit.Lateritcame to be calledHinduism.TheBrahmins had developed a vested interest demandinglargecharities at the endof thescarifies.Asa result, the sacrificesbecamevery costly.Moreover, theBrahminsconsidered themselvessuperior to theothervarnasandbecamearrogant.ThisledtotheunpopularityofBrahminismandaneedforreformswasfelt.Besides,therewereotherfactorslikethereactionoftheKshatriyastotheBrahminclaimfor supremacy and the Vaisya’s demand for an improved social position. The Vedicreligionhadbecomeverycomplexandritualistic.ThereformsledbytheKshatriyasandaidedbythepoorermasseswhocouldnotaffordthehighcostofsacrifices,resultedintheemergenceofJainismandBuddhismaroundsixthcenturyBC.ThesenewreligionsthatisJainismandBuddhismalsoinfluencedthereligiousbeliefsandseveralpracticesofHinduism.The founder of Jainism is believed to be Rishabhadeva, the first of the twenty fourtirthankaras and as the last tirthankaraMahavira developed and gave final shape to theJaindoctrines.The Jains lay great emphasis on severe penance and asceticism. LordMahavira askedthemtotakefivevows-nottotelllies;nottoinjurelife;nottoownproperty;nottosteal;andtomaintainchastity(celibacy).HealsoaskedtheJainstofollowthethree-foldpathofRightbelief,RightConductandRightKnowledge.Later, theJainsweresplit into twosects theShvetambaras (whiteclothedones)and theDigambaras (the naked ones). Most of followers of Jainism belong to the tradingcommunity.The other movement was led by Gautama Buddha (563 - 483 BC), a youngercontemporaryofMahavira.He taught the FourNoble Truths.His pathwas themiddlepath.Hebelieved that there is sorrow in thisworld and that desire is the cause of thatsorrowanditcanbeconqueredbyfollowingtheEightFoldPath(ashtangikamarga).Theeightfoldpathcomprises:(1)Rightunderstanding,(2)Rightthought,(3)Rightspeech,(4)Rightaction,(5)Rightlivelihood,(6)Righteffort,(7)Rightmindfulness(8)Rightconcentration.Basically both thesemovementswere against the orthodax and ritualisticBrahamanicalreligion.Boththereformersemphasisedagoodmorallifeandtheimportanceofethics.

Both of them founded an order of monks, established monasteries called sthanakas inJainismandviharasinBuddhism.Later, Buddhismwas also split into two divisions- the Hinayana and theMahayana towhichathirdcalledVajrayanawasaddedsubsequently.Buddhismspreadtoaverylargepart of the world- Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, Japan, Thailand,Korea,MongoliaandAfghanistan.EventodayasubstantialpopulationofthesecountriesisBuddhist.Hinduismunderwentmanychangesinhistory.Itgaverisetoseveralreligioussectswithinitself with varying beliefs and practices. Like Buddhism, some sects of Hinduism alsospreadoutsideIndia,particularlyinthecountriesofSouthEastAsia.LaterHindutraditionevenacceptedtheBuddhaasoneoftheincarnations(avatara)ofVishnu.

INTEXTQUESTIONS3.1

Answerthefollowingquestions:1.WherewerethemostofthesitesofHarappancivilizationfound?_______________________________________________________________2.WhatwasthemainoccupationofthepeopleofHarapancivilization?_______________________________________________________________3.Wheredoyoufindevidenceofneolithichabitation?_______________________________________________________________4.HowdoyousaythatalanguageexistedinHarappancivilization?_______________________________________________________________5.HowwouldyouknowthatHarppanshadsculptureskill?_______________________________________________________________6.NamesomeofthevedicliteratureofAryans?_______________________________________________________________7.HowdoesmanattainSalvationormoksha?_______________________________________________________________8.Howwasvedicyajnaperformedinitially?_______________________________________________________________

9.Whichweretheyajnaspeformedbykingstoestablishtheirposition?_______________________________________________________________10.Whatchangedidthelatervedicperiodpracticeintheirreligiousceremonies?_______________________________________________________________11.WhatwerethemodesofentertainmentoftheAryans?_______________________________________________________________12. Name some of the Mahajanapadas of sixth century BC of North India and upperDeccan?_______________________________________________________________13.InhowmanysectsdidJainismsplit?_______________________________________________________________14.HowmanypathsdoestheAshtangikahas?_______________________________________________________________15.WhatweremonasteriescalledinJainismandBuddhism?_______________________________________________________________16.Namethe3divisionsofBuddhism?_______________________________________________________________

3.5THEPERSIANINVASIONANDITSIMPACTONINDIANCULTURE

InthefirsthalfofsixthcenturyBC,therewereanumberofsmall tribalstatesinnorth-westIndia.Therewasnosovereignpowertounitethesewarringtribes.TheAchaemenidrulersofPersiaorIrantookadvantageofthepoliticaldisunityofthisregion.Cyrus, thefounderof theAchaemeniddynasty,andhissuccessorDarius IannexedpartsofPunjabandSindh. Itwas believed to be themost fertile and populous part of theAchaemenidempire.IndiansubjectswerealsoenrolledintheAchaemenidarmy.ThePersianruleinnorthwesternIndialastedfornearlytwocenturies.Duringthisperiodtheremust havebeen regular contact between the two regions.Thenaval expeditionofSkylaxprobablyencouragedtradeandcommercebetweenPersiaandIndia.SomeancientPersiangoldandsilvercoinshavebeenfoundinPunjab.Though themountainouspasses in thenorthwesternborderwerebeingused fromveryearlytimes,itseemsthatDariusenteredIndiathroughthesepassesforthefirsttime.Lateron,asectionofAlexander’sarmytraversedthesameroute,whenheinvadedPunjab.

Theadministrativestructureof theMauryanempirewas influenced insomemeasurebythatoftheAchaemenidrulersofPersia.ItmaybementionedherethatthePersiantitleofsatrapa(governor)continuedtobeusedbytheIndianprovincialgovernorsaskshtrapaforquitealongtime.The cultural effects of the contactswith thePersianswere also significant.ThePersianscribesbrought into India anewstyleofwriting. It is calledkharoshthi. Itwasderivedfrom the Aramaic script, which was written from right to left. Many of Asoka’sinscriptionsfoundinnorthwesternIndiaarewitteninkharoshthi.ThisscriptcontinuedtobeusedinnorthwesternIndiatillaboutthirdcenturyAD.ThePersianinfluencemayalsobetracedinthepreambleofAsokanedicts.TheMauryanartandarchitecturewerealsogreatlyinfluencedbythePersianart.ThemonolithicpillaredictsofAsokawiththeirbell-shapedcapitalsaresomewhatlikethevictorypillarsoftheAchaemenidemperorswhichhavebeenfoundinPersepolis.The Persian influence found in Chandragupta Maurya’s court was in the form of theceremonialhairbathtakenbytheemperoronhisbirthday.ItwasintypicalPersianstyle.It ismentioned in theArthashastra thatwhenever thekingconsults thephysicianor theascetic,heshouldsitinaroomwherethesacredfirewaskept.ThisindicatestheinfluenceofZorastrianism,thereligionofancientIranians.

3.6THEGREEK(MACEDONIAN)INVASIONANDITSIMPACTONINDIANCULTURE

During the fourth century BC, theGreeks and the Persians fought for supremacy overWest Asia. The Achaemenid empire was finally destroyed by the Greeks under theleadershipofAlexanderofMacedon.HeconqueredAsiaMinor, Iraqand Iranand thenmarched towards India. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Alexander wasgreatlyattractedtowardsIndiabecauseofherfabulouswealth.On the eve ofAlexander’s invasion, northwestern Indiawas divided into a number ofsmall principalities. Lack of unity among them helped the Greeks to conquer theseprincipalitiesoneafteranother.However,Alexander’sarmyrefusedtomarchaheadwhentheyheardaboutthevastarmyandthestrengthoftheNandasofMagadha.Alexanderhadtoreturn.HediedatBabylonattheyoungageof32onhiswaybacktoMacedon.Alexanderhardlyhadanytimetoreorganisehisconquests.Mostoftheconqueredstateswererestoredtotheirrulers,whohadsubmittedtohisauthority.HedividedhisterritorialpossessionscoveringpartsofeasternEuropeanda largearea inwesternAsia into threeparts andplaced themunder threeGreekgovernors.Theeasternpartofhis empirewasgiven to Seleucus Nikator, who declared himself a king after the death of his master,Alexander.

ThoughthecontactbetweentheMacedoniansandancientIndianswasforabriefperiod,its impact was fairlywide in range. Alexander’s invasion brought Europe, for the firsttime,inclosecontactwithIndia,asroutes,byseaandbyland,wereopenedbetweenIndiaandtheWest.Aclosecommercialrelationwasalsoestablished.Thetradersandcraftsmenusedtofollowtheseroutes.AlexanderaskedhisfriendNearchustoexploretheseacoastfrom themouthof the Indus to theEuphrates in searchof harbours.TheGreekwritershaveleftmanyvaluablegeographicalaccountsofthisregionforus.Alexander’s invasion paved theway for political unification of north western India byconquering thewarring tribes of this region. It seems that by his campaignsAlexandermadeChandraguptaMaurya’sworkofannexing thisareaeasier.SoonafterAlexander’sdeparture,Chandraguptadefeatedoneofhisgenerals,SeleucusNikatorandbrought thewholeofnorthwesternIndiauptoAfghanistanunderhiscontrol.TheinfluenceofGreekart isfoundin thedevelopmentofIndiansculptureaswell.ThecombinationoftheGreekandtheIndianstyleformedtheGandharaSchoolofart.Indiansalso learnt theartofmakingwell-shapedandbeautifullydesignedgoldandsilvercoinsfromtheGreeks.TheGreekshadsomeinfluenceonIndianastrologyaswell.Manyvaluableinformationaboutthesocialandeconomicconditionofnorthernandnorthwestern India of that time are known from the Greek accounts left by Arrian, admiralNearchus,andMegasthenes.They tellusabout thedevelopedconditionofmanycrafts,existence of a brisk trade with the outside world, and about the general prosperousconditionof the country.Much has also been said in these accounts of carpentary as aflourishingtradeinIndia.ItseemsthefleetwhichAlexandersentalongthewesterncoastofIndiaunderNearchuswasbuiltinIndia.Alexander’sadventurealsohelpedtheWesttoknowsomethingabouttheIndianlifeandthinking. It has been said that the ideas and notions of Indian philosophy and religionwhichfilteredintotheRomanempireflowedthroughthechannelopenedbyAlexander.AstheGreekwritersleftdatedrecordsofAlexander’scampaign,ithelpedusagreatdealtoframethechronologyofancientIndianhistory.ThedateofAlexander’sinvasion–326BCprovidesadefinite‘marker’forarrangingthesequenceofhistoricaleventsinIndia.

3.7ASHOKATHEGREAT:REPRESENTINGTHEACMEOFINDIANCULTURE

Ashokaoccupiesauniqueplace in thehistoryof India.Hispoliciesofuniversalpeace,non-violenceandreligiousharmonyfindnoparallelinthemonarchsoftheworld.Ashoka stands out as amonarchwho combined successful kingshipwith idealism andphilosophy.Likeotherrulers,Ashokatoobeganhisreignwithwar-theconquestof

Kalinga.However,themindlessdestructionoflifeandpropertyinthiswarshatteredhimsogreatly thathevowednever towageanywaragain. Insteadheadopted thepolicyofDhammaVijaya that is conquest through dhamma. In his thirteenthmajor Rock Edict,Asoka states that trueconquest isbypietyandvirtue.Suchadecision takenbyaking,wholivedinanerawheremilitarymightwasthemeasureofpower,earnedhimauniqueplaceinhistory.Ashokawasatruehumanist.Hispolicieswereorientedtowardsthewelfareofhispeople.Hisdhammawasbasedonsocialresponsibility.Besidesgivingimportancetorespectingbrahmins, and servants, obedience to elders, abstention from killing living beings,dhammaalso asked people to live in religious harmony. It combined in itself the goodpoints of all sects. Ashoka proved to be a tolerant monarch who, although himself aBuddhist, never sought to impose his personal religion on his subjects. In his twelfthmajorRockEdict,hestatesthatinhonouringofothersectsliesthehonourofone’sownsect.Asaking,Ashokasetaveryhigh ideal forhimself.Hesawhimselfasa fatherand thesubjectsashischildren.Hecommunicatedhis thoughtsandphilosophytohispeoplebyinscribingthemonstonepillarsandrocksurfaces.TheseedictsareremarkableexamplesofMauryanarchitectureandalsoofengineeringskills.Theyarethelivingmonumentsofhistimes.Ashokaattempted toeducatehis subjectsbypointingout thewastefulnessofexpensiverituals.Heaskedpeopletopracticeahimsa.Hehimselfgaveupthepracticesoftheroyalhunt and pleasure tours and instead beganDhammaYattas tours for the furtherance ofDhamma,BygivinghisempireacommonDhamma,acommonlanguage,andpracticallyone script (Brahmi) he brought further political unification. India has been a secularcountrysincetheBuddhistage.ThoughhehimselfbecameaBuddhisthedidnotimposeitontheothersbutfollowedatolerantreligiouspolicy.Hemadegiftsandgrantstonon-Buddhistaswellasanti-Buddhist.Ashoka’s fame also rests on themeasures that he took to spread themessage of peaceamongst thedifferentregionsof theworld.Hesentambassadors to theGreekkingdomsandtheWest.Indianculturespreadtofar-awaylands.AccordingtoaBuddhisttradition,AsokasentBuddhistmissionstoregionssuchasSriLankaandCentralAsia.Buddhismspreadtodifferentpartsof theworldandalthoughit isnolongeramajorforceinIndiatoday,yetitcontinuestobepopularinSriLankaandtheFarEasterncountries.TheVarnasystempopularlyknownasthecastesystemwhichhadarisenintheVedicAgenow became well established and gradually became the dominant form of socialorganizationthroughoutIndia.Alongwiththenewreligionsandphilosophythegrowthofcities,craftsandtradefurtheredtheprocessofculturalunityinourcountry.Asokaunifiedtheentirecountryunderoneempireandrenouncedtheuseofwarasstatepolicy.Ontheotherandhesaysthathestrivestodischargethedebtheowestoalllivingcreatures.

3.8ARTANDARCHITECTURE:MAURYANBEGINNINGS

TheMauryan contribution to art and architecture was significant. Ashoka is known tohavebuilt84,000stupas tocommemoratevariouseventsofBuddha’s life.According toMegasthenes,Pataliputra’sgrandeurmatchedthatofthecitiesofPersia.Ashokan edicts were inscribed on stone pillars that were made of single columns ofpolishedsandstoneandhadcapitalsontheirtop.ThebestpreservedofallAshokanedictsstandsatLauriyaNandangarh(Bihar).Thisthirty-twofeettallcolumnhasanalmostfiftyton seated lion capital placed on its top, an engineering feat worth admiring. The bullcapital from Rampura is also another fine example of Mauryan sculpture. The mostfamouscapitalistheoneatSarnath,whichshowsfourlionsandtheDharmachakra.YoumustbefamiliarwiththisasthishasbeenadoptedasthenationalemblemoftheRepublicofIndia.Besides pillars, fewMauryan figures have also come to light.Themostwellknown ofthese is theYakshi fromDidarganj.Thebeautyof these figures lies in the exactnessoftheirworkmanshipandinthefactthatthey.appeartobemadefromonesinglestone.Likethepillars, these figures are polishedwith a unique surface gloss (now calledMauryanpolish).Youwillbeamazedtoknowthatdespiteallthesecenturiesthisglosshasnotlostitsshine.BesidesthelanguagethathasbeenusedinnearlyalltheinscriptionsandPrakritwhichappearstohavebecomethelinguafrancaof thecountryandintheBrahmiscripttheearliestknownIndianscript.Another noteworthy aspect ofMauryan architecture is the rock cut caves. TheLomashRishi (with its impressive entrance) and the Sudama caves are examples of sucharchitecture.ThesecavescutfromsolidrockwereprovidedbyAshokafornon-Buddhistmonks. These caves marked the beginning of the rock cut architecture which waspatronisedbylaterrulerstoo.Hisrockedictswereinscribedinthelocallanguageandthelocalscript.

3.9POST-MAURYANCULTURALDEVELOPMENTS

AlthoughtheGreeks,Shakas,Parthians,andKushanaswereforeigners,theywereslowlyabsorbedintothelocalpopulation.Sincetheywerewarriors,thelawgiversassignedthemthe status of Kshatriyas. It should be noted that such a large scale assimilation offoreignersintotheIndiansocietytookplaceonlyinthepost-Mauryantimes.Wecansayroughlyfromabout200BCtoabout3rdcenturyA.D.profoundchangestookplaceintheeconomicandpolitical lifeandvitaldevelopments indifferentaspectsofcultural lifeofourcountry i.e. religion, art and science aswell as technology.Therewas a significantadvancement in foreign trade both by land and by sea, besides emergence of variouscrafts.Many foreign rulers adoptedVaishnavism. In theBesnagarPillar incription,Heliodorus(the Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialkidas) describes himself as aBhagavatai.e.worshipperofVishnu.SimilarlysomecoinsofKanishkaalsoshowthe

figureofSivaonthem.YouwillrecallthatoneoftheKushanrulerswascalledVasudeva,clearlyindicatinghisvaishnavafaith.DoyouknowtheimportanceattachedtotheyearofKanishka’saccessioni.e.78A.D..Well,itmarksthebeginningoftheSakaera.TheinteractionamongdifferentforeignethnicgroupsandtheIndiansplayedanimportantroleintheirchoiceofoneortheotherIndianreligions.SomeforeignrulersalsoturnedtoBuddhism,asthisdidnotcreatetheproblemsoffittingintothecastesystem.Menanderconverted to Buddhism. Kanishka too is remembered for his services to this religion.However this increasing popularity of Buddhism brought about a major change in thereligion.Buddhisminitsoriginalformwastooabstractfortheforeigners.Theythereforeadvocated a simpler form through which they could satisfy their religious cravings.AroundthesametimeBuddhismsplitintotwoschools:theMahayanaortheGreatWheelandtheHinayanaortheSmallWheel.Theformerbelievedinimageworship,ritualsandBodhisattvas, (incarnations of Buddha) while the latter continued the practices of theearlierBuddhism.The Mahayana received royal patronage from Kanishka, who convened the fourthBuddhistCouncil tofinalise its teachings.Healsosetupmanystupas inmemoryof theBuddha.

ArtandSculpture

Central Asian invasions led to further development of Indian art and sculpture. Closecontacts with the western world introduced many new forms in Indian art. The mostsignificant development was the growth of the Gandhara school of art. This schoolborrowedfeaturesfromboththeGreekandRomanartforms.ManyimagesoftheBuddhafromtheKushanperiodhaveApollonian faces, their hair is in theGraeco-Roman styleand their draperies arranged in the style of a Roman toga. This assimilation of artisticfeatureswasprobablybecausemanyartisansfromdifferentcountriestrainedindifferentschoolscametogetherundertheKushanrule.Mathura,whichwasthecentreoftheindigenousschoolofart,wasalsoinfluencedbytheinvasions. A number of images from here of terracotta and red sandstone, which havedefiniteSaka-Kushaninfluence,havesurvived.ThemostfamousistheheadlessstatueofKanishkafromMathura.WhiletheearlierBuddhistshadusedonlysymbolstodepicttheBuddha, theMathura school became the first tomake faces and figures of theBuddha.Folklores suchas the Jatakasweredrawnout in longpanelson rock faces.Besides theimages of Buddha, which weremade in large numbers, statues ofMahavira were alsoproduced.

DeccanandSouthIndia

TheSatavahanas in theDeccanheldan importantpositionunder theMauryas.After thedeathofAshoka,theyassumedtotalindependence.TheybecameverypowerfulandmadetheircapitalatPaithanorPratisthanontheriverGodavari.TheSatavahanassoonenteredintoconflictwiththeforeignsatraps,especiallytheShakas.Itwasunder

Gautamiputra and his son Vasishthiputra Satkarni that the Satavahanas became verypowerful. They extended their kingdom, cleared forests, made roads and administeredtheirStatewell.NewtownscameupandtradewascarriedonwithfaroffcountrieslikePersia,IraqandCombodia.

KharavelaofKalinga

AnotherkingdomwhichrosetoapositionofimportanceaftertheMauryaswasKalinga.Kalinga includedmodernOrissaandpartsofNorthernAndhra. Itsmost important rulerwasKharavela.TheHathigumphaInscriptioninaJaincaveatUdaigirihillswouldgiveusa detailed account of his reign, but unfortunately it is not easily decipherable. It isdefinitelyknownthathewasagraetadministratoraswellasabravewarrior.Hecarriedoutworksofpietyandpublicutility,likebuildingroadsandgardens.

SouthIndia

The areawhich lies to the south of the riverKrishna and Tungabhadra is called SouthIndia.ItwastheregionoftheCholas,CherasandthePandyaswhowereconstantlyatwarwitheachother.

Sources

Themain source of information about these kingdoms and the life of the people is theSangamliterature.Thatiswhythisperiodfromthebeginningofthe1stcenturyB.C.totheendof2ndcenturyA.D.iscalledtheSangamperiodofthehistoryofSouthIndia.

Cholas

Karikalawasthemostimportantrulerofthiskingdom.HedefeatedthecombinedforcesoftheCherasandthePandays.HesucceededinpushingbackaninvasionfromCeylon.Karikalahasbeencreditedwithmanywelfareactivities.Hegotmaycanalsdug so thatwater from the riverCauverycouldbeused for irrigationpurposes.Karikalapatronisedworksofliteratureandart.HewasafolloweroftheVedicreligion.

Pandays

ThePandyan empirewas foundedby awomanking.Shemaintained a huge army.Shealsoencouragedtradeandpatronisedartaswellasliterature.

LifeandCulture

Thepeopleduringthisperiodlivedasimplelife.Theywerefondofmusic,dancingandpoetry.Manymusicalinstrumentslikedrums,flutes,pipes,etc.werepopular.Most of the people lived in valleys and amajority of themwere farmers.Otherswereherdsmen.Therewereartisansandcraftsmenalsowhomainlylivedintowns.Thereweremerchantsspeciallyinthecoastalareasandtradewascarriedonbysea.

Society

The Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians were called Yavanas. They soon mergedwith the Indian society and adopted Indian names and inter-married. Even their coinsstartedcarrying the imagesof Indiangods likeVishnu,GaneshaandMahesha.The factthat they had adapted to the Indian society easily may explain why foreign rulerspatronisedBuddhism.

TheAgeofHarshvardhana

KingHarshvardhanadecidedthathemustsubduethepettywarringrulersandbringthemunder his domain.He devoted six important years of his life to do so.Hiuen Tsang, aChinesetravellerandBanaBhat,hiscourtpoet,havegivendetailedaccountsofHarsha’sreign.According toHiuen Tang,KingHarshvardhana had an efficient government.Hefurthertellsusthatfamilieswerenotregisteredandtherewasnoforcedlabour,

Harsha’sreligiousactivities

Doyouknow thatHarshabuiltmanyhospitals and resthouses?Healsogavegrants tomanyreligionsespeciallyBuddhismandHinduReligion.LaterinhislifeHarshabecamemoreinclinedtowardsBuddhism.Harsha’s literary activities had some important plays e.g. Nagananda Ratnavali andPriyadarsita.HecollectedlearnedmenaroundhimasisevidentfromthereportofHiuenTsangandBanaBhat.BanawroteHarsha’sfamousbiography,HarshcharitaaswellastheliterarypieceKadambari.Kingdoms of the Deccan and the South:You have read about the Satavahanas whocontrolledtheDeccanforalongtime.Aftertheirdecline,manysmallkingdomscameupintheDeccan.ThefirstoneamongthemwasthatoftheVakatakas,whotriedtobuildastrongstate,buttheydidnotlastlongAftertheVakatakascametheChalukyasofVatapiandKalyani.Pulakesinwasapowerfulruler of the Chalukya dynasty. The Chalukyas kept fighting with the Rashtrakutas(towards thenorth)and thePallavas (towards thesouth).TheChalukya rulecame toanendin753A.D.whentheRashtrakutasdefeatedthem.ThecapitalcityofVatapiwasaprosperousone.ThereweretraderelationswithArabia,IranandtheRedSeaporttothewest,aswellaswithSouth-EastAsia.PulakesinIIsentanambassadortokingKhusraoIIofPersia.TheChalukyaspatronisedartaswellasreligion.They build temples and cave shrines in the deccan hills.Many of the sculptures of theEllora caves were created at this time under the patronage of the Chalukyas and theRashtrakutas.

INTEXTQUESTIONS3.2

Answerthefollowingquestions:1.Whatwerethesourcesofinformationaboutthesocialandeconomicconditionsofthepeopleofnorthernandnorth-westernIndiainfourthcenturyBC?_______________________________________________________________2.WhatisDhammavijayaaccordingtokingAshoka?_______________________________________________________________3.StatetheviewsofAshokainhistwelfthmajorrockedict?_______________________________________________________________4.WheredoyoufindedictsofAshoka?_______________________________________________________________5.WhereisthenationalemblemofIndiatakenfrom?_______________________________________________________________6.WhatwerethefeaturesborrowedbyGandharaschoolofartfromGreekandRomanartforms?_______________________________________________________________7.DescribetheuniquenessofMathuraschoolofart?_______________________________________________________________

3.10CULTURALDEVELOPMENTDURINGTHEGUPTAPERIOD

The last phase of ancient Indian history starts in early fourth centuryA.D. and ends inabout the 8th A.D. The Guptas built a strong and powerful kingdom and under thepoliticalunityandstatepatronagethatwasprovidedbythem,culturalactivitiesincreasedmanifold.YouwillrecallthatfollowingtheGreekinvasion,variousartformsinIndiahadbeenmarkedlyinfluencedbyGraeco-Romanstyles.ThisartmainlydepictedtheBuddhaorBuddhist thought.But during theGupta period art becamemore creative andHindugodsandgoddessesalsocametobeportrayed.The artistic achievement of the age is exhibited in the delicate workmanship and thevarietyofdesignsshownindifferentkindsofGuptacoins.Thegeneralschemethatwasfollowedwastoexhibittheportraitofthekingononesideofthecoinoranappropriategoddess

with her associated symbols on the other side. The king is shown inmany positions -shootingatigeroralion,playingamusicalinstrumentseatedonahighbackedcouchetc.On the reverse in most cases was Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and in some casesSaraswati,thegoddessofknowledgeandarts.Besides coins, Gupta art found adequate expression inmonuments and sculptures. TheskilledartistsofthisageusedtheirtoolsandskillstoexpresstheidealsandphilosophicaltraditionsofIndiathroughvariousartforms.Theydecoratedeventhenichesandcornersofreligiousplaceswithstatuesofgodsandgoddesses.Theimagesofgodsweretreatedassymbols representing attributes associated with the gods. Hence the god were shownhavingfouroreightarmsineachcarryingasymboloranayudha(weapon)althoughtheywere depicted in human forms. Stone, terracotta, and other materials were used toconstructtheabodesofgodsandgoddesses.ExamplesoftheGuptaartcanbeseenatthedashavataratempleatDeogarhandthecavetemples in Udaigiri hills. However, the most famous examples of Gupta art that stillremainarethenumerousseatedandstandingimagesofBuddhafromSarnath.TheschoolofartthatthrivedatSarnathprovidesuswithsomeofthemostpleasingandgracefulimagesoftheBuddha.Besidesstone,Guptaartistswerealsoskilledinbronze.Atwo metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (nearBhagalpurinBihar).ExamplesofsculpturesincavescreatedduringthisperiodaretracedtothefamousElloraCaves.

Architecture

TheGuptaarchitecturehassurvivedinafewshrines,rockcutcaves(Ajanta)andtemples,suchastheDashavataratempleatDeogarh.Thesestructuresweremainlymadeofstoneand bricks. Some references in the works of Kalidasa give us a glimpse of Guptaarchitecture.Thepoethasgivenavividpictureofawell-plannedtownwithanetworkofroads,market places, big sky-touchingpalaces andmansionswith terraces.Thepalaceshadmany inner apartments. They had court-yards, prisons, court-room and sabhagriha.Theirverandahsopenedonroofslitwithmoon-beamatnight.Thepleasuregardenwhichwasattachedtopalacecontainedallsortsofseasonalflowersandtrees.ArchaeologicalevidenceaboutGuptaarchitectureishoweverpoor.However,examplesofGupta shrines have been discovered in the jungles of Central India, especially in theBundelkhandregion.TheseincludetheoneatBhitargaoninKanpurdistrict.

Painting

PaintingasanartformreachedahighdegreeofperfectionduringtheGuptatimes.ThewallfrescoesattheAjantacaves(Aurangabad)andtheoneatBaghcaves(nearGwalior)bearevidenceofthis.AlthoughAjantapaintingsbelongtotheperiodbetweenthefirsttotheseventhcenturyADyetmostofthesewereproducedduringtheGuptatime.These

paintings depict various scenes from the life of the Buddha. The skill with which thehuman,animalandplantfigureshavebeendrawnshowstherefinedandsensitivenatureof Gupta art. The conception of beauty was a characteristic of Gupta art. Expressionthrough artwas given importance as it was regarded as a means for the attainment ofspiritualjoy.

3.11THEPALLAVASANDTHECHOLAS

AnyaccountofancientIndiaisincompletewithoutreferringtothetwodynastiesofSouthIndiai.e.thePallavasandtheCholasandtheircontributiontoart,architecture,administrationandconquests.Figure1GroupOfmonumentsatMahabalipuramnearChennai

QuiteafewdynastiesroseintheSouthfromtheearlycenturiesoftheChristianera.AmongthemthePallavasweregreatpatronsofartandarchitecture.The‘ratha’atMahabalipuramstyleoftemplesbuiltbythemwerefineexamplesofrock-cuttemples.ThePallavasalsobuiltstructuraltemplesliketheKailashanathandVaikunthperumaltemplesatKanchipuram.TheKailashanathtempleisahugestructurewiththousandsofimagesandissaidtobethe“largestsingleworkofarteverundertakeninIndia”.ThereisalsoasetofbasreliefsfoundatMahabalipuram(Mamallapuram)whichisattributedtothepallavaperiod.ThePagodasbuiltatMahabalipuramgobacktothefirstcenturyAD.Figure.2SunTemple,Konarak,Odisha

TemplebuildingactivityflourishedinIndiafromthe5thcenturyADonwards.WhiletheNorthIndiantempleswerebuiltintheNagarastyleconsistedoftheshikaras(spiralroofs),thegarbhagriha(sanctum)andthemandap(pillaredhall), the temples in theSouthwerebuiltintheDravidastylecompleted

with vimana or shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by gopuram. After thePallavas(6thto8thcenturyAD)thetraditionofbuildingtempleswasfurtherdevelopedbytheCholas(l0th–12thcenturyAD)inthesouth.Doyouknow that the templewas the central place in thevillage? Itwas thegatheringplaceforthevillagerswhowouldcomehereeverydayandexchangeideasanddiscussallmattersofcommon interests. It servedasa school too.During festivaldaysdancesanddramaswerealsoperformedinthetemplecourtyard.TheachievementsoftheCholasalsolieintheirconquestsacrosstheseasanddevelopingdemocratic institutions for governance at thevillage level.Thevillagepanchayat calledsahhaor ur had extensive powers. It had control over finances too.This body includedseveral committeeswhich lookedaftervarious aspectsofvillageadministration.Averydetailed account of the functioning of the sabhas is available from one of the Cholainscriptions. The Chola rulers were also great builders. The Dravida style of templearchitecture reached its zenithunder theChola rulers.Oneof the finest exampleof thisstyle is theRajarajeshwarorBrihadeshwara temple.During thisperiodonealsonoticesgreatachievementsinthefieldofsculpture.Greatprogresswasmadeinliteraturebothreligiousandsecular.Sanskritalsobecamethelanguage of the courts in many parts of the country. Tamil literatures also made greatprogress.TheAlvarsandtheNayanars, theVaishnaviteandShaivitesaintsmadelastingcontributions to it. Inspite of the dominants position of Sanskrit in most parts of thecountry, this period marks the beginning of many Indian languages as well as distinctscriptsindifferentpartsofthecountry.Inshort,wecansaythatbythetime,theancientperiodofIndianhistorycametoanend,Indiahaddevelopedaculturewhichwasmarkedbyfeaturesthathavecharacterizediteversince.

3.12TRANSFORMATIONOFVEDICBRAHMANISMINTOPURANICHINDUISM

The transformation of the ancient brahmanical faith into modern Hinduism can beregardedasthemostdistinguishingfeaturefromtheGuptaperiodonwards.Buddhismnolonger received asmuch royal patronage as it did earlier.Brahmanismhad come to theforefront.TheGuptarulersespeciallyprovidedfillingtotheBhagavataSectofHinduism.They called them selved Bhagavatas, worshipped Lord Vishnu performed Asvamedhayajnas, gave large donations to brahmanas, and built many temples. The Puranas werefinally compiled in this age. Vishnu emerged as the god of devotion and came to berepresented as the preserver of dharma. Numerous legends gathered around him and awhole Purana calledVishnu Puranawas compiled in his honour. Similarly a law bookcalled theVishnusmritiwasalsonamedafterhim.Aboveall,by the fourthcenturyADtherecameintobeingafamousVaishnavaworkcalled‘Shrimadbhagavad-purana’whichtaughtdevotiontoLordKrishna.AfewGuptakingsalsowereworshippersofShiva,thegodof

destruction.Bhagavatismwhichwasacontemporary toBuddhismandJainisminoriginand owed its birth to the stream of thought which began with Upanishads reached itszenithandbecame themost popular sect during this age.The theory ofTenAvatars orincarnationsof the supremegodVishnucame tobeacceptedandamong them,Krishnawasconsideredthemostimportant.BesidesVishnu,Brahma,Surya,Kartikeya,Ganesha,Durga,Lashmi,Saraswatiandotherswerealsoworshippedaswere lessergods likeIndra,Varuna,Yamaetc.Thesnakes, theyakshas, and theGandharvas also continued to be revered.Even animals, plants, riversand mountains were looked upon with reverence and cities like Banaras and Prayagbecameplacesofpilgrimage.Idolworshipbecamepopular.Thus theprominentfeaturesofmodernHinduismtookshapeduringtheGuptaperiod.AlthoughBuddhismwasonitsdecline,yetitcontinuedtohaveitsfollowing.Besidestheartistic creations ofAjanta andEllora, the images of SarnathBuddha belonging to thistime show that Buddhism was also quite popular. Even Jainism commanded somefollowingduringtheGuptaperiod.

3.13NALANDA’SEMERGENCEASAGREATCENTREOFLEARNING

NalandabecameagreatcentreoflearningduringHarsha’sreign.Studentsfromdifferentparts of the world came here to imbibe learning. Although all the remains mounds ofNalandahavenotyetbeenexcavated,yettheevidenceofahugecomplexofbuildingshasbeen uncovered. Some of thesewere asmany as four storey high.According toHiuenTsang,Nalandahousedasmanyas10,000students.Itwassupportedbytherevenuesof200villages.Althoughthishugemonastic-educationalestablishmentwasprimarilyacentreforlearningofMahayanaBuddhism,yet thecurriculumincludedsecularsubjectsaswell.Grammar,logic,epistemologyandsciencesweretaughthere.Studentswereencouragedtodevelopaspiritofenquiryandreasoning.Activediscussionsanddebatesweretakingplace.Harshais said to have invited a thousand learned monks of Nalanda to take part in thephilosophical assembly at Kanauj. In his account, Hieun-Tsang has given a detailedaccountofNalanda.Thusuniversitycontinuedtobethecentreofintellectualactivitytillthetwelfthcentury.

INTEXTQUESTIONS3.3

Answerthefollowingquestions:1.WhatwerethefeaturesofGuptacoins?_______________________________________________________________2.WhereisDashavataratemplelocated?_______________________________________________________________3.WhatarecavetemplesinUdaigirihillsfamousfor?_______________________________________________________________4.HowhighwasthebronzestatueofBuddhafoundatSultangaj(nearBhaglpur)?_______________________________________________________________5.WheredoyoufindtheGuptaartformofpainting?_______________________________________________________________6.WherewasaphilosophicalassemblyduringHarshareigntookplace?_______________________________________________________________

3.14CHRISTIANITYININDIA

According to tradition, christianity was brought to India by Saint Thomas in the firstcenturyA.D.Accordingtolegends,theParthiankingGondophernes(C.19-45A.C.)sentamessanger toSyria to lookforaskilfularchitectwhowouldbuildforhimanewcity.ThemessangerreturnedwithSt.Thomas,whoconvertedhimandmanymembersofhiscourttoChristianity.Thetruthofthelegendisdoubtful.ItwasmostprobablythefrequenttradeandmovementbetweenIndiaandthewestwhichwasresponsibleforbringingthisdisciple of Lord Christ to India. The merchants, traders and even craftmen frequentlytravelledalongpopularlandandsearoutes.St.TomaspreachedchristianityinmanypartsofIndia.HewaskilledatMylapore(nearMadras).ThetombofSt.Thomasisstilltobefound at the same place. A large community of christians known as Syrian ChristianscontinetoresideinKeralaeventoday.The Christian Church has two major divisions-the Roman Catholic church and theProtestantchurch.Theholybookof theChristians is theBible.TheBiblecontains twoparts:theoldTestamentandtheNewTestament.TheBibletodayisavailableinallmajorlanguagesspokeninourcountry.Today, we have over one and a half crore Christians in India. Several charitableinstitutionsunder theirpatronageare flourishing inallpartsofourcountry.Perhaps themostfamousChristiansocialworker,hehascontributedagreatdealforthewelfareofthepoorandhomelessinourcountry.

INTEXTQUESTIONS3.4

Answersthefollowingquestions1.HowdidChristianitycometoIndia?_______________________________________________________________2.WhatarethedivisionsoftheChristianChurch?_______________________________________________________________3.WhowasmotherTeresa?_______________________________________________________________4.NamethetwostructuraltemplesbuiltbyPallavasatKanchipuram?_______________________________________________________________5.WhatwerethedifferentstyleintemplearchitectureduringthePallavasandtheCholas?_______________________________________________________________6.NamethetemplebuiltbyCholas?_______________________________________________________________7.WhatwasthestyleofsculptureintheCholaperiodcalled?_______________________________________________________________8.WhatstyleofworkdoyoufindatMahabalipuram(Mamallapuram)_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

Indiahasacontinuoushistorycoveringavery longperioddatingas farbackas7000BC;

TheHarappans built the earliest cities completewith town planning, sanitation,drainagesystemandbroadwell-laidroads;

Agriculturewasthemostimportantoccupationoftheruralpeople.Thevedicpeoplehavecontributedimmenselyinvariousfieldssuchasliterature,

religionandphilosophy;

TowardsthelatterVedicpeoplesocietywasdividedintofourvarnasBrahmanas,Kshatriyas,VaishyasandShudras.

Importantreligionsi.e.Hinduism,JainismandBuddhismevolvedandinteractionsbetweenthemresultedinasynthesisinIndianculture.

TheearlyVedicpeopleworshippedforcesofnatureandpersonifiedthemasGodsandgoddesses.

TheMauryanssetup the firstgreatempire inNorth Indiaandunder the ruleofAshoktheGreatitreachedgreatheightinmanyfields;

TheMauryancontributiontowardsartandarchitecturewassignificant.Temple architecture reached its pinnacle of glory under the Pallavas whowere

greatbuilders.Examplesof theGuptaartcanbeseenat theDashavtaratempleatDeogarhand

thecavetemplesinUdaigiritemples.KingHarshacametothethroneofThaneswarafterhehadlosthisfamilyintragic

circumstances.TwopersonshavegivendetailedaccountsofHarsha’sreign.OneisHiuenTsang

—aChinesepilgrim;theotherisBanaBhat—hiscourtpoet.Harsha was an efficient and benevolent ruler. He indulged in may welfare

activities.Hegaveendowmentsforgreatpublicservants,rewardedpeoplewhodidworkof a high intellectual calibre and encouraged religious activities bygivinggiftstovarioussects.Hebuiltmanyhospitalsandresthosues.NalandabecameagreatcentreoflearningduringHarsha’sreign.

Harshawasalsoa literaryperson.Hehimselfwroteplaysandcollected learnedmenaroundhim.

The achievements of the Cholas also lie in their conquests across the seas anddevelopingdemocraticinstitutionsforgovernanceatthevillagelevel.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.HowdoyoudifferentiatethecultureofAryanswiththeHarappans?2.StatethecircumstanceswhichleadstotheemergenceofJainismandBuddhisminthesixthcenturyBC?3.WhatweretheimpactofPersianinvasionsonIndianculture?4.WhatweretheoutcomeoftheMacedonianinvasiononancientIndians?

5.HowdidthetransformationofvedicbrahmanismintopuranicHinduismtakeplaceinancientIndia?6.DescribethedevelopmentofIndiancultureduringtherulesofsuccessiveempire?

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

3.11.OnthebanksofIndus,Ghaggaranditstributaries.2.Agriculture3.InmehrgarhinBaluchistandatedbackto7000BC.4.Thesealscontainedsomeformofscript.5.Onehorned rhinocerosknownasunicorn appearedon seals.Abronze sculptureof adancinggirlwasfoundinMohanjadro.Thistestifiesthesculptureskillofthesepeople.6.Veda–Rig,Atharva,Sama,YajurandBrahmanas,AranyakasandUpanishada.7.Bydharma,arthaandkama8.ItwasperformedalongwithchantingofVedichymns.9.Ashramedha,Rajasuya,VajapeyaYajnas10. Itwasbecamemore ritualistic. Insteadof Indra,Agni,Varunagodsanew trinityofgodsBrahma,Vishnu,andShivawereworshipped.11.Gamesofchess,chariotracingetc.12.Anga,Magadha,Kosala,Kashi,Kuru,Panchala.13.Two–Swetambars(whiteclothesones),Digambaras(thenakedones)14.8(Eight)15.SthanakasinJainismandViharasinBuddhism.16.Hinayana,Mahayana,Vajrayana3.21.GreekaccountsleftbyArrian,AdmiralNearchusandMegasthenes.2.Trueconquestisaconquestbypietyandvirtuei.e.welfareofpeople.3.Thehonourofonesectliesinhonouringothersects.4.AtLauriyaNandangarh(Bihar)

5.FromthefamousAshokapillar,capitalatSarnath.6.(i)Apollonianfaces(ii)Hairstyle(iii)Draperiesarrangement7.(i)TheystartedfacesandfiguresofBuddha(ii)Folkloreweredrawnoutonlongpanelsandrockfaces.(iii)Theybuildstatuesalso.3.31.One side the portrait of king in different positions and the other side contained thegoddesswithherassociatedsymbols.2.AtDeogarh3.Guptaart4.2metrehigh5.(i)WallfrescoesoftheAjantacaves(Aurangabad)(ii)Baghcaves(nearGwalior)6.AtKanauj3.41. St Thomas a skilful architect was a Christian. He was accidentally called by theParthiankingGondaphernesinC-19/45ADasanarchitect.St.ThomasconvertedmanymembersintoChristianity.2.(i)TheRomanCatholicChurch(ii)TheProtestantChurch3.AfamousChristiansocialworkerwhodidagreatworkforpoorandhomeless.4.KalidashanathandVaikunthaperumal.5.NagarastyleandDravidastyle6.Rajarajeshwar/BrihadeshwareTemple7.TheDravidaStyle8.BasReliefs

4.MEDIEVALINDIADevelopmentsinthefieldofreligion,folkartandlanguageinIndiaduringthemedievaltimeshavebeenimportantmilestonesintheevolutionofthecompositecultureof India.NewreligionsmovementslikeSufiandSikhismalongwithBhaktimovementcontributedtothisprocess.Ifyoulookaround,youwillseetheimpactofIslamonmanyaspectsofIndian culture. You might have visited some famous monuments in India. ThesemonumentsstandasthesymbolsofthecompositenatureofIndo-IslamiccultureinIndia.You can also see howvarious religions in India, including Islam, have influenced eachother.Besides, every region in India is famous forgiving shape to some folk art or theother.Developmentoffolkartsthroughwhichthecommonpeopledisplaytheircreativityis another significant aspect of Indian culture. The various regional languages that wespeaktodaytoohaveaninterestinghistorywhichevolvedduringthisperiod.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

understandsocietyduringmedievaltimes;tracetheriseofIslamandSufism;describethepoliticalsituationofIndiainmedievaltimes;examinetheinfluenceofIslamonIndianreligion;tracethegrowthoftheBhaktimovement;examine the development of folk arts, painting andmusic during the medieval

period;tracetheriseofmodernIndianlanguages;

discusstheriseofSikhismandtheSikhpowerinIndia;andtracethedevelopmentsinSouthIndia.

4.1LIFEOFPEOPLEUNDERDELHISULTANATE

When the Muslim invaders came to India they decided to make it their home. TheyintermarriedandtooktothecultureoftheIndians.Therewasamutualexchangeinideasandcustoms.Indress,speech,mannersandintellectualoutlook,thetwoinfluencedeachotherveryprofoundly.Someofthesechangesaredescribedbelow.

Society

The Indian society was divided into four major groups. They were the aristrocats, thepriests,thetownspeopleandthepeasants.

Aristocrats

Thearistocrats included theSultanandhis relatives,nobilityand the landholders.Therewerealso theHindurajahs,chiefs,Hindumerchantsandbankers.Theyconcentratedallthewealthaswellasthepowerintheirhands.Needlesstosaythattheywereagroupofvery powerful people. They lived in great style and luxury. The Sultan outmatchedeveryoneinthis.Hehadtodoitsoastomaintainhissuperiorityandhisstatus.Hehadtoshowthathewasdifferentfromtheothers.Wheneveranewsultancametothethrone,theKhutbaorsermonwasreadoutinhisnameintheFridayprayersatthemosquesandcoinswere issued in his name.This established the new ruler on the throne.Tomaintain hisdistinction as the ruler, he was provided with many officers and servants at the royalhouseholdwherehelivedingreatluxury.Eventhenobilityimitatedhisstyleandshowedofftheirwealth.

ThePriests

ThePriestswereanotherimportantclassofpeopleinthesociety.AmongtheHindus,theyweretheBrahmansandUlemasamongtheMuslims.Theyweregivengrantsoftax-freeland for their maintenance and were often very powerful. The Ulemas wielded greatinfluenceontheMuslimSultansandofteninfluencedtheirpolicies.ButatothertimeslikeduringthereignofAla-ud-dinKhalji,theywereevenignored.Sometimesthepriestswerenotinterestedinreligiousaffairsbutweremoreinterestedinworldlyaffairs.

TheTownPeople

Inthetownlivedthewealthymerchants,tradersandartisans.Thenobility,theofficersandthe soldiers also stayed in the towns, thatwere the administrative andmilitary centres.PlaceswheretheSufiandBhaktisaintslivedandplaceswhichhousedimportanttemplesandmosqueshadbecomepilgrimcentres.Theartisanslivedintheirownspecialquarters.

Infact,theweaverslivedintheweaver’scolony,thegoldsmithlivedinacolonyinhabitedbygoldsmithsandsoon.Thiswasthegeneralpatternforallartisansandcraftsmen.Thesepeople supplied luxury goods were also sent abroad for trade. The royal karkhanas orworkshopsemployedtheseworkersforproducingbeautifulgoodswhichwereoftenusedasgiftstobegivenawaybytheSultans.

ThePeasants

Thepeasants,ofcourse,livedinthevillagesandwereoftentheworstoff.Theypaidhugetaxes to the state as land revenue.Any change of dynasty had no effect on their lives.Theirlifecontinuedasbefore.Thecastesystemwasveryrigidandintercastemarriagesandintercastediningwastotallyprohibited.Butexchangeof ideasdid takeplaceona large scale.ThosewhoconvertedthemselvestoIslamdidnotforgettheiroldcustoms.Thus,exchangeofideasandcustomstook place. Many Hindu customs were adopted by the Muslims while many Muslimcustoms were adopted by the Hindus, like those concerning food, dress, clothing andmusic,besidesmanyothers.

Trade

Trade was flourishing and many new towns came up to encourage trade. Somecommunities like theBanias,Marwaris andMultanismade trade their special vocation.Thebanjarastradedincaravansandwerecontinuoulsyonthemovecarryinggoodsfromoneplacetoanother.Delhiwasthecentrefortheincomingaswellasoutgoinggoods.TherewasricefromtheEast, sugar fromKanauj,wheat from theDoab and fine silks from the South.Besides,therewereluxurygoodslikemetalware,ivory,jewellery,cottontextilesandmanyother.Goods from outside India like East Africa, Arabia and China also came to Delhi.AccordingtoIbnBatuta,Delhiatthattimewasamagnificentcity.Thegrowthoftradeencouragedtheuseofmoneyandatthistimecameintousethesilvertanka(coin).ItwasthemostcommonlyusedcurrencyandwasintroducedbyIltutmish.Eventhesystemofweights, thatwereusedat that time,continuedtobeinuseuntil therecentadoptionofthemetricsystem.

ReligiousCondition

When Islam came to India, Hinduism was in vogue. But by this time Hinduism haddegenerated itself.Thereweresuperstitiousbeliefs, ritualsandsacrifices.Brahmanshadbecome very powerful and the caste systemwas very rigid. The people, especially thelowerclasses,wereill-treated.IslamwastheoppositeofwhatwasinpractiseamongtheHindus.Ittalkedofequality,brotherhoodandonenessofGod.TherewerenodogmasinIslam.Ontheotherhand,ithadasimpledoctrineandademocraticorganisation.

The coming of Islam did not bring in many changes in the political structure of thecountry.Ontheotherhand,itchallengedthesocialpatternofsociety.TheimportantresultofthiscontactwastheemergenceoftheBhaktimovementandtheSufimovement.BoththemovementswerebasedonthefactthatGodwassupreme,allmenwereequalforHimandBhaktiordevotiontoHimwasthewaytoachievesalvation.

4.2RISEOFISLAMANDSUFISM

TheMuslimsfirstcametoIndia in theeighthcenturyADmainlyas traders.Theywerefascinatedby thesocio-culturalscenario in thiscountryanddecided tomakeIndia theirhome.ThetraderswhocametoIndiafromCentralandWestAsiacarriedbackwiththemtracesofIndianscienceandculture.AsaresulttheybecameculturalambassadorsofIndiaby disseminating this knowledge to the Islamic world and from there to Europe. Theimmigrant Muslims also entered into matrimonial alliances with the local people andlearned to live together in harmony.Therewasmutual exchange of ideas and customs.The Hindus and Muslims influenced each other equally in dress, speech, manners,customs and intellectual pursuits. The Muslims also brought with them their religion,IslamwhichhadadeepimpactonIndiansocietyandculture.LetusfindoutmoreaboutProphetMohammadandIslaminthislesson.ProphetMohammadpreachedIslamintheseventhcenturyADinArabia.HewasborninAD571intheQurayshtribeofArabia.HemigratedtoMadinafromMeccainAD622andthismarkedthebeginningoftheHijiraEra.According-totheMuslimbelief,QuranisthemessageofAllahrevealedtoMohammadthroughhisarchangelGabriel. Ithasbeentranslatedintoseverallanguages.ThefivefundamentalprinciplesofIslamare:1.Tauhid(beliefinAllah)2.Namaz(prayers,fivetimesaday)3.Roza(fastinginthemonthofRamzan)4.Zakat(givingofalms)5.Haj(pilgrimagetoMecca)ProphetMohammad’ssayingsarepreservedinwhatiscalledtheHadithorHadees.AfterhisdeaththeCaliphatewasestablished.TherewerefourpiousCaliphs.Islamtalkedofequality,brotherhood,andtheexistenceofoneGod.ItsarrivalparticularlymadeaprofoundimpactonthetraditionalpatternofIndiansociety.TheriseofboththeBhaktiandtheSufimovementscontributedimmenselyinthisregard.BoththeBhaktiandtheSufimovementsbelievedthatallhumansareequal,GodissupremeanddevotiontoGodistheonlywaytoachievesalvation.

4.2.1RiseofSufism

SufismisacommontermusedforIslamicmysticism.TheSufiswereveryliberalintheirreligious outlook. They believed in the essential unity of all religions. They preachedspiritualitythroughmusicanddoctrinesthatprofessedunionwithGod.SufismoriginatedinIranandfoundacongenialatmosphereinIndiaundertheTurkishrule.Theirsenseofpiety, tolerance, sympathy, concept of equality and friendly attitude attracted manyHindus, mostly from lower classes, to Islam. Sufi saints such as Moinuddin Chisti,NizamuddinAuliya,FariduddinGanj-e-Shakarwerethepioneersufiswhoarestillloved,respected and honoured in India. The sufis were also influenced by the Christian andBuddhistmonksregardingtheestablishmentoftheirkhanqahsanddargahs.Khanqahtheinstitutions(abodeofSufis)setupbytheSufis innorthernIndia tookIslamdeeper intothecountryside.Mazars(tombs)andTakias(restingplacesofMuslimsaints)alsobecamethe centres for the propagation of Islamic ideas. These were patronized both by thearistocracyandthecommonpeople.TheSufisemphasizedrespectforallhumanbeings.The Sufiswere organised into religious orders or silsilahs. These silsilahswere namedafter their founders such asChishti, Suhrawardi,Qadi.AndNaqshbandis.According toAbulFazl,theauthoroftheAin-i-Akbari,therewereasmanyasfourteensilsilahsinIndiaduring thesixteenthcentury.Eachorderhad itsownkhanqah,whichservedasashelterfortheSufisaintsandfordestitutes,andlaterdevelopedasacentreoflearning.Ajmer, Nagaur and Ajodhan or Pak Pattan (now in Pakistan) developed as importantcentresofSufism.Thesealsostartedthetraditionofpiri-muridi,(teacherandthedisciple).Inordertoattainastateofmysticalecstasy,thesufislistenedtopoetryandmusic(sama)which were originally in Persian, but later switched to Hindawi or Hindustani. Theypreached the unity ofGod and self-surrender untoHim in almost the sameway as thevotaries of the Nïrgun Bhakti movement did.Music attracts everybody, irrespective oflanguage.SlowlysuchmusicattractedtheHinduswhostartedvisitingthedargahsinlargenumber. The Hindu impact on Sufism also became visible in the form of siddhas andyogicpostures.

INTEXTQUESTIONS4.1

1.Thebeginningofwhichera ismarkedbyProphetMohammad’smigration toMadinafromMecca?________________________________________________________________________2.WhatisRoza?________________________________________________________________________3.WhobroughtHindufollowers toIslambytheirattitudeofpiety, toleranceconceptofequalityandsympathy?________________________________________________________________________

4.NametheauthorofAin-i-Akbari.________________________________________________________________________

4.3POLITICALBACKGROUND

TherulersofDelhi,whoruledfrom1206-90,wereMamlukTurks.Theywerefollowedby theKhiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis, who ruled northern India from Delhi till1526.AlltheserulerswerecalledSultans.ASultanwassupposedtoruleoveraterritoryonbehalfof theKhalifaorCaliph,whowasconsidered tobe thespiritualand temporalheadoftheMuslims.BoththenamesoftheKhalifaandtheSultanusedtobereadinthekhutha,(Fridayprayers)bythelocalImams.In1526theDelhiSultanswerereplacedbytheMughals,whoinitiallyruledfromAgraandlaterfromDelhitill1707.Thereafter,theMughalrulecontinuedonlynominallytill1857when the dynasty ended. TheMughals did not ask for any investiture but continued tosendpresentstotheKhalifas.Theyalsogotthekhutbareadintheirownnames.However,Sher Shah, a localAfghan ruler, challenged theMughal ruler,Humayun andkept him away from the throne ofDelhi for about fifteen years (1540-55). SherShah’sreignstandsoutformanyoutstandingachievements.Amongthesewastheconstructionofseveral roads, themost important being Sarak-i-Azam orGrand TrunkRoad extendingfromSonargaon(nowinBangladesh)toAttock(nowinPakistan)andrunthroughDelhiandAgraadistanceof1500kos.TheotherroadswerefromAgratoBurhanpur,AgratoMarwarandfromLahoretoMultan.Hestruckbeautifulcoinsingold,silverandcopperwhichwereimitatedbytheMughalKings.Mughal emperor Akbar who ruled from 1556-1605 was a great ruler in the history ofIndia. Hemade a sincere effort to foster harmony among his subjects by discouragingracial,religiousandculturalbiases.HetriedtodevelopfriendlyrelationswiththeHindus.Tofulfil his imperialist ambitionshe entered intomatrimonial allianceswith theRajputrulers. His greatest contribution was the political unification of the country and theestablishment of an all powerful central government with a uniform system ofadministration.Akbarwas a great patron of art, architecture and learning.As a secularmindedmonarchhealsostartedafaithcalledDin-i-Illahiwhichencompassedideasfromvariousreligions.OneveryThursday,scholarsfromdifferentreligionscametodebateonreligious issues raised by the emperor. Thiswas done at the IbadatKhana in Fateh PurSikriatAgra.Though illiterateAkbarpatronisedscholarsand learnedmen. Inhiscourttherewere nine suchNavratnaMullaDo Pyaza,HakinHumam,AbdurRahimKhan eKhanan,AbulTayal,Tansen,RajaTodarMal,RajaManSingh,FaiziandBirbal.Akbar’spolicy of liberalism and tolerance was continued by his successors, Jahangir and ShahJahan.HoweverthispolicywasabandonedbyAurangzeb.

Aurangzeb’s short sighted policies and endless wars in different parts of the country(especiallyinSouthIndia)resultedinthedisintegrationoftheMughalempire.The rise of the Marathas in the south, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad ShahAbdali,unrestamongstthenobilityinthecourtandtheriseoftheSikhsinnorth-westernIndiadestroyedwhateverwasleftoftheMughalpower.EconomicallyIndiawasstillthebiggestexporterintheworldandhadgreatwealth,butitwasleftfarbehindintheprocessofmodernisation.

4.4CULTURALDEVELOPMENT

Itwasinthefieldofartandarchitecturethattherulersofthisperiodtookakeeninterest.Thecompositeculturalcharacteristicofthemedievalperiodisamplywitnessedinthesefields.AnewstyleofarchitectureknownastheIndo-Islamicstylewasbornoutofthisfusion.Thedistinctivefeaturesof Indo-Islamicarchitecturewere the(a)dome; (b) loftytowersorminarets;(c)arch;and(d)thevault.TheMughalrulersweregreatloversofnature.Theytookpleasureinspendingtheirtimein building beautiful forts and gardens. The famousMughal gardens like the ShalimarBagh and theNishat Bagh are important elements of our cultural heritage. Therewerewaterwaysandfountainscriss-crossingthesegardensandfinally,thereweregardenswithstagesorlevels.Thewater,whilecascadingfromonestagetoanother,wasmadetofallinsmallstreamletswithlampslitbehindthem,makingthewatershimmerandlendaspecialcharmtothewholeatmosphere.Itcouldalsobemadetoflowoverachiselledandslopingslab,sothatthewaterflowingoveritshimmered.ThebestexampleofthistypeofgardenistheShalimarGardensofLahore(nowinPakistan).TheLahoregardenhasthreestages.ButabetterexamplecanbeseeninIndiaatPinjoreGardensituatedontheChandigarh-Kalkaroadwherewehaveaseven-stagegarden.ThisimpressedtheBritishsomuchthattheycreatedathree-stagegardenintheVice-RegalLodge(nowtheRashtrapatiBhawan)inNewDelhi, Itwas on these very lines that the famousVrindavanGarden inMysorewerebuiltinthetwentiethcentury.ThepietraduraorcolouredstoneinlayworkonmarblebecameverypopularinthedaysofShahJahanandthefinestexamplesofthistypeofworkareavailableintheRedFortinDelhi and the Taj Mahal at Agra. Besides, the structures within the Fatehpur Sikricomplex,thefortsatAgraandLahoreandtheShahimosquesinDelhiandLahoreareanimportantpartofourheritage.During thisperiodmosques, tombsofkingsanddargahscametodominatethelandscape.

Coinage

Anotheraspectofart,whichisofgreatimportancetous,isconnectedwithNumismatics(thestudyofcoins)whichisamajorsourceofinformationforanyperiodinhistory.The

coinsofMuslimkingsarevaluableinhistory.Theirdesigns,calligraphyandmintmarksgiveusplentyofinterestinginformationonthisperiod.Fromtheroyaltitles,thenameandplaceofmintingwecanfindouttheextentofthemonarch’skingdomaswellashisstatus.Muhammad Tughlaq’s coins were minted at Delhi, Daulatabad and several otherprovincial capitals and had at least twenty-five different varieties. Some of the legendsfoundon the coins are quite interesting.Thewarrior in the causeofGod’ and ‘hewhoobeystheSultanobeystheCompassionate’,areafewexamples.

INTEXTQUESTIONS4.2

Fillintheblanks:l.ThenamesoftheKhalifaandtheSultanwerereadinthe_____________.2.AlocalAfghanrulerchallengedtheMughalrulerHumayunandkepthimawayfromthethroneofDelhiforaboutfifteenyears.3. To fulfil his imperialist ambition Akbar entered into matrimonial alliances with the_____________rulers.4.TheRashtrapatiBhawaninNewDelhiwasknownas____________duringBritishrule.5.Thepietraduraorcolouredstoneinlayworkonmarblebecameverypopularinthedaysof__________________.

4.5BHAKTIMOVEMENT

The Sufiswere not the only popular religious teacher of the time. Therewere also theBhaktisaints.TheirteachingsweresimilartothoseoftheSufisbuttheyhadbeenteachingfor a longer time. Theywere popular among the artisans, craftsmen and traders in thetowns.Thepeopleinthevillagesalsoflockedtolistentothem.TheSufiandBhaktisaintshadmanythoughtsandpractices incommon.TheiressentialbeliefwasintheneedtounitewithGod.TheylaidstressonloveordevotionasthebasisoftherelationshipwithGod.ToachieveallthisaGuruoraPirwasneeded.The Bhakti saints attacked the rigidity in religion and the objects of worship. Theydisregardedcasteandencouragedwomentojoinintheirreligiousgatherings.TheBhaktisaintsdidtheirentireteachinginthelocalvernacularlanguagetomakeitcomprehensibleeventosimpleminds.TheBhaktisaintsbelongedtovariousbackgroundsbutmainlyfromthelowercastes.

Manywereartisansbyoriginorbelongedtothelessprosperousclassofcultivators.Theystressedtheneedfortoleranceamonghumansandreligions.TheBhaktimovementwaslongknownintheSouth.TheideaofpreachingBhaktithroughhymnsandstorieswas traditionallydoneby theAlvarsand theNayannarsof theTamildevotionalcult.Youwillreadaboutthemlaterinthisbook.

GuruNanak

GuruNanakwasbornofaKhatrifamilyinthevillageofTalwandiwhichisnowcalledNankana.ThoughGuruNanakwas trainedinaccountancy,hepreferred thecompanyofsaintsandsufis.Sometimelater,hehadamysticvision.Helefthomeforthecompanyofsaintsandpirs.Hecomposedhymnsandsangthemtotheaccompanimentofthe‘rabab’,whichisamusicalinstrument.Hishymnsarepopulareventoday.Heemphasisedloveanddevotion for the one and only God. He strongly denounsed idol worship, pilgrimages,sacrifices and rituals as away to achievingGod.He demanded purity of character andconductasthefirstconditionofapproachingGod.Hebelievedthatanyonecouldachieveaspirituallifewhiledoinghisdutiesasahouseholder.

Figure.1GuruNanak

Ramanuja

RamanujawasfromtheSouthandhetaughtinthelanguageofthecommonpeople.HisdisciplewasRamanandawhotookhisGuru’smessagetothenorthernpartsofIndia.

Ramananda

RamanandawasbornatAllahabadandeducatedatVaranasi.Hepreachedatboth theseplaces.HewantedtoridtheHindureligionofitsevilcustomsandpractices.Hewantedpeople toknow that allmenwere equal in the eyesofGodand therewasnobodyhighbornor lowborn.His followersbelonged todiferentwalksof like.For example,Kabirwasaweaver,Sadhanawasabutcher,RavidasawasacobblerandSenawasabarber.

Figure.2Ramanuja

Kabir

KabirwasRamananda’sfavouritedisciple.LikeNanak,hecriticisedtheexistingsocialorderandcalledforHindu-Muslimunity.Kabir,thesonofaMuslimweaver,stronglydenouncedidolworship,takingpartinformalworshipsuchasNamaz,pilgrimagesorbathinginrivers.Hewantedtopreachareligionwhichwasacceptabletoallandthatwoulduniteallreligions.HeemphasisedtheunityofGod.HecalledHimbyseveralnamessuchasRama,Gobinda,HariandAllah.Youmusthavereadhis‘Dohas’or‘couplets’inHindi.Figure.3Kabir

ChaitanyaMahaprabhu

ChaitanyawasasaintfromBengal.HewasadevoteeofLordKrishna.ThoughhewasaBrahman he condemned the caste system and emphasised on the equality of all. Hewantedthepeopletoknowthattrueworshiplayinloveanddevotion.HeusedtogointoatrancesingingdevotionalsongsinpraiseofLordKrishna.

Figure.4ChaitanyaMahaprabhu

Mirabai

MirabaiwasanotherBhaktiSaintwhoworshipped,composedandsangsongsinpraiseofLordKrishna.LikeChaitanya,shetoowouldgointoatranceinherlovefortheGod.Figure.5Mirabai

Namadeva

Namadeva was a tailor. He wrote in Marathi. His poetry spoke of intense love anddevotiontoGod.

PopularityoftheBhaktiMovement

HowdidtheBhaktimovementbecamesopopularwiththepeople?Animportantreasonwas that they challenged the caste system and the superiority of the Brahmanas. Theywelcomed the ideas of equality and brotherhood which the Sufi saints also preached.Peoplewerenolongersatisfiedwiththeoldreligion.Theywantedareligionwhichcouldsatisfyboththeirrationalityaswellasemotions.

All theBhakti saintsemphasisedonenessofGod.Theysaid that thepath toGod lay indevotionandBhaktitoHimandnotinanyrituals.Theycondemnedritualsandsacrifies.Innorthern India, itdeveloped into twostreams,nirgunabhakti andsagunabhakti.Thenirguna bhaktas were devotees of a formless God even while calling him variously asRama,Govinda,HariorRaghunatha.ThemostconspicuousamongthemwereKabirandNanak.ThesagunabhaktasweredevoteesofRama,thesonofDasharatha,orKrishna,thesonofDevakiandVasudeva.SomeofthebestexamplesofSagunabhaktaswereTulsidas,who idolisedRama in his famousRamcharitaManas, and Surdas,who sang praises ofKrishna in his famous Sursagar. Raskhan, aMuslim poet, whowas a devotee of LordKrishna,alsobelongedtothistradition.The first important featureofbhaktimovementwas theconceptofonenessofGodandbrotherhoodof all humanbeings. It didnotdiscriminate against anyoneon thebasisofcasteorgender.ItssecondimportantfeaturewassurrenderintoGod,whoisallpervasiveandcapableofsolvingtheproblemsofthedevotees.ThethirdimportantfeatureofbhaktiwasanintensepersonaldevotiontoGodwithanemphasisonagoodmorallife.ItwasfeltthatchantingthenameofGodconstantlypurifiedthesoulandpreparedoneforHisgrace.Atruedevoteedoesnotwantheavenormoksha.HeonlywantstochanttheLord’snameandbebornagainandagaintosingHispraise.Inaddition,cametheguruorspiritualteacher,whosefunctionwastoprovidepeoplewithhope,strengthandinnercourage.Hewassupposedtobeapersonwhohadmarchedaheadon thepathof bhakti andhadprobably realisedGod andhencewas capable of leadingothersintoHim.Thisbroughtinasystemofpahul.Pahulwasthesanctifiedwaterofferedbyamaster to thepupilor shishyaas a tokenofhisbeingacceptedas a traineeonhismarch to godliness. The Sikhs performed “washing of the swords” ceremony, calledkhandekapahul,evolvingasthepir-muridicustom(thesaint-soldierconcept).HaveyoubeenabletonoticeheresomefeaturesoftheBhakti tradition,whichweresimilartothepracticesandideasoftheSufis?ThespiritofBhaktipervadedthewholeofIndiaandfoundvividandbeautifulexpressioninthereligiouspoetryofthemedievalsaintsandmystics,nomatterwhatreligiousfaiththey believed in. Their literary compositions, rendered into geet, qawali, etc united thepeople, asnothingelse couldhavedone. It also stimulated thedevelopmentof regionallanguages.

INTEXTQUESTIONS4.3

Answerthefollowingquestions1.Whatwerethetwomainstreamsofbhaktimovement?_________________________________________________________________

2.Nameanimportantnirgunaandsagunabhaktipoet._________________________________________________________________

4.6DEVELOPMENTOFFOLKARTS

Theruralmassesgotopportunitiestodisplaytheircreativeskillsinmanyfields.Severaloccasionsassociatedwithagriculturaloperations,forexamplethetillingofsoil,sowingofsaplings, picking of cotton, pulling out the weeds and many other social functionsprovidedopportunitiesforsinginganddancing.Doesthissoundfamiliartoyou?Yes,thefestivals and rituals you perform today have continued from the past with necessarychangesinkeepingwithtime.The advent of rains became occasions for dancing and merry-making. The gods wereinvokedandspecialpujasofferedinthetemples.Itwasalsoanoccasionforenjoyingtheswings.Similarly,ladiesontheirspinningwheelsaccompaniedbyotherladieswouldsittogetherandsingtilllateintothenight.ThiswasacommonsightinalmostallthevillagesinIndia.It is important to note that almost every region developed its own peculiar dance formwithalocalflavour.ThusGarba,Kalbella,Bhangra,Giddha,Bamboodance,Lavaniandinnumerableotherdanceforms,cameintoexistence.Today,someoftheseareperformedduringtheRepublicDaycelebrationsaswellasonotherfestiveoccasions.Formaleducationwasnotconsideredveryimportantforwomenbutthisdidnotpreventthemfromshowingtheir talent invariousotherfields.Theydisplayedtheircreativity inneedlework. In Rajasthan, girls came up with beautiful designs on odhanis, shirts andghagras.TheRajasthanisalsocreatedbeautifuldesignsoftieanddyeworkinfabricsusedboth by women and men. Even today, we find the people of Rajasthan as the mostcolourfullydressedinIndia.Theirlavishnesscouldbeseeninthewaytheydecoratedtheiranimals (horses, bullocks, camels and even elephants). In Punjab, the girls createdbeautifulphulkaris.InandaroundLucknow,cameupthechikanworkonshirts,salwars,odhanisandevensarees. Itappears that thedramatistsaboutwhomBharatamentions inhisNatyashastra(fifthcenturyAD)hadnotcompletelydisappeared.Thetamashaandthelavani formsof dancedramaweredeveloped inMaharashtra; thePandavanis in centralIndiaandMerasis innorthernIndiaappliedsuchart formswithslightmodifications.Soalsothepuppeteer,thebardandthemimemovedfromplacetoplace,entertainingpeoplein variousways. The acrobat and the juggler also could be seenmoving from place toplace.Insomeareasthemartialartsweredeveloped,whilewrestlinghasbeenpopularalloverIndiasincetimeimmemorial.

INTEXTQUESTIONS4.4

1.Nameanytwoimportantfolkdances._________________________________________________________________2.NameanyoneimportanttypeofneedleworkthatdevelopedinIndia._________________________________________________________________

4.7PAINTING

AnotherareawhichwasinfluencedbyIslamicculturewaspainting.HumayunhadspentmorethantwelveyearsinPersiaasarefugee.HebroughtpainterswithhimtoIndiawhenhebecametherulerofDelhionceagainin1555.FamousamongthemwereMirSayidAliandAbdusSamadwhonurturedthetraditionofpaintingmanuscript.AnexampleofitisDastan-e-AmirHamza,which has nearly 1200 paintings.The period alsowitnessed thefloweringofportraitandminiaturepaintings.However,what isamazing is thatsomeofthese painters tried to paint the classical ragas, thereby giving form and colour to suchabstractconceptionsasmusic.Seasonsorbaramasapaintingsweresimilarlygivenartisticforms.Canyou ever estimate the creativity of these artists?Nowhere else in theworldexceptperhapsinChina,artistshavetriedtopaintmusicorseasons.Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan continued to give patronage to these artists and as aresult, the Mughal school of painting continued to flourish. Akbar as a liberal rulerextendedhispatronage topainting.Healsoemployeda largenumberofHindupainterslikeDaswantandBasawanLal.Consequently, therewas a fusionofPersian and Indianstyles(ofpainting)duringhisperiod.TheEuropeaninfluenceonIndianpaintingtoowasnoticed.The Mughal school of painting reached its zenith under Jahangir who was a famouspainter.HiscourtwasadornedwithfamouspainterslikeUstadandAbulHasan.Mansurwasfamousforhisminiaturepainting.HoweverAurangzebduetohisorthodoxviewsandpoliticalpreoccupations,stoppedpatronisingmusicandpainting.Liketheirmasters,someprincesalsoextendedpatronagetopainters.Thus,besidestheMughalschool,theRajputandthePaharischoolsofpaintingalsoreceivedencouragement.Eventheupperclassesinsocietystartedpatronisingpainters.Asaresult,thehavelis(bigmansions)oftherichandtempleswereprofuselyembellished.ThesehavelisinRajasthanattractalargenumberoftourists even today. You can visit these havelis if you find an opportunity to visitRajasthan.TheMughalschoolofpaintingfromthesixteenth to theeighteenthcenturygaverise totheIndo-Persianschoolofminiatureart.TheMughalcourtpaintersintroducedlandscapes

togetherwithhumanfiguresandcostumes.WhentheycameintouchwiththetraditionalIndian styles, they became more natural. Signing on the miniatures as a tradition alsostarted.Artistswerenowemployedonmonthlysalaries.Theyillustratedsuch importantworksastheChangeznama,ZafarnamaandtheRamayana.

4.8MUSIC

The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan, patronised several musicians.Tansen, who adorned the court of Akbar, not only sang the classical ragas but alsocomposed new ones. It is said that Shah Jahan himselfwas quite a good singer. Thesemusiciansentertainedtheemperorsatdifferent timesof thedayandindifferentseasonswithappropriateragas.During the Turko-Afghan rule in India, a synthesis of Indo Iranian music had started.DuringtheMughalrule,itdevelopedfurther.ItisinterestingtonotethatAurangzebwasagainstmusic,butthelargestnumberofbooksonclassicalIndianmusicinPersianwerewrittenduringhistime.IntheNorth,adistinctschoolknownastheHindustanischoolofmusiccameintobeinganditsspecialitylayinproducingsweetandrapturousmelodiestosuit different moods of life. The ragas and the raginis were personified accordingly.Khayal, Thumri and Ghazal were also elaborated during this period. Tansen, was in asense the pioneer of this school. Similarly, in the south, the Carnatic school of musicdeveloped.However,ordinarypeople retained the flair for folkmusicand folksongs tocommemoratetheirlocalchiefslikeAlha-Udal,Dulla-Bhatti,Jaimal-Phattaetc.

Indo-MughalCulture

TheMughalrulersdiscardedtheAfghantitlesofSultanandstyledthemselvesasBadshah(emperor) andDin-e-Panah (protector of faith). Further, to evoke reverence among thesubject for the emperor, they started the practice of jharokha darshan ormaking publicappearancesthroughspeciallybuiltwindows.Theyalsoencouragedthecourtpracticeofsijda (low prostration before the kings) and concentrated religious and political powermorefirmlyintheirhands.

4.9RISEOFMODERNINDIANLANGUAGES

AnotherimportantdevelopmentduringthisperiodwastheemergenceofseveralmodernIndianlanguages.UrduperhapsoriginatedaroundDelhi.ItdevelopedasacamplanguageinthearmyofAllauddinKhiljiwhentheywerestationedintheDeccanaroundfourteenthcenturyAD. In fact, the states of Bijapur and theGolconda in theDeccan became thecradles ofUrdu literature. The language soon developed its own grammar and becameadistinctlanguage.

Astimepassed,itcametobeusedbytheeliteaswell.ThefamouspoetAmirKhusrau,who composed poetry in this language, also played some part in making it popular.Besides poetry, beautiful prose, short stories, novels and drama were written in Urduduring the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries. In the first half of the ninteenth centuryUrdujournalismplayedaveryimportantroleduringthestruggleforindependence.Along with Urdu, nearly all other modern Indian languages like Bengali, Assamese,Oriya,KhariBoli,Punjabi,Gujarati,Marathi,Sindhi,KashmiriaswellasthefourSouthIndianlanguages-Tamil,Telugu,KannadaandMalayalam–cametoacquiretheirpresentformanddevelopedduringthisperiod.

4.10NEWFAITHS

During thisperiod, twonewreligiousfaithsflourished inIndia.TheywereSikhismandZoroastrianism. To bring the established reforms within religion various reformmovementsalsostartedinIndia.

Sikhism

The Sikhs,whomostly belong to Punjab, form a sizable group of our population. Theorthodox Sikhs believe that their religionwas revealed byGod toGuruNanak,whosespiritenteredthesecondandthesubsequentgurustillthetenthGuru.GuruGobindSingh,ordainedtheSikhstotreattheAdiGranth,popularlyknownastheGuruGranthSahib,astheirGuru.But thestudentsofhistoryandreligionthinkthat theseedsfor thebirthandgrowthof this religionwerepresent in theBhaktimovement, in itsnirgunabranch.TheSikhsbasicallybelieveinaformlessGod,equalityofallmankind,needofaguruandthepahultradition.Sometimes, the gurudomwas conferredon the son and sometimeson the best disciple.Thefifthguru,GuruArjunDev,gavetheSikhsthreethings.ThefirstwasintheshapeoftheAdiGranth, which contains the sayings of five gurus and other allied saints. Thesecond was the standardised script for Gurmukhi in which the Adi Granth was firstwritten.And finally, the site and the foundationof theHarMandir sahibor theGoldenTemple and theAkalTakht atAmritsar, the highest seat fromwhere the dictats for theentireSikhcommunityareissued.Thetenthguru,GuruGobindSinghcreatedtheKhalsa,whichmeans“thepure”,in1699.Healsoordained theSikhs to take fivevows,namely,keepingofkesh (longhairandabeard), kangha (comb), kada (a metallic bangle), kirpan (a sword) and kaccha (anunderwearextendingtoalittleabovetheknees).Consequently,thesesymbolsbecamethedistinguishingmarksofaSikh.HefurtheraddedthatafterhisdeaththeAdiGranthwillbetheguruoftheSikhsandtheyhavetopayobeisancetothisholybook.Music has always been an important feature of Sikhism and they believed that throughmusiconecanattainecstacyorsamadhi.

Zoroastrianism

TheParsiorZoroastrianreligionwasfoundedbyZarathushtraorZoroaster,intheeighthcenturyBC.HepreachedmonotheismintheregionnowknownasPersia.He taught theworship of fire and the presence of good and bad in the form ofAhuraMazdaandAhuraMan.Healsotaughttheethicaldoctrineofkindnessandcharity.ThesedoctrinesareenshrinedintheZendAvesta.The Zorastrian religion spread over the whole of Persia and remained the dominantreligion till the eighth century AD when Muslims conquered this region. Most of theParsis migrated to different parts of the world. They also came to India and settled atNavsariinGujarat,andlateronspreadtoalmostallpartsofIndia.TheyhavecontributedalottoIndianculture.ItwasDadabhaiNaoroji,thefamousnationalistleaderandaParsi,whoexposedthehollownessoftheBritishclaimofcivilizingIndiaandnotexploitingit.Another outstanding figure, who belonged to this community, was Jamshedji Tata, apioneering Indian industrialist.He established an iron and steel industry in India in theface of the toughest competition posed by the British steel mills and yet continued toprosper.TheParseesalsoestablishedalargenumberofpubliccharities.Zorastrianismisnot a proselytising religion and no new entrants are accepted into its fold under anycircumstances.Thus, we can see that the cultural stream in India continued to assimilate all thenewcomers and the resulting cultural interaction gave Indian culture its characteristicmultidimensional,multilingual,multireligiousandyetcompositenature.

INTEXTQUESTIONS4.5

Fillintheblanks1._______________foundedtheKhalsaandfixedthevowoffiveKs.2.______________worshipthefire,believeingoodandbadandencouragekindnessandcharity.

4.11SOUTHINDIA

BetweentheninthandeleventhcenturiesAD,adynastyknownastheCholaswasrulingthe Cholamandalam region in Southern India. The Cholas developed a strong army,besides a powerful navy. Rajendra Chola is said to have conquered some Indonesianislands.Theyalsodevelopeddemocraticinstitutionsatthevillagelevel.EvenBuddhismandJainismflourishedinthisregion.Literature,finearts,sculptureandmetalcastingsofthehighestorderflourishedundertheirpatronage.Thefourteenthcenturysawtheriseofanewstatecalled Vijayanagara now called Karnataka. To the north of this state across theTungabhadrariverroseanewIslamicstate,calledtheBahamani,nowknownasAndhraPradesh.TheBahamaniandVijayanagarakingdomswerepittedagainsteachotherovertherichRaichurDoab.IntheCholamandalamregion,theTamillanguagewaspopular.InKarnataka,Kannada,inAndhra,TeleguandinKerala,Malyalamflourished,allhavingdifferentscripts.ItisjustpossiblethatoriginallytheentireregionspokeTamil,asitisaveryoldlanguage.Butbythe middle ages, the four languages had come to have distinct identities. However,between the fourteenthand the sixteenthcenturies,Vijayanagaraachievedgreatheights.Some foreigners, who visited these areas in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, havepraisedthekings,thetownandthepeople.TheremainsofVijayanagarafoundinHampidazzletheworldeventoday.DuringtheCholaperiod,Kanchibecameagreatseatoflearning.TheVijayanagarakingsalsobecamegreatpatronsofartandleaming.

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

TheearlyTurkishrulers(1206-1526)werecalledSultans,astheyweresupposedtoruleonbehalfoftheCaliphs.

TheMughalsreplacedtheSultansofDelhi.Theypatronisedmusic,paintingandarchitectureand they ruled India till 1707.Theyalsobuilt a largenumberofbuildings.

TheMughalempireweakenedanddisintegratedafter1707.Inthischaos,emergedtheBritishEastIndiaCompany,asapoliticalpower.

TheSufiswiththeirattitudeofpiety,tolerance,sympathy,andconceptofequalityhaddeepimpactontheIndianpeople.

TheBhaktimovement of fourteenth and sixteenth centuries developed into twostreams;nirgunaandsaguna.

The people developed their own regional and local folk traditions of dance andmusic.

ThemedievalperiodsawtheemergenceofUrdu.Thisperiodsawtheriseofthepresent-dayMarathi,Tamil,Telegu,KannadaandMalayalaminthesouthandAssamese,Bengali,HindiorKhari-boli,PunjabiandGujaratilanguagesin the

north.SikhismwasfoundedbyGuruNanak.GuruArjunDevfinalisedthepresentscript

ofGurmukhi,theAdi-GranthandthesiteofHar-MandirinAmritsar.ZoroastrianismwasfoundedbyZoroasterineighthcenturyBCinPersia.TheCholasconqueredpartsofBengalandIndonesia.Theyintroduceddemocratic

institutionsatthevillagelevel.

Kanchibecameagreatseatoflearning.Vijayanagara’s remains have been found atHampi inKarnataka. In theAndhra

region,flourishedtheBahmanistate.TheIndiansocietyatthistimewasdividedintofourmajorgroups-thearistocrats,

thepriests,thetownpeopleandthepeasants.TradeflourishedinDelhiasthecentreofallincomingaswellasoutgoingtrade.Islam had a great influence on the Indian society. There were two important

religiousmovementsduringthisperiod–TheSufiandtheBhaktimovements.ThemostimportantSufisaintswereChishti,Firdausi,andNizam-ud-dinAuliya.Somewell-knownBhaktisaintswereGuruNanak,Ramanuja,Ramananda,Kabir,

Chaitanya,MirabaiandNamadeva.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.DescribethepoliticalsituationofIndiainmedievaltimes.2.DiscusstheinfluenceofIslamonHinduism.3.ExaminetheroleplayedbytheBhaktimovementinenrichingIndianculture.4.WriteanoteontheriseofmodernIndianlanguages.5.DiscusstheriseofthenewfaithsnamelySikhismandZoroastrianism.

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

4.11.BeginningofHijiraera2.RozaisfastinginthemonthofRamzan3.TheSufis4.AbulFazl4.21.Khutba2.Shershah3.Rajput

4.Vice-RegalLodge5.ShahJahan4.31.NirgunaandSagunabhaktiarethetwomainstreamsofthismovement.2.NanakandKabir(anyone)Nirgunapoets,TulsidasandSurdas(anyone)SagunaPoets.4.41.Garba,Kalbelia,Bhangra(anytwo)2.PhulkariinPunjab,ChikanworkinLucknow(anyone)4.51.GuruGobindSingh2.Zoroastrians

5.MODERNINDIAThe history of our country can safely be divided into ancient, medieval and modernperiods.Theancientperiodstartedlongago,aslongashumanshavelivedonearth.Inanearlier lesson you read aboutwhat happened inMedieval India i.e. from about the 8thcenturyA.D.andlastedtill thebeginningof18thcentury.Now,weshall readabout theModernperiod inHistory.During the last twoperiodsyoumusthavefoundthesociety,economy,polityandcultureverydifferentfromeachother.Thesedifferenceswhichyoumay also call progress, developed, continued and increased at a very fast pace andhadverymuchmoredeeperimpactonourlives.You may recall that all those who came to India from outside such as the Turks, theAfghans,andtheMughalsmadeIndiatheirhome.ButtheBritishcolonialrulersalwaysremainedforeignerstothisland.Nonethelesstheybroughtprofoundsocial,economicandpolitical changes to suit their interests and in the process left deep imprints on manyaspectsofIndianculture.IfyouseetheRashtrapatiBhavaninNewDelhiyoucanhaveaclearpictureoftheBritishimpactonIndianarchitecture.Youseethepatternrepeatedinmanybuildings inKolkata,Mumbai and in severalotherpartsof the country.All thesehavenowbecomeapartofourculturalheritage.Apartfromthesearchitecturalremains,thecolonialstatealsoleftbehindauniformsystemofgovernment,asystemofeducationbasedonWesternideas,scienceandphilosophies.Itwouldbeveryinterestingforyoutoknow that the social and religious reform movements begun in the nineteenth centuryhelped to build amodern India aswell.Modern literature in Indian languageswere alldeeply influenced by the spread of English education and through it India’s intimatecontactwiththeideasandinstitutionsoftheWest.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

tracetheeventsthatweretakingplaceintheWestduringtheeighteenthcenturyandtheirimpactonIndia;

describetheclosingyearsofeighteenthcenturyIndia;

examinethesocialconditionsoftheHindusandMuslimsduringthisperiod;

listthecontributionsofsocialandreligiousreformerslikeRajaRamMohanRoy,SwamiDayanandaSaraswatiandothers;

appreciatetheroleofpressandnewspapersingeneratingnationalismamongthepeople;and

appreciateIndia’sstruggleforindependence.

5.1RISEOFTHEWESTANDITSIMPACTONINDIA

From1450onwards,threeimportantdevelopmentshadchangedtheshapeofEurope:(i)the inventionofprintingpress, (ii) thebeginningandthespreadof theRenaissanceandthe Reformation movements and (iii) the discovery of new trade routes. Thereafter,Europemadegreatprogressinthefieldsofscience,explorationandgunnery.Soon,theirarmies and navies became the best in the world. Scientific education began to spread.Logicandreasonthusbecamethetouchstoneonwhichtheolddogmasandlearningweretested.Among theseEuropeancountries, thePortugueseand then theDutch, theFrenchand finally, the British entered into a race to control the trade from India. The Britishultimatelysucceededinnotonlycontrollingtradebutalsothecountryandforabouttwocenturies India remained under her dominationwhere her entire human resourceswererecklesslyexploitedandherwealthwasdrainedawayforthebenefitoftherulingnation.To further their interest the British used the prevailing social and political situation inIndia.Where a large number of states had cropped up after the decline of theMughalEmpire.TheBritish tookadvantageof this situationandhadone ruler fight against theotherorsupportedausurpertothethrone.ThoughTipuSultanofMysoretriedtousethesameprincipleasusedbytheBritish,thatismakinguseoftherivalrybetweentheFrenchandtheBritish,hecouldnotmatchthesuperiordiplomacyandfirepoweroftheBritish.The British domination of India was built upon successive phases. The first phaseconsistedoftakingholdoftheIndiantrade.TheyboughtIndiangoodsatverylowpricesand sold them in the Western markets at very high prices, thereby making enormousprofitswithout giving anything to the peasants. In this, theywere helped by the IndianSethsandgomastas.

Inthesecondphase,theBritishtookcontroloftheproductionactivitiesinamannerthatwouldsuittheirexportobjectives.IntheprocesstheysuccessfullydestroyedtheIndianindustries.ThiswasbecauseIndiawasapotentialbuyeroftheirgoods.ThethirdphasewasanintensifiedphaseofBritishImperialismandcolonialexploitationwhenIndiawasruledbytheBritishforfulfillingBritisheconomicinterests.TheBritisherscametoIndiaformakingprofitsthroughtrade.Slowlytheygainedpoliticalandeconomiccontrolof thecountry.After theBattleofPlassey in1757A.D., theyhadbecome the realmasters ofBengal.Theyusedpolitical control overBengal to increasetheir trade and export of foreign goods. They eliminated the Indian as well as foreignrivals in tradeso that therecouldbenocompetition.Theymonopolized the saleof rawcottonandmadetheBengalweaverpayexorbitantprices.TheyimposedheavydutiesonIndiangoodsenteringBritainsoastoprotecttheirownindustry.WiththecomingoftheindustrialrevolutioninEurope,theIndianindustrieswerehitveryhard.By1813,theIndianhandicraftslostboththedomesticaswellastheforeignmarket.IndiangoodscouldnotcompetewiththeBritishfactorymadeproducts,wheremachineswereused.Ontheotherhand,theEnglishmerchantshadaccumulatedalotofwealthwhichtheynowinvested insettingup industriesand trade.TheEast IndiaCompanyhelped in financingandexpandingtheirindustrialbase.DuringthistimetherewasaclassofmanufacturersinEnglandwhobenefittedmore frommanufacturing than trading.Theywere interested inhaving more raw materials from India as well as sending their finished goods back.Between 1793 and 1813, these British manufacturers launched a campaign against thecompany, its trade monopoly and the privileges it enjoyed. Ultimately in 1813, theysucceeded in abolishing theEast IndiaCompany’smonopoly of Indian trade.With thisIndiabecameaneconomiccolonyofindustrialEngland.Asaresult,IndianhandmadegoodsfacedextinctionasBritishmachinemadegoodswerecheaper.Thesegoodseitherhada freeentryorpaidvery low tariff rates toenter India.Indiansweretobemodernizedsothattheycoulddeveloptasteforwesterngoodsandbuythem.TheIndianindustriessufferedasaresultofexploitationatthehandsoftheBritish,whodidnotatallcareaboutIndiantradeinterests.TheydidnotprotectIndiantradenordid they introduce any advanced technology in the country during this period. Indianhandicraftssufferedwhenforeigngoodsweregivenfreeentry.Ontheotherhand,Indianhandicraftswere taxed heavilywhen they enteredBritain. Indian sugarmills paid dutythreetimesitsoriginalpricewhensenttoBritain.SothetradefromIndiavirtuallycametoastop.India had become an excellent consumer of British goods and a rich supplier of rawmaterialsbytheyear1813A.D.

Since England wanted to exploit India for commercial gains, that is, by buying rawmaterials and selling finishedgoods, they introduced steamships and railways in India.The railways opened a vast market to the British and facilitated export of Indian rawmaterialabroad.Doyouknowthatitwasin1853thatthefirstrailwaylinerunningfromBombaytoThanewasopenedtopublic?Therailwaysconnectedtherawmaterialproducingareaswiththeexportingports.AsaresultBritishgoodsfloodedtheIndianmarket.Doyouknowthattherailwaysplayedanimportantroleinthenationalawakeningofthecountry,too?Theyhelpedtobringpeopleandideascomeclosertogether-somethingthattheBritishhadneveranticipated.Isn’tthisironical?Doyouknowthatitwasagainin1853thatDalhousieopenedthefirsttelegraphlinefromCalcuttatoAgraandalsointroducedthepostalserviceinIndia?

INTEXTQUESTIONS5.1

1.WhosucceededingainingpoliticalcontroloverIndia?_______________________________________________________________2.WhoamongtheIndianrulerstriedtousetherivalrybetweentheFrenchandtheBritishbutcouldnotsucceed?_______________________________________________________________3.HowmanyphasesoftheBritishdominationinIndiacanbeseen?_______________________________________________________________

5.2INDIAINTHE18THCENTURY:ECONOMY,SOCIETYANDCULTURE

Indianintheeighteenthcenturywasapictureofmanycontrastsandcontradictions.Economically agriculturewas themain occupation of the people. Since the rulerswereconstantly at war, they did not have the time to improve agricultural conditions of theland.Foreign tradewas flourishingunder theMughals. India importedpearls, rawsilk,wool,dates, dried fruits from the Persian Gulf region; Coffee, gold, drugs and honey fromArabia; tea, porcelain and silk came into India from China; luxury goods were alsobroughtinfromTibet,Singapore,IndonesianIslands,AfricaandEurope.Indianexportedrawsilk,silkfabrics,indigo,sugar,pepperandmanyotherthings.India’scottontextileswerefamousallovertheworld.

In spite of such a favorable balance of trade, India’s economic condition could notimprovebecauseofconstantwarfare.Withinthecountry,therewererevoltsoftheSikhs,Jats,Marathas and fromoutside, foreign invasions, like that ofNadir shah (1739A.D.)andAhmadShahAbdali(1761),werecommon.By the eighteenth centuryEuropean countries likeFrance,England,Portugal andSpainwereinterestedintradingwithIndia.Theyhelpedincreatingmorepoliticalandeconomicinstability in the country and ultimately they destroyed its economy. But, by this time,India’sfamehadspreadallovertheworldasalandofbeautifulhandicrafts.Socially,therewasnounityofpatterninthesocialandculturallifeofthepeople.WhethertheywereHindusorMuslims,therewasdivisionamongthemonthebasisofregion,tribe,language and caste.Caste ruleswere to be observed inmatters ofmarriage, diet, inter-dining as well as in choosing a profession. Any one found disobeying rules wasmostlikelytobethrownoutofthecommunity.In the field of science that India, which was so advanced, had by now neglected hermathematicsandsciences.Theyremained ignorantof theadvancesmade in the fieldofsciencebytheWest.Teacherwererespectedinsocietyduringthosetimes.Educationwassteepedintradition.Thestudentsweretaughtreadingandwritingalongwitharithmetic.Girlsseldomwenttoschool.Educationwas not patronized by the State, but by local rulers,members of thearistocracyandbenevolentcontributors.

Hindu-MuslimRelations

Friendlyrelationsexistedbetweenthepeopleofthetworeligions.Religioustolerancewaspracticed.Thewarswerepoliticalandfoughtforselfishreasonsratherthanforreligion.Membersofboththecommunitiesparticipatedineachothersfestivals.ManyHindushadfaithinMuslimsaintswhilemanyMuslimsshowedanequalrespectforHindugodsandsaints.Infact,theupperclassHindusandMuslimshadmanymorethingsincommonwitheachotherthanwiththelowerclassesoftheirowncommunity.Besides,theMuslimshadadoptedtheIndianstyleandculturesowellthatitwasdifficulttodistinguishonefromtheother.

5.3SOCIALCONDITIONS

Bytheturnofthecentury,theconditionofwomenhadlittletobehappyabout.Thebirthofagirlchildwasconsideredtobeunfortunate.Girlsweremarriedoffintheirchildhood.Polygamywaspermitted.Womenhadnorighttopropertyordivorce.Perpetual widowhood was the injunction of the society, especially amongst the uppercastes.Thesewidowscouldnotwearcolouredclothes,orattendmarriagessincetheir

presence was considered inauspicious. As child marriages were common in suchoccasions sometimes even the infant girls became widows and were condemned toperpetualwidowhood.Inter-castemarriageswerenotallowed.Eventheprevailingsocialsystemdidnotpermitapersonfromalowercastetoeatwithapersonofahighercaste.Theconditionofmuslimwomenwasmuchthesame.Theyfacedimmensehardshipduetothepracticeofpurdah,polygamy,lackofeducationandrightstoproperty.

5.4SOCIALANDRELIGIOUSREFORMERS

Christianpriests came to India alongwith the employeesof theEast IndiaCompany toperformtheirreligiousritualsatthetimeofbaptism,marriage,burialsandchurchservice.ButthesepriestssoonstartedpreachingChristianitytothenon-ChristianemployeesoftheCompanyaswell.Slowly theystartedopeningschools thatwereattendedby theIndianchildren.Itwerethesemissionaries,whoalsostartedtheprintingpressandmagazinesfordisseminatingChristianpreceptsandliterature.AlongwithChristian propaganda, English educationwas introducedwhich had a greatimpactonthesocietyandeconomyofIndia.ThoughthepurposeofintroducingEnglisheducationwas tofulfilBritishpoliticalandadministrativeneeds, itopenedthewindowsfor Indians to theWest.They imbibednew ideas of liberalism, rationalism, democracy,equalityandfreedom.SoonEnglishlanguagealsobecamethelinguafrancaoftheEnglisheducatedIndiansandactedasacementingforce.

RamMohanRoy

RamMohan Roy is known as the harbinger of themodern age in India.He masteredseverallanguagesincludingGreekandLatin.HisroleinreformingtheHindusocietyandthe reawakening of India is important.As a large number of social practices prevalentamongst the time claimed to have religious sanctions. Raja Ram Mohan Roy citedextensivelyfromthereligioustextstoshowthatthiswasnottrue.Theforemostinthelistwassati.Satiwasimmolationbyawindowonthefuneralpyreofherdeadhusbandwhichhadbecomeaselfpractice indifferentpartsofBengalandRajasthan.RamMohanRoytookupcudgelsagainst it andultimatelygot itbanned.He founded theBrahmoSamaj,whichcarriedhismessageofrationalismandtheprincipleofsocialequality.Hisfollowersbelieved in the worship of one supreme god (monotheism) and opposed idol worship,polytheismandritualism.DebendraNathTagore(1817-1905)succeededRajaRamMohanRoyastheleaderoftheBrahmoSamaj.HetriedtoputnewlifeintotheSamajandpropagatedRajaRamMohanRoy’sideas.

Figure.1RajaRamMohanRoy

KeshabChandraSen(1838-1884)tookovertheleadershipfromTagore.AllthistimetheSamajlaidemphasisonindividualfreedom,nationalunity,solidarity,democratizationofall social institutions and of social relations. The Brahmo Samaj became the firstorganizedvehiclefortheexpressionofnationalawakeninginIndia.

PrarthanaSamajandRanade

ThePrarthanaSamajwasestablished inBombaybyDr.AtmaRamPandurang in1867.Theytriedtointroducesocialreformslikeinter-castedining,inter-castemarriage,widowremarriage and improvement of the lot of women and depress classes. According toRanade, rigidity in religionwould not permit success In social, economic and politicalspheres.HebelievedintheunityofGodandde-emphasisedidolworshipaswellascastesystem.

RamakrishnaParamahamsa

RamakrishanMissionwasfoundedbySwamiVivekananda to regenerate Indiansociety.HewasadescipleofGadadharChattopadhyaya,laterknownasRamakrishnaParamhansa.

Figure.2RamakrishnaParahamsaVivekanandagavefinalshapetotheteachingsofRamakrishnaParamhansa.Headvocatedliberty,freethinkingandequality.Heemphasisedonenessofallreligions.Hepromotedthevedantaphilosophy,whichheconsideredtobethemostrationalsystemofthought.

TheosophicalSocietyandAnnieBesant

The reformmovement was also strengthened by the Theosophical Society founded byMadameH.P.Blavatsky(1837-91)andColonelH.S.Olcottalongwithothers.

AnnieBesantpromotedstudiesofancientIndianreligions,philosophiesanddoctrine.ShealsoestablishedtheCentralHinduSchooltoencourageeducation.Figure.3AnnieBesant

NarayanaGuru

NarayanaGuruwasagreatsaintofSouthIndia.HewasborninKeralainSeptember1854.Heunderwentperliminaryeducationundertheguidanceofalocalteacher.HebecamewellversedinMalayalam,SanskritandTamil.Hehadsethisheartonthepathofrenunciationrightfromhisadolescentdays.Figure.4NarayanaGuru

Afterhisparentsdiedhesetoutonhis journey inquestof trueknowledge.Hecame incontactwithChattambiSwamigal.Theybecamegreat associates.They spent their timeservingholymen,meditatinginsolitudeandmakingpilgrimages.BothSwamigalandNarayanarealisedthattheallroundprogressofKeraladependedonthegoodwill and co-operation among theNayar and theEzhava communities, inwhichtheywere born respectively.The conflict between these two communities threatened toruinKerala.Theydecidedtoworktobringthetwocommunitiestogether.NaranayaGuruwasasocialaswellasreligiousreformer.HelivedalifeofanasceticanddidmuchtoimprovethespiritualaswellasthesociallifeofthepeopleofKerala.

MuslimReformMovement

SirSyedAhmadKhanwas themostprominentsocial reformeramong theMuslims.Herealised thatMuslimscouldonlymakeprogress if they took tomoderneducation.SyedAhmad Khan was against religious intolerance, ignorance and irrationalism. Hedenounced purdah, polygamy and easy divorce. SyedAhmadKhan started theAligarhmovement.He established theMuhammadanAnglo-OrientalCollege atAligarh. ItwasmeanttobeacentreforspreadngSciencesandCulture.ItlatergrewintoAligarhMuslimUniversity.TheAligarhMovementhelpedintheMuslimrevival.Itgavethemacommonlanguage—Urdu. A Muslim press was also developed for the compilation of works in Urdu.Unfortunately,inhislateryearsSyedAhmadKhanencouragedtheIndianMuslimsnottojointheNationalMovement.Hefeltthateducationandnotpoliticswasneededbythem.Inawayheencouragedtheforcesofcommunalismandseparatismatthisstage.

SocialReform

Do you know that nearly all religious reformers contributed to the social reformmovement too? This was because the backward features of Indian Society, such ascasteismandinequalityofsexes,hadreligioussanctionsinthepast.Thereweretwomainobjectivesofthesocialreformmovements.Thesewere:(a)emancipationofwomenandgivingthemequalitywithmen,(b)removalofcasterigidities,especiallytheabolitionofuntouchabilityandtheupliftmentofthedepressedclasses.

EmancipationofWomen

ThemoststrikingchangeintheIndiansociallifeoftodayisthatinthepositionofwomen.AttemptshavebeenmadebytheStateandreformerstodoawaywiththepracticeofearlymarriagebylegislation.

Thewomenthemselveshavebeenzealousinmakingattemptstoimprovetheir lot inallpossibleways,likebetterfacilitiesregardingeducationandsocialabuses.Thereisnowagrowth of political consciousness among women. In 1930 the Sharda Act was passedfixing theminimumage formarriage forboys at 18 andgirls at 14.Doyouknow thatMaharishiKarvewasawardedtheBharatRatnaforhisgreatworkinthefieldofwomen’seducation? He started schools for girls, as well as working houses for widows anddestitutes.Soon thismovementgainedmomentumandmany schools andcollegeswereopenedforwomen.

StruggleagainstCasteSystem

ImmenseworkhasbeendoneinthisfieldbytheRamakrishnMissionandtheAryaSamaj.TheAryaSamajespeciallyhascontributedalottowardsitbytheirShuddhiMovement,thatisaformofpurificationbacktotheirownreligion.Figure.6ChampionsofthebackwardclasseswereB.R.AmbedkarandMahatmaGandhi.Ambedkaropenedmanyschoolsandcollegesfortheirbenefit.MahatmaGandhi,ontheotherhand,championedthecauseofuntouchableswhomhecalledHarijans.Heaskedfortemplestobethrownopentothemaswellasforequaltreatmenttothem.

Figure.7DrAmbedkarEventheConstitutionofFreeIndiahasgiventhelegalandconstitutionalsupporttothismovement.Untouchabilitywasdeclaredapunishableoffence.Butwestillhavealongwaytogotoachieveourcherishedgoalofasocietybasedoncompleteequalityandequity,asocietywhereallthemembers-menorwomencomingfromanysocialoreconomicbackground-arehappyandtheirneedsfulfilled.Andwewillallhavetoworktogethertobringaboutsuchasituation.

SwamiDayanand

SwamiDayanand’sgreatestassetwashismasteryovertheSanskritlanguageandtheVedas.HefeltthatthemyriadsocialandreligiousevilswhichhadcreptintotheHindusocietyoverthecenturieswereduetothelackoftrueknowledgeoftheVedas.Therefore,hechallengedtheHindusocietyontheissuesofidolatryandwomeneducation.Figure.8SwamiDayanand

In1875,hefoundedtheAryaSamaj.ItsmainaimwastopropagatethetrueknowledgeoftheVedasanddiscardallevilsthathadcreptintotheHindusocietylaterinitsname.Heopposeduntouchability.Hewassimilarlyopposedtopolytheism,avataravadaandritualism.Hissloganwas‘gobacktotheVedas’whoseauthorityheaccepted.For the first time in the history of India, the Vedas were printed in India under hispatronage. Personally, his most important work was Satyartha Prakasha (The Light ofTruth).In 1883, Swami Dayanand left his body after an eventful life. His followers started aDayanandAnglo-Vedic(DAV)SchoolandCollegeinLahore(nowinPakistan)in1886.This DAV movement has carried forward his work since then and now has over 750institutionsunderoneumbrella.Asaresultoftheworksofthesetwopioneersandotherequallywell-knownpersonalitiesand organizations like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Radhakanta Deb, the TheosophicalSocietyandtheAryaSamaj,alargenumberofpeopleineasternandnorth-easternIndiaweresubstantiallyawakenedandmanyofthesocialevilswerebannedwiththehelpoftheBritishers.

JyotiraoGovindraoPhule(1827-90)

Knownpopularlyas‘Jyotiba’,JyotiraoGovindraoPhulewasborninPune(1827)inalowercastefamilyofmalis.Accordingtohimtheonlywaytoimprovethelotofthelowercastesandwomenwasthrougheducation.SoheopenedaschoolespeciallyforthelowercastesandalsostartedtheSatyaShodhakSamajin1873.Hismainaimwastoseeksocialjusticeforthepeoplebelongingtotheso-calleduntouchableandbackwardclasses.RecognitionforthisworkcametohiminlateryearsandhewaselectedtothePoonaMunicipalityasamember.Figure.9JyotiRaoGovindaRaoPhule

PanditaRamaBai(1858-1922)

OneofthemostimportantnamesamongwomensocialreformersofthistimeinIndiaandmoreso, inMaharashtra, is thatofPanditaRamaBai.Afterherparentsdied, shealongwithherbrothercontinuedtotravelfromplacetoplace,givingdiscoursesonthePuranas.Consequently,her reputationasascholarandreligiousspeakerspreadfarandwide thatthe pundits ofKolkata also invited her to address the people of the city.Everyonewasastoundedbyher knowledge and elocution.Sopeople began callingher pandita, a titlebestowedonthelearnedwomen.In1882,RamaBaimovedbacktoPune.Naturally,shewasdrawntothePrarthanaSamaj,areformationsocietywhichwaspropagatingthemessageoftheBrahmoSamajin

Maharashtra.Here,shealsoconcentratedonimprovingtheconditionofwomen.In1890,shestartedShardaSadan,ahomeforwidows.MahadevGovidRanade,R.G.Bhadarkar,DadabhaiNaoroji,BehramjiMalbariwereotherwellknownpersonalities,whoworkedforsocialreformsinWesternIndia.

5.5PRESSANDTHEGROWTHOFMODERNINDIANLANGUAGESANDLITERATURE

In 1798, lithographywas invented. It used the specially prepared surfaceof a stone forprintingascript,apicture,ordrawing.Alargenumberofcopiesofthesametextcouldbeprinted in thisway. From about 1820 onwards, hundreds of pamphlets and bookswereprinted,whichcateredtotheneedsofthegrowingliteratepopulationofIndia.Itwasthebiggest boon which the West had conferred on India. As a result, by the end of thenineteenthcentury,thepresshadbecomeapowerfultoolforinfluencingpublicopinion.Sincethenewprintingpresseswerenotcostly,theirnumbergrewatafastpace.This,inturn, encouraged a large number of writers to produce literature in different Indianlanguages.TheiroriginalworksaswellastranslationsandadaptationsofoldIndianandWestern classics helped enrich our cultural heritage. This helped to bring about anawakeningoftheIndians.Weeklies, fortnightly journals and daily newspapers were published almost in everylanguage.AlthoughthetotalnumberofreadersofnewspaperswassmallascomparedtotheirnumberintheEuropeancountries,awholenewsetofnationalliteratureintheformofnovels,essaysandpoemsplayedasignificantroleingeneratingnationalism.BankimChandra’s Anandamatha, DinabandhuMitra’s Neeldarpan, Bhartendu Harish Chandra’sBharat Durdasha, Lakshminath Bezbarua’s works in Assamese, Subramaniam Bharti’swritinginTamilandAltafHussain’sworksinUrdustirredthemindsoftheIndians.

RoleofNewspapers

ThusbytheendofthenineteenthcenturythepressinIndiahadbecomeapowerfulandanimportantinstrumentforcreating,spreading,influencingandsharpeningpublicopinion.Consequently,thenewspapersplayedasignificantroleinthedisseminationofanti-Britishfeelingsbydiscussing,criticizingandcommentingongovernmentpoliciesandonmajorsocialandeconomicissues.Thishelpedinpromotingapan-IndianconsciousnessandingivingimportantpoliticaleducationtothepeopleofIndia.SomeimportantNewspapersBengal–TheHindooPatriot(English)–TheAmritaBazarPatrika(English)ModernIndia

Bombay–Maharatha(English),Kesari(Marathi)Madras–TheHindu(English),Swadeshmitran(Tamil)Punjab–TheTribune(English)–Kohinoor,AkhbarAm(Urdu)

5.6INDIASINCEINDEPENDENCE

Independent India can rightly be proud of her achievements too. One of the mostimportantachievementsofpost-independentIndiaisthelayingofasoundfoundationforasecularanddemocratic republic.TheparliamentarysystemofgovernanceadoptedsinceindependencehasstoodthetestoftimeandIndiaisthelargestparliamentarydemocracyin theworld today. Integration of the erstwhile princely states into the Indian union isanothermajorachievement.Thereorganizationofthestatesisstillanongoingprocessandnewstatesandunion territoriesarebeingformedasperneedsanddesireof thepeople.Economic planning has been introduced after independence to ensure the country’seconomicgrowthwithsocialjustice.Asaresult,Indiahasmadeconsiderableprogressinthe sphere of economic development, particularly in the field of agriculture and agro-basedindustries.Indiahasalsomadecommendableprogressinthefieldsofscienceandtechnology. In the high technology areas also she is fast catching up with the highlydeveloped countries. India’s voice is now heard with respect in international meetingsbecauseofherpoliticalandeconomicstabilityanddiplomaticstature in theregion.Theissue of India becoming a permanent member of the UN security council is similarlygainingwideacceptancetoday.

5.6.1NationalistMovement—TheBeginning

British imperialistic colonialism was the chief cause of India’s backwardness in everysphere.Indianswerenowcomingtorealisethistruth.ThepeasantsandtheworkersweretheworstvicitimsofBritishgreedandapathy.TheindustrialistsandthecapitalistswerealsonotsatisfiedwiththeBritishrule.Theintelligentsiaatthistimeplayedasignificantrole.TheywerethefirstonestorealisethetruenatureofBritishruleinIndia.Theirinitialhopethat theBritishwouldbebenevolentrulerswasshattered.Nowtheycouldseethatthe British were greedy and selfish, guided by sheer personal self-interest and that ofBritainingeneral.Bythe19thcenturyallIndianswereunitedinthat,theyhadallrealisedtheyhadacommonenemy—theBritishers,whowereout todestroyIndiafor theirownbenefit.TheBritishersdidhelpinbringingaboutadministrativeandeconomicunificationofthecountry.Theyintroducedthecommunicationsystemsofrailway,telegraphandpostas well as developed roads and motor transport, which contributed to this unification.Westernthoughtandeducation,thatcametoIndiawiththeBritish,helpedinarousingtheconsciousnessof theIndianpeople.Modern ideasofdemocracy,humanism,nationalismandsovereigntyof

thepeoplestartedguidingIndianstowardsnationalism.Thepressandliteratureplayedanequally important role in spreading nationalistic feelings. There were many patrioticwriterswhoinspiredthepeoplewiththeirwritings.Duringthe19thcenturyalsocamearevivaloftheancientgloryofIndia.ItwasspearheadedbysomeenlightenedEuropeans,who studied India’s past and brought out its depth and glory. Some eminent educatedIndiansalsocontributedinthisrevivalbyspreadingtheawarenessofitinthecountry.TheracialarroganceanddiscriminationonthepartoftheBritishrulersinIndia,theagitationoftheBritishersagainsttheIlbertBill,LordLytton’santi-IndiameasuresandtheholdingofthelavishBritishKing’sDurbarinIndiawhenmanyIndiansweredyingduetofamine—allledtotheintensificationofanti-BritishfeelingsamongIndians.Allthesebecamethereasons for the spread of nationalistic feelings in the country during the 19th century.These feelings took the formof anationalisticmovementwith the adventof the IndianNational Congress, started by A.O. Hume in 1885. The history of the Indian NationalCongressbecamethehistoryofthenationalistmovementinIndia.TheCongressdidnotachievemuchpoliticallyduring thisperiod, that is, in thefirst20yearsof its inception.Butitdidsucceedincreatingpoliticalawarenessandafeelingofunity.Thisphasecanbecalledaneraofmoderatesinthenationalmovement.TheformationoftheMuslimLeagueisconsideredtobethefirstfruitoftheBritishmasterstrategy of ‘Divide and Rule’. The British were happy that they had succeeded inseparating the 62 million Muslims from the Hindus. Thus arose the evil monster ofcommunalisminourcountry.

TheHomeRuleMovement

TheFirstWorldWarbrokeout in1914.TheCongressdecided tosupport theBritish. Itwas believed, especially by the Moderates, that the British would be obliged to grantfreedom to India after the war. But it was soon realised that this hope would not befulfilled as thewarwas being fought to retain colonies.Consequently, twoHomeRuleLeaguesweresetupduring1915-16.OnewasstartedbyTilakatPoonaandtheotherbyAnnie Besant at Madras. These Leagues aimed at the achievement of Swaraj or self-government.TheygavetheIndiannationalistsadefinitegoaltoachieve.Themovementavoidedviolentor revolutionarymethods.TheHomeRuleLeaguesworkedasauxiliaryunitsoftheCongress.

5.6.21905-1918Period

The period between 1905 and 1918 in our national movement is called the Era ofExtremists.TheExtremistscriticised theModertateson thesegrounds—failure todefineIndia’s political goals, using mild and ineffective methods and failure to make themovement a mass movement. The Extremists believed in direct political action and indemanding Swaraj or self-rule instead of constitutional reforms. The radical faction ofextremistswasledbythetriopopularlyknownas-Lal,Bal,Pali.e.LalaLajPatRai,BalGangadharTilak,and

BipinChandraPal,BankimChandra,SwamiVivekananda,SwamiDayanandaSaraswariandAurobindoGhosh inspired the extremist philosophy by their ideas and preachings.Curzon’s repressive policies in India, which culminated in the partition of Bengal oncommunallinesinorderto‘DivideandRule’,becametheimmediatecauseofagitation.TherewasanagitationagainstthepartitionofBengal.Themeansadoptedwere‘Boycott’of foreign goods and adoption of ‘Swadeshi’ or indigeneously produced goods. The‘Boycott’and‘Swadeshi’soonspreadandbecamecountrywidemovements.Allsectionsofthesocietyincludingstudentsandwomenbecameactiveintheagitaiton.Itbecameamassmovement.TheBritishgovernmentusedallkindsofviolentrepressivemeasurestosupressit.

5.6.3(1919-1934Period)

The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms introduced Dyarchy in the provinces with theGovernment of Indian Act, 1919. The Moderates welcomed these reforms, while theExtremists rejected them.TheRowlattActwas also passed in 1919 to supress politicalviolence.At this juncture appeared a new face in thepolitical arenaof India’s freedommovement.ThiswasGandhi,whofilled thevacuumcreatedin the topleadershipof theCongress.Gandhi had led themovement against discriminationmetedout to Indians inSouthAfrica.Hehadused thepoliticalweaponcalledSatyagraha (Truth force,orLoveforce,orSoulforce).HisfirsttriumphinIndiawastheChamparanSatyagraha.ThiswasthebeginningofthethirdphaseofthefreedomstrugglewhichcanbecalledtheGandhianEra.AmovementagainsttheRowlattActwaslaunched.ButGandhitookitbackbecauseviolenceerupted.Hewas strictlyagainstviolence.The JallianwalaBaghMassacre tookplaceinAmritsaronApril13,1919.Morethan1000peopleweremassacredontheordersof General Dyer. The KhilafatMovement started in November, 1919. The aim was topressurise the government to set right thewrongs done to theMuslims on the issue ofTurkey. The Khilafat Movement merged with the non co-operation movement underGandhi’s leadership. He issued a manifesto on 10th March, 1920 spelling out hisphilosophy of non-violent, non co-operation. He laid down an elaborate programme ofboycottofanythingBritishincludingjobs,courts,schools,colleges,functionsandgoods.A constructive programme included promotion of Swadeshi, removal of untouchabilityandpromotionofHindu-Muslimunity.C.R.DasandMotilalNehruplannedtobreakthesystemfromwithin thecouncilsunder thebannerof‘SwarajParty’.But it failedwithinthree years. Revolutionary activities were revived in 1922 and went on till 1934sporadically. Prominent revolutionaries included the names of Bhagat Singh, ChandraShekhar Azad, Rajguru, Sukhdev, Bismil, Ashfaqullah and many others. There wererevolutionarycommunists likeM.N.Roy,Dange,andMuzaffar.Somecommunistsweregiven long term sentences in theMeerut conspiracy case. The SimonCommissionwasconstituted in1919and sent to India for reviewing thepolitical situation. Ithad to facenon-violence but bitter protest demonstrations everywhere it went, as no Indian wasincludedintheCommission.LalaLajpatRaidiedofinjurieshereceivedinalathichargewhile leadingapeacefuldemonstrationatLahore.Anoutlineofaconstitution for IndiawasdrawnasNehruReportin1928.In

theLahoreSessionoftheCongressin1929,thesloganofPurnaSwarajasthegoalwasadopted;26thJanuary,1930wascelebratedasindependenceday.GandhiundertookSaltSatyagraha,popularlyknownasDandiMarch,on6thApril,1930.TheCivilDisobedienceMovementwentontill1934.InbetweentherewastheRoundTableconference.ButtheMovement had to be suspended. Gandhi retired from the Congress in October 1934.Gandhi tookup the causeof the ‘DepressedClasses’ and the ‘Untouchables’,whomhecalled‘Harijans’.TheHarijansSewakSanghwasestablished.

5.6.4AchievementofIndependence

In 1935, Government of India Act was passed. It evolved a concept of All IndiaFederation. Provincial Autonomy was introduced. Only 14 per cent of the populationcould vote. Separate electrolytes were provided for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians,Anglo-Indians and Europeans, among others. The Act discouraged the emergence ofnational unity, encouraging separation and communalism.TheCongress condemned theAct, but it decided to take part in the elections.Electionswere held in 1937.CongressMinisterswere formed in seven out of the eleven provinces. This brought relief to thepeopleinvariousways.SocialistideasgrewbothwithintheCongressaswellasoutsideit.ProminentCongressleaderslikeNehruandBosewerealsoinfluencedbysocialistideas.The British policy of divide and rule led to communalism. The British rulers startedplaying one community against another. They tried to stem the rising nationalism byappeasing the Muslims and inducing them to ask for privileges as ‘minority rights’.Communal electorates were aimed at the same target of dividing and Indians andweakening the national unity. As a result of communalism, the two-nation theory wasevolvedin1938andclearlyspeltoutbyJinnahin1940.Non-MuslimcommunalismneverassumedsuchseriousdimensionsastheMuslimcommunalism.Itwasratherareactiontothe latter. A session of the HinduMahasabha was held at Benaras in 1933. The AryaSamajestablishedbySwamiDayanandandtheShuddhiMovementundertheauspicesofthe Samaj were important movements for strengthening and purifying the Hinducommunity.Dr.HedgewarfoundedtheRashtriyaSwayamSewakSangh(RSS).Thiswasaimed at awakening and organising the Hindu people as well as imbibing in them anintensespiritofnationalism.The‘Shakha’techniquewasevolvedforthispurpose.WhentheSecondWorldWarstarted in1939, theCongressdemandedcomplete independence.TheCrippsMission,in1942offered‘DominionStatus’toIndiaattheendofthewar.TheCongress rejected the offer. TheQuit IndiaMovement for complete independencewaslaunchedbyGandhiandtheCongressinAugust,1942.MovementundertheleadershipofJaiPrakashNarainwerealsoactiveduringthisperiod.Themovement-bothviolentaswellas non-violent-failed, but theBritish realised that theywill have to quit soon. SubhashChandraBoseandRashBehariBose launched the Indian IndependenceLeagueand theIndianNationalArmy(INA),alsocalledAzadHindFauj,atSingaporein1943.WiththehelpoftheJapanese,theINAreachedtheIndianbordersandcapturedKohima.Buttherewas a reversal and Japan was defeated by the British Army. The INAMovement alsocollapsedwhileSubhashChandraBosewas

reportedkilled inanaircrash inAugust,1945.After theendof thewar,electionswereheldinIndiainthebeginningof1946.TheCongresswonmostoftheseats.TheCabinetMission came to India inMarch, 1946 to speed up the transfer of power to Indians. Itpublished its recommendationsonMay16.TheCabinetMissionPlanwas an elaborateonefor theultimate transferofpower.Therewasdisagreementon thePlanbetween theCongress and the Muslim League. In the course of events, the Viceory invited theCongerssunderNehrutoformanInterimGovernment.TheMuslimLeaguewasfuriousanditresultedincommunalriotsandalotofbloodshed.TheInterimGovernmentcouldnotdoanythingastheLeaguedidnotco-operateandstucktotheirdemandforaseparateMuslimcountry—Pakistan.BritishPrimeMinisterAttleeannouncedinFebruary,thePlanforthetransferofPowerbyJune1948.LordMoundbattenwassentasViceroytoIndiainMarch tomake arrangements for the same.TheCongresshad to accept thepartitionofIndiaduetomanypressures,especiallybecauseof thewidespreadcommunalbloodshedand the uncompromising attitude of the League and Jinnah. India became free on 15thAugust, 1947 after partition. At the stroke of midnight (14th-15th August) transfer ofpowertookplace.

INTEXTQUESTIONS5.2

1.Whatisthemethodofprintingdonewiththehelpofaspeciallypreparedsurfaceofastonetoprintascriptcalled?2.WhoistheauthorofAnandamatha?3.Whogavetheslogan“backtotheVedas”?4.WhendidJyotibaPhulestarttheSatyaShodhakSamaj?

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

Theeventslikeinventionoftheprintingpress,theRenaissanceandReformationinEurope led to thespreadof learning,whichencouragedpeople toquestiondogmas.

India’s contact with the West had positive effects, as this led to a number ofreligiousandsocialreformsthatchallengedsocialevilssuchasthesatisystem,childmarriage,denial ofwidow remarriage, illiteracy, female infanticide andthecastesystem.

ThefollowersofSwamiDayanand,agreatVedicscholar,foundedtheAryaSamajin1875andfoughtagainstuntouchability,polytheism,andidolatryandpleadedforequalstatusforwomen.

Theinventionoflithographyin1798wasamilestoneasithelpedtheIndianstosetupprintingpressesinmanycitiesandstartnewspapersandjournals.ItalsoledtoatremendousgrowthofthemodernIndianlanguages.

TERMINALQUESTIONS

1.DescribetheimpactofRenaissanceandReformationMovementinEuropeonIndia?2.ExaminetheroleofAryaSamajinthereformmovement.3.WhatwasthecontributionofDayanandSaraswatiinthefieldofeducation?4.Whatislithography?HowhasitbeenhelpfulinthegrowthofIndianlanguages?5.ExaminetheroleofRajaRamMohanRoyintheawakeningofIndians.6.WriteanessayonIndia’sstruggleforfreedom.

ANSWERTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

5.11.England2.TipuSultanofMysore3.Threephases5.21.Lithography2.BankinChandra3.SwamiDayanand4.1873

MODULE3.LANGUAGESANDLITERATURE

6.INDIANLANGUAGESANDLITERATURE-ISagarandSameerwenttoAndamanandNicobarIslandsforaholiday.Theyhadaverygoodtimeoutthereplayingintheseaandseeingsomanysmallislands.Buttheyfacedsomeproblemsalso.Theycouldnotunderstandthelanguagewhichthelocalpeoplewerespeaking.As a result theymissedout onmany things the tribalswouldhave told themaboutthemselves.Fromthisyoucanunderstandtheimportanceoflanguage.Languageisamediumthroughwhichweexpressourthoughtswhileliteratureisamirrorthat reflects ideas and philosophies which govern our society. Hence, to know anyparticularcultureanditstraditionitisveryimportantthatweunderstandtheevolutionofitslanguageandthevariousformsofliteraturelikepoetry,dramaandreligiousandnon-religious writings. This lesson talks about the role played by different languages increatingthecompositeculturalheritagethatcharacterisesourcountry,India.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

examinetherichliteraryheritageofIndia;developanawarenessofthevarietyoflanguagesandliteratureinIndia;listthedifferentkindsoflanguagesandliteratureinIndia;appreciate the diversity and the underlying unity among the languages and

literatureofIndia;andrecognisetheimportantcontributionofIndiatoworldliterature.

6.1INDIANLANGUAGES:THEROLEOFSANSKRIT

Eversincehumanbeingshaveinventedscripts,writinghasreflectedtheculture,lifestyle,society and the polity of contemporary society. In the process, each culture evolved itsownlanguageandcreatedahugeliterarybase.Thisliterarybaseofacivilizationtellsusabouttheevolutionofeachofitslanguagesandculturethroughthespanofcenturies.Sanskrit is themother ofmany Indian languages. TheVedas,Upanishads, Puranas andDharmasutras are allwritten inSanskrit.There is also avarietyof secular and regionalliterature.By readingabout the languagesand literaturecreated in thepast,weshallbeabletounderstandourcivilizationbetterandappreciatethediversityandrichnessofourculture.Allthiswaspossiblebecauseofthelanguagethatdevelopedduringthattime.Sanskritisthemostancientlanguageofourcountry.Itisoneofthetwenty-twolanguageslistedintheIndianConstitution.TheliteratureinSanskritisvast,beginningwiththemostancientthoughtembodiedintheRigVeda,theoldestliteraryheritageofmankind,andtheZendAvesta. Itwas Sanskrit that gave impetus to the study of linguistics scientificallyduring the eighteenth century. The great grammarian Panini, analysed Sanskrit and itswordformationinhisunrivalleddescriptivegrammarAshtadhyayi.TheBuddhistSanskritliterature includes the rich literature of theMahayana school and the Hinayana schoolalso. The most important work of the Hinayana school is the Mahavastu which is astorehouse of stories.While the Lalitavistara is the most sacredMahayana text whichsuppliedliterarymaterialfortheBuddhacaritaofAsvaghosa.Sanskrit is perhaps the only language that transcended the barriers of regions andboundaries.FromthenorthtothesouthandtheeasttothewestthereisnopartofIndiathathasnotcontributedtoorbeenaffectedbythislanguage.Kalhan’sRajataranginigivesadetailedaccountof thekingsofKashmirwhereaswithJonarajaweshare thegloryofPrithviraj. The writings of Kalidasa have added beauty to the storehouse of Sanskritwritings.Other great literacy works, which marked the golden era of Indian literature include‘Abhijanam Shakuntalam’ and ‘Meghdoot’ by Kalidasa, ‘Mricchakatika’ by Shudraka,‘Swapna Vasavadattam’ by Bhasa, and ‘Ratnavali’ by Sri Harsha. Some other famousworksareChanakya’s‘Arthashastra’andVatsyayana’s“Kamasutra’.

INTEXTQUESTIONS6.1

1.NamethemostimportantancientlanguageofIndia.__________________________________________________________________2.Whichistheoldestliteraryheritageofmankind?__________________________________________________________________

6.2THEVEDAS

TheVedasare theearliestknownliterature in India.TheVedaswerewritten inSanskritand were handed down orally from one generation to the other. Do you know thatpreservationof theVedas till today is oneofourmost remarkable achievements.TobeabletokeepsuchaliterarywealthastheVedasintactwhentheartofwritingwasnotthereandtherewasapaucityofwritingmaterialisunprecedentedinworldhistory.Theword ‘Veda’ literallymeans knowledge. InHindu culture,Vedas are considered aseternalanddivinerevelations.TheytreatthewholeworldasonehumanfamilyVasudevKutumbakam.TherearefourVedas,namely,the-RigVeda,YajurVeda,SamaVedaandAtharvaVeda.EachVedaconsistsoftheBrahmanas,theUpanishadsandtheAranyakas.TheRigVeda, SamaVeda and theYajurVeda are collectively known anTraji. In lateryearstheAtharavaVedawasincorporatedinthisgroup.

RigVeda

The Rig Veda is the earliest of the Vedas. It is a collection of 1028 hymns in VedicSanskrit.Manyof thesearebeautifuldescriptionsofnature.Theprayers are largely forseekingworldlyprosperity.ItisbelievedthattheserecitationsarethenaturaloutpouringofVedic rishis experiencing a mentally transcendental stage. Some of the well-knownrishis are Vasistha, Gautama, Gritasamada, Vamadeva, Vishvamitra and Atri. Theprominentgodsof theRigVedaare Indra,Agni,Varun,Rudra,Aditya,Vayu,AditiandtheAshwinitwins.Someof theprominentgoddessesareUsha- thegoddessofdawn,Vak - thegoddessofspeechandPrithvi-thegoddessofearth.Doyouknowthatmostofthehymnsspokeofuniversally recognised higher values of life such as truthfulness, honesty, dedication,sacrifice,politenessandculture.Theprayersareforseekingworldlyprosperityandforthedevelopment of a highly cultured society. Along with religion Rig Veda provides usknowledgeaboutsocial,politicalandeconomicconditionofancientIndia.

YajurVeda

Yajurmeanssacrificeorworship.ThisVedaisconcernedmostlywithritesandmantrasofdifferentsacrifices.Itgivesdirectionsfortheperformanceoftheyajnas.Ithasbothpoeticandproserenderings.Beingatreatiseonrituals,itisthemostpopularofthefourVedas.TherearetwomajorbranchesofYajurVeda,namelyShuklaandKrishnaYajurVedai.e.Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taitriya Samhita. This text reflects on the social and religiousconditionofIndiaatthattime.

SamaVeda

Samameansmelodyorsongs.ThisVedaconsistsof16,000ragasandraginisormusicalnotes.Outoftotal1875versesonly75areoriginalandothersarefromtheRigVeda.TheSamaVedaprescribesthetunesfortherecitationofthehymnsoftheRigVeda.ItmaybecalledthebookofChants(Saman).ThisbookisanevidenceofthedevelopmentofIndianmusicduringthisperiod.

AtharvaVeda

TheAtharvaVedaisalsoknownastheBrahmaVeda.Itcontainstreatmentforninety-ninediseases.ThesourceofthisVedaistracedtotworishiscalledAtharvahandAngiras.TheAtharvaVedaisofimmensevalueasitrepresentsthereligiousideasatanearlyperiodofcivilisation.Ithastwobranches,thePaippaladaandtheSaunaka.Thisbookgivesdetailedinformation about the family, social and political life of laterVedic period. In order tounderstand the Vedas, it is necessary to learn the Vedangas or the limbs of the Vedas.Thesesupplementsof theVedasprovideeducation(siksha),grammar(vyakarana),ritual(kalpa),etymology(nirukta),metrics(chhanda)andastronomy(Jyotisha).Agooddealofliteraturegrewaround these subjects. Itwaswritten in the formofprecepts in the sutrastyle.Apreceptwascalledsutrabecauseofitsbrevity.ThemostfamousexampleofthisisPanini’sgrammar,Ashtadhyayi,whichillustratestherulesofgrammarandalsothrowslightonsociety,economyandcultureofthosetimes.

BrahmanasandAranyakas

After the fourVedas, a number ofworks called theBrahmanaswere developed. Thesebooks gave a detailed explanation of Vedic rituals and instructions and deal with thescienceofsacrifice.ThelatterportionsoftheBrahmanaswerecalledtheAranyakaswhilethefinalpartsoftheAranyakasarephilosophicbooksnamedUpanishadswhichbelongtothe later stage of the Brahmana literature. Each of the four Vedas have their ownBrahmana books. Rig Veda had Kaushitaki and Aitreya. Taitteriya belongs to KrishnaYajurVedaandShatpathbelongstoShuklaYajurVeda.Tandav,PanchvishandJaimaniyabelongs to Atharva Veda. It is through them that we get a detailed information of thesocial,politicalandreligiouslifeofthepeople.TheArayankasdealwithsoul,birthanddeathandlifebeyondit.ThesewerestudiedandtaughtbymeninVanprasthai.e.Munisandtheinhabitantslivinginsidetheforests.AlltheseworkswereinSanskrit.Initiallytheywerehandeddownorallyandwereputtowritingmuchlater.ItisverydifficulttodeterminetheageoftheVedasandalsothetimetheywerewritten.MaxMullersaysthat theRigVedawascomposedbefore1000B.C.Whileaccording toLokmanyaTilakitappearedbefore6000B.C.

DistinctionbetweenSrutiandSmriti

Bothsrutiandsmritirepresentcategoriesoftextsthatareusedtoestablishtheruleoflawwithin the Hindu tradition. Sruti is solely of divine origin and contains no specificconceptsoflaw.Becauseofthedivineorigin,itispreservedasawholeinsteadofversebyverse. With sruti, the desire is more towards recitation and preservation of its divineattributesandnotnecessarilytowardsunderstandingandinterpretingtheoraltraditionlikethatfoundinsmriti.

INTEXTQUESTIONS6.2

1.Whatdoestheword“Veda”mean?_______________________________________________________________2.NamethefourVedas._______________________________________________________________3.Whatisthemeaningof‘Yajur’?Whatinformationdoesitgiveusofthosetimes?_______________________________________________________________4.HowmanymusicaltunesoriginatedfromtheSamaVeda?_______________________________________________________________

6.3THEUPANISHADS

The word Upanishad is derived from upa (nearby), and nishad (to sit-down), that is,“sitting down near”.Groups of pupil sit near theGuru to learn from him in theGuru-shishyaparamparaortradition.The Upanishads mark the culmination of Indian thought and are the final parts of theVedas. As the Upanishads contain abstract and difficult discussions of ultimatephilosophicalproblems, theywere taught to thepupils at the end.That iswhy they arecalledtheendofVedas.Vedasstartwith theworshipof themanifest,as that isobviousandthenslowlytransformtotheknowledgeoftheunmanifestTherearemore than200knownUpanishads,oneofwhich, theMuktika,givesa listof108Upanishads–thisnumbercorrespondstotheholynumberofbeadsonamalaorHindurosary.TheUpanishads forman importantpartofour literary legacy.Theydealwithquestionsliketheoriginoftheuniverse,lifeanddeath,thematerialandspiritualworld,natureof

knowledge and many other questions. The earliest Upanishads are the BrihadaranyakawhichbelongstotheSuklaYajurVedaandChandyogyawhichbelongstotheSamaVeda.Someof the other importantUpanishads are theAitareya,Kena,KathaUpanishad. TryandfindoutsomeotherimportantUpanishadsonyourown.ReadthemandyouwillfindawholenewworldofIndianphilosophyopeninginfrontofyou.TherearemorebookssellingontheUpanishads.Startwiththesmallstories.GetinterestedinthemandthangotothewholebookofanyUpanishad.

INTEXTQUESTIONS6.3

1.WhatisthemeaningofUpanishad?_______________________________________________________________2.NamesomeimportantUpanishads._______________________________________________________________

6.4THERAMAYANAANDTHEMAHABHARATA

OurtwogreatepicsaretheRamayanaandtheMahabharata.TheRamayanaofValmikiisthe original Ramayana. It is called Adikavya andMaharishi Valmiki is known as AdiKavi. The Ramayana presents a picture of an ideal society. The other epic, theMahabharata, was written by Ved Vyas. Originally, it was written in Sanskrit andcontained8800versesandwascalled“Jaya”orthecollectiondealingwithvictory.Thesewereraisedto24,000andcametobeknownasBharata,namedafteroneof theearliestVedic tribes. The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000, which came to beknownas theMahabharata or theSatasahasriSamhita. It contains narrative, descriptiveand didacticmaterial, relating to conflict between theKauravas and the Pandavas. TheMahabharataandtheRamayanahaveseveralrenderingsindifferentIndianlanguages.TheMahabharata contains the famous BhagavadGita which contains the essence of divinewisdom and is truly a universal gospel. Though it is a very ancient scripture, itsfundamental teachings are in use even today. In theBhagvadGita,Krishna explains toArjunahisdutiesasawarriorandprinceandelaboratesondifferentYogicandVedanticphilosophies with examples and analogies. This makes Gita a concise guide to Hinduphilosophy and a parochial, self-contained guide to life. In modern times SwamiVivekananda,BalGangadharTilak,MahatmaGandhi andmany others used the text tohelp inspire the Indian independencemovement.Thiswasmainlybecause theBhagvadGitaspokeofpositivenessinhumanactions.ItalsospokeofdutytowardsGodandhumanbeingsalikeforgetting

Figure.1PictureofKrishnaDrivingArjuna’schariotanddeliveringtheGita

abouttheresults.YouwillappreciatethefactthattheGitahasbeentranslatednearlyinallthemainlanguagesoftheworld.

INTEXTQUESTIONS6.4

1.NamethetwoancientepicswritteninSanskrit._______________________________________________________________2.WhoweretheauthorsoftheRamayanaandTheMahabharata?_______________________________________________________________3.IntheBhagvadGitawhatdoesKrishnaexplaintoArjun?_______________________________________________________________

6.5PURANAS

The Puranas occupy a unique position in the sacred literature of theHindus. They areregardednextinimportanceonlytotheVedasandtheEpics.TherearesaidtobeeighteenPuranasandaboutthesamenumberofUpapuranas.SomeofthewellknownPuranasare-Brahma,Bhagvat,Padma,Vishnu,Vayu,Agni,MatsyaandGaruda.Theirorigincanbetracedasfarbackas the timewhenBuddhismwasgainingimportanceandwasamajoropponentoftheBrahmanicculture.Puranasaremythologicalworkswhichpropagatereligiousandspiritualmessagesthroughparablesandfables.Theyhaveapotentinfluenceinthedevelopmentofthereligiouslivesofthepeople.ThePuranasfollowthe linesof theepics,andtheearliestPuranaswerecompiledin theGuptaperiod.Theyarefullofmyths,stories,legendsandsermonsthatweremeantfortheeducation of the common people. These Puranas contain important geographicalinformation/histories and deal with the mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynasticgenealogies.Thisperiodalsosawthecompilationofvarioussmritisorlawbookswritteninverse.ThephaseofwritingcommentariesonthesmritisbeginsaftertheGuptaperiod.AmarasimhatheSanskritLexicographer,statesthataPuranashoulddescribefivetopics;(1) Sarga (Creation) (2) Pratisarga (Secondary creation) (3) Vemsa (Geneology) (4)Manvantara(Manuperiods)and(5)Vamsanucarita(dynastichistory)

INTEXTQUESTIONS6.5

1.HowmanyPuranasarethere?________________________________________________

2.NameafewcharacteristicsofthePuranas.________________________________________________

6.6BUDDHISTANDJAINLITERATUREINPALI,PRAKRITANDSANSKRIT

ThereligiousbooksoftheJainsandtheBuddhistsrefertohistoricalpersonsorincidents.The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha andSouthBihar.TheBuddhistworkscanbedividedintothecanonicalandthenon-canonical.The canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets –VinayaPitaka,SuttaPitakaandAbhidhammaPitaka.VinayaPitakadealswithrulesandregulationsofdaily life.SuttaPitakacontainsdialoguesanddiscoursesonmoralityanddealswithDharmawhileAbhidhammaPitakadealswithphilosophyandmetaphysics.Itincludesdiscoursesonvarioussubjectssuchasethics,psychology,theoriesofknowledgeandmetaphysicalproblems.The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas are the mostinterestingstoriesonthepreviousbirthsoftheBuddha.Itwasbelievedthatbeforehewasfinally born asGautama, theBuddha practisingDharma passed throughmore than 550births,inmanycasesevenintheformofanimals.EachbirthstoryiscalledaJataka.TheJatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions ranging from thesixth century BC to the second century BC. They also make incidental reference topoliticaleventsintheageoftheBuddha.TheJaintextswerewritteninPrakritandwerefinallycompiledinthesixthcenturyADinValabhi in Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas,Chhedab Sutras andMalasutras. Among the important Jain scholars, referencemay bemade toHaribhadra Suri, (eighth century AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth centuryAD).Jainismhelpedinthegrowthofarichliteraturecomprisingpoetry,philosophyandgrammar.Theseworkscontainmanypassageswhichhelpus to reconstruct thepoliticalhistory of easternUttar Pradesh andBihar. The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade andtraders.AncientIndianliteraturecanbeplacedintwocategories:(a)Religiouisandnonreligiousorsecular.Religiousliteraturehasthe(a)fourVedas-RigVeda-theoldestoftheVedascontains1028hymnsknownasSuktaor“Wellsaid”.-SamVedacontains thehymns thataresungbyaspecialclassofpriestsat the timeofsomaSacrifice.-YajurVeda-containshymnsthatarerecitedatthetimeofordinarysacrifice.-AtharvaVeda-collectionofsongs,spells,magicalcharmsfortheevilspirits,etc.(b)TheBrahmanas-attachedtotheVedas.Theyexplainindetailthevalueandefficacyofsacrifices.(c)Aranyakas-aretheconcludingportionsoftheBrahmanas.(d)Upanishads-Meanttobelearntsittingneartheguru.(e)EpicsliketheRamayanaandtheMahabharata

(f)Buddhistliterature(g)Jainliterature

INTEXTQUESTIONS6.6

1.InwhichlanguagesaretheearliestBuddhistandJaintextswritten?_______________________________________________________________2.NametheTripitakas._______________________________________________________________3.WhatdotheJatakatalestellusabout?_______________________________________________________________4.NamesomeJainscholars._______________________________________________________________

6.7OTHERSANSKRITLITERATURE

We also have a large body of books dealing with various sciences, law, medicine andgrammar.TothisclassbelongthelawbookscalledtheDharmasutrasandsmritis,togetherknownasDharmashastras.TheDharmasutraswerecompiledbetween500and200BC.Theselaydowndutiesfordifferentvarnasaswellasforthekingsandtheirofficials.Theyprescribedtherulesaccordingtowhichpropertyhadtobeheld,soldandinherited.Theyalso prescribe punishments for persons guilty of assault, murder and adultery. TheManusmrititellsusabouttheroleofmanandwomaninsociety,theircodeofconductandrelationshipwitheachother.Kautilya’sArthashastraisanimportanttreatiseoftheMauryantimes.Itreflectsthestateof society andeconomyat that timeandprovides richmaterial for the studyof ancientIndianpolityandeconomy.

TheworksofBhasa,Shudraka,KalidasaandBanabhattaprovideduswithglimpsesofthesocialandcultural lifeofnorthernandcentral India in timesof theGuptasandHarsha.TheGuptaperiodalsosawthedevelopmentofSanskritgrammarbasedontheworksofPaniniandPatanjali.BoxstartFamousSanskritAuthorsoftheGuptaPeriodThe Gupta period was India’s golden age of culture and one of the greatest and mostglorious times.TheGuptakingspatronizedtheclassicalSanskrit literature.Theyhelpedliberally the scholarsandpoetsofSanskrit.Thisenriched theSanskrit language. In factSanskrit language became the language of cultured and educated people. Many greatpoets,dramatistsandscholarsappearedduringthisperiodandworksinSanskritreachedgreatheights.1.Kalidas:PoetKalidaswrotemanybeautifulpoemsandplays.HisworksinSanskritareconsidered thegemsofLiterature.Hewrotepassionateplaysandpoems.Hiswonderfulskill is exhibited in his poem Meghaduta, Ritusambara. Kumar Sambhavam andRaghuvamsha. His plays are Abhijan Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashi andMalvikaganimithram.2.Vishakhdutta:Vishakhduttawasanothergreatplaywriterofthisperiod.Hewrotetwogreathistoricalplayslike-MudraRakshasandDevChandraGupta.3.Shudraka:HewroteanexcitingplayMrichchhaKatikamortheToyCart.Itisagreatsourceofsocio-culturalconditionsofthattime.4.Harisena:AmongthegreatpoetsandplaywritersoftheGuptaperiodwasHarisena.HewrotepoemspraisingthevalourofSamudraGupta.ItisinscribedonAllahabadpillar.5. Bhasa: He wrote thirteen plays which echo the lifestyle of the era along with itsprevalentbeliefsandculture.BoxcloseTheKushanakingspatronisedSanskritscholars.Ashvaghoshawrote theBuddhacharitrawhich is the biography of the Buddha. He also wrote Saundarananda, which is a fineexampleofSanskritpoetry.India produced great literary works on subjects like Maths, Astronomy, Astrology,AgricultureandGeographyetc.BooksonmedicinewerewrittenbyCharakandonsurgerybySushruta.Madhavawroteabookonpathology.BookswrittenonastronomybyVarahamihiraandAryabhattaandonastrologybyLagdhacharyahadallachievedprominence.ThereisnonethatcancompetewithVarahamihirasBhrihatsamhita,AryabhatiaandVedangaJyotisha.

Thepost-medievalperiodinnorthernIndiasawtheriseofSanskritliteratureinKashmir.Somadeva’sKatha-sarit-sagarandKalhan’sRajatarangini are of historical importance. ItgivesavividaccountoftheKingsofKashmir.TheGeetGovindaofJaidevis thefinestpoemofSanskritliteratureofthisperiod,besidesnumerousworksondifferentaspectsofartandarchitecture,sculpture,iconographyandrelatedfields.

INTEXTQUESTIONS6.7

1.WhatisthesubjectoftheDharmashastras?_______________________________________________________________2.WhowroteRajatarangini?_______________________________________________________________3.NameafamousplaybyKalidasa._______________________________________________________________4.NameaworkbyJaidev._______________________________________________________________5.Nametheauthorofthebookonmedicine._______________________________________________________________

6.8TELUGU,KANNADAANDMALAYALAMLITERATURE

ThefourDravadanlanguagesTamil,Telugu,KannadaandMalyalamdevelopedtheirownliterature.Tamilbeingtheoldestoftheselanguagesbeganwritingearlierandproducedthesangamliterature-theoldestliteratureinTamil.

TeluguLiterature

TheVijayanagaraperiodwasthegoldenageofTeluguliterature.NachanaSomanatha,acourt poet of Bukka I, produced a poetical work titled Uttaraharivamsam.Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the greatest of theVijayanagara emperors,was a poet ofgreat merit. His work AmuktaMalyadais regarded as an excellent prabandhain Teluguliterature.EightTeluguliteraryluminaries,popularlyknownasashtadiggajasadornedhiscourt.Amongthem,AllasaniPeddana,theauthorofManucharitram,wasthegreatest.Hewas known asAndhra kavitapitamaha. The other seven poets of the groupwereNandiTimmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam,MadayagariMallana,Dhurjati, AyyalarajuRamabhadraKavi,PingaliSurana,RamarajaBhushanaandTenaliRamakrishna.Dhurjati, a devotee of Shiva, composed two poetical works of great merit known asKalahasteeswaraMahatmayamandKalahasteeswaraSatakam,PingaliSurana

composed two works Raghavapandaviyam and Kalapuranodayam. In the former, heattempted a literary feat telling the story of the Ramayana and the Mahabharatasimultaneously. Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester, was an interesting figure of theKrishnadevaraya’scourt.Hispracticaljokesonhigh-placedmenofthetimearerecountedwithpleasureeventoday.RamakrishnawastheauthorofPandurangaMahatmayamwhichwasconsideredoneofthegreatestpoeticalworksofTeluguliterature.RamarajabhushanawastheauthorofVasucharitram.HewasalsoknownasBhattumurti.His other works include Narasabhupaliyam and HarishchandraNalopakhyanam. It is apoeticalworkonthemodelofRaghavapandaviyam.OnecanreadinitstoriesofNalaaswellasHarishchandra.MadayagariMallana’sworkRajashekharacharitra isaprabandhadealingwiththewarsandlovesofRajashekhara,kingofAvanti.AyyalarajuRamabhadrawastheauthoroftwoworksRamabhyudayamandSakalakathasaraSangraham.

KannadaLiterature

ApartfromTelugu,VijayanagararulersextendedtheirpatronagetoKannadaandSanskritwriters as well. Many Jain scholars contributed to the growth of Kannada literature.Madhava wrote Dharmanathapurana on the fifteenth tirthankara. Another Jain scholar,Uritta Vilasa, wrote Dharma Parikshe. The Sanskrit works of the period includeYadavabhyudayambyVedanathaDesikaandParasaraSmritiVyakhyaofMadhavacharya.KannadalanguagedevelopedfullyafterthetenthcenturyAD.Theearliestknownliterarywork in Kannada is Kavirajamang written by the Rashtrakuta King, NripatungaAmoghavarsha I. Pampa, knownas the father ofKannadawrote his great poeticworksAdiPuranaandVïkramarjivaVijayainthetenthcenturyAD.PampalivedinthecourtofChalukyaArikesari.Inhispoeticskill,beautyofdescription,delineationofcharacteranddevelopment of rasa, Pampa is unrivalled. Ponna andRannawere twoother poetswholived during the reign of Rashtrakuta Krishna III. Ponna wrote an epic named ShantiPuranaandRannawroteAjitanathaPurano.TogetherPampa,PonnaandRannaearnedthetitleratnatraya(thethreegems).InthethirteenthcenturynewfeatswereachievedinKannadaliterature.HarishvarawroteHarishchandra Kavya and Somanatha Charita whereas Bandhuvarma wroteHarivamshabhyudayaandJivaSambodhana.UnderthepatronageoflaterHoysalarulers,several literary works were produced. RudraBhata wrote Jagannathavijaya. Andayya’sMadanaVijayaorKabbigaraKavaisaworkofspecialinterestinpureKannadawithoutthe mixture of Sanskrit words. Mallikarjuna’s Suktisudharnava, the first anthology inKannadaandKesirja’sShabdamanidarpanaongrammarare twootherstandardworks intheKannadalanguage.Kannadaliteratureflourishedconsiderablybetweenthefourteenthandsixteenthcenturiesunder the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings. Poets of all religious groups madeimportant contribution to it. Kunura Vyasa wrote Bharata and Narahari wrote TaraveRamayana.

This is thefirstRamaKatha inKannadacomposedon thebasisofValmikisRamayana.LakshamishawholivedintheseventeenthcenturywroteJaiminiBharataandearned thetitledofKamata-Karicutavana-Chaitra(thespringoftheKarnatakamangogrove).The other eminent poet of this period was the great Sarvajna, popularly known as thepeople’s poet. His aphoristic tripadi (three-lined) compositions serve as a source ofwisdom and ethics. A special mention may be made of Honnamma, perhaps the firstoutstandingpoetess inKannada.HerHadibadeyaDharma (DutyofaDevoutWife) is acompendiumofethics.

MalayalamLiterature

Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas. The language of MalayalamemergedaroundtheeleventhcenturyAD.ByfifteenthcenturyMalayalamwasrecognizedasanindependentlanguage.BhasaKautilya, a commentary onArthashastraandKokasandisan are two greatworks.Rama Panikkar and Ramanuj an Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalamliterature. Though it developed much later compared to other South Indian languages,Malayalamhasmadeamarkasapowerfulmediumofexpression.Nowalargenumberofjournals,newspapersandmagazinesarepublishedinMalayalam.Whenpeoplereadandwriteintheirownlanguage,theyenjoyitmore.Thisisbecauselanguageisapartoftheirculture. It is sowell interwoven in their social life that theycanexpress and feel theiremotions aswell in theirown language.This,must alsobe the casewithyouandyourlanguagealso.

6.9TAMILORSANGAMALITERATURE

Tamil as awritten languagewas known since the beginning of the Christian era. It is,therefore,nowonderthatconsiderableSangamaliteraturewasproducedintheearlyfourcenturiesoftheChristianera,althoughitwasfinallycompiledby600AD.PoetswhointheseassemblieswerepatronisedbykingsandchieftainsproducedtheSangamaliteratureover a period of three to four centuries. Poets, bards and writers, authors came fromvariouspartsofSouthIndiatoMadurai.Suchassemblieswerecalled“Sangamas”,andtheliteratureproducedintheseassemblieswascalled“Sangamaliterature”.ThecontributionsofTamilsaintslikeThiruvalluvarwhowrote‘Kural’whichhasbeentranslatedintomanylanguagesarenoteworthy.TheSangamaliteratureisacollectionoflongandshortpoemscomposedbyvariouspoetsinpraiseofnumerousheroesandheroines.Theyaresecularinnatureandofaveryhighquality.Threesuchsangamswereheld.Thepoemscollectedinthe first sangam have been lost. In the second Sangam about 2000 poems have beencollected.There are about 30,000 lines of poetry, which are arranged in eight anthologies calledEttuttokoi.Therearetwomaingroups–thePatinenkilKanakku(theeighteenlower

collections)andPattupattu (the ten songs).The former isgenerallyassumed tobeolderthan the latter,andconsidered tobeofmorehistorical importance.Thiruvallurar’swork‘Kural’isdividedintothreeparts.Thefirstpartdealswiththeepics,thesecondpartwithpolityandgovernmentandthethirdpartwithlove.Besides the Sangama texts, we have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals withgrammar and poetry. In addition, we have the twin epics of Silappadikaram andManimekalai. These two were composed around the sixth century AD. The first isconsideredasthebrightestgemofTamilliteratureanddealswithalovestory.ThesecondepicwaswrittenbyagrainmerchantofMadurai.Theseepics throw lighton thesocio-economiclifeofTamilsfromsecondcenturytosixthcenturyAD.From the 6th to 12th century AD, the Tamil devotional poems written by Nayanmars(saints who sang in praise of Shaivism) and Alvars herald the great Bhakti movementwhichengulfedtheentireIndiansub-continent.Duringthisperiod,KambaramayanamandPeriyaPuranamweretwoTamilliteraryclassicwriters.

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

Heritage is the sum total of intellectual treasure that is passed on from onegenerationtotheother.

SanskritisthemostancientlanguageofIndia.RigVedaistheoldestandtherichestliteraryheritageofmankind.TheUpanishadshaveinfluencedthegreatestphilosophersoftheworld.Ourepics, theRamayanaand theMahabharatastilldominate thesocialethosof

ourcountry.ThePuranasprovidetheguidinglighttothemasses.Jainism laid emphasis on good conduct and morality and preaches ahimsa,

truthfulnessandausterity.Jatakatalesareaninvaluablesourceofknowingthethoughtsandlivesof thepeopleduringthatperiod.Buddhistsanghasbecamecentresofgreatlearning.

Thereareinvaluableancienttreatisesonlaw,politicalscience,medicine,surgery,biology,chemistry,andarchitecture.

TamilliteratureisfamousasSangamaliterature.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.“SanskritistherootofmanyIndianlanguages”.Explain.

2.DiscusstheimportanceoftheUpanishads.3.MakealistoftwoBuddhistandJainliteraturesandthanwriteabouttwooftheirworkswhichyoufindinteresting.4.Writeashortnoteonthefollowing:(i)Sangamaliterature(ii)TheVedas5.WhatisthestorybehindthetwinepicsofSilappadikaramandManimekalai?6.WhatistheuniquefeatureofTarave’sRamayana?

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

6.11.Sanskrit2.RigVeda6.21.Knowledge2.RigVeda,YajurVeda,SamaVeda,AtharvaVeda3.Itmeanssacrificeandworship.SocialandreligiousconditionofIndiaatthattime.4.Sixteenthousand6.31.UpanishadmeanstositneartheGuru.2.Aitareya,Kena,Katha,BrihadaranyakaandChhandogya3. Krishna tells Arjun about his duties as a warrior and elaborates on differentphilosophieswithexamplesandanalogies.6.41.TheRamayanaandtheMahabharata2.ValmikiandVedVyas6.51.Thereare18Puranasand18Upapuranas.2.ThePuranasdealwiththemysteriesofcreation,recreationdynasticgenealogies.

6.61.PaliandPrakrit2.VinayaPitaka,SuttaPitakaandAbhidhammaPitaka3.PreviousbirthsofLordBuddhawhereinhepracticedDharma.4.TwoimportantJainscholarsareHaribhadraSuri(eighthcenturyAD)andHemchandraSuri(twelfthcenturyAD)6.71.Law2.Kalhan3.AbhigyanaShakuntalam4.GeetGovinda5.Charak

7.INDIANLANGUAGESANDLITERATURE-IIRichnessofanyculturecanbeenseenandappreciatedbutwhenitcomestolanguageandliteratureitistobereadandheard.Wehavetoappreciateandtakeprideinthisparticularaspectofourculture.Wemustmakeitapointtoreadasmanybookswritenduringthosetimesasitwillhelpustounderstandsomanythingsthathappenedinthosetimes.Itwillhelpustoreadmorebooksandbecomefamiliarwithsomanythingsthatourhappeningaround us today. In this lessonwewill learn about the development ofmodern Indianlanguages and their literature.Wewill also read about the role played by theChristianmissionaries in producing the earliest dictionaries and grammar of modern Indianlanguages and themanner inwhich these have helped in the growth ofmodern Indianliterature.Besidesthese,weshallalsogettoknowtheroleoftheBhaktimovementandnationalisminthedevelopmentofmodernIndianliterature.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

tracethedevelopmentofmodernIndianlanguages;examinetherelationshipbetweensocio-culturalchangesintheIndiansocietyand

theliteratureindifferentIndianlanguages;illustratetheunityandtheunderlyingdiversityintheIndianlanguagesandtheir

literature;andexaminethecontributionofIndianlanguagesandtheirliteratureintherenaissance

ofIndiansociety.

7.1NORTHERNINDIANLANGUAGES&LITERATURE

We have already seen how languages evolved in India right upto the early medievalperiod.Theoldapabhramshahadtakennewformsinsomeareasorwasintheprocessofevolving intootherforms.These languageswereevolvingat twolevels: thespokenandthewritten language.The oldBrahmi script of theAshoka days had undergone a greatchange. The alphabets during Ashoka’s periodwere uneven in size but by the time ofHarsha,thelettershadbecomeofthesamesizeandwereregular,presentingthepictureofacultivatedhand.ThestudieshaveindicatedthatallthescriptsofpresentnorthernIndianlanguages,exceptthatofUrdu,havehadtheirorigininoldBrahmi.Alongandslowprocesshadgiventhemthis shape. If we compare the scripts of Gujarati, Hindi and Punjabi, we can easilyunderstandthischange.Asforthespokenword,thereareover200languagesordialectsspokeninIndiaatpresent.Somearewidelyusedwhileothersarelimitedtoaparticulararea.Outofallthese,onlytwenty-twohavefoundtheirwayintoourConstitution.AlargenumberofpeoplespeakHindiinitsdifferentformsthatincludeBrajBhasha,andAvadhi (spoken in Oudh region), Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili (spoken aroundMithila), and Rajasthani and Khadi Boli (spoken around Delhi). Rajasthani is anothervariant or dialect ofHindi. This classification has beenmade on the basis of literatureproduced by great poets over a length of time. Thus, the language used by Surdas andBihari has been given the name of Braj Bhasha; that used by Tulsidas in theRamacharitamanasa is calledAvadhi and the one used byVidyapatihas been termed asMaithili.ButHindi,asweknowit today is theonecalledKhadiBoli.ThoughKhusrauhas used Khadi Boli in his compositions in the thirteenth century its extensive use inliteraturebeganonlyinthenineteenthcentury.ItevenshowssomeinfluenceofUrdu.

7.2PERSIANANDURDU

Urduemergedasanindependentlanguagetowardstheendofthe4thcenturyAD.Arabicand Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the Turks and theMongols.Persianremainedthecourtlanguageformanycenturies.UrduasalanguagewasbornoutoftheinteractionbetweenHindiandPersian.After the conquest ofDelhi (1192), theTurkish people settled in this region.Urduwasbornoutoftheinteractionofthesesettlersandsoldiersinthebarrackswiththecommonpeople. Originally it was a dialect but slowly it acquired all the features of a formallanguagewhentheauthorsstartedusingPersianscript.ItwasfurthergivenanimpetusbyitsuseinBahamanistatesofAhmadnagar,Golkunda,BijapurandBerar.Hereitwasevencalleddakshiniordaccani(southern).Astimepassed,itbecamepopularwiththemassesofDelhi.

Urdubecamemorepopularintheearlyeighteenthcentury.PeopleevenwroteaccountsoflaterMughals in Urdu. Gradually it achieved a status where literature-both poetry andprose-startedbeingcomposedinit.ThelastMughalEmperorBahadurShahZafarwrotepoetryinit.SomeofhiscoupletshavebecomequitewellknownintheHindiandUrduspeakingareas.Urduwas given its pride of place by a large number of poetswho have left inimitablepoetry forposterity.TheearliestUrdupoet is supposed tobeKhusrau (1253-1325).HestartedwritingasapoetinthereignofSultanBalbanandwasafollowerofNizamud-dinAuliya.Heissaidtohavecomposedninty-nineworksonseparatethemesandnumerousverses of poetry. Among the importantworks composed by him are LailaMajnun andAyina-I-Sikandari dedicated to Alau-din-Khalji. Among other well-known poets areGhalib,Zauq,andIqbal.Iqbal’sUrdupoetryisavailable inhiscollectioncalledBang-i-dara. His Sarejahan se achcha Hindostan hamara is sung and played at many of thenationalcelebrations in India.Noarmyparade isconsideredcompletewithout thearmybandplayingthistune.InbigIndiancitieslikeDelhithesearemanyprogrammesinwhichfamoussingersareinvitedtosingnazamsorGhazalswrittenbyfamouspoetslikeGhalib,Maum,BulleyShah,WarisShahbesidesmanyothers.Soyoucanimaginehowrichourlanguage and literary culturemust have been to continue till today. It has enriched ourlivesandiscentraltopeoplemeetingandinterminglingwitheachother.AmongthebestprosewriterswerepeoplelikePanditRatanNathSarshar,whowrotethefamousFasanah-i-Azad.Evenintheearlydays,MunshiPremChand,whoissupposedtobeadoyenofHindiliterature,wroteinUrdu.Urduhasgivenusanewformofpoemthatiscalledanazm.UrduwaspatronisedbytheNawabsofLucknow,whoheldsymposiumsinthis language.Slowlyitbecamequitepopular.PakistanhasadoptedUrduasthestatelanguage.Boxstart

DevelopmentofLiteratureduringtheMughalPeriod

Therewasa tremendousdevelopment in thefieldof literatureduring theMughal times.Babar and Humauan were lovers of literature. Baber was himself a great scholar ofPersian. He wrote a book known as Tuzek-e-Babari which is highly esteemed by theTurkishLiterature.HumayungotthetreatisetranslatedintoArabic.HetoowasaloveroflearningandhadestablihsedabigLibrary.HumayunNama,topsthebookswritteninhistimes.Akbar was very fond of leaning. ‘Akbar Nama’, Sur Sagar, Ram Charitamanas areprominentamongthebookswrittenduringhistime.MalikMuhammadJayasisPadmavatandKeshav’sRamChandrikawerealsowrittenduringthesameperiod.Jahangirgreatlypatronized literature.Many scholars adorned his court.He toowas a scholar of a highcaliberandwrotehislifestory.DuringShahJahan’stimetherewasawell-knownscholarnamedAbdulHameedLahori.HewroteBadshahNama.The literary activities sufferedduringAurangzeb’stime.Boxclose

BoxstartUrduliteraturestarteddevelopingduringthelastdaysoftheMughalemperor.Thiscreditgoes to Sir SayyidAhmedKhan andMirzaGalib. The language of Sir SayyidAhmedKhanwas very simple and impressive.His compositions inspired the other urduwriterMirzaGalib,whowasa famouspoetofhis time.Hemadean importantcontribution toupliftUrdupoetry.Thereweresomeotherwritersalsowhotookinterest inUrdupoetryand enriched theUrdu literature.MaulviAltabHussainAli, Akbar Allahabadi and Dr.MohammedIqbalaresomefamousnames.BoxcloseAsPersianwas the languageof thecourt,muchof the literatureproducedin thisperiodwaswritten inPersian.AmirKhusrau andAmirHasanDehelviwrote superb poetry inPersian.HistorianslikeMinhas-us-SirajandZiaBaraniandIbnBatutawhocametoIndiaduringthosedayswroteaccountsofrulers,importantpoliticaleventsandincidentsinthislanguage. In the medieval period, Persian was adopted as the court language. Severalhistorical accounts, administrative manuals and allied literature in this language havecomedowntous.Themughal rulersweregreatpatronsof leaningand literature.Babarwrote his tuzuk (autobiography) in Turkish language, but his grandson Akbar got ittranslated intoPersian.Akbarpatronizedmany scholars.HegotMahabharata translatedintoPersian.Jahangir’s autobiography (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri) is in Persian and is a uniquepieceofliterature.ItissaidthatNoorjahanwasanaccomplishedPersianpoetess.QuiteafairamountofPersianliteraturehasbeenproducedbythecourtiersoftheMughals.AbulFazl’sAkbarnamah andAin-e-Akbari is a fine piece of literature. From therewe get agooddealofinformationaboutAkbarandhistimes.FaiziwrotebeautifulPersianpoetry.SeveralcollectionsoflettersoftheMughalperiod(insha)havecomedowntous.BesidessheddinglightonMughalhistory,theyindicatedifferentstylesofletterwriting.AnothernameinproseandhistorywritingisthatofChandraBhan,awriterofShahjahan’sdays.Similarly, we have a work named Tabqat-i-Alamgiri, shedding light on Aurangzeb.BadauniwasanotherwriterwhobelongedduringAkbar’stime.Inthetwentiethcentury,IqbalwrotegoodPersianpoetry.All thishasnowbecomeapartof Indianheritageandculture.BoxstartAmongthenotedHindupoetsofthisperiodwereKabir,Tulsidas,SurdasandRahim. Kabirs dohas are still so popular today while Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas hasbecomethemostsacredbookoftheHindus.Behari’sSatsaiwrittenduringAkbar’sreignisvery famous.AlankarashekharabyKeshavMishrawasproduced inAkbar’s court. ItwasagreatSanskritworkon thestylesofwriting.AkbaralsogotmanySanskritbookslikeBhagwadGitaandUpanishadstranslatedintoPersian.

INTEXTQUESTIONS7.1

1.WhatarethevariousformsofHindilanguage?

2.WhichlanguageisusedbyTulsidasforRamcharitmanas?____________________________________________________________________3.HowdidUrdulanguagecameintouseinIndia?____________________________________________________________________4.WhichcoutryhasUrduasastatelanguage?____________________________________________________________________5.WhatisUrdulanguagecalledinDeccan?____________________________________________________________________

7.3HINDILITERATURE

These was a tremendous growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Assamese,Oriya,Marathi and Gujarati during this time. In the South,Malayalam emerged as anindependentlanguageinthe14thcenturyTheemergenceofalltheselanguagesresultedinthe decline of Sanskrit as they came to be used as the medium through which theadministrative machinery functioned. The rise of the Bhakti movement and the use oftheseregionallanguagesbythevarioussaintshelpedintheirgrowthanddevelopment.Wehave already noted the various dialects that developed in northern and western India.PrithvirajRasoissupposedtobethefirstbookintheHindilanguage.Itisanaccountofexploits of Prithviraj Chauhan. In its imitation several other rasos were written. Thelanguagewentonchangingastheareawhereitwasusedexpanded.Newwordstoexpressnewsituationswereeithercoinedor takenfromareascomingunder its influence.HindiliteraturelookedtoSanskritclassicsforguidanceandBharata’sNatyashastrawaskeptinmind by Hindi writers. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there started amovement in southern India that was called the Bhakti movement. As its influencereached thenorth, it startedaffecting theproseandpoetry thatwerebeingcomposed inHindi.Poetrynowbecame largelydevotional innature.Someof thepoets likeTuisidaswrotepoetry ina languagewhichwasof that regiononly,whileothers likeKabir,whomovedfromplacetoplaceaddedPersianandUrduwordsaswell.ThoughitissaidthatTuisidaswroteRamcharitManasbasedonValmiki’sRamayana,healsoalterssituationsand adds quite a few new scenes and situations based on folklore. For example, Sita’sexile is mentioned in Valmiki’s version but it is not mentioned in Tulsidas’s account.TuisidashasdeifiedhisherowhiletheheroofValmikiisahumanbeing.HindievolvedduringtheApabhramsastagebetweenthe7thand8thcenturiesA.D.andthe14thC.ItwascharacterizedasVeergathaKalai.e.theageofheroicpoetryortheAdiKala (early period). It was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chiralry andpoetry.ThemostfamousfiguresfromthisperiodwereKabirandTulsidas.Inmodern

times,theKhadidialectbecamemoreprominentandavarietyofliteraturewasproducedinSanskrit.Similarly,SurdaswrotehisSurSagarinwhichhetalksofKrishnaasaninfant,ayoungladindulginginpranksandayoungmanengagedindalliancewiththegopis.Thesepoetsmade a deep impression on the minds of the listeners. If the festivals associated withRama and Krishna have become so very popular, the credit goes to these poets. Theirversionsbecamethesourceofinspirationnotonlyforotherpoetsbutalsoforpaintersinthemedievalages.TheyinspiredMirabai,whosanginRajasthanilanguage,andRaskhan,who, though aMuslim, sang in praise ofKrishna.Nandadasawas an importantBhaktipoet.RahimandBhushanwereaclassapart.Theirsubjectwasnotdevotion,butspiritual.BihariwrotehisSatsaiintheseventeenthcentury;itgivesusaglimpseofshringar(love)andotherrasas.AlltheabovementionedHindipoets,exceptKabir,expressedtheirsentimentsessentiallytosatisfytheirowndevotionalinstincts.Kabirdidnotbelieveininstitutionalisedreligion.Hewasadevoteeofa formlessGod.ChantingHisnamewas thebe-allandend-all forhim. All these poets influenced the north Indian society in a manner that had neverhappenedearlier.Asit iseasier torememberpoetrythanprose, theybecameimmenselypopular.During the last150years,manywritershavecontributed to thedevelopmentofmodernIndialiterature,writteninanumberofregionallanguagesaswellasinEnglish.OneofthegreatestBengaliwriters,RabindranathTagore became the first Indian towin theNobelPrizeforliterature(Geetanjali)in1913.However,itisonlywiththebeginningofnineteenthcenturythat-Hindiprosecameintoitsown.BharatenduHarishchandrawasoneoftheearliesttoproducedramasinHindiwhichwerebasicallytranslationsoftextswritteninSanskritandotherlanguages.Buthesetthetrend. Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi was another author who wrote translations or madeadaptationsfromSanskrit.BankimChandraChatterji(1838-94)wrotenovelsoriginallyinBangla.TheycametobetranslatedintoHindiandbecameverypopular.VandeMataram,our national song, is an excerpt from his novel, Anand Math. Swami Dayanand’scontributiontoHindicannotbeignored.OriginallyaGujaratiandascholarofSanskrit,headvocatedHindiasacommonlanguageforthewholeofIndia.HestartedwritinginHindiand contributed articles to journals essentially engaged in religious and social reforms.SatyarthaPrakashwashismostimportantworkinHindi.AmongothernameswhohaveenrichedHindiliterature,isthatofMunshiPremChand,whoswitchedoverfromUrdutoHindi. Surya Kant Tripathi, ‘Nirala’, achieves recognition because he questioned theorthodoxies in society.MahadeviVerma is the firstwomanwriter inHindi to highlightissues related to women. Maithili Sharan Gupt is another important name. JaishankarPrasadwrotebeautifuldramas.

HindiLanguageMakesProgressinModernPeriod

Hindi Language: The development of modern language started at the end of the 18thcentury. The main writers of this period were Sadasukh Lal and Enshallah Khan.Bhartendu Harishchandra also strengthened Hindi language. Similarly Raja LakshmanSingh translated Shakuntala into Hindi. Hindi continued to develop in adversecircumstancesastheofficeworkwasdoneinUrdu.Hindi Literature: Bhartendu Harish Chandra, Mahavira Prasad Dwivedi, RamchandraShuklaandShyamSunderDaswerethemainamongtheprosewritersofHindiliterature.Jai Shanker Prasad, Maithalisharan Gupta, Sumitranandan Pant, Suryakant Tripathi‘Nirala’,MahadeviVerma,Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar’ andHaribansRai ‘Bacchan’madegreatcontributiontothedevelopmentofHindipoetry.SimilarlyPremChand,VrindavanlalVermaandEllachandraJoshiwrotenovelsandenrichedHindiliterature.If we look at the above writers, we find that they all wrote with a purpose. SwamiDayanandwroteinordertoreformtheHindusocietyandriditoffalsebeliefsandsocialevils. Munshi Prem Chand tried to draw the attention of the society to the miserableexistence of the poor andMahadeviVerma recipient of Padma Vibhushan, the secondhighestcivilianawardhighlightedtheconditionsofwomeninthesociety.‘Nirala’becamethepioneerofawakeningofModernIndia.

INTEXTQUESTIONS7.2

1.WhoistheauthorofNatyaShashtra?_________________________________________________2.WhatisthedifferencebetweenthecharacterofRamainValmikhiandTulsidas?_________________________________________________3.HowwasKrishna’sroleinSurSagardifferent?_________________________________________________4.OurnationalsongVandemataramistakenfromwhichbook?_________________________________________________5.WhydowefeelthatHindiwriterswrotewithapurpose?_________________________________________________

7.4BENGALI,ASSAMESEANDORTYALITERATURE

After Hindi, the next significant literature was the one that developed in Bengal. TheBaptist Mission Press was established in Serampore near Calcutta in 1800. East IndiaCompany

foundedtheFortWilliamCollegeinthesameyear.ItprovidedtrainingtocivilservantsoftheCompanyinlaw,customs,religions,languagesandliteraturesofIndiatoenablethemtoworkmoreefficiently.BoxstartThegrowthoftheBhaktimovementandthecompositonofvarioushymnsassociatedwithChaitanya provided a stimulus to the development and growth of Bengali. Narrativepoemscalled theMangalKavyasalsogrewpopularduring thisperiod.Theypropatatedthe worship of local deities like Chandi and transformed Puranic Gods like Siva andVishnuintohouseholddeities.BoxcloseIn this regard,avery important landmarkwasachievedbyWilliamCarey,whowroteagrammarofBengaliandpublishedanEnglish-Bengalidictionaryandalsowrotebooksondialoguesandstories.Itmaybenotedthatthegrammaranddictionariesareimportantinthedevelopmentofaliterature.Theyguidethewritersastothecorrectnessofasentenceandalsohelptheminfindingsuitablewordsforaparticularsituationandidea.Althoughtheaimof thepressrunbythemissionarieswasmainly topropagateChristianfaithbutother presses run by local people helped in the flourishing of non-Christian literature.Scoresofpamphlets, smallandbigbooksand journalswereproduced. In themeantimeeducationspread,althoughataveryslowpace.Butafter1835,whenMacaulaywonthebattle againstOrientalists, it spread at a faster pace. In 1854 came Sir CharlesWood’sDespatch and in 1857 the three universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay wereestablished.Besidestextbooksforschoolsandcolleges,otherliteraturewerealsoproduced.HoweveritwasRajaRamMohanRoywhowroteinBengalibesidesEnglishthatgaveimpetustoBengaliliterature.IshwarChandraVidyasagar(1820-91)andAkshayKumarDutta(1820-86) were two other writers of this early period. In addition to these, Bankim ChandraChatterji (l834-94), Sharat Chandra Chatterji (l876-1938), and R.C. Dutta, a notedhistorianandaprosewriter, all contributed to themakingofBengali literature.But themostimportantnamethatinfluencedthewholeofIndiawasthatofRabindraNathTagore(1861-1941).Novels,dramas, short stories,criticism,musicandessays,all flowedfromhispen.HewontheNobelPrizeforliteraturein1913forhisGeetanjali.However, a few things need to be noted about the influence of Western ideas whichpermeated Bengal and later on other parts of India. Upto 1800, most of the literatureproducedwaslimitedtoreligionorcourtlyliterature.TheWesterninfluencebroughtthewriters closer to the man in the street. The subjects were mundane. Some religiousliteraturewasalsoproducedbutithardlysaidanythingnew.Thefinalyearsofthenineteenthcenturyandthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturysawanewsubject,nationalism,beingtakenup.Twothingswereseeninthisnewtrend.Thefirstwas the love for old history and culture and an awareness of the facts of Britishexploitation. The second was a clarion call for arousing the Indians to drive out theforeigners, both by persuasion and force. This new trend was expressed bySubrahmanyamBharti inTamilandQaziNazrul Islam inBengali.The contributionsof

thesetwowritersinarousingthe

nationalistic sentiments in the readerswas tremendous.Their poetrywas translated intootherIndianlanguages.Assamese-LikeBengali,AssamesealsodevelopedinresponsetotheBhaktimovement.Shankardevawho introducedVaishnavism inAssamhelped in the growth ofAssamesepoetry.EventhePuranasweretranslatedinAssamese.TheearliestAssameseliteratureconsistedofburanjis (courtchronicles).Shankardevhasleftseveraldevotionalpoems,whichpeoplesongwithrapturouspleasure,butitwasonlyafter 1827 thatmore interestwas shown in producingAssamese literature.Twonames,LakshmiNathBezbaruaandPadmanabaGohainBaruacannotbeforgotten.FromOrissa,a coupleofnamesareworthmentioningand theseareFakirmohanSenapati andRadhaNathRay,whosewritingsdeserveconsiderableattentioninthehistoryofOriyaliterature.TheworksofUpendraBhanja(1670-1720)wereimportantastheyusheredanewperiodofOriya literature. InOrissa theworksofSaraladasa are regardedas the firstworksofOriyaliterature.

INTEXTQUESTIONS7.3

1.WhenandwerewasBaptistPresssestablished?_________________________________________________2.WhendidWood’sDerpatchcometoIndia?_________________________________________________3.Whenandwherewerethreeuniversitiesopened?_________________________________________________4.WhichworkofSh.R.N.TagorewonhimNoblePrizein1913?_________________________________________________5.HowdidShanKaradwahelpinthegrowthofAssamesepoetry.?_________________________________________________

7.5PUNJABIANDRAJASTHANILITERATURE

Punjabiisalanguagewithseveralshades.Itisbeingwrittenintwoscripts,GurmukhiandPersian.TheGurmukhiscripttilltheendofthenineteenthcenturywasalmostlimitedtotheAdiGranth,theholybookoftheSikhs.Onlyasmallnumberofpeopletriedtolearnthescriptexceptthegranthis,whorecitedtheholyGranthinthegurdwaras.However,the

language did not lack literature.GuruNanakwas the first poet in Punjabi. Some othercontemporarypoets,mostlySufisaints,usedtosinginthislanguage.TheseSufisortheirfollowersusedthePersianscriptiftheywantedtocommittheirpoetrytowriting.Inthislist,thefirstnameisthatofFarid.HispoetryhasfoundaplaceintheAdiGranth.TheAdiGranth also contains poetry of the next four gurus. All this literature belongs to thefifteenth and sixteenth centuries.Amongst the later gurus, the poetry of the ninth guru,GuruTeghBahadurhasalsocontributedtotheAdiGranth.GuruGobindSingh,thetenthguru, was educated in Patna (Bihar), where he learnt Persian and Sanskrit. He hascomposedtwoSavaiyyasinPunjabibutthesearenotapartoftheAdiGranth.ButitwasthelovestoriesofHeerandRanjha,SasiandPunnuandSohniandMahiwal,which gave this language its theme in the early days. Even the story of Puran Bhagatfound favour with some poets. Beautiful poems written by some known and someunknownpoetshavecomedowntous.Thesearebeingsungbylocalsingersforthelasttwo or three hundred years. There are several other poetic stories which have beencomposedbythelocals.Thisfolklorehasbeenpreserved.ThemostimportantoftheseisHeerofWarisShah.Itisthemostpopularoftheearlyworks.ItisalandmarkinPunjabipoetry.SimilaristhepopularityofBulleyShahwhowasaSufisaint.Hehasleftalargenumberofsongs.Oneofhispopularformsofcompositionswascalledkafi;itwassunginaclassicalmusicalform.Kafisaresungbypeoplewithgreatfervour.Inthetwentiethcentury,Punjabihadcomeintoitsown.BhaiVirSinghcomposedanepic,namedRanaSuratSingh.PuranSinghandDr.MohanSinghareamong thebestknownwriters.Essays,shortstories,poetry,novels,criticismandallotherformsofwritinghaveadornedthePunjabiliteraryscene.Rajasthani,adialectofHindi,haditsownparttoplay.Thebards(itinerantsingers)movedfromplacetoplace,providingentertainmentandkeepingthestoriesofheroesalive.Itwasfrom these ballads that Colonel Todd collected the heroic stories of Rajasthan and putthem in theAnnals andAntiquities ofRajasthan.But thedevotional songsofMiraBaihaveaplaceofpride in thehistoryof languageaswellasdevotionalmusic.MiraBai’sloveforher lord(LordKrishna)issometimessointensethat it transcendsthismundaneworldandtransportsonetothelandofthissinger.BoxstartThe development of the Bhakti movement led to the rise of the different regionallanguageslikeHindi,Gujarati,Marathi,Punjabi,Kannada,TamilandTelugu.Boxclose

7.6GUJARATILITERATURE

EarlyGujarati literature is available in the form of Bhakti songs of the fourteenth andfifteenth centuries. It still follows the old tradition which is popular in Gujarat. NarsiMehta’snameistheforemostinthisrespect.ThepeopleofGujaratwovethesedevotionalsongs in their folk dances and their religious forms often find expressions in theircelebrations.

Narmad’s poetry gave a fillip to theGujarati literature. Saraswati Chandra, a novel byGovardhanRam,hasbecomeaclassicandhasgivengreat impetustootherwriters.ButprobablyanamethatcannotbeforgottenisthatofDr.K.M.Munshi.Hewasanovelist,anessayistandahistorian,andhasleftaplethoraofhistoricalnovels.Inthesebooksheexhibitshisabilitytomixfactwithfiction.PrithviVallabhaisoneofhisfinestnovels.AspecialmentionmustbemadeofNarsiMehtawhosesongsinpraiseofKrishnanotonlymadehimaverypopularfigurebutalsomadeGujaratilanguagepopular.

7.7SINDHILITERATURE

Sindh was one of the important centres of Sufis, who established khanqahs at variousplaces.TheSufisingerswiththeirdevotionalmusicmadethelanguagepopular.ThecreditforcreatingliteratureinSindhigoestoMirzaKalishBegandDewanKauramal

7.8MARATHILITERATURE

Maharashtra issituatedonaplateauwherea largenumberof localdialectswere inuse.Marathigrewoutofthesetheselocaldialects.ThePortuguesemissionariesstartedusingMarathiforpreachingtheirgospel.TheearliestMarathipoetryandproseisbySaintJnaneshwar(Gyaneshwar)wholivedinthethirteenthcentury.HewrotealongcommentaryontheBhagavadGita.HewastheonewhostartedthekirtantraditioninMaharashtra.HewasfollowedbyNamdev(1270-1350),Gora,SenaandJanabai.AllthesesangandpopularisedtheMarathilanguage.Theirsongsare sung even today by the Verkari pilgrirns on their way to Pandharpur pilgrimage.Almost two centuries later, Eknath (1533-99) came on the scene. He wrote thecommentariesontheRamayanaandtheBhagawatPurana.HissongsareverypopularalloverMaharashtra.ThencameTukarama(1598-1650).HeissupposedtobethegreatestBhaktipoetofthemall.Ramdas(1608-81),whowastheguruofShivaji,isthelastofthesehymnwriters.HewasthedevoteeofRama.HeinspiredShivaji.TheclosingyearsofthenineteenthcenturysawanupsurgeintheMarathiliterature.ItwasanationalistmovementthatmadeMarathiprosepopularandprominent.BalGangadharTilak(l857-1920)startedhisJournalKesariinMarathi.ThishelpedthegrowthofMarathiliterature.ButtheroleofKeshavSutandV.S.Chiplunkarwasnoless.HariNarayanApteandAgarkarwrotenovelswhichbecamevery popular. All these prose writers made great contribution to the development ofMarathi literature. The name ofH.G Salgaokar is remembered forwriting inspirationalpoetry. Besides, the names of M.G. Ranade, K.T. Telang, G.T. Madholkar (poet andnovelist)arenolessimportant.

7.9KASHMIRILITERATURE

Kashmirshotintoliteraryprominence,whenKalhanawroteRajataranginiinSanskrit.Butthiswasinthelanguageoftheelite.Forlocals,Kashmiriwasthepopulardialect.Here

also the Bhakti movement played its role. One Lal Ded, who lived in the fourteenthcentury, was probably the first to sing in the Kashmiri language. She was a Shaivitemystic.After Islamspread in thisarea, theSufi influencealsocame tobevisible.HabaKhatoon,Mahjoor,ZindaKaul,NoorDinalsoknownasNundRishi,AkhtarMohiuddin,Sufi GhulamMohammad and Dina Nath Nadim wrote devotional poetry in Kashmiri.ThesepeoplecontributedtothegrowthofKashmiriliterature.TheWestern influence did not reachKashmir till the end of the nineteenth century. In1846,afterthefirstSikhWar,theDograsofJammubecametherulersthere.TheDograsweremoreinterestedinDogrilanguagethaninKashmiri.Therewerehardlyanyschoolsoreducation.Therewaswidespreadpovertyandeconomicbackwardness.AlltheseledtoalackofgoodliteratureinKashmir.ThoughthelistofModernIndianlanguagescanhavemanylanguages,theconstitutionofIndia has originally about 15 languages as national languages i.e. Assamese, Bengali,Gujarati,Hindi,Kashmiri,Marathi,Oriya,Punjabi,Sanskrit,Sindhi,Urdu,Tamil,Telugu,Kannada,Malayalam.Threemorelanguagesi.e.Nepali,ManipuriandKonkanihavebeenaddednowtothelist.

INTEXTQUESTIONS7.4

1.WhichIndianlanguagewaswrittenintwoscriptsGurumukhiandPersian?_________________________________________________2.NameatleasttwolovestoriesofPunjab?_________________________________________________3.WhichwasthepopularformsofcompositionsofBulleyShah?_________________________________________________4.NamethenovelofGovardhanRam?_________________________________________________5.WhostartedKirtantraditioninMaharashtrainthe13thcenturyAD?_________________________________________________6.WhatreasonsledtoalackofgoodliteratureinKashmiri?_________________________________________________

7.10ROLEOFCHRISTIANMISSIONARIES

WiththecomingoftheEuropeanstoIndiavariousforeignlanguageslikeEnglish,French,DutchandPortuguesewere introducedherewhichgreatlyenriched Indian languagesastheyaddedmanynewwordstotheirvocabulary.ThecontributionoftheChristianmissionariesinthedevelopmentofIndianliteraturewasno lesssignificant.Firstofall, theypublisheddictionariesandgrammar inseveral locallanguages.ThebookswrittenbythemweremeantforthenewlyarrivedclergymenfromEurope.Thesebookshelpedthesemissionariesasmuchastheyhelpedthewritersinthelocallanguages.Theycouldeasilyturntothedictionariestofindasuitablewordorseeifthewordwasgrammaticallycorrect.Thesecondfactistheroleoflithographicprintingpress,whichwasintroducedinIndiainthebeginningof thenineteenthcentury.Theforeignershadestablishedthesepressesforprinting literature in local languages for the benefit of the new, or would-be converts.Therefore, the roleofprintingpress in thedevelopmentof literature cannotbe ignored.Thethirdimportantfactistheestablishmentofschoolsandcollegesbythemissionaries.Here,besidesEnglish,themissionariesalsotaughtthelocallanguages.Perhapstheiraimwas to spread Christianity but they also produced a newly educated class, who had adesire to read their literature. Thus, the role of missionaries cannot be ignored whilewritingthehistoryofIndianlanguagesandliterature.Boxstart

MainWritersofEnglishLiteratureinIndia

In India there were many writers of the English literature. The Indians started writingwork in English after 1835,when Englishwasmade themedium of instruction.ManyIndianwriterscomposdtheirliteratureinEnglish.Someofthemshowedtheirinterestinthefieldofpoetry,whilesomeothersshowedtheirkeeninterestinprosewriting.MichaelMadhuSudanDutta,Taradutta,SarojiniNaiduandRavindranathTagoremadeimportantcontribution in the fieldofEnglishPoetry.SurendraNathBanerjee, FirozeShahMehtaandJawaharLalNehrushowedinterestinEnglishprose.Boxclose

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

Hindiwasspokenbyalargenumberofpeople.Urdu andPersianbecamepopular in theMughal era.Urduwasbornout of the

interactionbetweenTurkishsettlersand the localpeople.AbulFazl,ChandraBhanandBadayuniwerefamouswritersoftheMughalera.

Hindi literature looked to Sanskrit classics for guidance. Bhakti poetry is amilestoneinHindiliterature.Kabir,TulsidasandSurdasweretheguidinglightofHindiliterature.

InthebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyHindiprosecameintoexistence.Next to Hindi, the richest literature is that of Bengali. Rabindranath Tagore,

Bankim Chandra Chatterji and Sharat Chandra Chatterji contributed to themakingofBengaliliterature.Assameseliteratureconsistedofburanjis.SimilaristhecasewithOriya.

Tilltheendofthenineteenthcentury,GurmukhiwaslimitedtoAdiGranth;itwasthe love stories of Heer Ranjha which gave this language a theme. Thedevotional songofMeeraBaigaveaplaceofhonour toRajasthani languageandliterature.

Gujarati, Sindhi, Marathi and Kashmiri also developed their literature in duecourseoftime.

ManyIndianwriterscompsoedtheirwritingsinEnglish.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.WhatwastheroleoftheChristianmissionariesinIndia?2.BrieflydescribethedevelopmentofHindilanguage?3.ExplaintheroleofPersianlanguageinmedievalIndia?4. Identify the contributions of Indian languages and literature in shaping of Indiansociety?

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

7.1

I.1.BrajBhasha,Avadhi,Bhojpuri,Magadhi,Rajasthani,KhadiBoli.2.Avadhi3.UrdulanguagewasbornoutoftheinteractionofTurkishsettlerwithlocals.4.Pakistan5.DakshiniorDaccani(southern)

7.2

I.1.Bharata2.Tulsidas’RamaisportraitasGodwhileinValimikhi’sHeisportraitasHumanbeing.3.Krishnaasayoungladindulginginpranksandayoungmanengagedindalliancewiththegoppies.

4.AnandMath5.SwamiDayanandwrote in order to reformHindu society.Munshi Premchandwroteabout the miserable existance of the poor. MahadeviVerma wrote about the plight ofwomen.

7.3

I.1.In1800atSeerampurnearCalcutta.2.18543.In1857,Calcutta,Madras,Bombay4.Geetanjali5.HeintroducedVaishnavisminAssam.

7.4

I.1.Punjabi2.Heer/Ranjha,Sohni/Mahiwal,Sasi/Punnu3.Kafi4.SaraswatiChandra5.SaintJnaneshwar6.Poverty,economicbackwardnessandtheuseofDogri.

MODULE4.RELIGIONANDPHILOSOPHY

8.RELIGIONANDPHILOSOPHYINANCIENTINDIAAssoonasNovemberandDecembercomeinwefindnewcalendersfloodingthemarket.Some calenders are very colourful.They aremarkedwith different colours. Some evenhavesmallpicturesonthedates.Theyareholidaysandwelookforwardtothem.Youalsolookforwardtothem.Yes,theyarereligiousfestivalsornationalfestivalsandIndiahasplentyofreligionsthatareflourishing.Processionsontheroad,goodfood,clothes,gifts,peopleworshippingintheirreligiousplaces,wishingeachotherisacommonsight.Yes,India is a beautiful, lovely and a lively country to be in. This is because religion hasalwaysbeenasignificantfactorininfluencingthelivesofpeopleinIndiafromtheearliesttimes.Itwould,indeed,beveryinterestingtostudyreligioninitsdiverseformsthroughthe various stages of its growth. The relationship between religion and philosophy hasbeenan intimateoneandhence theirgrowthanddevelopmentneed tobe studied in aninterrelatedmanner.InthislessonyouwillstudyaboutthedevelopmentofreligionsandphilosophyinancientIndia.

OBJECTIVES

Afterstudyingthislesson,youwillbeableto:

explainthemeaningofreligion;identifythecharacteristicsofvariousreligionsmovementsinancientIndia;explaintheideasofthesixschoolsofVedicphilosophy;examinetheroleplayedbytheCharvakaSchool;

explaintheJainatheoryofreality;examinethecontributionsofBuddhistphilosophy.

8.1RELIGION

Religion is the science of soul. Morality and ethics have their foundation on religion.Religion played an important part in the lives of the Indians from the earliest times. Itassumednumerous forms in relation todifferentgroupsofpeopleassociatedwith them.Religiousideas,thoughtsandpracticesdifferedamongthesegroups,andtransformationsanddevelopmentstookplaceinthevariousreligiousformsincourseoftime.ReligioninIndiawasneverstaticincharacterbutwasdrivenbyaninherentdynamicstrength.BoxstartEvery system of philosophy in India is a quest for Truth, which is one and the same,always and everywhere. The modes of approach differ, logic varies, but the purposeremainsthesame–tryingtoreachthatTruth.“I amproud tobelong to a religionwhichhas taught theworld tolerance anduniversalacceptance.We believe not only in universal toleration, but we accept all religions astrue.”–SwamiVivekanandaatParliamentofworldReligionsinChicago1893BoxcloseIndianspiritualityisdeeplyrootedinancientphilosophicalandreligioustraditionsoftheland.PhilosophyaroseinIndiaasanenquiryintothemysteryoflifeandexistence.IndiansagescalledRishisor‘seers’,developedspecialtechniquesoftranscendingthesenseandtheordinarymind,collectivelycalledyoga.Withthehelpofthesetechniques,theydelveddeep into the depths of consciousness and discovered important truths about the truenatureofhumanbeingandtheuniverse.Thesagesfoundthatthetruenatureofthehumanbeingisnotthebodyorthemind,whichareeverchangingandperishablebut the spiritwhich isunchanging, immortal andpureconsciousness.TheycalledittheAtman.TheAtman is the true source of human’s knowledge, happiness and power. The rishisfurther found that all individual selves are parts of infinite consciousness which theycalled Brahman. Brahman is the ultimate reality, the ultimate cause of the universe.Ignoranceofhuman’struenatureisthemaincauseofhumansufferingandbondage.Bygaining correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman, it is possible to become free fromsufferingandbondageandattainastateofimmortality,everlastingpeaceandfulfillmentknownasMoksha.Religion inancient Indiameantawayof lifewhichenablesahuman to realizehis truenatureandattainMoksha.

Thusphilosophyprovidedacorrectviewofreality,whilereligionshowedthecorrectwayof life; philosophy provided the vision, while religion brought about the fulfillment;philosophy was the theory, and religion was the practice. Thus in ancient India,philosophyandreligioncomplementedeachother.Boxstart‘Maywehearthatwhichenlightensourminds,mayweseeDivinityeverywhere,maywefeelthepresenceoftheAlmightywithinusandalltheactionsofourbodiesandmindsbeintheserviceofthatAlmightyBeing;maywehavepeaceunending’.–(Rig-Veda1-89)Boxclose

8.2PRE-VEDICANDVEDICRELIGION

From the archaeological findings in the pre and proto-historic sites it seems that thesepeople believed in the sanctity of the creative force andvenerated themale and femaleaspectsofdivinity.Itappearsthat theywereworshippersoftheforcesofnaturelikethesun and themoon. This belief is also partly substantiated by the early literature of theAryans.ThenatureofthereligiousbeliefsandpracticesoftheAryansisalsoknownfromtheRigVeda, They believed inmany gods like Indra,Varuna,Agni, Surya andRudra.Sacrifices,andritualofferingoffoodanddrinktofireinhonouroftheGods,constitutedthemainreligiouspractices.TheSamaVedaandtheYajurVedaelaboratedthedifferentaspectsofthesacrificialactsandthisritualismwasfurtherelaboratedintheBrahmanas.TheAtharvaVedacontainedagreatdealofanimisticbeliefs.Theseersentertaineddoubtsabout the utility and efficacy of the Vedic ritualism. Polytheism was challenged bymonotheistic ideas and the various deitieswere introduced as differentways of namingoneeternalentity.The Aranyaka and Upanishad sections of the Vedic literature envisage a progressiveoutlook.TheUpanishads, represent theearlystage in theoriginanddevelopmentof thereligions-metaphysical concepts which were used later by the religious leaders andreformers of ancient and medieval India. Some of them followed the traditional lineswhileothersproceededalongthepathsofunorthodoxy.Boxstart

Indiadown theagesattempted tograpplewith the fundamentalproblemsof lifeand thought. Philosophy in India beganwith a quest after the highest truth-truth not as mere objective certitude, but as being closely linked with thedevelopment of personality and leading to the attainment of the highestfreedom, bliss andwisdom. It demanded, therefore, not only a philosophicaldiscipline of reasoning, but also a discipline of conduct and the control ofemotionsandpassions.

Thus the synthesis between deep philosophical analysis and lofty spiritualdisciplineisanabidingfeatureofIndianphilosophyanditsoutlookisentirelydifferentfromthatofwesternphilosophy.

Itishopedthatitwillservenotonlytomakeplainthespiritualaspirationsofanancient nation, but also to show the relevance of those aspirations to themodern

world and thus forge a powerful link in the chain of human fellowship and universalconcord.

Philosophy in India isnotaproductofspeculationbutofexperience,directandpersonal.Atruephilosopherishewhoselifeandbehaviourbeartestimonytothetruthshepreaches.

Boxclose

8.3UNORTHODOXRELIGIOUSMOVEMENTS

ThereligiousmovementsassociatedwithpersonslikeMahaviraandtheBuddhainaboutthemiddle of the firstMillenniumBC fall under this category.Thereweremany othercreedsduringthistimeaswell.Thecreedspreachedbysomeofthemcontainedelementsthat were not in keeping with the Vedic tradition. They ignored the infallibility andsupernaturaloriginoftheVedas.UnliketheVedicseerswhowereBrahminsages,manyofthesenewteacherswereKshatriya.BothBuddhismandJainismwereatheisticcreedsinthe beginning. However, Buddhism endorsed the doctrine of the Law of Karma andupheldthebeliefinrebirthsoftheembodiedskandhasandtheinevitabilityofsufferinginthe very existence of beings. Many of these view points are also found in the majorUpanishads.

8.4THEISTICRELIGIONS

Creedsoftheisticcharacterevolvedalmostsimultaneouslywiththenon-theisticreligions.TheimportantdeitiesofthesereligionswerenotprimarilyVediconesbutthosethatcamefromunorthodoxsources.Influenceofpre-vedicandpost-vedicfolkelementsweremostconspicuousintheirorigin.TheprimaryfactorthatmotivatedthesecreedswasBhakti,thesingle-souleddevotionoftheworshippertoapersonalgodwithsomemorallink.Thisledto the evolution of different religious sects like Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Saktism,whichcametoberegardedascomponentsoforthodoxBrahminism.ThesesectsincourseoftimecametohaveasignificantimpactonthepopularformsofBuddhismandJainism.

8.5FOLKCULTS

TheworshipofYakshasandNagasandotherfolkdeitiesconstitutedthemostimportantpartofprimitivereligiousbeliefs,inwhichBhaktihadaveryimportantroletoplay.Thereisampleevidenceabouttheprevalenceofthisformofworshipamongthepeopleinearlyliteratureaswellasinarchaeology.Vasudeva/KrishnaWorship:ASutra inPanini’sAshtadhyayi refers to theworshippersofVasudeva (Krishna). TheChhandogyaUpanishad also speaks ofKrishna, the son ofDevaki, a pupil of the sageGhoraAngirasawhowas a sun-worshippingpriest.A largenumber of peopleworshippedVasudevaKrishna exclusively as their personalGod andtheywereatfirstknownasBhagavatas.TheVasudeva-Bhagavatacult

grewsteadily,absorbingwithinitsfoldotherVedicandBrahminicdivinitieslikeVishnu(primarilyanaspectofthesun)andNarayana(acosmicGod).FromthelateGuptaperiodthe name mostly used to designate this Bhakti cult was Vaishnava, indicating thepredominance of the Vedic Vishnu element in it with emphasis on the doctrine ofincarnations(avataras).

8.6VAISHNAVAMOVEMENTINTHESOUTH

The history of theVaishnavamovement from the end of theGupta period till the firstdecade of the thirteenth century AD is concerned mainly with South India. Vaishnavapoet-saints known as alvars (a Tamil word denoting those drowned in Vishnu-bhakti)preached single-minded devotion (ekatmika bhakti) for Vishnu and their songs werecollectivelyknownasprabandhas.

8.7SHAIVISM

Unlike Vaishnavism, Shaivism had its origin in antiquity. Panini refers to a group ofShiva-worshippersas Shiva-bhagavatas, who were characterised by the iron lances andclubstheycarriedandtheirskingarments.Shaiva Movement in the South: The Shaiva movement in the South flourished at thebeginning through the activities ofmany of the 63 saints known in Tamil asNayanars(Siva-bhakts).TheirappealingemotionalsongsinTamilwerecalledTevaramStotras,alsoknownasDravidaVedaandceremoniallysunginthelocalShivatemples.TheNayanarshailedfromallcastes.ThiswassupplementedonthedoctrinalsidebyalargenumberofShaiva intellectuals whose names were associated with several forms of ShaivamovementslikeAgamanta,ShudhaandVira-shaivism.BoxstartThephilosophymustgivea theorywhichwillbesimplest in itsnatureand,at thesametime,will explain all the principleswhich are left as insoluble by science.At the sametimewillharmonizewiththeultimateconclusionsofscienceaswellasestablishareligionwhichisuniversalandisnotlimitedbysectsordoctrinesordogmas.Whenweareconcernedwithphilosophyasascience,itmeansasetofthoughtsputintoasystem,suchthatoneofthemdoesnotcontradictanotherinthesetandtheentiresetasawholeiscoherent.‘Science means knowledge partially unified, while philosophy means knowledgecompletelyunified….Beyondtheknowableistheunknowable,butinthatrealmoftheunknowablelaidthesolutionofalltheprinciplesregardingthenatureofthesoul,oftheheavens,ofGodandeverything.’–HerbertSpencerBoxClose

8.8MINORRELIGIOUSMOVEMENTS

Worshipofthefemaleprinciple(Shakti)andofSuryadidnotachieveequalimportanceastheothertwomajorbrahminicalcults.Thefemaleaspectofthedivinitymighthavebeenveneratedinthepre-Vedictimes.IntheVedicagerespectwasshownalsotothefemaleprinciple as the Divine Mother, the Goddess of abundance and personified energy(Shakti).However,clear reference to theexclusiveworshippersof theDevi isnot tobefounduntilacomparativelylateperiod.Asmentionedearlier,SuryahasbeenveneratedinIndia from theearliest times. InVedicandepicmythology,Sunandhisvariousaspectsplayed a very important part. TheEast Iranian (Shakadvipi) form of the solar cultwasintroducedinpartsofnorthernIndiaintheearlycenturiesoftheChristianera.Butitwasonly at a comparatively late period that god figured as the central object in religiousmovements.

INTEXTQUESTIONS8.1

1.WhichsectionsoftheVedicliteratureenvisageaprogressiveoutlook?_______________________________________________________________2.WhichdoctrinewasendorsedbyBuddhism?_______________________________________________________________3.NamethesectswhichmadeBuddhismandJainismpopular?_______________________________________________________________4.HowdidVedicagerespectfemaleprinciple?_______________________________________________________________5.WhatarethedifferentformsofShaivamovements?_______________________________________________________________

8.9VEDICPHILOSOPHY

ReligionoftheRigVedicpeoplewasverysimpleinthesensethatitconsistedmainlyofworship of numerous deities representing the various phenomena of nature throughprayers.ItwasduringthelaterVedicperiodthatdefiniteideasandphilosophiesaboutthetruenatureof soulorAtmanand thecosmicprincipleorBrahmanwho represented theultimaterealityweredeveloped.TheseVedicphilosophicalconceptslaterongaverisetosixdifferentschoolsofphilosophiescalledshadadarshana.Theyfallinthecategoryoftheorthodoxsystemas the finalauthorityof theVedas is recognisedbyallof them.LetusnowfindoutmoreaboutthesesixschoolsofIndianphilosophy.

SamkhyaSystem

TheSamkhyaphilosophyholdsthatrealityisconstitutedoftwoprinciplesonefemaleandthe other male i.e. Prakriti, Purusha respectively. Prakriti and Purusha are completelyindependentandabsolute.Accordingtothissystem,Purushaismereconsciousness,henceit cannot be modified or changed. Prakriti on the other hand is constituted of threeattributes,thought,movementandthechangeortransformationoftheseattributesbringsabout the change in all objects. The Samkhya philosophy tries to establish somerelationshipbetweenPurushaandPrakritiforexplainingthecreationoftheuniverse.ThepropounderofthisphilosophywasKapila,whowrotetheSamkhyasutra.Infact Samkhya school explained the phenomena of the doctrine of evolution andansweredallthequestionsarousedbythethinkersofthosedays.

Yoga

Yogaliterallymeanstheunionofthetwoprincipalentities.TheoriginofyogaisfoundintheYogasutra of Patanjali believed to have beenwritten in the second centuryBC.Bypurifying and controlling changes in thementalmechanism, yoga systematically bringsabout the releaseofpurusha fromprakriti.Yogic techniquescontrol thebody,mindandsense organs.Thus this philosophy is also considered ameans of achieving freedomormukti.This freedomcould be attained by practising self-control (yama), observation ofrules (niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath control (pranayama), choosing an object(pratyahara) and fixing themind (dharna), concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana)andcompletedissolutionofself,mergingthemindandtheobject(Samadhi).YogaadmitstheexistenceofGodasateacherandguide.

Nyaya

Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical thinking. According to Nyaya, validknowledge is defined as the real knowledge, that is, one knows about the object as itexists.Forexample, it iswhenoneknowsasnakeasasnakeoracupasacup.Nyayasystem of philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and destroys the universe.GautamaissaidtobetheauthoroftheNyayaSutras.

Vaisheshika

Vaisheshikasystemisconsideredastherealisticandobjectivephilosophyofuniverse.Thereality according to this philosophy hasmany bases or categorieswhich are substance,attribute,action,genus,distinctqualityandinherence.Vaisheshikathinkersbelievethatallobjects of the universe are composed of five elements–earth, water, air, fire and ether.They believe that God is the guiding principle. The living beings were rewarded orpunishedaccordingtothelawofkarma,basedonactionsofmeritanddemerit.Creationand destruction of universewas a cyclic process and took place in agreementwith thewishesofGod.KanadawrotethebasictextofVaisheshikaphilosophy.

AnumberoftreatiseswerewrittenonthistextbutthebestamongthemistheonewrittenbyPrashastapadainthesixthcenturyAD.VaisheshikaSchoolofphilosophyexplainedthephenomenaoftheuniversebytheatomictheory,thecombinationofatomsandmoleculesintomatterandexplainedthemechanicalprocessofformationofUniverse.

Mimamsa

Mimamsaphilosophyisbasicallytheanalysisofinterpretation,applicationandtheuseofthe text of the Samhita and Brahmana portions of the Veda. According to Mimamsaphilosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge, and religion means thefulfillment of duties prescribed by theVedas.This philosophy encompasses theNyaya-Vaisheshika systems and emphasizes the concept of valid knowledge. Its main text isknownastheSutrasofGaiminiwhichhavebeenwrittenduringthethirdcenturyBC.ThenamesassociatedwiththisphilosophyareSabarSwamiandKumarilaBhatta.TheessenceofthesystemaccordingtoJaiminiisDharmawhichisthedispenseroffruitsofone’sactions, thelawofrighteousnessitself.ThissystemlaysstressontheritualisticpartofVedas.

Vedanta

Vedanta implies the philosophy of theUpanishad, the concluding portion of theVedas.Shankaracharya wrote the commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahmasutras and theBhagavadGita.Shankaracharya’sdiscourseorhisphilosophicalviewscametobeknownas Advaita Vedanta. Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief in one reality.Shankaracharyaexpoundedthatultimaterealityisone,itbeingtheBrahman.According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true, the world is false and self andBrahman are not different, Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent,unchanging,thehighesttruthandtheultimateknowledge.HealsobelievesthatthereisnodistinctionbetweenBrahmanandtheself.TheknowledgeofBrahmanistheessenceofallthingsandtheultimateexistence.RamanujawasanotherwellknownAdvaitascholar.Among different schools of philosophy was found one philosophy which reached theclimaxofphilosophicthoughtthatthehumanmindcanpossiblyreach,andthatisknownastheVedanticphilosophy.Vedantaphilosophyhasventuredtodenytheexistenceoftheapparentego,asknowntous,andinthisrespectVedantahasitsuniquepositioninthehistoryofphilosophiesoftheworld.Vedantaisaphilosophyandareligion.Asaphilosophyitinculcatesthehighesttruthsthathavebeendiscoveredbythegreatestphilosophersandthemostadvancedthinkersofallagesandallcountries.

Vedantaphilosophyteachesthatallthesedifferentreligionsarelikesomanyroads,whichleadtosamegoal.Vedanta(theendoftheVedasorknowledge)referstotheUpanishadswhichappearedattheendofeachVedawithadirectperceptionofreality.ThecoremessageofVedantaisthateveryactionmustbegovernedbytheintellect–thediscriminatingfaculty.Themindmakesmistakesbuttheintellecttellsusiftheactionisinour interestornot.Vedantaenables thepractitioner toaccess therealmofspirit throughtheintellect.WhetheronemovesintospiritualitythroughYoga,meditationordevotion,itmust ultimately crystallize into inner understanding for atitudinal changes andenlightenment.

8.10CHARVAKASCHOOL

Brihaspati is supposed tobe the founderof theCharvakaSchoolofphilosophy. It findsmentionintheVedasandBrihadaranykaUpanishad.Thusitissupposedtobetheearliestinthegrowthofthephilosophicalknowledge.Itholdsthatknowledgeistheproductofthecombination of four elements which leaves no trace after death. Charvaka philosophydealswiththematerialisticphilosophy.ItisalsoknownastheLokayataPhilosophy–thephilosophyofthemasses.According toCharvaka there isnootherworld.Hence,death is theendofhumans andpleasure the ultimate object in life. Charvaka recognises no existence other than thismaterialworld.SinceGod,soul,andheaven,cannotbeperceived,theyarenotrecognisedbyCharvakas.Outofthefiveelementsearth,water,fire,airandether,theCharvakasdonotrecogniseetherasitisnotknownthroughperception.Thewholeuniverseaccordingtothemisthusconsistedoffourelements.

8.11JAINPHILOSOPHY

LiketheCharvakas,theJainstoodonotbelieveintheVedas,buttheyadmittheexistenceofasoul.Theyalsoagreewiththeorthodoxtraditionthatsuffering(pain)canbestoppedbycontrollingthemindandbyseekingrightknowledgeandperceptionandbyobservingtherightconduct.TheJainaphilosophywasfirstpropoundedbythetirthankarRishabhaDeva.ThenamesofAjitNathandAristanemiarealsomentionedwithRishabhaDeva.Thereweretwenty-fourtirthankaraswhoactuallyestablishedtheJainadarshan.ThefirsttirthankarrealisedthatthesourceofJainaphilosophywasAdinath.Thetwentyfourthandthe last tirthankarwasnamedVardhamanMahavirawhogavegreat impetus to Jainism.Mahavirawasbornin599BC.Heleftworldlylifeattheageofthirtyandledaveryhardlifetogaintrueknowledge.AfterheattainedTruth,hewascalledMahavira.Hestronglybelievedintheimportanceofcelibacyorbrahamcharya.

JainTheoryofReality:SevenKindsofFundamentalElements

TheJainasbelieve that thenaturalandsupernatural thingsof theuniversecanbe tracedback to seven fundamental elements. They are jiva, ajivaa, astikaya, bandha, samvara,nirjana, and moksa. Substances like body which exist and envelope (like a cover) areastikaya. Anastikayas like ‘time’ have no body at all. The substance is the basis ofattributes(qualities).Theattributesthatwefindinasubstanceareknownasdharmas.TheJainasbelieve that thingsorsubstancehaveattributes.Theseattributesalsochangewiththe change of kala (time). From their point of view, the attributes of a substance areessential, andeternalorunchangeable.Withoutessentialattributes,a thingcannotexist.So they are always present in everything. For example, consciousness (chetana) is theessenceofthesoul;desire,happinessandsorrowareitschangeableattributes.

INTEXTQUESTIONS8.2

1.HowmanyschoolsofShadaDarshanexist?_______________________________________________________________2.NamethefounderofSamkhyaPhilosophy?_______________________________________________________________3.WhoistheoriginatorofYoga?_______________________________________________________________4.WhoissaidtobetheauthorofthenyayaSutras?_______________________________________________________________5.WhichschoolofphilosophysaysVedasareeternalandpossessallknowledge?_______________________________________________________________6.WhatisthephilosophyoftheUpanishad?_______________________________________________________________7.Whichschoolholdsthatknowledgeistheproductofthecombinationoffourelementswhichleavesnotraceafterdeath?_______________________________________________________________8.Howmany‘tirthankaras’doesJainaDarshanhave?_______________________________________________________________9.WhenwasMahaviraborn?_______________________________________________________________

10.Which‘tirthankara’wasnamedVardhmanMahavira?_______________________________________________________________11.NamethesevenfundamentalelementsofJainas?_______________________________________________________________

8.12PHILOSOPHYOFTHEBUDDHA

GautamaBuddha,whofoundedtheBuddhistphilosophy,wasbornin563BCatLumbini,avillagenearKapilavastuinthefoothillsofNepal.HischildhoodnamewasSiddhartha.His mother, Mayadevi, died when he was hardly a few days old. He was married toYashodhara,abeautifulprincess,attheageofsixteen.Afterayearofthemarriage,hehada son, whom they named Rahul. But at the age of twenty-nine, Gautama Buddharenounced family life to find a solution to the world’s continuous sorrow of death,sickness,poverty,etc.Hewenttotheforestsandmeditatedthereforsixyears.Thereafter,hewenttoBodhGaya(inBihar)andmeditatedunderapipaltree.ItwasatthisplacethatheattainedenlightenmentandcametobeknownastheBuddha.Hethentravelledalottospreadhismessageandhelpedpeoplefindthepathof liberationorfreedom.Hediedattheageofeighty.Gautama’s threemaindisciplesknownasUpali,AnandaandMahakashyaprememberedhis teachings and passed them on to his followers. It is believed that soon after theBuddha’sdeathacouncilwascalledatRajagrihawhereUpali recited theVinayaPitaka(rulesof theorder)andAnandarecited theSuttaPitaka(Buddha’ssermonsordoctrinesandethics).SometimelatertheAbhidhammaPitakaconsistingoftheBuddhistphilosophycameintoexistence.

MainCharacteristics

Buddhapresented simpleprinciplesof life andpractical ethics thatpeople could followeasily.Heconsideredtheworldasfullofmisery.Man’sdutyistoseekliberationfromthispainfulworld.HestronglycriticisedblindfaithinthetraditionalscripturesliketheVedas.Buddha’s teachings are very practical and suggest how to attain peace of mind andultimateliberationfromthismaterialworld.RealizationofFourNobleTruths.TheknowledgerealizedbyBuddhaisreflectedinthefollowingfournobletruths:a. There is suffering in human life.WhenBuddha saw human beings suffering fromsickness,painanddeath,heconcluded that therewasdefinitelysuffering inhuman life.Thereispainwithbirth.Separationfromthepleasantisalsopainful.Allthepassionsthatremainunfulfilledarepainful.Painalsocomeswhenobjectsofsensuouspleasurearelost.Thus,lifeisallpain.

b. There is cause of suffering, The second Noble Truth is related to the cause ofsuffering.It isdesirethatmotivatesthecycleofbirthanddeath.Therefore,desireis thefundamentalcauseofsuffering.c.Thereiscessationofsuffering.ThethirdNobleTruthtellsthatwhenpassion,desireand loveof lifeare totallydestroyed,pain stops.ThisTruth leads to theendof sorrow,which causes pain in human life. It involves destruction of ego (aham or ahamkara),attachment, jealousy,doubtand sorrow.That stateofmind is the stateof freedomfromdesire, pain and any kind of attachment. It is the state of complete peace, leading tonirvana.d.Path ofLiberation.The fourthNoble Truth leads to away that takes to liberation.Thus, initially starting with pessimism, the Buddhist philosophy leads to optimism.Although there is a constant suffering in human life, it can be ended finally. Buddhasuggeststhatthewayorthepathleadingtoliberationiseight-fold,throughwhichonecanattainnirvana.

Eight-foldPathtoLiberation(Nirvana)

(i)RightVision.Onecanattainrightvisionbyremovingignorance.Ignorancecreatesawrongideaoftherelationshipbetweentheworldandtheself.Itisonaccountofwrongunderstandingofmanthathetakesthenon-permanentworldaspermanent.Thus,therightviewoftheworldanditsobjectsistherightvision.(ii)RightResolve.It is thestrongwill-power todestroy thoughtsanddesires thatharmothers.Itincludessacrifice,sympathyandkindnesstowardsothers.(iii)RightSpeech.Manshouldcontrolhisspeechbyrightresolve.Itmeanstoavoidfalseorunpleasantwordsbycriticizingothers.(iv)RightConduct. It is toavoidactivitieswhichharm life. Itmeans tobeaway fromtheft,excessiveeating,theuseofartificialmeansofbeauty,jewellery,comfortablebeds,goldetc.(v)RightMeansofLivelihood.Rightlivelihoodmeanstoearnone’sbreadandbutterbyrightmeans.Itisneverrighttoearnmoneybyunfairmeanslikefraud,bribery,theft,etc.(vi) Right Effort. It is also necessary to avoid bad feelings and bad impressions. Itincludesself-control,stoppingornegationofsensualityandbadthoughts,andawakeningofgoodthoughts.(vii)RightMindfulness.Itmeanstokeepone’sbody,heartandmindintheirrealform.Bad thoughts occupy the mind when their form is forgotten.When actions take placeaccordingtothebadthoughts,onehastoexperiencepain.

(viii)RightConcentration.IfapersonpursuestheabovesevenRights,hewillbeabletoconcentrate properly and rightly. One can attain nirvana by right concentration(meditation).Except for Charvaka school, realisation of soul has been the common goal of allphilosophicalschoolsofIndia.BoxstartAccording to Victor Cousin, the great French Philosopher, ‘India contains the wholehistory of philosophy in a nutshell’. Again he says: ‘Whenwe read with attention thepoetical and philosophicalmonuments of the East, above all those of India, which arebeginningtospreadinEurope,wediscovertheremanyatruthandtruthssoprofound,andwhichmakesuchacontrastwiththemeannessoftheresultsatwhichtheEuropeangeniushassometimesstopped.Thatweareconstrainedtobendthekneebeforethephilosophyofthe East, and to see in this cradle of the human race the native land of the highestphilosophy.’BoxCloseI am sure youwould like to knowmore about Buddhism.Wewill go to Bodhgaya inBihar. Tread reverently along this ancient path. Begin with theMahabodhi tree wheresomethingstrangehappened-realizationof truthorspiritual illumination.TraditionstatesthatBuddhastayedinBodhgayaforsevenweeksafterhisenlightenment.Thereyoumustalsosee theAnimeshlochaStupawhichhousesastandingfigureof theBuddhawithhiseyesfixedtowardsthistree.BodhgayaisalsoreveredbytheHinduswhogototheVishnupadatempletoperform‘Pind-daan’thatensurespeaceandsolacetothedepartedsoul.YoucanalsovisitRajgirandempathisewiththeChinesetravellerFa-heinwhovisitedthisplace900yearsafterthedeathofBuddha.HeweptoverthefactthathewasnotfortunateenoughtolistentothesermonsofBuddhathatweredeliveredhere.Manystorieswhichyoumight have read aboutBuddhahave their origin here. ImagineBuddhaon his firstalms beggingmissionwhile staying in a cave here. It was here that theMauryan kingBimbisara joined theBuddhistsorder.Remember reading thestoryhowamadelephantwaslet loosebyDevaduttatokillBuddha.Well, thisincidenttookplacehere.FinallyitwasfromRajgir thatBuddhasetoutonhislast journey.ThefirstBuddhistCouncilwasheld in the Saptaparni cave in which the unwritten teachings of Buddha were penneddownafterhisdeath.EventheconceptofmonasticinstitutionswaslaidatRajgirwhichlaterdevelopedintoanacademicandreligiouscentre.InyourlessononArchitecture,youwillreadaboutNalandauniversity.Itwasestablishedin the 5th century BC. It is the world’s earliest university. Since Buddha encouragedlearning,monksandscholarsgatheredherefordiscourses.Somuchsothatby5thB.C.,NalandaacquiredthepositionofawellestablishedmonasteryundertheGuptas.

INTEXTQUESTIONS8.3

1.WhatwasthechildhoodnameofGautamaBuddha?_______________________________________________________________2.WheredidGautamaBuddhameditate?_______________________________________________________________3.WheredidGautamaBuddhagetenlightenment?_______________________________________________________________4.WhatdoestheSuttaPitakacontain?_______________________________________________________________5.WhorecitedtheVinayaPitaka?_______________________________________________________________6.WhatarethefournobletruthofGautamaBuddha?_______________________________________________________________7.WhichphilosophicalschoolofIndiahasdifferenceofopinionaboutrealizationofsoul?_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

Originofreligioncanbetracedtothepre-vedicsociety.DevelopmentsinreligioninancientIndiaproceededalongthetraditionallinesas

wellasalongthepathsofunorthodoxy.The systems of Indian philosophy that originated from the Vedas are called

Orthodoxsystems.Samkhyaphilosophyholdsthatrealityisconstitutedoftheselfandnon-selfthatis

purushaandprakriti.Yogaisaverypracticalphilosophytorealisethe‘Self’.Nyayapresentsatechniqueoflogicalthinking.Vaisheshikagivesustheprinciplesofrealitywhichconstitutetheuniverse.

MimamsaphilosophyisbasicallytheanalysisoftheVedicscriptures.Charvakism,JainismandBuddhismareknownastheunorthodoxsystems.Charvakaisthematerialisticphilosophy,itbelievesthatthereisnoexistenceother

thanmatter.AccordingtoJainphilosophy,liberationistheescapeofjivafrommatter(body).Buddha reflected his knowledge in four noble Truths (i) There is suffering in

humanlife(ii)Thereiscauseofsuffering(iii)Thereisendtosufferingand(iv)Thereiswaytoendsuffering.

Buddhasuggestedeightfoldpathforliberation.Theseare:(i)rightvision(ii)rightresolve (iii) right speech (iv) right conduct (v) rightmeansof livelihood (vi)righteffort(vii)rightmindfulnessand(viii)rightconcentration.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.DefinethevariouscharacteristicsofreligiousmovementsofancientIndia?2.WhatwastheroleplayedbyCharvakaSchoolinthereligiousmovementofIndia?3.HowdoestheCharvakaSchooldifferfromtheotherphilosophicalschools?4.ExplainhowShadaDarshanafallsinthecategoryofanorthodoxsystem.5.HowdoesBuddhistphilosophycontributetobecomeabetterhumanbeing?6. How can you say that Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of Vedicscriptures?

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

8.11.TheAranyankaandUpanishad2.LawofKarma3.Vaishnavism,Shaivism,Saktism4.Divinemother,thegoddessofabundanceandpersonifiedenergy(shakti).5.Agamanta,ShudhaandVira-shaivism8.21.Six

2.KapilawhowrotetheSamkhyasutras.3.YogasutraofPatanjali4.Gautama5.Mimamsaschool6.Vedanta,theconcludingportionofVedas.7.CharvakaSchool8.249.599B.C.10.Twentyfourthorthelasttirthankar.11.Jiva,Ajivaa,Astikaya,Bandha,Samvara,Nirjana,Moksa.8.31.Siddhartha2.UnderaPeepaltreeatBodhGaya,Bihar3.BodhGaya,Bihar4.Buddha’ssermons,ordoctrinesandethics.5.Upali6.Thereissufferinginhumanlife.

Thereiscauseofsuffering.Thereiscessationofsuffering.PathofLiberation.

7.CharvakaSchool

9.RELIGIONANDPHILOSOPHYINMEDIEVALINDIANearlyeverymonthaprogrammeisgoingoninanyauditoriuminthecitywheresongsoftheSufisaintsandBhaktisaintsaresung.Thepopularityoftheseprogramemscanbeseenfromtheattendancethatisthere.Theyarepatronizedbythegovernment,bybigbusinesshouses andevenby individuals.The songs and the teachingsof theSufi and theBhakisaintsarerelevanteventoday.DoyouknowthemedievalperiodinIndiasawtheriseandgrowthof theSufimovementand theBhaktimovement.The twomovementsbroughtanewformofreligiousexpressionamongstMuslimsandHindus.TheSufisweremysticswhocalled for liberalism in Islam.Theyemphasisedonan egalitarian societybasedonuniversallove.TheBhaktisaintstransformedHinduismbyintroducingdevotionorbhaktias themeans toattainGod.For themcastehadnomeaningandallhumanbeingswereequal.TheSufiandBhakti saintsplayedan important role inbringing theMuslimsandHindustogether.Byusingthelocallanguageofthepeople,theymadereligionaccessibleandmeaningfultothecommonpeople.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

understandthereasonsfortheriseofSufismandBhaktimovementsinMedievalIndia;

tracethegrowthoftheSufimovement;identifythemajorsilsilahsoftheSufis;explainthemaintenetsofSufism;explainthephilosophyoftheBhaktisaints,SantKabirandGuruNanak;

riseofSikhism;explaintheideologyoftheVaishnavitesaints;recognise the contribution of Sufi and Bhakti saints towards the growth of a

compositeIndianculture.

9.1THESUFIMOVEMENT

Background-RiseofIslam

You will recall that Islam was founded by ProphetMuhammad. Islam saw the rise ofmanyreligiousandspiritualmovementswithinit.ThesemovementswerecenteredmainlyaroundtheinterpretationoftheQuran.ThereweretwomajorsectsthatarosewithinIslam–theSunnisandShias.Ourcountryhasboththesects,butinmanyothercountrieslikeIran,Iraq,Pakistanetc.youwillfindfollowersofonlyoneofthem.AmongtheSunnis,therearefourprincipalschoolsofIslamicLaw,ThesearebasedupontheQuranandHadis(traditionsoftheProphet’ssayinganddoings).OfthesetheHanafischooloftheeighthcenturywasadoptedbytheeasternTurks,wholatercametoIndia.The greatest challenge to orthodox Sunnism came from the rationalist philosophy orMutazilas, who professed strict monotheism. According to them, God is just and hasnothingtodowithman’sevilactions.Menareendowedwithfreewillandareresponsiblefor their own actions. TheMutazilas were opposed by the Ashari School. Founded byAbulHasanAshari(873-935AD),theAsharischoolevolveditsownrationalistargumentindefenceof theorthodoxdoctrine (kalam).This schoolbelieves thatGodknows, seesandspeaks.TheQuraniseternalanduncreated.ThegreatestexponentofthisschoolwasAbuHamidal-Ghazali(1058-1111AD),whoiscreditedwithhavingreconciledorthodoxywithmysticism.Hewasagreattheologianwhoin1095begantoleadalifeofaSufi.Heis deeply respected by both orthodox elements and Sufis. Al-Ghazali attacked all non-orthodoxSunnischools.Hesaidthatpositiveknowledgecannotbegainedbyreasonbutbyrevelation.SufisowedtheirallegiancetotheQuranasmuchastheUlemasdid.TheinfluenceoftheideasofGhazaliwasgreaterbecauseoftheneweducationalsystemset up by the state, It provided for setting up of seminaries of higher learning (calledmadrasas)wherescholarswerefamiliarisedwithAshari ideas.TheyweretaughthowtorunthegovernmentinaccordancewithorthodoxSunniideas.Thesescholarswereknownasulema.UlemaplayedanimportantroleinthepoliticsofmedievalIndia.

TheSufis

ContrarytotheulemaweretheSufis.TheSufisweremystics.Theywerepiousmenwhowereshockedatthedegenerationinpoliticalandreligiouslife.Theyopposedthevulgar

displayofwealthinpubliclifeandthereadinessoftheulematoserve“ungodly”rulers.Manybegan to lead a retired ascetic life, havingnothing todowith the state.TheSufiphilosophyalsodifferedfromtheulema.TheSufis laidemphasisuponfreethoughtandliberal ideas.Theywereagainst formalworship, rigidityand fanaticism in religion.TheSufisturnedtomeditationinordertoachievereligioussatisfaction.LiketheBhaktisaints,theSufis too interpreted religionas ‘loveofgod’ and serviceofhumanity. In courseoftime, theSufisweredivided intodifferentsilsilahs (orders)witheachsilsilahhaving itsown pir (guide) calledKhwaja or Sheikh. The pir and his disciples lived in a khanqah(hospice).Apirnominatedasuccessororwalifromhisdisciplestocarryonhiswork.TheSufisorganisedsamas (a recitalofholysongs) toarousemysticalecstasy.Basra in IraqbecamethecentreofSufiactivities.ItmustbenotedthattheSufisaintswerenotsettingupanewreligion,butwerepreparingamoreliberalmovementwithintheframeworkofIslam.TheyowedtheirallegiancetotheQuranasmuchastheulemadid.

SufisminIndia

TheadventofSufisminIndiaissaidtobeintheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies.Oneofthe early Sufis of eminence, who settled in India, was Al-Hujwari who died in 1089,popularly known as Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Unlimited Treasure). In thebeginning, themaincentresof theSufiswereMultanandPunjab.By the thirteenthandfourteenth centuries, theSufishad spread toKashmir,Bihar,Bengal and theDeccan. Itmay bementioned that Sufism had already taken on a definite form before coming toIndia. Its fundamental and moral principles, teachings and orders, system of fasting,prayersandpracticeoflivinginkhanqahshadalreadybeenfixed.TheSufiscametoIndiaviaAfghanistanontheirownfreewill.Theiremphasisuponapurelife,devotionalloveandservicetohumanitymadethempopularandearnedthemaplaceofhonourinIndiansociety.Abul Fazl while writing in the Ain-i-Akbari speaks of fourteen silsilahs of the Sufis.However,inthislessonweshalloutlineonlysomeoftheimportantones.Thesesilsilahswere divided into two types: Ba-shara and Be-shara. Ba-shara were those orders thatfollowed the Islamic Law (Sharia) and its directives such as namaz and roza. Chiefamongst thesewere theChishti, Suhrawardi,Firdawsi,Qadiri andNaqshbandi silsilahs.ThebesharasilsilahswerenotboundbytheSharia.TheQalandarsbelongedtothisgroup.

TheChishtiSilsilah

TheChishtiorderwasfoundedinavillagecalledKhwajaChishti(nearHerat).InIndia,theChishtisilsilahwasfoundedbyKhwajaMuinuddinChishti(bornc.1142)whocametoIndiaaround1192.HemadeAjmerthemaincentreforhisteaching.Hebelievedthatserving mankind was the best form of devotion and therefore he worked amongst thedowntrodden.HediedinAjmerin1236.DuringMughaltimes,AjmerbecamealeadingpilgrimcentrebecausetheemperorsregularlyvisitedtheSheikh’stomb.Theextentofhispopularitycanbeseenbythefactthateventoday,millionsofMuslimsandHindusvisithis

dargah for fufilment of their wishes. Among his disciples were SheikhHamiduddin ofNagaur and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. The former lived the life of a poor peasant,cultivated land and refused Iltutmish’s offer of a grant of villages. The khanqah ofQutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was also visited by people from all walks of life. SultanIltutmishdedicatedtheQutubMinartothisSaint.SheikhFariduddinofAjodhan(PattaninPakistan)popularisedtheChishtisilsilahinmodernHaryanaandPunjab.Heopenedhisdoorof loveandgenerosity toall.BabaFarid, ashewascalled,was respectedbybothHindusandMuslims.Hisverses,writteninPunjabi,arequotedintheAdiGranth.Baba Farid’s most famous disciple Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) wasresponsibleformakingDelhianimportantcentreoftheChishtisilsilah.HecametoDelhiin1259andduringhissixtyyearsinDelhi,hesawthereignofsevensultans.Hepreferredto shun the company of rulers and nobles and kept aloof from the state. For himrenunciationmeant distribution of food and clothes to the poor.Amongst his followerswasthenotedwriterAmirKhusrau.Another famous Chishti saint was Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, popularly known asNasiruddinChirag-i-Dilli(TheLampofDelhi).Followinghisdeathin1356andthelackofaspiritualsuccessor,thedisciplesoftheChishtisilsilahmovedouttowardseasternandsouthernIndia.

TheSuhrawardiSilsilah

ThissilsilahwasfoundedbySheikhShihabuddinSuhrawardi.ItwasestablishedinIndiaby Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262). He set up a leading khanqah in Multan,which was visited by rulers, high government officials and rich merchants. SheikhBahauddin Zakariya openly took Iltutmisht’s side in his struggle against Qabacha andreceivedfromhimthetitleShaikhulIslam(LeaderofIslam).ItmustbenotedthatunliketheChishtisaints,theSuhrawardismaintainedclosecontactswiththestate.Theyacceptedgifts,jagirsandevengovernmentpostsintheecclersiasticaldepartment.The Suhrawardi silsilah was firmly established in Punjab and Sind. Besides these twosilsilahstherewereotherssuchastheFirdawsiSilsilah,ShattariSilsilah,QadiriSilsilah,NaqshbandiSilsilah.

9.2THEIMPORTANCEOFTHESUFIMOVEMENT

TheSufimovementmadeavaluablecontributiontoIndiansociety.LiketheBhaktisaintswhowereengagedinbreakingdownthebarrierswithinHinduism,theSufistooinfusedanewliberaloutlookwithinIslam.TheinteractionbetweenearlyBhaktiandSufiideaslaidthefoundationformoreliberalmovementsofthefifteenthcentury.YouwillreadthatSantKabirandGuruNanakhadpreachedanon-sectarianreligionbasedonuniversallove.TheSufisbelievedintheconceptofWahdat-ul-Wajud(UnityofBeing)whichwaspromoted

by Ibn-i-Arabi (1165-1240). He opined that all beings are essentially one. Differentreligionswere identical.This doctrine gained popularity in India.Therewas alsomuchexchange of ideas between the Sufis and Indian yogis. In fact the hatha-yoga treatiseAmritaKundawastranslatedintoArabicandPersian.A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and downtroddensectionsofsociety.WhiletheSultanandulemaoftenremainedalooffromthedaytodayproblemsofthepeople,theSufisaintsmaintainedclosecontactwiththecommonpeople.NizamuddinAuliyawas famous for distributinggifts amongst theneedy irrespectiveofreligionorcaste.Itissaidthathedidnotresttillhehadheardeveryvisitoratthekhanqah.AccordingtotheSufis,thehighestformofdevotiontoGodwastheserviceofmankind.TheytreatedHindusandMuslimsalike.AmirKhusrausaid“ThoughtheHinduisnotlikemeinreligion,hebelievesinthesamethingsthatIdo”.TheSufimovementencouragedequalityandbrotherhood. It fact,The IslamicemphasisuponequalitywasrespectedfarmorebytheSufisthanbytheulema.ThedoctrinesoftheSufiswereattackedbytheorthodoxy.TheSufisalsodenouncedtheulema.Theybelievedthat theulemahadsuccumbedtoworldbytemptationsandweremovingawayfromtheoriginal democratic and egalitarian principles of the Quran. This battle between theorthodox and liberal elements continued throughout the sixteenth, seventeenth andeighteenthcenturies.TheSufisaintstriedtobringaboutsocialreformstoo.LiketheBhaktisaints,theSufisaintscontributedgreatlytothegrowthofarichregionalliterature.MostoftheSufisaintswerepoetswhochosetowriteinlocallanguages.BabaFaridrecommendedtheuseofPunjabiforreligiouswritings.ShaikhHamiduddin,beforehim,wroteinHindawi.HisversesarethebestexamplesofearlyHindawitranslationofPersianmysticalpoetry.SyedGesuDarazwasthefirstwriterofDeccaniHindi.HefoundHindimoreexpressivethanPersiantoexplainmysticism.AnumberofSufiworkswerealsowritteninBengali.Themost notablewriter of this periodwasAmirKhusrau (1252-1325) the follower ofNizamuddinAuliya.KhusrautookprideinbeinganIndianandlookedatthehistoryandcultureofHindustanasapartofhisown tradition.Hewroteverses inHindi (Hindawi)andemployedthePersianmetreinHindi.Hecreatedanewstylecalledsabaq-i-hindi.BythefifteenthcenturyHindihadbeguntoassumeadefiniteshapeandBhaktisaintssuchasKabiruseditextensively.

INTEXTQUESTIONS9.1

1.WhowerecalledUlemas?_______________________________________________________________

2.WhatdoyoumeanbyKalam?_______________________________________________________________3.WhowascalledDataGanjBaksh?_______________________________________________________________4.HowmanySilsilahsAin-i-Akbarispeaksabout?_______________________________________________________________5.WhereistheKhwajaMuinuddinChistiKhanqahlocated?_______________________________________________________________6.WhatistheothernameofIslamiclaw?_______________________________________________________________7.WhoiscalledChirag-i-Dilli(TheLampofDelhi)?_______________________________________________________________

9.3THEBHAKTIMOVEMENT

ThedevelopmentofBhaktimovementtookplaceinTamilNadubetweentheseventhandtwelfth centuries. Itwas reflected in the emotional poemsof theNayanars (devotees ofShiva)andAlvars(devoteesofVishnu).Thesesaints lookeduponreligionnotasacoldformal worship but as a loving bond based upon love between the worshipped andworshipper.Theywroteinlocal languages,TamilandTeluguandwerethereforeable toreachouttomanypeople.Incourseof time, the ideasof theSouthmovedup to theNorthbut itwasaveryslowprocess.Sanskrit,whichwasstillthevehicleofthought,wasgivenanewform.Thus we find that the Bhagavata Purana of ninth century was not written in the oldPuranic form.CenteredaroundKrishna’schildhoodandyouth, thisworkusesKrishna’sexploitstoexplaindeepphilosophyinsimpleterms.ThisworkbecameaturningpointinthehistoryoftheVaishnavitemovementwhichwasanimportantcomponentoftheBhaktimovement.A more effective method for spreading of the Bhakti ideology was the use of locallanguages. The Bhakti saints composed their verses in local languages. They alsotranslatedSanskritworkstomakethemunderstandabletoawideraudience.ThuswefindJnanadeva writing in Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in Hindi, Shankaradevapopularising Assamese, Chaitanya and Chandidas spreading their message in Bengali,Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani. In addition, devotional poetry was composed inKashmiri,Telugu,Kannad,Oriya,Malayalam,MaithiliandGujarati.

TheBhaktisaintsbelievedthatsalvationcanbeachievedbyall.Theymadenodistinctionofcaste,creedorreligionbeforeGod.Theythemselvescamefromdiversebackgrounds.Ramananda, whose disciples included Hindus andMuslims, came from a conservativebrahmanfamily.Hisdisciple,Kabir,wasaweaver.GuruNanakwasavillageaccountant’sson.Namdevwasa tailor.Thesaintsstressedequality,disregarded thecastesystemandattacked institutionalised religion. The saints did not confine themselves to purelyreligious ideas. They advocated social reforms too. They opposed sati and femaleinfanticide. Women were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai and Lalla (of Kashmir)composedversesthatarepopulareventoday.Amongstthenon-sectarianBhaktisaints,themostoutstandingcontributionwasmadebyKabirandGuruNanak.Their ideasweredrawnfrombothHinduand Islamic traditionsandwereaimedatbridgingthegulfbetweentheHindusandtheMuslims.Letusreadinsomedetailaboutthem.Kabir(1440-1518)issaidtohavebeenthesonofabrahmanwidow,whoabandonedhim.HewasbroughtupinthehouseofaMuslimweaver.KabirbelievedthatthewaytoGodwas through personally experienced bhakti or devotion.He believed that theCreator isOne.HisGodwascalledbymanynames-Rama,Hari,Govinda,Allah,Rahim,Khuda,etc. No wonder then that theMuslims claim him as Sufi, the Hindus call him Rama-Bhakta and the Sikhs incorporate his songs in theAdiGranth. The external aspects ofreligion weremeaningless for Kabir. His beliefs and ideas were reflected in the dohas(Sakhi)composedbyhim.Oneofhisdohasconveyedthatifbyworshippingastone(idol)onecouldattainGod,thenhewaswillingtoworshipamountain.Itwasbettertoworshipastoneflour-grinderbecausethatcouldatleastfillstomachs.KabiremphasisedsimplicityinreligionandsaidthatbhaktiwastheeasiestwaytoattainGod.Herefusedtoacceptanyprevalentreligiousbeliefwithoutpriorreasoning.Forhim,amancouldnotachievesuccesswithouthardwork.Headvocatedperformanceofactionrather thanrenunciationofduty.Kabir’sbelief in theunityofGod ledbothHindusandMuslimstobecomehisdisciples.Kabir’sideaswerenotrestrictedtoreligion.Heattemptedtochangethenarrowthinkingofsociety.Hispoetrywasforcefulanddirect.Itwaseasilyunderstoodandmuchofithaspassedintooureverydaylanguage.Another great exponent of the Nankana school was Guru Nanak (1469-1539). He wasborn at Talwandi (Nakana Sahib). From an early age, he showed leanings towards aspirituallife.Hewashelpfultothepoorandneedy.HisdisciplescalledthemselvesSikhs(derivedfromSanskritsisya,discipleorPalisikkha,instruction).GuruNanak’spersonality combined in itself simplicity andpeacefulness.GuruNanak’sobjectivewas to remove the existing corruption and degrading practices in society. Heshowedanewpathfortheestablishmentofanegalitariansocialorder.LikeKabir,Guru

Nanak was as much a social reformer as he was a religious teacher. He called for animprovementinthestatusofwomen.Hesaidthatwomenwhogivebirthtokingsshouldnot be spoken ill of. His vani (words) alongwith those of other SikhGurus have beenbroughttogetherintheGuruGranthSahib,theholybookoftheSikhs.

TheVaishnaviteMovement

YouhavereadthatsaintssuchasKabir,NamdevandGuruNanakhadpreacheddevotiontoward a nirankar form of God. During this period, another movement based upondevotion towards a sakar form of God had also developed. Thismovement, called theVaishnavitemovement,centeredaroundtheworshipofRamaandKrishna,whowereseenas incarnations (avatars) of Lord Vishnu. Its main exponents were Surdas, Mirabai,Tulsidas and Chaitanya. Their path to salvation was expressed through themedium ofpoetry,song,danceandkirtans.Surdas(1483-1563)wasadiscipleofthefamousteacher,Vallabhachara.Hewasablindpoet, whose songs are centered around Krishna. His Sursagar recounts the exploits ofKrishnaduringhischildhoodandyouthwithgentleaffectionanddelightfulness.The love for Krishna was also expressed through the songs of Mirabai (l 503-73).Widowedatanearlyage,shebelievedinaspiritualmarriagewithherLord.Herpoemshaveaqualityoftheirownandarepopulareventoday.The Vaishnavite movement spread in the east through the efforts of Chaitanya (1484-1533). Chaitanya considered Krishna not as a mere incarnation of Vishnu but as thehighestformofGod.ThedevotionforKrishnawasexpressedthroughSankirtans(hymnsessionbydevotees)whichtookplaceinhomes,templesandevenstreetprocessions.LikeotherBhaktisaints,Chaitanyatoowaswillingtowelcomeeveryone,irrespectiveofcaste,intothefold.Thesaintsthuspromotedasenseofequalityamongstthepeople.The worship of Rama was popularised by saints like Ramananda (1400-1470). HeconsideredRamaas thesupremeGod.Womenandoutcasteswerewelcomed.ThemostfamousoftheRamabhaktaswasTulsidas(1532-1623)whowrotetheRamacharitmanas.The Vaishnavite saints developed their philosophy within the broad framework ofHinduism. They called for reforms in religion and love amongst fellow beings. Theirphilosophywasbroadlyhumanist.

9.4THEIMPORTANCEOFTHEBHAKTIANDSUFIMOVEMENTS

Youwill recall that theBhaktimovementwasa socio-religiousmovement thatopposedreligiousbigotryandsocialrigidities.Itemphasisedgoodcharacterandpurethinking.Atatimewhensocietyhadbecomestagnant,theBhaktisaintsinfusednewlifeandstrength.

Theyawakenedanewsenseofconfidenceandattemptedtoredefinesocialandreligiousvalues. Saints like Kabir and Nanak stressed upon the reordering of society alongegalitarian lines. Their call to social equality attracted many a downtrodden. AlthoughKabirandNanakhadno intentionof foundingnewreligionsbut following theirdeaths,theirsupportersgroupedtogetherasKabirpanthisandSikhsrespectively.TheimportanceoftheBhaktiandSufisaintsliesinthenewatmospherecreatedbythem,which continued to affect the social, religious and political life of India even in latercenturies.Akbar’s liberal ideaswereaproductof thisatmosphere inwhichhewasbornand brought up. The preaching of Guru Nanak were passed down from generation togeneration. This resulted in the growth of a separate religious group, with its separatelanguage and scriptGurmukhi and religiousbook,GuruGranthSahib.UnderMaharajaRanjitSingh,theSikhsgrewintoaformidablepoliticalforceinthepoliticsofNorthIndia.TheinteractionbetweentheBhaktiandSufisaintshadanimpactuponIndiansociety.TheSufi theoryofWahdat-al-Wujud (UnityofBeing)was remarkably similar to that in theHinduUpanishads.ManySufipoet-saintspreferredtouseHinditermsratherthanPersianverses to explain concepts. Thus we find Sufi poets such as Malik Muhamniad Jaisicomposing works in Hindi. The use of terms such as Krishna, Radha, Gopi, Jamuna,Gangaetc.becamesocommoninsuchliteraturethataneminentSufi,MirAbdulWahidwrote a treatise Haqaiq-i-Hindi to explain their Islamic equivalents. In later years thisinteractioncontinuedasAkbarandJahangirfollowedaliberalreligiouspolicy.ThepopularversesandsongsoftheBhaktisaintsalsoservedasforerunnersofamusicalrenaissance.Newmusicalcompositionswerewrittenforthepurposeofgroupsingingatkirtans.EventodayMira’sbhajansandTulsidas’schaupaisarerecitedatprayermeetings.

INTEXTQUESTIONS9.2

1.WhichworkbecametheturningpointinthehistoryofVaishnavitemovement?_______________________________________________________________2.AdiGranthisaholyworkofwhichreligion?_______________________________________________________________3.HowdidKabirandGuruNanakbecomepopularamongthemasses?_______________________________________________________________4.Whosaidthis,‘Womenwhogivebirthtokingsshouldnotbespokenillof?_______________________________________________________________5.WhowroteSurSagar?_______________________________________________________________

PhilosophyinMedievalIndia

Themajorreligiousmovementswerebroughtaboutby themystics.Theycontributed tothe religious ideasandbeliefs.Bhakti saints likeVallabhacharya,Ramanuja,Nimbaraka

brought about new philosophical thinking which had its origin in Shankaracharya’sadvaita(non-dualism)philosophy.

VishistadvaitaofRamanujacharya

Vïshistadvaitameansmodifiedmonism.TheultimaterealityaccordingtothisphilosophyisBrahman(God)andmatterandsoularehisqualities.

SivadvaitaofSrikanthacharya

AccordingtothisphilosophytheultimateBrahmanisShiva,endowedwithShakti.Shivaexistsinthisworldaswellasbeyondit.

DvaitaofMadhavacharya

The literalmeaningofdvaita isdualismwhich stands inopposition tonon-dualismandmonism of Shankaracharya.He believed that theworld is not an illusion (maya) but arealityfullofdifferences.

DvaitadvaitaofNimbaraka

Dvaitadvaita means dualistic monism. According to this philosophy God transformedhimselfintoworldandsoul.ThisworldandsoularedifferentfromGod(Brahman).TheycouldsurvivewiththesupportofGodonly.Theyareseparatebutdependent.

SuddhadvaitaofVallabhacharya

Vallabhacharya wrote commentaries on Vedanta Sutra and Bhagavad Gita. For him.Brahman (God)was SriKrishnawhomanifested himself as souls andmatter.God andsoularenotdistinct,butone.Thestresswasonpurenon-dualism.HisphilosophycametobeknownasPushtimarga(thepathofgrace)andtheschoolwascalledRudrasampradaya.

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

The Bhakti and Sufi movements were liberal movements within Hinduism and IslamemphasisinganewandmorepersonalisedrelationshipbetweenthehumanbeingandGod.

ThemessageoftheSufimovementwasuniversalloveandbrotherhoodofman.Because of their belief in the concept of unity of being, Sufis were able to

establishanideologicalrelationshipwithHinduthought.The Bhakti movement grew amongst Nayanars and Alvars of the south and

stressedanewmethodofworshipofGodbasedupondevotionallove.TheBhaktisaintsweredividedintotheNirgunandSagunbelievers.Unlike the Nirgun believers the Sagun believers saw God as having a definite

formsuchasRamaorKrishna.TheBhaktiandSufisaintsmadevaluablecontributionstomedievalIndiansociety

intermsoflayingaliberalfoundationandpromotingatremendousgrowthofregionalliteratureandlocallanguages.

TERMINALEXERCISES

1.HowdidSufimovementprogressinIslam?2.HowwillyoudifferentiatetheChistiSilsilahwiththeSubrawardiSilsilah?3.TheBhaktiSaintsandtheSufiSaintswerethetwofacesofacoin.Elaborate.4.WhatwerethesimilaritiesbetweenGuruNanakandKabir?5.WriteashortparagraphontheVaishnovitemovementofIndia?

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

9.11.Scholarswithorthodoxsunniideas.2.OrthodoxdoctrineofIslamreligion.3.Al-Hujwari4.Fourteen5.Sharia6.Ajmer7.SheikhNasiruddinMahmud.9.21.BhagavataPurana

2.Sikhreligion3.TheseideasweredrawnfromtheHinduandMuslimtraditions.Theyalsousedsimplelanguages.4.GuruNanak5.Surdas

10.RELIGIOUSREFORMMOVEMENTSINMODERNINDIAWeareaveryluckypeopletoday.Wearefreefromforeigndominationandalsofreefrommanyotherrigiditieswhichourancestorshadtoface.TheIndiansocietyinthefirsthalfof the 19th century was caste ridden, decadent and rigid. It followed certain practiceswhich are not in keeping with humanitarian feelings or values but were still beingfollowed in the name of religion.A changewas therefore needed in society.When theBritish came to India they introduced the English language as well as certain modernideas. These ideas were those of liberty, social and economic equality, fraternity,democracyandjusticewhichhadatremendousimpactonIndiansociety.Fortunatelyforour country there were some enlightened Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, IshwarChandVidyasagar,DayanandSaraswati andmanyotherswhowerewilling to fightandbringinreformsinsocietysothatitcouldfacethechallengesoftheWest.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

identifysomecommoncharacteristicsofreligiousandsocialreformmovement;explain the role played by Raja Rammohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj in

bringingaboutreligiousreforms;recognisethePrarthanaSamajasaninstitutionthatworkedforreligiousaswellas

socialreform;explaintheideologyoftheAryaSamajanditscontributorstosocialandreligious

reforms;

examinethecontributionoftheRamakrishnaMissiontoIndia’sawakeninginthenineteenthcentury;

appreciate the efforts of the Theosophical Society in promoting ancient Indianreligions;

discuss the contribution of the Aligarh Movement towards cultural andeducationalreformsamongsttheMuslims;and

examinethereformscarriedoutbytheSikhsandtheParseestomaketheirsocietyenlightened.

10.1COMMONCHARACTERISTICSOFRELIGIOUSANDSOCIALREFORMMOVEMENTS

Fromthelate19thcenturyanumberofEuropeanandIndianscholarsstartedthestudyofancient India’s history, philosophy, science, religions and literature. This growingknowledge of India’s past glory provided to the Indian people a sense of pride in theircivilization. Italsohelped the reformers in theirworkof religiousandsocial reformfortheirstruggleagainstalltypeofinhumanpractices,superstitionsetc.Sincetheyhadbecomeassociatedwithreligiousbeliefs,thereforemostofthemovementsofsocialreformwereofareligiouscharacter.ThesesocialandreligiousreformmovementsaroseamongallcommunitiesoftheIndianpeople.Theyattackedbigotry,superstitionandtheholdofthepriestlyclass.They worked for abolition of castes and untouchability, purdah system, sati, childmarriage,socialinequalitiesandilliteracy.SomeofthesereformersweresupporteddirectlyorindirectlybytheBritishofficialsandsome of the reformers also supported reformative steps and regulations framed by theBritishGovernment.

10.2BRAHMOSAMAJANDRAJARAMMOHANROY

Menandwomenenjoycertainrightsandfreedomtoday.Butdoyouknowthattheyweregiventousbytheuntiringeffortsmadebycertainreformers.Amongthegreatreformersof this period, Raja Rammohan Roy deserves special mention. He presented a finecombinationofEastandtheWest.AmanofgreatliterarytalentandwellversedinIndianculture,healsomadespecialeffort tostudyChristianityandIslamsothathecoulddealwith themwith understanding. He felt great revulsion formany practices prevailing inIndiathatenjoyedreligiousapproval.

His main pre-occupation was how to rid the Hindu religion of both image worship,sacrificial rites and other meaningless rituals. He condemned the priestly class forencouraging thesepractices.Heopined thatall theprincipalancient textsof theHinduspreachedmonotheism orworship of oneGod.His greatest achievement in the field ofreligiousreformwasansettingupin1828oftheBrahmoSamaj.TheBrahmoSamajwasan important organization of religious reforms. It forbade idol-worship and discardedmeaningless rites and rituals. The Samaj also forbade its members from attacking anyreligion.Itbelievedinthebasicunityofallthereligions.RajaRammohanRoybelievedthatmanshouldadopttruthandgoodnessandshouldgiveupthingsbasedonfalsehoodandsuperstition.RajaRammohanRoywasnotmerelyareligiousreformerbutasocialreformeralso.HisgreatestachievementwastheabolitionofSatiin1929.RajaRammohanRoyrealizedthatthepracticeofSatiwasduetotheextremelylowpositionofHinduwomen.Thereforehestartedworkingasastoutchampionofwomen’srights.Heworkedveryhardforyearstostop this practice of ‘Sati’. In the early 1818 he set out to rouse public opinion on thequestionofSati.OntheonehandheshowedbycitingtheauthorityoftheoldestsacredbooksthattheHindureligionatitsbestwasopposedtothepracticeandontheother,heappealed to reasonandhumanityandcompassionof thepeople.Hevisited theburiningghatsofCalcuttatotryandpersuadetherelativesofwidowstogiveuptheirplanofself-immolation.HiscampaignagainstSatiarousedtheoppositionoftheorthodoxHinduswhobitterlyattackedhim.RajaRammohanRoywasalsodeeplyopposedtothecastesystemthatprevailedinIndiansociety. A humanist and democrat to the core, he wrote and talked against the castesystem. Another important area that concerned him was Hindu theology. Study of theVedasandUpanishadsgavehimgroundtoshowthatmonotheismwastheoriginalHindubelief and hence he denounced polytheism and idolatry. In fact the philosopher did notinsist on the creation of a new religion but merely endeavoured to ‘purify’ the Vedicreligionfromthecrudeandmostignorantsuperstitions.HeproclaimedthatthereisonlyoneGodforallreligionsandforallhumanity.HewroteinBengaliandEnglish.HewasanardentpromoterofEnglisheducation.HewasalsowellversedinthePersianlanguageandsomeofhismostliberalandrationalideaswereexpressedinhisearlywritingsinthatlanguage.Headvocated theabolitionofpolygamy(apracticeofmanhavingmore thanonewife)and child marriage. He wanted women to be educated and given the right to inheritproperty.Hecondemnedthesubjugationofwomenandopposedtheprevailingideasthatwomenwere inferior tomen in intellector inamoralsense.Headvocated therightsofwidowstoremarry.Tobringhisideasintopractice,RajaRammohanRoyfoundedtheBrahmoSabhain1828whichlatercametobeknownasBrahmoSamaj.Itwasopentoallpersonsregardlessoftheir colour, convictions, caste, nationality, and religion. It emphasised human dignity,opposedidolworshipandcondemnedsocialevilslikesatipratha.Itwasnotmeanttobe

aseparate religious sectbutonlyaplacewhereall thosewhobelieved inone trueGodcouldmeetandpray.Noimageswereallowedandnosacrificesandofferingspermitted.DebendraNathTagore(1817-1905), the sonofDwarkanathTagore, foundermemberofBrahmoSamaj,succeededRajaRammohanRoyas the leaderof theBrahmoSamaj.HeputnewlifeintheSamajandpropagatedRajaRammohanRoy’sideas.KeshubChandraSen(l838-1884)tookovertheleadershipoftheSamajfromTagore.TheBrahmoSamajstoodfortheprinciplesofindividualfreedom,nationalunity,solidarityandcollaborationand the democratisation of all social institutions and relations. It thus became the firstorganisedvehiclefortheexpressionofnationalawakeningandinauguratedaneweraforthepeopleof India.However, theBrahmoSamajwasweakenedby internaldissensionsanditsinfluenceremainedconfinedtourbaneducatedgroups.Butitleftitsimpactontheintellectual,socialandpoliticallifeofBengal.

10.3PRARTHANASAMAJANDRANADE

The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang (1825-1898) in 1876with the objective of rationalworship and social reform. The two greatmembersofthisSamajwereShriR.C.BhandarkarandJusticeMahadevGovindRanade.Theydevotedthemselvestotheworkofsocialreformsuchasinter-castedining,intercastemarriage,widowremarriageandimprovementofthelotofwomenanddepressedclasses.MahavdevGovindRanade(1842-1901)devotedhisentirelifetoPrarthanaSamaj.Hewasthe founder of the Widow Remarriage Association (1861) and the Deccan EducationSociety.HeestablishedthePoonaSarvajanikSabhaaswell.ToRanade,religiousreformwas inseparable from social reform.He also believed that if religious ideaswere rigidtherewouldbenosuccessinsocial,economicandpoliticalspheres.MGRAnadewastheleaderofsocialreformationandculturalrenaissanceinWesternIndia.Ranade’sgreatmessagetothepersonswhowereinvolvedinsocialservicewas“Strengthof numbers we cannot command, but we can command earnestness of conviction,singlenessofdevotion,readinessforself-sacrifice,inallhonestworkersinthecause.”AlthoughPrarthanaSamajwaspowerfully influencedby the ideasofBrahmoSamaj, itdidnot insistuponarigidexclusionof idolworshipandadefinitebreakfromthecastesystem.ItdidnotregardtheVedasasthelastword,nordiditbelieveinthedoctrineoftransmigrationofthehumansoulandincarnationofGod.ItscentralideawasonepositivebeliefintheunityofGod.

10.4DEROZIOANDYOUNGBENGALMOVEMENT

HenryLuiVivianDerozio,joinedtheHinduCollegeofCalcuttaasateacher.Hehad

come from Scotland to sell watches in Calcutta, but later made the spread of moderneducationinBengalashislife’smission.Deroziopromotedradicalideasthroughhisteachingandbyorganizinganassociationfordebate and discussions on literature, philosophy, history and science. He inspired hisfollowersandstudentstoquestionallauthority.Derozioandhisfamousfollowers,knownas theDerziansandYoungBengal,were fierypatriots.Theycherished the idealsof theFrenchRevolution(1789A.D.)andtheliberalthinkingofBritain.Deroziodiedofcholeraattheyoungageof22.TheYoungBengalMovement continued even afterDerozio’s dismissal and his suddendeath. Though deprived of leadership, the members of this group continued preachingradicalviewsthroughteachingandjournalism.

IshwarChandraVidyasagar

Another outstanding reformer in Bengal was Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891A.D.).Ascholarofgreatdepths,hededicatedhimselftothecauseoftheemancipationofwomen. Itwasdue tohis sincere efforts that obstacles to themarriageofwidowswereremovedthroughalawin1856.Heplayedaleadingroleinpromotingeducationofgirlsand started andhelped the settingup a number of schools for girls.Vidyasagar did notconcern himselfmuchwith religious questions.However, hewas against all thosewhoopposedreformsinthenameofreligion.

10.5SPREADOFTHEREFORMMOVEMENTSINWESTERNANDSOUTHERNINDIA

After Bengal, the most important region where the movement for reforms spread waswesternIndia.BalShastriJambekarwasoneofthefirstreformersinBombay.HeattackedBrahmanicalorthodoxyandtriedtoreformpopularHinduism.In 1849, the Parmahansa Mandali was founded in Poona, Satara and other towns ofMaharashtra. Its followers had faith in oneGod and they opposed caste system.At itsmeetings,members took food cooked by low-caste people. They favoured education ofwomenand supportedwidow remarriage.MahadevRanadebelieved thatwithout socialreformsitwasnotpossible toachieveanyprogress in thepoliticalandeconomicfields.HewasagreatadvocateofHindu-Muslimunity.TwoothergreatreformersinWesternIndiawereGopalHariDeshmukhLokahitwariandJotiraoGovindraoPhule popularly known as Jotiba.Theyworked for the upliftment ofwomen, took up the cause of women and downtrodden masses. Jyotiba with his wifestartedagirlsschool inPoona, in1857.Healsoopenedaschool for thechildrenof thedepressedclasses.JotibaPhulewasalsoapioneerofthewidowremarriagemovementin

Maharashtra.Hechallenged thedominanceofBrahminsandworked fororganizingandactivatingthemasses.HechampionedthecauseofvillagersandactivelyworkedforruraldevelopmentinMaharashtra.Jotibawasgiventhetileof‘Mahatma’forhisworkforthecause of the oppressed. In 1873, he founded the Satya-Shodhak to give strength to hismovementandmakeitpopular.Inthesouthernpartsofthecountry.KandukuriVeeresalingam(1848-1919)pioneeredthemovement in support ofwidow remarriage and girls education inAndhra.Veda Samajfounded inMadras in1864advocateddiscardingof castedistinctionsandpromotionofwidowremarriageandwomen’seducation. Itcondemnedthesuperstitionsandritualsoforthodox Hinduism and propagated belief in one supreme God. Chembeti SridharaluNaiduwas themostpopular leaderof theVedaSamaj.He translatedbooksof theVedaSamajinTamilandTelugu.An important movement particularly significant for the emancipation of the so-calledbackwardandoppressedsectionsof IndiansocietywasstartedbyShreeNarayanaGuru(1854-1928)inKerala.In1903hefoundedtheShreenarayanaDharmaParipalanaYogam(SNDP) to carry on the work of social reform. Shree Narayana Guru considereddifferencesbasedoncasteandreligionasmeaninglessandadvocatedwhathecalled‘OneCaste,oneReligionandonGod’forall.

INTEXTQUESTIONS10.1

1.StatethecircumstancesthatleadtothefoundationofBrahmoSamaj?_______________________________________________________________2.WhatweretheprinciplesofBrahmoSamaj?_______________________________________________________________3.HowdidPrathanaSamajhelpreducingsocialdisparities?_______________________________________________________________4.WhowasM.G.Ranade?_______________________________________________________________

10.6SWAMIDAYANANDSARASWATI(1824-1883)ANDARYASAMAJ

Attend ameeting of theArya Samaj any day.Youwill findmanywomen attending it.They are also performing yajana and reading the scriptures. This was the basiccontribution of Mool Shanker an important representative of the religions reformmovementinIndiafrom

Gujarat.HelatercametobeknownasDayanandSaraswati(l824-1883).Hefounded theAryaSamajin1875.ThemostinfluentialmovementofreligiousandsocialreforminnorthernIndiawasstartedbyDayanandSaraswari.HeheldthattheVedascontainedalltheknowledgeimpartedtoman by God and essentials of modern science could also be traced in them. He wasopposedtoidolatry,ritualandpriesthood,particularlytotheprevalentcastepracticesandpopularHinduismaspreachedbytheBrahmins.Hefavouredthestudyofwesternscience.Withall thisdoctrine,hewentaboutallover thecountryandin1875foundedtheAryaSamajinBombay.Satyarth Prakash was his most important book. The use of Hindi in his writings andpreachings made his ideas accessible to the common people of northern India. AryaSamajis opposed childmarriages and encouraged remarriage of widows. It made rapidprogressinPunjab,UttarPradesh,RajasthanandGujarat.ANetworkofschoolsandcollegesforboysandgirlswasestablishedthroughoutnorthernIndiatopromotethespreadofeducation.DayanandAnglo-VedicSchoolofLahore,whichsoon developed into a premier college of Punjab, set the pattern for such institutions.InstructionwasimpartedthroughHindiandEnglishonmodernlines.LalaHansrajplayeda leading role in this field. In 1902, Swami Shradhananda started the Gurukul nearHardwar to propagate the more traditional ideas of education. This was set up on thepatternofancientAshrams.AryaSamajtriedtoinculcatethespiritofself-respectandself-relianceamongthepeopleofIndia.Thispromotednationalism.Atthesametimeoneofitsmainobjectiveswastoprevent the conversion of Hindus to other religions. It also prescribed a purificatoryceremonycalld suddhi for thoseHinduswhohadbeenconverted toother religions likeIslamandChristianity.

10.7THERAMAKRISHNAMISSIONANDSWAMIVIVEKANANDA

Gadadhar Chattopadhyaya (l836-86) was a poor Brahmin priest who later came to beknown as Ramakrishna Paramahansa: His education did not proceed beyond theelementary stage and he had no formal education in philosophy and Shastras. HededicatedhislifetoGod.HebelievedthatthereweremanyroadstoGodandtheserviceof man was the service of God, because man was the embodiment of God. Hencesectarianismhadnoplaceinhisteachings.Herealisedthedivinityinhumanityandlookedupontheserviceofmankindasameanstosalvation.Narendra Nath Datta (l863-1902) later known as Swami Vivekananda was the mostdevoted pupil of Ramakrishna Paramahansa who carried the message of his GuruRamakrishnaallovertheworld,speciallyinAmericaandEurope.

VivekanandawasproudofIndia’sspiritualheritage,buthebelievedthatnoindividualornation can live by holding himself or itself apart from the community of others. Hecondemnedthecastesystem,rigidrituals,centuryoldsuperstitionsandadvocatedliberty,freethinkingandequality.Vivekanandawasindeed,apatriotfromthecoreofhisheart.HehadtremendousfaithintheevolutionofIndiancultureandanintensezealtoreviveallthatwasgoodandgreatinherculturesoastoserveherinallpossiblewaysforheronwardmarch.SwamiVivekanandalaidstressonRamakrishna’steachingontheessentialonenessofallreligions. He promoted the Vedanta philosophy which he considered the most rationalsystem.The principal feature of Vivekananda’s social philosophy was his insistence on theupliftmentof themasses.Forhim,service to thepooranddowntroddenwasthehighestreligion. To organise such service, he founded the RamakrishnaMission in 1897. ThisMission to date has played an important role in providing social service in times ofnationaldistress like famine, floods,andepidemic.Manyschools,hospitals,orphanagesarerunbyit.In1893heparticipatedintheAllWorldReligiousConference(ParliamentofReligions)atChicagointheUnitedStatesofAmerica.HearguedthatVedantawasthereligionofallandnotoftheHindusalone.Hisaddresstheremadeadeepimpressiononthepeopleofothercountriesand thushelped to raise theprestigeof Indianculture in theeyesof theworld.Thoughhismissionwasmainlyofreligiousnature,hewaskeenlyinterestedintheimprovementofallaspectsofnationallife.Heexpressedhisconcernforthemiserableandpoor conditions of the people and said that neglect of the masses is a sin. He franklystated,“Itiswewhoareresponsibleforallourmiseryandallourdegradation.”Heurgedhis countrymen to work for their own salvation. For this purpose bands of workersdevotedtothiscauseweretrainedthroughtheRamakrishanMission.ThusVivekanandaemphasizedsocialgoodorsocialservices.

INTEXTQUEST1ONS10.2

1.WhofoundedAryaSamaj?_______________________________________________________________2.WherewasfirstDayanandAnglo-VedicCollegeestablished?_______________________________________________________________3.HowaccordingtoGadadharChattopadhayacanyouachievesalvation?_______________________________________________________________4.WhatwastheoriginalnameofSwamiVivekanand?_______________________________________________________________5.WhataccordingtoSwamiVivekanandawasthehighestreligion?_______________________________________________________________

10.8THEOSOPHICALSOCIETYANDANNIEBESANT

Theosophical societyhasplayedan important role in thehistoryof the religion, societyandcultureofmodernIndia.ItwasfoundedintheUSAin1875byaRussianspiritualistMadameH.P.BlavatskyandanAmericanCol.H.S.Olcott.Itsobjectivewastopromotestudiesinancientreligions,philosophiesandscience,developthedivinepowerslatentinmanandformauniversalbrotherhoodofman.TheSocietywas introduced to India in1879and itsheadquarterswere set up atAdyarnearMadras in 1886. Its influence spreadunderAnnieBeasant in 1893whoplayed animportant role in India’s struggle for freedom. She and her associates advocated therevival and strengthening of the ancient religions of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism andBuddhism. They recognized the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul. They alsopreachedtheuniversalbrotherhoodofman.TheyhelpedtoimparttotheeducatedIndiansasenseofprideintheirowncountry.AnnieBeasant’smovementwasamovementledandsupportedbywesternerswhoglorifiedIndianreligiousandphilosophicaltraditions.ThishelpedIndianstorecovertheirself-confidence.InfacttheactivitiesofAnnieBesantinthefieldofeducationweremoresignificant.Shefounded the Central Hindu College at Banaras which she later handed over toMadanMohanMalaviya.HedevelopedthatcollegeintotheBanarasHinduUniversity.AlthoughtheTheosophicalMovementdidnotenjoymasspopularity,itsworkundertheleadershipofAnnieBesant for awakening of the Indianswas remarkable. She contributed a greatdealtothedevelopmentofnationalspiritinIndians.TheheadquartersoftheTheosophicalSocietyatAdyarbecameacentreofknowledgewithalibraryofrareSanskritbooks.The society fought against untouchability and advocated upliftment of women. AnnieBesantdedicatedherwholelifetothecauseofIndiansociety.Shedescribedhermissioninthesewords:“TheIndianworkisfirstofalltherevival,thestrengtheningandupliftingoftheancientreligions.Thishasbroughtwithitanewself-respect,andprideinthepast;beliefinthefuture,andasaninevitableresult,agreatwaveofpatrioticlife,thebeginningoftherebuildingofanation”.OneofMrs.Besant’smanyachievements in Indiawas the establishmentof theCentralHinduSchool.AnnieBesantmadeIndiaherpermanenthomeandtookaprominentpartinIndianpolitics.“TheneedsofIndiaare,amongothers,thedevelopmentofanationalspirit

and an education foundedon Indian ideas and enriched, not dominatedby the thoughtsandcultureoftheWest”.ShealwayssupportedHomeRuleforIndiansandestablishedaHomeRuleLeaguein1916tospreadthemessageofselfrule.Branches of the Theosophical Society were opened all over India and its JournalTheosophist had a wide circulation. The Society gave a helping hand in social andreligiousreform,especiallyinsouthIndia.MostoftheworkdonebyitwasinfluencedbyAnnieBesant.

INTEXTQUESTIONS10.3

1.WherewasTheTheosophicalSocietyfounded?_______________________________________________________________2.WhofoundedtheTheosophicalSociety?_______________________________________________________________3.WherewastheheadquartersoftheTheosophicalSocietyinIndia?_______________________________________________________________4.WhoestablishedHomeRuleLeaguein1916?_______________________________________________________________

10.9ALIGARHMOVEMENTANDSAYYIDAHMADKHAN

You have just read about reform within the Hindu religion, its practices and socialinstitutions.AsimilarreformmovementwasalsotakingplacewithinIslam.TheMuslimupperclasseshadtendedtoavoidcontactwithWesterneducationandcultureanditwasonlyafter therevoltof1857thatmodernideasofreligiousreformbegantoappear.Thebeginningwasmadeby theMuhammedanLiterarySociety founded inCalcutta in1863foundedbyNawabAbdulLatif1828-1893.Itpromoteddiscussionofreligious,socialandpolitical questions in the light ofmodern ideas and encouraged upper andmiddle classMuslimstoadoptWesterneducation.ItalsoplayedanimportantroleforMuslimUnity.TheMuslimmasseswerealso influencedbymovementscarriedonby theChishti sufiswho preached not only submission to God but also promoted the veneration of saints.Another movement is associated with Shah Waliullah in Delhi, who opposed theunorthodox religious practices and revived the Shia sect and strict monotheism. Thephilosophical and learned tradition of the FirangiMahal in Lucknowwas incorporatedintotheneweducationalsyllabusandpropagatedthroughoutIndiaduringtheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.Sharitullaof

Bengalwas the leader of theFaraizimovementBengalwhich took up the cause of thepeasantsandevenspokeagainstthecastesystemamongtheMuslims.Themostnotableof theMuslim reformerswasSayyidAhmedofRaiBareilly, inUttarPradesh.Heattracted theMuslimartisansof thedecliningweaving townsofAllahabadandPatnafindingareadyaudienceandgivingthecommonpeopledignityandanidentitythrough a common faith at a time of social dislocation. He realised that unless theMuslimsadaptedthemselvestothechangedcircumstancesofBritishrule,theywouldbedeprivedofallnewopportunities forstatusandprosperity.Hewashighly impressedbymodernscientificthoughtandworkedallhislifetoreconcileitwithIslam.HeinterpretedtheQuraninthelightofrationalismandscience.Heurgedthepeopletodevelopacriticalapproachandfreedomofthought.Healsowarnedagainstfanaticism,narrow-mindednessandexclusiveness.Heaskedthepeopletobebroadmindedandtolerant.In1883hesaid:“Nowbothofus(HindusandMuslims)liveontheairofIndia,drinktheholywatersoftheGangaandJamuna.WebothfeedupontheproductsoftheIndiansoil___weareanationandtheprogressandwelfareofthecountry,andbothofus,dependonourunity,mutualsympathy,andlove,whileourmutualdisagreement,obstinacyandoppositionandill-feelingaresuretodestroyus”.SyedAhmedKhanrightly felt that isolationwouldharmtheMuslimcommunityand toprevent that he did his best to create a linkwith the progressive cultural forces of theoutsideworld.Heworkedhard to remove thehostilityof theBritish rulers towards theMuslimswhomtheyconsideredastheirrealenemies.HefeltthatthereligiousandsociallifeoftheMuslimscouldbeimprovedonlywiththehelpofmodemWesternscientificknowledgeandculture.Therefore,promotionofmoderneducationwas the first task.As anofficial, he founded schools atmanyplaces.HegotmanyWestern books translated intoUrdu.He started theMuhammedanAnglo-OrientalCollegein1875atAligarh.ItwasmeanttobeacentreforspreadingWesternsciencesandculture.Later,thiscollegegrewintotheAligarhMuslimUniversity.The liberal, social and cultural movement started by Sayyid Ahmad Khan among theMuslims is known as the Aligarh Movement as it originated in Aligarh. The Anglo-Oriental College was the centre of this movement. It aimed at promoting moderneducationamongMuslimswithoutweakening the tieswith Islam. Itbecame thecentraleducationalinstitutionforIndianMuslims.TheAligarhMovementwas largely responsible for theMuslim revival that followed. ItprovidedafocalpointforthescatteredMuslimpopulationindifferentpartsofthecountry.Itgave themacommonfundof ideasandacommon language -Urdu.AMuslimpresswasdevelopedforthecompilationofworksinUrdu.Sayyid Ahmad’s efforts extended to the social sphere as well. He worked for socialreforms.Hewantedwomentobeeducatedandadvocatedtheremovalofthepurdah.Hewasalsoagainstpolygamy.

Therewereseveralothersocio-religiousmovementswhichinonewayortheotherhelpedthenationalawakeningoftheMuslims.MirzaGhulamAhmadhadfoundedtheAhmediyaMovementin1899.Underthismovement,anumberofschoolsandcollegeswereopenedalloverthecountry,impartingmoderneducation.Inthefieldofreligionthefollowersofthis movement emphasized the universal and humanitarian character of Islam. TheyfavouredtheunityamongHindusandMuslims.OneofthegreatestpoetsofmodernIndia,MuhammadIqbal,(1876-1938)alsoprofoundlyinfluenced through his poetry, the philosophical and religious outlook of the youngergenerationofMuslimsaswellasofHindus.Heurgedtheadoptionofadynamicoutlookthatwouldhelpchangetheworld.Hewasbasicallyahumanist.

10.10REFORMMOVEMENTSAMONGPARSIS

ReligiousreformbeganamongtheParsisinMumbaiinthemiddleofthe19thcentury.In1851, theRehnumaiMaz’dayasanSabhaorReligiousReformAssociationwas foundedbyNaorojiFurdonji,DadabhaiNaoroji,S.S.Bengaleeandothers.TheystartedajournalRast Goftar, for the purpose of social-religious reforms among the Parsis. They alsoplayed an important role in the spread of education, specially among girls. Theycampaigned against the entrenched orthodoxy in the religious field and initiated themodernizationofParsi social customs regarding theeducationofgirlsmarriageand thesocialpositionofwomeningeneral.Incourseoftime,theParsisbecamesociallythemostwesternizedsectionofIndiansociety.

10.11RELIGIOUSREFORMAMONGSIKHS

Religious reformamong theSikhswas started at the endof the19thCenturywhen theKhalsaCollege startedatAmritsar.Through theeffortsof theSinghSabhas (1870)andwithBritish support, theKhalsaCollegewas foundedatAmritsar in1892.Thiscollegeandschoolssetupasaresultofsimilarefforts,promotedGurumukhi,SikhlearningandPunjabiliteratureasawhole.After 1920 the Sikhmomentum gainedmomentumwhen the AkaliMovement rose inPunjab.ThechiefobjectoftheAkaliswastoimprovethemanagementoftheGurudwarasorSikhShrinesthatwereunderthecontrolofpriestsorMahantswhotreatedthemastheirprivateproperty.In1925,alawwaspassedwhichgavetherightofmanagingGurudwarastotheShiromaniGurudwaraPrabandhakCommittee.

10.12IMPACTOFTHEREFORMMOVEMENT

TheBritishwantedtoappeasetheorthodoxuppersectionofsociety.Asaresultonlytwoimportantlawswerepassed.Somelegalmeasureswereintroducedtoraisethestatusof

women. For example Sati was declared illegal (1829). Infanticidewas declared illegal.Widowremarriagewaspermittedbyalawpassedin1856.Marriageableageofgirlswasraisedtotenbyalawpassedin1860.Alawpassedin1872,sanctionedinter-casteandinter-communalmarriages.Theotherlawpassedin1891,aimedatdiscouragingchildmarriage.Forpreventingchildmarriage,theShardaActwaspassedin1929.Accordingtoitagirlbelow14andaboybelow18couldnot be married. In the 20th century and especially after 1919 the Indian nationalmovementbecamethemainpropagatorofsocialreform.Increasingly,thereformerstookrecoursetopropagandaintheIndianlanguagetoreachthemasses.Theyalsousednovels,dramas,shortstories,poetry,thePressandinthethirties(1930’s),thecinematoospreadtheirviews.Numerousindividuals,reformsocieties,andreligiousorganizationsworkedhardtospreadeducationamongwomen,topreventmarriageofyoungchildren, tobringwomenoutofthe purdah, to enforce monogamy, and to enable middle class women to take upprofessionsorpublicemployment.DuetoalltheseeffortsIndianwomenplayedanactiveand important role in the struggle for independence of the country. As a result manysuperstitionsdisappearedandmanyotherswereontheirwayout.Now,itwasnolongerasintotraveltoforeigncountries.

INTEXTQUESTIONS10.4

1.WhostartedMuhammedanAnglo-OrientalCollege?_______________________________________________________________2.WhereistheAligarhMuslimUniversitylocated?_______________________________________________________________3.WhatweretheviewsofSayyidAhmedKhanforMuslimwomen?_______________________________________________________________4.WherewastheMuhammedanLiterarySocietyestablished?_______________________________________________________________5.Givethenamesofanythreefamoussocio-religiousreformersoftheParsis._______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

TheimpactofBritishruleinIndialedtoanumberofsocialandreligiousreforms.

RajaRammohanRoycanberegardedas thecentral figureofIndia’sawakeningforchampioningthespreadofmoderneducation,scienceandtechnologyandforhisrelentlessfightagainstmanysocialevils.

R.GBhandarkarandM.G.Ranadecarriedout theirworkofreligiousreformsinMaharashtrathroughthePrarthanaSamajbypropagatinginter-castemarriages,freedomfrompriestlydominationandimprovementofthelotofwomen.

SwamiDayanandaSaraswatifoundedtheAryaSamajandpleadedfortherightofindividualstointerpretVedasandfreethemselvesfromthetyrannyofpriests.Besides all this, the organisation fought against untouchability and casterigidityaswellasworkedforpromotingmoderneducation.

Swami Vivekananda, a great humanist, through his Ramakrishna Missioncondemned religious narrow mindedness, advocated free thinking andemphasisedonserviceforthepoor.

TheTheosophicalSociety,undertheguidanceofAnnieBesant,promotedstudiesofancientIndianreligions,philosophiesanddoctrines.

Religiousreformsamong theMuslimswerecarriedoutbySayyidAhmadKhanwho encouragedMuslims to adopt modern education; denounced polygamy,purdah system and spoke against religious intolerance, ignorance andirrationlism.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.WhatwasRajaRamMohanRoy’sroleinthesocialreformsinIndia?2.HowwouldyousaythatPrathanaSamajwasdoingreligiousaswellassocialreforms?3.HowwillyoujustifytheAryaSamaj’sfaithinVedas?4. Explain how Rama Krishna Mission helped in awakening India in the nineteenthcentury?5. Discuss the efforts of Sayyid Ahmed Khan in removing the evils of Muslimcommunity?6.The contributions ofTheTheosophical Society in the development of Indian societycannotbeforgotten.Elaborate.7.WriteashortnoteonthereformsundertakenbytheSikhreformers.

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

10.11.PracticesprevalentinthesocietysuchasSatiPratha,Castesystem.2. Oppose idol worship. No to sacrifices, no to offerings, Sati Pratha condemnation,Humandignity.

3.Bydoing inter-castemarriage, inter-caste dining,widow remarriage, improvement ofthelotofwomenanddepressedclasses.4.AstrongfollowerofPrathanaSamajideology.10.21.AryaSamajwasfoundedbyDayanandSaraswati.2.AtLahorein1886.3.Theserviceofmankindisameanstosalvation4.NarendraNathDatta.5.Servicetothepooranddowntrodden.10.31.U.S.A.2.H.P.Balavatsky–aRussianandColH.S.Olocott–anAmerican.3.AdyarnearChennai4.Mrs.AnnieBesant.10.41.SayyidAhmedKhan2.Aligarh3.RemovalofPurdhasystemandEducationforwomen.4.AtCalcuttain1863.5.DadabhaiNaoroji,S.S.Bengalee,NaurojiFurdongi.

MODULE5.PAINTING,PERFORMINGARTSANDARCHITECTURE

11.INDIANPAINTINGWhenyougotothemarketortoamuseumyouwillfindmanypaintings,wallhangingsorworkdoneonterracotta.Doyouknowthatthesepaintingshavetheirorigininouirancientpast.Theydepict the lifeandcustomsfollowedby thepeopleof those times.Theyalsoshowhow thekings andqueensdressedorhow the courtiers sat in the royal assembly.Literacy recordswhich had a direct bearing on the art of painting show that fromveryearly times painting both secular and religious were considered an important form ofartisticexpressionandwaspractised.Thisneedforexpressionisaverybasicrequirementforhumansurvivalandithastakenvariousformssinceprehistorictimes.Paintingisonesuch formwithwhichyoumayhavebeenacquainted in someway or the other. Indianpainting is the result of the synthesis of various traditions and its development is anongoingprocess.Howeverwhileadapting tonewstyles, Indianpaintinghasmaintaineditsdistinctcharacter.“ModernIndianpaintinginthusareflectionoftheinterminglingofarichtraditionalinheritancewithmoderntrendsandideas”.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

tracetheoriginofpaintingfromtheprehistorictimes;describethedevelopmentofpaintingduringthemedievalperiod;recognisethecontributionofMughalrulerstopaintinginIndia;trace the rise of distinct schools of painting like the Rajasthani and the Pahari

schools;assessthedevelopmentofpaintinginlocalcentreslikeKangra,Kulu,andBasoli;

appreciatethecontributionofRajaRaviVarmatoIndianpainting;assess the roleplayedbyRabindranathTagoreandAbanindranathTagore in the

emergenceoftheBengalSchoolofArt;appreciate the role specialty of the progressive artists group of FrancisNewton

Souza;recognise thecontributionof folkart forms like theMithilapainting,Kalamkari

painting, Warli painting and Kalighat painting in adding numerous newdimensionsinthefieldofpainting.

11.1ANCIENTPERIOD:ORIGIN

PaintingasanartformhasflourishedinIndiafromveryearlytimesasisevidentfromtheremainsthathavebeendiscoveredinthecaves,andtheliterarysources.ThehistoryofartandpaintinginIndiabeginswiththepre-historicrockpaintingatBhimbetkacaves(M.P.)wherewehave drawings andpaintings of animals.The cave paintings ofNarsinghgarh(Maharashtra)showskinsofspotteddeer leftdrying.Thousandsofyearsago,paintingsanddrawingshadalreadyappearedonthesealsofHarappancivilization.BothHinduandBuddhistliteraturerefertopaintingsofvarioustypesandtechniquesforexample, Lepyacitras, lekhacitras and Dhulitcitras. The first was the representation offolklore,thesecondonewaslinedrawingandpaintingontextilewhilethethirdonewaspaintingonthefloor.The Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th–3rd century) describes the existence of paintedfigures inmany royal buildings. The playMudrarakshasa (5thCenturyA.D.)mentionsnumerous paintings or Patas. The 6th Century AD text on aesthetics-Kamasutra byVatsyayanahasmentionedpaintingamongst64kindsofartsandsaysthatitwasbasedonscientificprinciples.TheVishnudharmottarapurana (7th centuryA.D.)has a sectiononpaintingcalledChitrasutrawhichdescribesthesixorgansofpaintinglikevarietyofform,proportion,lustreandportryalofcolouretc.Thus,archaeologyandliteraturetestifytotheflourishing of painting in India from pre-historic times. The best specimens of Guptapaintings are the ones at Ajanta. Their subject was animals and birds, trees, flowers,humanfiguresandstoriesfromtheJataka.Mural paintings are done on walls and rock surfaces like roofs and sides. Cave no. 9depicts the Buddhist monks going towards a stupa. In cave no. 10 Jataka stories aredepicted.Butthebestpaintingsweredoneinthe5th–6thcenturiesADduringtheGuptaage. The murals chiefly depict religious scenes from the life of the Buddha and theBuddhistJatakastoriesbutwealsohavesecularscene.Herewesee thedepictionofallaspectsof Indian life.We see princes in their palaces, ladies in their chambers, coolieswithloads

overtheirshoulders,beggars,peasantsandascetics,togetherwithallthemanybeasts,birdsandflowersofIndia.

Materialsusedinthepaintings

Differentmaterialswereusedindifferenttypesofpaintings.Mentionofchitrashalas(artgallery)andShilpasashtra(technicaltreatisesonart)havebeenmadeinliterarysources.However, theprincipalcoloursusedwereredochre(dhaturaga),vividred(kumkumorsindura),yellowochre(haritala),indigo(blue)lapislazuliblue,lampblack(kajjala),chalkwhite (Khadi Mitti) terra verte (geru mati) and green. All these colours were locallyavailableexceptlapislazuliwhichcamefromPakistan.Mixedcolourse.g.greywereusedonrareoccasions.Useofcoloursweredecidedbythethemeandlocalatmosphere.RemainsofBuddhistpaintingshavealsobeenfoundattheBuddhistcavesatBaghintheNorthandatvariousDeccanandsouthernsitesofsixthandninthcenturies.Thoughthethemeofthesepaintingsisreligiousbutintheirinnermeaningsandspirit,nothingcouldbemore secular, courtly and sophisticated. Though only a small part remains of thesepaintingsbuttheydepictacrowdedworldofGodsandgoddessessemidivinebeinglikekinnars and apsaras, a rich and varied flora and fauna, gaiety, love, grace and charm.Examplecanbe seen in cave 3 atBadami (Karnataka), at temples ofKanchipuram, at Jain caves ofSittanavasal (Tamil Nadu) and the Kailasa and Jain caves at Ellora (eighth and ninthcenturies).ManyotherSouth Indian temples such asBrihadeshwara temple atTanjavuraredecoratedwithwallpaintingson themes fromepicsandmythology. IfBagh,AjantaandBadami represent theclassical traditionof theNorthandDeccanat itsbest,SittanaVassal,Kanchipuram,MalayadipattiandTirunalaipuramshowtheextentofitspenetrationinthesouth.ThepaintingsofSittanavasal(abodeoftheJainaSiddhas)areconnectedwithjaina themes while the other three are Saiva or Vaishnava in theme and inspiration.Despitehavingaverytraditionallyseculardesignandthemethepaintingsofthesetimesstartedshowingtheimpactofmedievalinfluencesi.e.flatandabstractsurfacesontheonehandandlinearandsomewhatangulardesignsontheother.

11.2ARTINMEDIEVALINDIA

During the period of Delhi Sultanate,mural painting has been reported from the royalpalaces and royal bed-chambers andmosques. These chiefly depict flowers, leaves andplants.DuringthetimeofIltutmish(1210-36)wehavereferencesofpaintings.Duringthetime of Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) we have mural painting, miniature painting (ofillustratedmanuscripts)andpaintingsoncloths.DuringtheSultanateperiod,wenoticethePersianandArabic influenceson Indianpainting.Wehave referencesof the comingofPersianandArabicillustratedmanuscriptsfromIranandtheArabworldfor theMuslimelites.Duringthisperiod,wehavepaintingsfromotherregionalstates.ThedecorativepaintingsofthepalaceoftheGwaliorkingManSinghTomarimpressedbothBaburandAkbar.

During14th–15thcenturiesA.D.miniaturepaintingemergedasapowerfulmovementinGujarat and Rajasthan and spread to Central, North and Eastern India because of thepatronageof rich Jainmerchants.Mandu inM.P., Jaunpur inEasternUttarPradeshandBengalinEasternIndiawereothergreatcentresofmanuscriptsillustratedwithpaintings.InEastern India, inBengal,Bihar andOrissa, during thePalakingdom in the9th–10thcentury A.D., a new kind of painting developed called the miniature painting. Theminiature, as the name suggests, were small works which were made on perishablematerials.Inthiscategory,Buddhist,JainandHindumanuscriptswereillustrated,onpalmleaves.TheyresembletheAjantastyle,butonaminiaturescale.Theseweremadeontherequestofthemerchants,whodonatedthemtothetemplesandmonasteries.Fromthethirteenthcenturyonwards, theTurkishSultansofnorthernIndiabroughtwiththem important featuresofPersiancourtculture. In the fifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesillustrated manuscripts of Persian influence were produced at Malwa, Bengal, Delhi,Jaunpur,GujaratandtheDeccan.TheinteractionofIndianpainterswithPersiantraditionsresulted in the synthesisof the twostyles evident in theworksof the sixteenthcentury.Duringtheearlysultanateperiod,significantcontributiontotheartofpaintingwasmadeby theJaincommunityofWestern India. Illustratedmanuscripts of Jain scriptureswerepresented to temple libraries. These manuscripts depicted the lives and deeds of theTirthankars.Theartoftextual illustrationgotanewlookundertheMughals.Akbarandhissuccessorsbrought revolutionarychanges topaintingand sensual illustrations.Fromthisperiodbookilluminationorindividualminiaturesreplacedwallpaintingasthemostvitalformofart.EmperorAkbarpatronisedartistsfromKashmirandGujarat;HumayunbroughttwoPersianpainterstohiscourt.Forthefirsttimepainters’nameswererecordedin inscriptions. Some great painters of this period were Abd-us-SamadDasawanth andBasawan.Beautiful illustrations are found on the pages ofBaburnama andAkbarnama.WithinafewyearsanintegratedanddynamicstyleresultedfromthesynthesisofPersianandIndianstyleandtheindependentstyleofMughalpaintingwasdeveloped.Between1562and1577aseriesofnearly1400clothpaintingswereproducedrepresentingthenewstyleandwereplacedintheimperialstudio.Akbaralsoencouragedtheartofmakingportraits.Theartofpainting reached its climaxduring theperiodof Jahangirwhohimselfwasagreatpainterandconnoisseurofart.Artistsbegantousevibrantcolourssuchaspeacockblueandredandwereabletogivethreedimensionaleffectstopaintings.Mansur,BishanDasandManoharwerethemostgiftedpaintersofJahangir’stime.Mansurhadmadeanoutstanding portrait of the artist Abul Hasan and specialised in paintings of birds andanimals. ThoughShah Jahanwasmore interested in architectural splendours, his eldestsonDara Shikoh patronised painting like his gradfather. He preferred depicting naturalelementslikeplantsandanimalsinhispainting.Howeverwithdrawalofroyalpatronageto painting under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of artists to different places in thecountry.ThishelpedinthedevelopmentoftheartofpaintinginRajasthanandthePunjabhills giving rise to distinct schools of paintings, for example, Rajasthani and PahariSchools.

Theseworkswere painted on a small surface andwere calledminiature painting.Theypainted themes drawn from epics, myths and legends. Other themes were Barahmasa(seasons) and Raga mala (melodies). Miniature painting was also developed at localcentreslikeKangra,Kulu,Basoli,Guler,Chamba,Garhwal,Bilaspur,andJammu.The rise of the Bhakti movement in India in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries alsoinspiredillustrativetextsonthethemesofVaishnavadevotionalcults.Inthepre-Mughaleramural paintings on thewalls of temples gained prominence in the northern part ofIndia.

11.3ARTINTHEMODERNPERIOD

Inthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturiespaintingscomprisedsemiwesternizedlocal styles which were patronised by British residents and visitors. Themes weregenerallydrawnfromIndiansociallife,popularfestivals,andMughalmonuments.Thesereflected the improvised Mughal traditions. Shaikh Zia-ud-Din’s bird studies for LadyImpey and the portrait paintings of Ghulam Ali Khan forWilliam Fraser and ColonelSkinneraretheexamplesofsomeexcellentpaintingsofthisperiod.In the later nineteenth century art schools on the European model were established inmajorIndiancitieslikeCalcutta,BombayandMadras.OilpaintingsofRajaRaviVarmaof Travancore depictingmythological and social themes became highly popular at thistime.RabindranathTagore,AbanindranathTagore,E.B.HavellandAnandaKehtishCoomaraswamyplayedan important role in theemergenceof theBengalschoolofArt.TheBengalSchoolhadagreatfloweringatShantiniketanwhereRabindranathTagoresetup theKala Bhavan. Talented artists likeNandalal Bose, BinodBehariMukherjee andRamkinkar Baij rendered training to aspiring artists. Nandalal often derived inspirationfromIndian folkartandalso fromJapanesepaintingwhileBinodBehariMukerjeewasdeeply interested in oriental traditions. JaminiRoy, another great painter of this period,drew inspiration from Qrissa’s pata painting and Kalighat painting of Bengal. AmritaShergil,agreatpainter receivededucation inParis andBudapest.ConsideredaprodigyfromaSikhfatherandHungarianmother,shepaintedonIndianthemesinbrightcoloursspeciallyIndianwomenandpeasants.Thoughshediedveryyoung,sheleftbehindarichlegacyofIndianpaintings.GraduallysomedeeperchangestookplaceinthethinkingoftheEnglisheducatedurbanmiddle class which began to be reflected in the expressions of the artists. IncreasingawarenessaboutBritishrule,idealsofnationalismandthedesireforanationalidentityledtocreationswhichweredistinctfromearlierarttraditions.In1943,duringtheperiodofthesecondworldwarCalcuttapaintersledbyParitoshSen,NirodaMajumdarandPradoshDasgupta formedagroupwhodepicted theconditionofthepeopleofIndiathroughnewvisuallanguage,andnoveltechniques.

Another significant developmentwas the formation of the ProgressiveArtistsGroup inBombayin1948underFrancisNewtonSouza.ThegroupalsoincludedS.H.Raza,M.F.Hussain, K.M. Ara, S.K. Bakre and H.A. Gode. This group broke away from BengalSchoolofArtandrepresentedthemodernforcefulartofindependentIndia.In the 1970s artists began to critically survey their environment.Daily encounterswithpoverty and corruption, the political morass of the country, the explosive communaltension,andotherurbanissuesbecamethethemesorsubjectmatteroftheirworks.The Madras School of Art under Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury and K.C.S Panikeremerged as an important art centre in post independence period and influenced a newgenerationofmodernartists.SomeoftheartistswhomadetheirmarkasmodernIndianartistsareTyebMehta,SatishGujral, Krishan Khanna, Manjit Bawa, K.G. Subramaniyan Ram Kumari, Anjolie ElaMenon,AkbarPadamsee,JatinDas,JehangirSabavalaandA.Ramachandran.Two government institutions have been set up to promote art, music etc in India. TheNationalGalleryofModernArthasthelargestcollectionofmodernartunderoneroof.Thesecondone is theLalitKalaAkademiwhichrecognisesandpatronizesartists inallfields.

INTEXTQUESTIONS11.1

Answerthefollowingquestions:1.WhichisthefamousexcavatedsiteinMadhyaPradesh?_______________________________________________________________2.Whatare the three typesofpainting found inBrahmanical andBuddhist literature inancientIndia?_______________________________________________________________3.Wherearethedhulitchitraspaintingsnormallydone?_______________________________________________________________4.WhatwasthethemeoftheAjantacavepainting?_______________________________________________________________5.Give thenamesof twositeswhereBuddhistpaintingofsixth&ninthcenturieswerefound?_______________________________________________________________

6.Whatareminiaturepainting?_______________________________________________________________7.Whowithdewtheroyalpatronagetopaintersinthemedievalperiod?_______________________________________________________________8.WhatwerethethemesinthepaintingsoftheurbanEnglisheducatedartists?_______________________________________________________________9.Namethetwogovernmentinstitutionssetuptopromoteart,musicinIndia._______________________________________________________________10.WhichstateisfamousforPattapainting?_______________________________________________________________11.NametheinstitutionsetupbyRabindraNathTagoreatShantiniketan?_______________________________________________________________12.WhywasRajaRaviVarmaofTravancorefamous?_______________________________________________________________

11.4DECORATIVEART

TheartisticexpressionoftheIndianpeopleisnotlimitedtopaintingoncanvasorpaperonly. Decorative painting on walls of homes even in rural areas is a common sight.Rangoliordecorativedesignsonflooraremadeforauspiciousoccasionsandpujaswhosestylizeddesignshavebeenpassedon fromonegeneration to theother.Thedesigns arecalled rangoli in the North, alpana in Bengal, aipan in Uttaranchal, rangavalli inKarnataka,KollaminTamilnaduandmandanainMadhyaPradesh.Usuallyricepowderisusedforthese paintings but coloured powder or flower petals are also used tomake themmorecolourful.Adorningwallsofhousesandhutsisalsoanoldtradition.Thefollowingaresomeoftheexamplesoffolkartofthiskind.

11.5MITHILAPAINTING

Mithila painting also known asMadhubani folk art is the traditional art of theMithilaregionofBihar.Theyareproducedbyvillagewomenwhomakethreedimensionalimagesusingvegetablecolourwithfewearthencoloursandfinishedinblacklinesoncowdungtreatedpaper.ThesepicturestelltalesespeciallyaboutSita’sexile,Ram-Laxman’sforestlife,or

depict the images of Lakshmi, Ganesha, Hanuman and others from Hindu mythology.Apart fromthesewomenalsopaintcelestialsubjects likesunandmoon.Tulsi, theholyplant also is to be found in these paintings.They also showcourt scenes,wedding andsocialhappenings.DrawingsinMadhubanipicturesareveryconceptual.First,thepainterthinks and then she “draws her thought”. No pretence is there to describe the figuresaccurately. Visually they are images that speak in lines and colours and are drawn forsomeritualsorfestivalsonhouseholdandvillagewallstomarktheseasonalfestivalsorspecialeventsofthelifecycle.Intricateflora,animalandbirdsmotifscanalsobefoundalongwithgeometricaldesignstofillupthegap.Insomecasesitisaspecialpracticeformotherstomake theseart itemsinadvancefor theirdaughtersasamarriagegift.Thesepaintingsalsoconveyadviceonways to leadagoodmarried life.There isalsoasocialvariation in subjects and use of colours.One can identify the community towhich thepainting belongs from the colours that are used in them. Paintingsmade by the upper,moreaffluentclassesarecolourfulwhilethosemadebythelowercastepeopleuseredandblack line work. But the technique of painting is safely and zealously guarded by thewomenofthevillagetobepassedonbythemothertothedaughter.NowadaysMadhubani art is beingusedasdecorativegift items,greetingcards andhasbecomeasourceofincomeforlocalwomenfolk.

11.6KALAMKARIPAINTING

TheliteralmeaningofKalamkariisapaintingdonebykalam(pen).Thisartgotenrichedas it came down from one generation to another. These paintings aremade in AndhraPradesh.Itishandpaintedaswellasblockprintingwithvegetabledyesappliedoncloth.VegetabledyesareusedforcolourintheKalamKariwork.AsmallplaceSri-Kalahastiisthe best known centre of Kalamkari art. This work is also found atMasaulipatnam inAndhra Pradesh. This art is mainly related to decorating temple interiors with paintedcloth panels, which was developed in the fifteenth century under the patronage ofVijaynagarrulers.SubjectsareadoptedfromtheRamayana,theMahabharataandHindureligious mythology. This art form is a continuous legacy from father to son. Afterdeciding the subject of the painting, scène after scene is painted. Every scene issurroundedbyfloraldecorativepatterns.Thesepaintingsaremadeoncloth.Theyareverydurableandflexibleinsizeandmadeaccordingtotheme.Figuresofdeitieshaveaveryrichborderembellishmentsandwerecreatedforthetemples.OwingtoMuslimrulersinGolconda, the Masulipatnam kalamkari was widely influenced by Persian motifs anddesigns. The outlines and main features are done using hand carved blocks. The finerdetails are later done using the pen. This art was started on garments, bed covers andcurtains.Theartistsuseabambooordatepalmstickpointedatoneendwithabundleoffinehairattachedtotheotherendtoserveasbrushorpen.Thekalamkaridyesareobtainedbyextractingcoloursfromplantroots,leaves,alongwithsaltsofiron,tin,copper,alumetc.

OrissaPatachitra

Similar toKalighatPats,onecomesacross anotherkindofPatswhichare found in thestateofOrissa.TheOrissapatachitras,mostlypaintedonclotharemoredetailedandmorecolourfulandmostofthesedepictstoriesofHindugodsandgoddesses.

PhadPaintings

Phadisatypeofscrollpainting.Thepaintingsdepictingexploitsoflocaldeitiesareoftencarried fromplace toplaceandareaccompaniedby traditional singers,whonarrate thetheme depicted on the scrolls. This type of painting is a most famous painting ofRajasthan,mainlyfoundintheBhilwaradistrict.Phadpaintingdepictstheheroicdeedsofaheroic figure, thedaily lifeofapeasant, rural life,animalsandbirds, floraandfauna.Thesepaintings are createdusingbright colours and subtle colours.Theoutlines of thepaintingsare first drawn in black and later filled with colours. The main themes of the phadpaintingsdepictthedeitiesandtheirlegendsandthestoriesoferstwhileMaharajas.Rawcoloursareused for thesepaintings.Theunique featuresofphadpaintingsare theboldlinesandatwodimensionaltreatmentoffigureswiththeentirecompositionarrangedinsections.The art of painting the phads is approximately 700 years old. It is said that it wasoriginatedinShahpura,some35kmsfromBhilwara inRajasthan.Thecontinuousroyalpatronage gave a decisive impetus to the art which has survived and flourished forgenerations.

GondArt

A very highly sophisticated and abstract form of Art works are also produced by theSanthals in India. TheGond tribe of theGodavari belt who are as old as the Santhalsproducefigurativeworks.

BatikPrint

Notall thefolkartsandcraftsareentirelyIndianintheirorigin.Someof thecraftsandtechniqueshavebeenimportedfromtheOrient like theBatik.But thesehavenowbeenIndianisedandIndianBatikisnowamaturedart,immenselypopularandexpensive.

INTEXTQUESTIONS11.2

Answerthefollowingquestions.1.Matchthefollwoingdecorativeartwiththestateoforigin.ABRangoliTamilNadu

AlpanaMadhyaPradesh

AipanNorthIndiaRangavalliBengalKollamUttaranchalMandanaKarnataka_______________________________________________________________2.Throughwhichpaintingswereadvicesgiventotheyoungergirls?_______________________________________________________________3.HowisKalamKariworkdone?_______________________________________________________________4.WhatisspecialaboutKalamkaripainting?_______________________________________________________________5.WhichisthemostfamousplaceforKalamKariart?_______________________________________________________________

11.7WARLIPAINTING

Warlipaintingderivesitsnamefromasmalltribeinhabitingtheremote,tribalregionsofMaharashtra.Thesearedecorativepaintingsonfloorsandwallsof‘gond’and‘kol’tribes’homes and places of worship. Trees, birds, men and women collaborate to create acompositewholeinaWarlipainting.Thesepaintingsaremademostlybythewomenaspartoftheirroutineatauspiciouscelebrations.Subjectsarepredominantlyreligiouswithsimpleandlocalmaterialslikewhitecolourandricepasteandlocalvegetableglueonaplain contrasting background,made in a geometric patterns like squares, triangles, andcircles.Dots and crooked lines are the units of these composition. Flora and fauna andpeople’sday today life also formapart of thepainted.Thepaintings are expandedbyaddingsubjectaftersubjectinaspiralingmanner.TherhythmoftheWarliwayoflifeisbeautifullycapturedinsimpleimages.Unlikeothertribalartforms,Warlipaintingsdonotemployreligiousiconographyandisamoresecularartform.

11.8KALIGHATPAINTING

KalighatpaintingderivesitsnamefromitsplaceoforiginKalighatinKolkata.Kalighatisa bazaar near the Kali temple in Kolkota. Patua painters from rural Bengal came andsettledinKalighattomakeimagesofgodsandgoddessesintheearlynineteenthcentury.Thesepaintingsonpapermadewithwatercolourscompriseclearsweepinglinedrawingsusing bright colours and a clear background. Subjects are images of Kali, Lakshmi,Krishna,Ganesha,Shiva,andothergodsandgoddesses.Inthisprocess,artistsdevelopedaunique

newformofexpression,andeffectivelyportrayawiderangeofsubjectscommentingonthe social life of Bengal. Similar kind of pata paintings may be found in Orissa. Thispaintingformhasitsrootsinthecultureupheavdsof19thcenturycolonialBengal.Asitsmarketgrew,theartistsbegantoliberatethemselvesfromtheroutinedepictionofHindu deities and began to explore the world of contemporary social events in theirpaintings. The genre derived much inspiration from the introduction of photography,westernstyletheatricalperformances,theriseofbabucultureinBengalasaresultoftheimpact of British colonial and administrative system. The emergence of the uniquelifestyle of the nouveau riche of Kolkota in response to these diverse influence alsoinspiredthesepaintings.All thesestimuligavebirth toanewimagery thatoccupied thecentrestageofBengaliliterature,theatreandvisualartsoftheperiod.Kalighatpaintingsbecame the best mirror of this cultural and aesthetic shift. Based on their preexistingmodelsoftheHindudeities,theartistscreatedawholerepertoireof images,courtesans,actresses,heroines,pompousbabusandconceiteddandies,resplendentintheirfancyattireandhairstyles,smokingpipesandplayingthesitar.KalighatpaintingsareoftenreferredtoasthefirstworksofartthatcamefromBengal.

11.9INDIANHANDICRAFTS

Indiaisavirtualtreasurehouseofthemostexquisitehandicrafts.SimpleobjectsofdailylifehavebeencraftedwithdelicatedesignwhichgiveexpressiontothecreativityoftheIndianartisan.EverystateofIndiacanboastofsomeuniquecreationwhichisspecialtotheregion,forexample,Kashmirisfamousforembroideredshawls,carpets,namdarsilkand walnut wood furniture. Rajasthan is famous for its tie-and-dye (bandhni) fabrics,jewellery,usingpreciousstoneandjems,blueglazedpotteryandminakariwork.AndhraPradeshisfamousforBidriworkandPochampalhsariswhileTamilNaduiswellknownfor bronze sculpture and Kajeevaram silk saris. Mysore is well known for silk,sandalwood items and Kerala is famous for ivory carvings and rosewood furniture.ChanderiandkosasilkofMadhyaPradesh, chikanworkofLucknow,Brocadeand silksaris ofBenaras,cane furniture and goods ofAssam,Bankura terracottamodelling andhandloom itemsofBengal are just a fewexamples of unique traditional decorative artsandcraftswhichconstitutetheheritageofmodernIndia.Theseartshavebeennurturedforthousandsofyears andprovidedemployment to agreatnumberof artisanswhocarriedforward the art to the next generation. Thus you see how the Indian artisanswith theirmagictouchcantransformapieceofmetal,woodorivoryintoobjectsofart.

INTEXTQUESTIONS11.3

1.WheredoyoufindWarliPainting?_______________________________________________________________

2.WhichtribeisfamousforWarlipaintings?_______________________________________________________________3.WhatisspecialaboutWarlipainting?_______________________________________________________________4.WhataresomeuniquecreationsofartandcraftsformofKashmirstate?_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

TheearliestspecimensofcreativepaintinginIndiacanbetracedtotheprehistorictimes.

ReferencestopaintingsofvarioustypesandtheirtechniquesareavailableinbothBrahminicalandBuddhistliterature.

Buddhistrock-cutcavesofAjantainthewesternDeccanarefamousfortheirwallpaintings.

TheMughalsbegananewerainpaintingbysynthesisingIndianpaintingwiththePersiantradition.

TheRajasthaniandPaharischoolsofpaintinghavecontributedsignificantlyintheenrichmentofIndianpainting.

Inthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies,paintingcomprisedofsemi-westernisedlocalstylesbasedonIndianthemes.

Establishment of art schools on European model in major Indian cities likeCalcutta, Bombay andMadras and particularly the emergence of the Bengalschoolof artwere theothermilestones in Indianpaintingduring themodernperiod.

TheprogressiveartistslikeFrancisNewtonSouza,S.H.Raza,andM.F.HussainbrokeawayfromtheBengalSchoolofArttorepresentthemodernforcefulartofindependentIndia.

Various folk art forms likeMithila paintings (Madhubani), Kalamkari painting,Warlipainting andKalighat painting took Indian painting to new heights byaddingnewdimensionstoit.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.Howwillyoudescribethedevelopmentofpaintingartduringthemedievalera?

2.Define theMadhubani art form.How are the drawings inMadhubani paintings veryconceptual?3.DifferentiatetheKalamkaripaintingwithMithillapainting?4.VariousformsofcultureofBengalisdepictedinKalighatpaintings.Elaborate?5. The Indian artisanswith theirmagic touch can transform a piece ofmetal,wood orivoryintoobjectsofart.Elaborate.6.WhatwasthecontributionoftheMughalstopaintingasanart?7.Writeshortnoteson:i)Kalamkariartii)Pahariartiii)Kalighatart

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

11.11.Bhimbhetka2.Lepyacitras,Lekhacitrasanddhulitcitras.3.Itisdoneonthefloor4.TheydepictscenesfromJatakastoriesandBuddhistthemes.5.BaghintheNorthbadami(Karnataka)south6.Onasmallsurfacedepictingthemesdrawnfromepics,mythsandlegends,seasonsandRogamala(melodies)7.Aurangzeb8.(a)EvilnatureofBritishrule(b)Idealsofnalienalism(c)Desireforanationalidentity9.(a)TheNationalGalleryofModernArt.(b)LalitKalaAkademi10.Orissastate.11.KalaBhawan

12. Oil painting depicting mythological and social themes became highly famous inmodernIndia.11.21.RangoliNorthIndiaAlpanaBengalAipanUttranchalRangavalliKarnatakaKollamTamilNaduMendanaMadhyaPradesh2.MithilaPaintings3.Itusesvegetablesdyes4.ThesearemadeonHindureligionsmythodologywhichscenceaftersceneispainted.Itissurroundedbyfloraldecorativepatternsontopandbottom.5.SriKalhasti11.31.InMaharshtrastateofIndia2.GondandKoltribes3.Itusesageometricpatternandthesubjectaftersubjectareaddedinaspiratingmanner.4.Embroideredshawls,carpets,namdarsilksandwalnutfurniture.

12.PERFORMINGARTS:MUSIC,DANCEANDDRAMAMusic, dance, drama, folk theatre or puppetry our country India, had all of it inabundance.Oh!somebodyplayingtheDhol(musicinstrument)andthereismusic,weruntoseewhatitis.Well,itisLohriwhichisnormallyheldon13thJanuary everyyear in theNorthernpart of our country.People are singing anddancingwitha lotofenthusiasam.ThesedancesarecalledBhangraandGidda inPunjab.Thesesongsanddancesportraythevariousstagesinourlives.Theyreflectthesocio-religiouscustomsandpracticesof rural people earlier, butnoware apart ofmodern city culturealso.Noschoolprogrammeiscompletewithoutthem.Theyarelinkedthroughcenturiesof celebration and might have started with fertility rites to obtain prosperity for theagricultural community i.e. fertility of land and cattle but also of birth and survival ofchildren.Therearemanyreasonsforcelebrationthatitisdifficulttolistthem.Whydon’tyoumakealistoftheseactivitiesandfindouthowandwhypeoplecelebratethem.Youwillnotonlyfindthisactivityinterestingbutyouwillbeunabletoputafullstoptoit.Doyouknowwhy?Becausethenumberissolargethatyouwillneverbeabletoknowallthemusic,danceanddramathatourcountryhas.Indiaisalandofrichcultureandheritage.Sincethebeginningofourcivilization,music,danceanddramahavebeenanintegralaspectofourculture.Initially,theseartformswereusedasmediumofpropagationforreligionandsocialreformsinwhichmusicanddancewere incorporated to gain popularity. From the Vedic era to the medieval period, theperforming arts remained an important source of educating themasses. TheVedas laiddown precise rules for the chanting of Vedic hymns. Even the pitch and the accent ofsingingdifferenthymnshavebeenprescribed.Therewasmoreofexemplarypresentationthrough them than education or social reforms. Presently, these art forms have becomemeansofentertainmentforpeopleallovertheworld.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

explaintheaimsandobjectivesofperformingartsandtheirdevelopmentthroughvariousstages;

describetheutilityofperformingartsduringtheancientandthemedievalperiod;recognisethecontributionofSufiandBhaktisaintstomusic;distinguishbetweenHindustaniclassicalmusicandCarnaticmusic;appreciatethecontributionofclassicaldances,folkmusicaswellasfolkdancesin

Indianculture;explainthedevelopmentofdramathroughvariousphasesinIndiaandrecognise

thecontributionoffolktheatre;examine the importance of the three art forms in the development of human

personality;andanalysethepresentscenarioofmusic,danceanddrama.

12.1CONCEPTOFPERFORMINGARTS

Whatisart?“Artisanexpressionofallcharacteristicsofthehumanmindaesthetically”.Thesecharacteristics,i.e.thevariedhumanemotions,areknownas‘RAS’.InHindi,‘ras’literallymeans a sugary juice. It signifies the ultimate satisfaction of ‘aanand’.Humanemotionscanbecategorizedintoninesub-headingsor‘navras’.Theyare:1.Hasya—laughter2.Bhayanak—evilShringar—aesthetics3.Rudra—chivalrous4.Karun—pathos5.Vir—courage6.Adbhut—astonishing7.Vibhatsa—terrifyingglory8.Shaanti—peace9.Shringaar—decoratingone’sselfArtreflectshumanemotionsandhumanbeingsspontaneouslyexpresstheirframeofmindthrough various art forms. Thus the intellectual mind merges with the artistic streak,giving birth to art. The expression is reflected in various styles like singing, dancing,drawing,

painting, acting, sculpture. Some of these are expressed through live performances andothersthroughvisualarts.Sketching,painting,sculpturearevisualarts.Singing,dancing,actingareattributesofperformingarts.MusicfromtimeimmemorialhasbeenthemostpopularartformofIndia.TheyareSa,Re,Ga,Ma,Pa,Dha,NeTheearliest traditionof Indianmusicmaybe traced toSamaVedawhichcontained theslokasthatwereputtomusic.ChantingofVedichymnswithprescribedpitchandaccentstillformapartofreligiousrituals.TheearliesttextdealingexclusivelywithperformingartsisBharata’sNatyashashtra(compiledbetweensecondcenturyBCandsecondcenturyAD) which has six chapters on music. Another major text is Matanga’s BrihaddesicompiledbetweeneightandninthcenturyAD. In thiswork ragaswere firstnamedanddiscussed at great length. Sangeet Ratnakara written by Sarangdeva in the thirteenthcenturymentions264ragas.Avarietyofstringandwindinstrumentswereinventedovertheperiodoftime.Inancienttextsreferenceshavebeenmadetoflutes,drums,veena,andcymbals.ManyrulerssuchasSamudragupta,KingBhojaofDharaandKingSomeshavraof Kalyana patronised music. The Gupta monarch Samudra Gupta was himself anaccompolishedmusician.Insomeofhiscoins,heisshownplayingontheVeena.MusicwasalsoassociatedwiththeworshipofGodsandGoddessinthetemples.Inthetwelfthcentury, Jayadeva ofOrissa produced the most brilliant raga kavya, the Gita Govinda,eachsongofwhichwasset inaragaandwascomposedonthethemeofloveofRadhaandKrishna.Abhinavagupta’s (993-1055) Abhinavabharati provides useful informationaboutmusic.TamilmusichasanumberoftermsandconceptsparalleltowhatisfoundinSanskrittexts.TheSaiviteNayanarsandVaishnaviteAlvarstoosettheirpsalms(poems)tomusic.SimilarlyinthemedievalperiodtheSufiandBhaktisaintsencouragedmusic.QawwalisweresunginSufikhanqahsanddevotionalmusiclikekirtanandbhajanbecamepopularwith the Bhakti saints. Names of Kabir, Mirabai, Surdasa, Chandidasa, Tulsidasa,Vidyapatiarecloselyassociatedwith religiousmusic.Great scholars likeAmirKhusraucontributed equally to the promotion of music. The legendary ruler of Malwa, BazBahadurandhiswifeRupmati introducednewragas.KitabeNavraswrittenby IbrahimAdilShah IIduring the seventeenth century is a collection of songs in praise ofHindudeitiesaswellasMuslimsaints.ThemostfamousmusicianofAkbar’scourtwasTansenand therewasnobody tomatchhim, even though therewereall kindsof singers.BaijuBawrawasalsoawellknownmusicianduringAkbar’stime.Thepatronagegiventotheseartistsbytheancientandmedievalrulershavebeeninstrumentalinkeepingthetraditionsalive. In fact theMughal rulers were great patrons ofmusic. According to Lanepoole-“Babarhimselfwasfondofmusic.Heissupposedtohavedevelopedsomeverypopularmusical style forms like Qawalis, Khayal, etc. Humayun was said to have illustratedIndiantextsonmusic.Akbarcomposedsongsandencouragedmusicians.SwamiHaridasandhisdisciplescomposedmany songs in different tunes. PundarikaVittalwas a greatscholarofmusicwhowrotethefamousRagamala.HindustaniMusicwasalsoenrichedbydevotionalsongssungbyMiraBai,TulsidasandSurdas.

INTEXTQUESTIONS12.1

Answerthefollowingquestions:1.Whatarethedifferentformsofperformingarts?_______________________________________________________________2.Besidesentertainingandrecreationwhatotherimpactdoesperformingartsdo?_______________________________________________________________3.Whichistheearliesttextdealingexclusivelywithperformingarts?_______________________________________________________________4.Namethetextcompiledbetween8thand9thcenturyADofperformingart?_______________________________________________________________5.Inwhichworkdowefindtheragaswerefirstnamedanddiscussedatgreatlength?_______________________________________________________________6.HowmanyragaswerementionedinSangeetRatnakara?_______________________________________________________________7.WhatwasthethemeofJayaDeva’sGitaGovinda?_______________________________________________________________8.NamethetwoTamilpoetswhosettheirpsalms(poems)tomusic._______________________________________________________________9.WhowroteKitabeNavras?_______________________________________________________________10.Whatwas thecontributionofBazBahadur rulerofMalwaandhiswifeRupmati tomusic?_______________________________________________________________

12.2DIVISIONSOFINDIANCLASSICALMUSIC

During themedievalperiod Indianclassicalmusicwasbroadlybasedon two traditions,theHindustaniclassicalmusicprevalent inNorthIndiaandtheCarnaticmusicofSouthIndia.

HindustaniClassicalMusic

HindustaniclassicalmusicmaybetracedbacktotheperiodoftheDelhiSultanateandtoAmirKhusrau(AD1253-1325)whoencouragedthepracticeofmusicalperformancewithparticularinstruments.Heisbelievedtohaveinventedthesitarandthetablaandissaidtohave introduced new ragas. Most of the Hindustani musicians trace their descent toTansen.DifferentstylesofHindustanimusicareDhrupad,Dhamar,Thumri,KhayalandTappa. It is said that Tansen’smusic had the effect ofmagic.He could stop the risingwavesoftheYamunaandbytheforceofhis‘MeghRag’hecouldcausetheraintofall.Infact hismelodious songs are sung in every part of India even nowwith great interest.SomeofAkbar’scourtierspatronisedMusicianslikeBaijuBawra,Surdasetc.The most popular ragas are: Bahar, Bhairavi, Sindhu Bhairavi, Bhim Palasi, Darbari,Desh, Hamsadhwani, Jai Jayanti, Megha Malhar, Todi, Yaman, Pilu, Shyam Kalyan,Khambaj.India also has a rich variety of musical instruments of different types. Amongst thestringedinstrumentsthemostfamousaresitar,sarod,santoorandsarangi.Pakhawaj,tablaand Mridangam are precussion or tal giving instruments. Likewise, flute, shehnai andnadaswaramaresomeofthechiefwindinstruments.The musicians of Hindustani classical music are usually associated to a gharana or aparticular style of music. Gharanas refer to hereditary linkages of musicians whichrepresentthecoreofthestyleanddistinguishthemfromtheother.Thegharanasfunctioninguru-shishyaparampara,thatis,discipleslearningunderaparticularguru,transmittinghismusicalknowledgeandstyle,willbelongtothesamegharana.SomefamousgharanasareGwaliorgharana,Kiranagharana,andJaipurgharana.Devotionalmusic likekirtan,bhajan, ragascontained in theAdiGranthaandsinging intheMajlisduringMuharramalsodeserveaspecialplaceinIndianmusic.Alongwiththis,folkmusicalsoshowsaveryrichculturalheritage.

12.3CARNATICMUSIC

The compositions in Carnatic music may be attributed collectively to three composerswho lived between AD 1700 and 1850. They were Shyam Shastri, Thyagaraja andMutthuswami Dikshitar. Purandardasa was another great composer of Carnatic music.ThyagarajaisreveredbothasasaintandanartistandepitomisestheessenceofCarnaticmusic.Themaincompositionsareknownaskritiandaredevotionalinnature.Thethreegreatmusiciansexperimentedwithnewforms.SomenotablemusiciansofthisperiodareMahaVaidyanathAyyar(1844-93),PatnamSubrahmanyaAyyar(l854-1902)andRamnadSrinivasalyengar(l860-1919).Flute,veena,nadaswaram,mridangam,ghatamaresomeoftheinstrumentstoaccompanyCarnaticmusic.DespitecontrastingfeaturesbetweenHindustaniandCarnaticmusic,onecanfindsome

similarities, for example, theCarnatic alapana is similar to alap inHindustani classical.TilanainCarnaticresemblesTaranaofHindustani.Bothlaystressontalaortalam.

12.4MODERNINDIANMUSIC

WiththeBritishrulecameWesternmusic.IndiansadoptedsomeoftheirinstrumentssuchasviolinandclarinettosuitthedemandsofIndianmusic.Orchestrationofmusiconstageis a new development. Use of cassettes replaced oral transmission of tunes and ragas.Performancewhichwereearlierlimitedtoaprivilegedfewhavenowbeenthrownopentothepublicandcanbeviewedbythousandsofmusicloversthroughoutthecountry.Musiceducationno longerdependson themaster-disciplesystembutcanbe imparted throughinstitutionsteachingmusic.

Musicians

Amir Khusrau, Sadarang Adaranga, Miyan Tansen, Gopal Nayak, Swami Haridas, Pt.V.D.Paluskar,Pt.V.N.Bhatkhande,ThyagarajaMutthuswamiDikshitar,Pt.Omkar,NathThakur,Pt.VinaikRaoPatwardhan,UstadChandKhan,UstadBadeGhulamAliKhan,UstadFaiyazKhan,UstadNissarHussainKhan,UstadAmirKhan,Pt.BhimsenJoshi,Pt.KumarGandharva,KesarbaiKerkarandSmt.GangubaiHangalareallvocalists.AmongtheinstrumentalistsBabaAllauddinKhan,Pt.RaviShankar,UstadBismillahKhan,UstadAllaRakkhaKhan,UstadZakirHussainaresomeofthewellknownmusicians.

12.5FOLKMUSIC

Besides classical music India has a rich legacy of folk or popular music. This musicrepresentstheemotionofthemasses.Thesimplesongsarecomposedtomarkeveryeventin life. They may be festivals, advent of a new season, marriage or birth of a child.Rajasthani folk songs such asMand andBhatiali of Bengal are popular all over India.RaginiisapopularformoffolksongsofHaryana.Folksongshavetheirspecialmeaningsormessages.Theyoftendescribehistoricaleventsand important rituals. Kashmir’s Gulraj is usually a folklore and Pandyani ofMadhyaPradesh is a narrative put tomusic.Muslims singSojkhwani ormournful songs duringMuharram and Christmas carols and choral music are sung in groups on the festiveoccasions.

INTEXTQUESTIONS12.2

1.WhatarethetwodivisionofIndianclassicalmusic?_______________________________________________________________

2.WhatarethedifferentstylesofHindustanimusic?_______________________________________________________________3.WhatisGharanainHindustaniclassicalmusic?_______________________________________________________________4.NamesomeofthefamousHindustanimusicgharanaofIndia?_______________________________________________________________5.WhatisKritiincarnaticmusic?_______________________________________________________________6.NamefewcomposersofcarnaticmusicofIndia?_______________________________________________________________7.Whataresomeofthemaininstrumentsthataccompanycarnaticmusic?_______________________________________________________________8.WhataretwosimilarfeaturesofHindustaniandCarnaticmusic?_______________________________________________________________

12.6DANCESOFINDIA

TheRigVedamentionsdance(nrti)anddanseuse(nrtu)andcomparesthebrilliantdawn(usas) toabrightlyattriveddanseuse. In theBrahmanas, JaiminiyaandKausitakidanceandmusicarementionedtogether.TheEpicsarefullofreferencestodancesonearthandheaven.Likemusic,Indiandancehasalsodevelopedarichclassicaltradition.Ithasagreatpowerofexpressionandemotionswhiletellingastory.InIndia,theartofdancingmaybetracedbacktotheHarappanculture.Thediscoveryofthe bronze statue of a dancing girl testifies to the fact that some women in Harappaperformeddances.In traditional Indian culture the function of dance was to give symbolic expression toreligious ideas. The figure of Lord Shiva as Nataraja represents the creation anddestruction of the cosmic cycle. The popular image of Shiva in the form of Natarajaclearly shows thepopularity of dance form on the Indian people. There is not a singletempleatleastinthesouthernpartof thecountrywhichdoesnotshowthesculpturesofthe dancers in their different forms. In fact classical dance forms like Kathakali,Bharatnatyam,Kathak,Manipuri, Kuchi pudi and Odishi are an important part of ourculturalheritage.

It is difficult to say atwhatpointof timedanceoriginated, but it is obvious that dancecame intoexistenceasaneffort toexpress joy.Graduallydancescame tobedividedasfolkandclassical. The classical form of dancewas performed in temples aswell as inroyalcourts.Thedanceintempleshadareligiousobjectivewhereasincourtsitwasusedpurelyforentertainment. Inbothcases for theartistsdevoted to thisart form, itwasnolessthanprayingtoGod.InsouthernIndiaBharatanatyamandMohiniattamdevelopedasanimportantaspectoftheritualsintemples.Yakshagana,aformofKathakaliinKerala,tellsusstoriesofRamayanaandMahabharatawhereasKathakandManipuriaremostlyrelatedtothestoriesofKrishnaandhisleela(exploits).PerformanceofOdissiisrelatedtotheworshipofLordJagannath.ThoughtheKrishnaleelaandthestoriesrelatedtoLordShiva was the theme of Kathak, this dance came to be performed in royal courts inmedieval times. Romantic gestures contained in Thumri and Ghazal, that were alsoperformedwithaccompanists for thekings, reflect thisaspect.Manipuridancewasalsopreformedforreligiouspurposes.Folkdancesevolvedfromthelivesofcommonpeopleandwereperformed inunison. InAssampeoplecelebratemostof theharvestingseasonthroughBihu.SimilarlyGarbaofGujarat,BhangraandGiddaofPunjab,bamboodanceofMizoram,Koli,thefisherman’sdanceofMaharashtra,DhumalofKashmir,andChhauofBengal are unique examples of performing arts that gave expression to the joys andsorrowsofthemasses.Asfarastheanalyticalstudyofthisartformisconcerned,theNatyashastraofBharata,isaprimary sourceof information, andbasicallydealswithdrama.Bharatahasdiscusseddanceanditsvariousangas(limbs)indetail.Facialexpressions,bodymovements,hastamudras and the footsteps have all been brought together under three broad categoriesnamely,asnritta(padasanchalan),nritya(angasanchalan)andnatya(abhinay).Bothmenandwomentookkeeninterestindancebutgenerallywomendancerswere lookeddownupon in society.However,with the effortsofgreatmusic thinkers andvariousreligiousandsocialreformmovements,peoplehavestartedtoholdwomenperformerswithgreatrespect.InthemedievalperiodKathakdanceformwaspromotedbytheMuslimrulers.Wehearoftheseperformances in thecourtsofmostof theMughal rulersexcept forAurangzeb. Inthesouth,temples,‘court’andotherpartsofthebuildingprovidedanimportantstageforall dancers. Navaras, mythological tales of Rama, Krishna, Ganesh, Durga were allenacted in the formof dance.Some rulers of thenorth likeWajid aliShahwas a greatpatronofmusicanddanceandheretheseedsoftheLucknowgharanaor‘schoolofdance’was sown. The modern day dancers like Pt. Birju Maharaj all have come from theLucknowschoolofdance.Inthemedievalperiod,thesouthremainedveryrigidwiththerulesofdancesthatwereimbibedfromancientSanskrittexts.Itbecameaseatoflearningandinstitutionsofdancesprungupfirstinthesouthernregion.Inthemodernperiod,wefindmaximumdanceformsinthesouthIndianclassicaldancestream.TheyareKucchipudi,Bharatnatyam,Mohiniatyam,Kathakali.Ontheeastern

side,Odissidanceflourishedgreatly.Alongwithclassicaldanceforms, folkdancealsoflourished. Inmostof theregions thelocal dance form became very popular.Manipuri dance, Santhal dance, Rabindranath’sdance, drama, chhau, ras, gidda, bhangra, garba are some of the folk dances that haveflourished in India.Theyareequallypopularandhaveextremeacumenand innovation.Practically every region of our country has developed their own rich tradition of folkdances. For example, the Bihu dance of Assam, Mask dance of Ladakh, Wangla ofMeghalaya,BhutiaorLepchadanceofSikkim.SimilarlywealsohavesomedanceswhicharecalledmartialdanceslikeChholiaofUttranchal,KalaripaittuofKerala,Thang-taaofManipuramongthemorefamousones.Presently,all thethreeartformsareflourishinginthecountry.Musical institutionshaveopenedupgivingopportunitiestomany.Schools,universitieshavedepartmentsofmusic.IndiraKalaVishwaVidyalayaofKhairagarhisauniversityofmusic,GandharvaMaha-Vidyalaya,KathakKendraandmany institutes in thesouthareallpropagatingmusic intheir ownways.Music conferences, Baithaks, lecture, demonstrations are all spreadingmusictonooksandcornersofIndia.SocietieslikeSpic-macay,IndiaInternationalRuralCulturalCentrehaveworkedveryhardtobringaboutarapportandbondagewithartistsandthemoderngeneration.Abroadmusicianshave also flourished anddifferent institutionsofmusic startedbyPt.RaviShankar,UstadAliAkbarKhan,AllaRakkhaetc.areprestigiousteachingcentresforforeigners.Manyforeignuniversitiesalsohavefacilitiesofartformsgivingdegreesanddiplomas to students. All over the world Indian artists are invited to perform andparticipateinvariousfestivalsandoccasions.

Well-knownDancersofModernIndia

Kathak

Pt.BirjuMaharaj,Pt.ShambhuMaharaj,SitaraDevi,Pt.GopiKrishna, andPt.LacchuMaharaj.

Bharatanatyam

SarojaVaidyanathan,PadmaSubhramaniam,GeetaChandran.

Odissi

KelucharanMahapatra,SanjuktaPanigrahi,KiranSehgalandMadhaviMudgal.

Kuchipudi

Swapna Sundari, Satya Narayan Sarma, Raja Reddy, Radha Reddy and SonalMansingh.

Musicologists

Bharata, Matangamuni, Naradamuni, Pt. Sharangadeva, Pt. Somnath, and Pt.

Ahobala.Pt.Vyankatmakhi,Pt.Ramamatya,S.M.Tagore,andAcharyaK.C.D.Brihaspati.

Inthelastfewdecadesthestatusofdanceaswellasitsperformershaschanged.Youngpeople have started learning dance to enrich their personal qualities. In some of theschools, colleges and universities separate departments have been established forimparting training in dance. Several renowned classical dancers have been awardednationalawardslikethePadmashreeandthePadmabhusan.ThroughoutthedifferentperiodsofhistorystartingfromthedancingfigurefoundintheIndus valley civilization to the present, Indian people have expressed their joys andsorrowsbysinginganddancingthroughvariousartforms.Thisartformhasbeenusedtoexpresstheirlove,hatred,theiraspirationsandtheirstruggleforsurvivalwhichultimatelyledtotheenrichmentofourculture.

INTEXTQUESTIONS12.3

1.WhatrepresentstheNatrajafigureofLordShiva?_______________________________________________________________2.Whatarethetwoformsofdances?_______________________________________________________________3.Matchthefollowing:-FolkDanceformStateBihuBengalGarbaMizoramBhangra&GiddhaMaharashtraBamboodanceKashmirKoliPunjabDhumalGujaratChuAssam4.Whatarethethreebroadcategoriesofadance?_______________________________________________________________

5.NamethetwofamousdancersofKathak._______________________________________________________________6.NamesomewellknowndancersofBharatnatyam._______________________________________________________________

12.7DRAMA

Indigeneous traditionaswellasmodernresearch trace theoriginofIndiandramato theVedas.IntheRamayanawehearofdramatroupesofwomenwhileKautilyasArthshastramentionsmusicians,dancersanddramaticshows.Dramaisaperformingart,whichhasalsobeenpractisedsincetimesimmemorial.Dramacould spring from a child’s play. The child enacts, mimics, and caricates which wasdefinitelythebeginningofdrama.Sinceearlytimesmythologicalstoriesofwarbetweenthegods,goddessesandthedevilsisknown.BharatawroteNatyashastraandcreatedtheplaysknownasAsuraParajayaandAmritManthan.Natyashastraisoneofthegreatesttextswritteninthefieldofdramaandotherperformingarts.The next epoch is that of the great Bhasa who wrote plays based on the stories ofUdayana,theRamayanaandMahabharata,SwapanaVasabdattabeinghismasterpiece.InthesecondcenturyB.C.Patanjalis’Mahabhasyareferstoseveralaspectsofdramai.e.theactors,themusic,thestage,rasaintheperformancescalledKamsavadhaandBalibandha.While referring to drama, Bharata has mentioned nat (male artists), and nati (femaleartist),music,dance,musicalinstruments,dialogues,themesandstage.ThuswefindthatdramaachievedagreatlevelofperfectionduringtheageofBharata.ForBharata,dramaisaperfectmeansofcommunication.Healsostartedtheconceptofanenclosedareafordrama.Thereismentionofacommunitycalled’shailoosh’whichhadprofessionaldramacompanies.Thepracticeofsingingheroictalesbecamepopular.Asaresultprofessionalsingerscalledkushilavascameintoexistence.During theageof theBuddhaandMahavira,dramawasameansofcommunicating theprinciplesoftheirrespectivereligions.Shortskitsandlongplayswereenactedtopreachandeducatethemasses.Musicanddancealsoplayedavitalroleinincreasingtheappealofdrama.Intheancientperiodtillthetenthcentury,thelanguageoftheeducated,wasSanskrit.Sodramaswereperformedmostlyinthislanguage.However,charactersbelongingtolowerclasses and women were made to speak Prakrit. Kautilya’s Arthashastra Vatsyayan’sKamasutra,Kalidasa’sAbhijnanShakuntalamwereallwritteninSanskritandwere

significant plays of those times. Bhasa was another celebrated dramatist who wrotethirteenplays.PrakritplaysbecamepopularbythetenthcenturyAD.Vidyapatiwholivedsometimeduringthefourteenthcenturywasanimportantdramatist.HeintroducedHindiandotherregional languages in theformofsongs.UmapatiMishraandSharadaTanayawerealsoinstrumentalinpromotingdramaduringthistime.Inthecontextofdrama,twotypesdeveloped—theclassicdrama,whichhadintricaciesofthemeand subtlenuancesofdramatic traits and folk theatre. Itwasof spontaneousandextemporenature.Localdialectwasusedinfolktheatreandhenceindifferentprovincesmany typesof folk theatresdeveloped.Actingwithaccompanimentofmusicanddancewasthepopularpractice.Manynamesweregiventotheformsoffolktheatreindifferentprovinceslike:1)Bengal-Jatra,KirtaniaNatak2)Bihar-Bideshia3)Rajasthan-Raas,Jhumar,DholaMaru4)UttarPradesh-Raas,Nautanki,Svaang,Bhaand5)Gujarat-Bhawaii6)Maharashtra-Larite,Tamasha7)TamilNadu,Kerala,Karnataka-Kathakali,YakshaganaBoxStartKuntleshwarDaityam is a drama that testifies to the fact thatKalidasa belonged to theGuptaAge.BoxCloseInstrumentslikedhol,kartal,manjira,khanjiraweresomepropsusedinfolktheatre.The medieval period was rich in music and dance but theatre did not get muchprominence.WajidAliShah,agreatpatronofartwasalsoanimportantpatronofdrama.Heenthusedartists toparticipate in theatre and supported them. In the southern region,folktheatrewiththeuseoflocaldialectswasmorepopular.The advent of the British in the country changed the character of the society. In theeighteenth century a theatre was established in Calcutta by an Englishman. A Russiannamed Horasim Lebedev founded a Bengali theatre which marked the beginning ofmodern Indian theatre in India. English drama, especially by Shakespeare, influencedIndiandrama.ThestagesevolvedbyeducatedIndiansweredifferentfromtraditionalopenairtheatre.Thestagesnow had rolling curtains and change of scenes. A Parsi company founded in Bombayshowed that theatre could be used for commercial purposes. Dramas began to depicttragedies, comedies and the complexities of urban life. Dramas were now written indifferent regional languages. Side by side, folk theatre like jatra, nautanki, khyal(Rajasthanifolk),andnaachalsoflourished.Anotheraspectwhichinfluencedperformingartswasthe

adaptation of folk forms to classical forms. Connoisseurs in different fieldsmade theirrespectiveartsamediumforservingthecauseofthemasses.Sotheyadaptedthepopularfolk arts to reach out to people. A similar situation appeared in the case of writing ofdrama. Vidyasundar, a popular drama of themedieval period, was influenced by jatra.GeetGovinda,anexemplaryworkbythegreatpoetJayadev,weavedstoriesofKrishnainkirtanianatakandjatrastyle.Atpresent,alotofexperimentsaretakingplaceinthefieldofdrama.Westerninfluencesare very clear in the works of Shambhu Mitra, Feisal Alkazi, Badal Sarkar, VijayTendulkarandothers.Presently,varioustypesofdramasareflourishingandsomeofthemare:a)Stagetheatreb)Radiotheatrec)Nukkarorstreetplaysd)Monodrama(onemanshow)e)Musicaltheatref)Shortskitsg)OneactplaysForthecontentandthematicaspectofdanceanddrama,wemustexaminetheworksofcreativeliterature.Themostimportantliteraryevent,whichinfluencednotonlydanceanddrama but painting also, was the composition of Jayadeva’s Gita-Govinda in the 13thcentury. Its great impact can be seen on dance and drama forms all over India—fromManipurandAssamintheeasttoGujaratinthewest;fromMathuraandVrindavanintheNorth, to Tamil Nadu andKerala in the South_ _ _ Innumerable commentaries on theGita-Govinda exist throughout the country. There are a large number of manuscriptsdealingwiththeGita-Govindaasmaterialfordanceordramaandthisworkhasbeenthebasic literary textusedbymanyregional theatrical traditions.ThespreadofVaisnavismduring thisperiodgave further impetus to thedevelopmentofdifferent formsofdance,dramaandmusic.

12.8SOMEIMPORTANTDRAMASANDTHEIRWRITERS

Drama is an art formwhichhas a longhistorical background in India but its analyticalreviewandgrammatical studywaspresentedbyBharata inNatyashastra. In this text, ithas been mentioned that music and dance are essential parts of drama. Ramayana,Mahabharataandtheplays,writtenbyKalidasa,BanaBhattaandBhasaareexamplesofthecombinationofallthethreeartforms-music,danceanddrama.Someofthepopulardramasarelistedbelow:S.No.NAMEWRITER1.MeghadutamKalidasa2.AbhijnanShakuntalamKalidasa3.PadmavatiMadhusudan4.HarshacharitamBanaBhatta5.NeelDeviBharatendu6.SatyaHarishChandraBharatendu7.AndherNagriBharatendu8.ChandravalJaiShankarPrasad9.AjatshatruJaiShankarPrasad10.RajyashriJaiShankarPrasad11.ChandraguptaJaiShankarPrasad12.PrayashchitJaiShankarPrasad13.KarunalayaJaiShankarPrasad14.BharatenduJaiShankarPrasad

INTEXTQUESTIONS12.4

1.WhatweretheinitialformsofDrama?_______________________________________________________________2.NamethetwoplaysofBharata._______________________________________________________________3.WhataccordingtoBharataisaperfectmeansofcommunication?_______________________________________________________________4.Whichcommunityhadprofessionaldramacompanies?_______________________________________________________________5.WhowereKushilavas?_______________________________________________________________

6.Whatarethevarioustypesofdramaflourishingthesedays?_______________________________________________________________

7.NameanytwoplaysofKalidasa._______________________________________________________________8.WhowrotetheplayPadmavati?_______________________________________________________________9.NametwoplaysofJaiShankarPrasad._______________________________________________________________

12.9PRESENTSCENARIOOFTHEPERFORMINGARTS

Presently,allthethreeartformsi.e.dance,musicanddramaareflourishinginthecountry.SeveralmusicinstitutionlikeGandharvaMahavidyalayaandPrayagSangeetSamiitihavebeenimpartingtraininginclassicalmusicanddanceformorethanfiftyyears.Anumberofschools,collegesanduniversitiesinIndiahaveadoptedtheseartformsasapartoftheircurriculum.IndiraKalaSangeetVishwaVidyalayaofKhairagarhisauniversityofmusic.KathakKendra,NationalSchoolofDrama,BharatiyaKalaKendraandmanyinstitutesare all propagating music in their own ways. Music conferences, baithaks, lecturedemonstrations are being organised andmusicians, music scholars, music teachers andmusiccriticsaretryingtopopularisemusicanddance.SocietieslikeSpic-macay,SangeetNatakAcademiesarealsoworkinghardtoprotect,developandpopulariseIndianmusic,danceanddramaatthenationalandeveninternationallevel.At the international level musicians have made significant contribution. DifferentinstitutionsofmusicstartedbyPt.RaviShankar,UstadAliAkbarKhanandUstadAllaRakkha Khan teach Indian music to foreigners. Many foreign universities havedepartmentsofIndianperformingartsandtheyawarddegreesanddiplomastostudents.AllovertheworldIndianartistsareinvitedtoperformandparticipateinvariousfestivals.Various agencies like IndianCouncil of Cultural Relations (ICCR) and theMinistry ofHuman Resource Development continuously propagate all these art forms by givinggrants,scholarshipsandfellowshipstorenownedartistsaswellastoyoungartistsandbyarrangingexchangeprogrammesinthefieldofIndianmusic,danceanddrama.

12.10ARTFORMSANDTHEDEVELOPMENTOFHUMANPERSONALITY

Theassociationofpeoplewiththeseartformsdefinitelymakesthembetterhumanbeingsastheverynatureofmusic,danceanddramaelevateshumansoulandcreatesapleasantatmosphere.The knowledge and practice of these art forms help in the development ofone’spersonality.Thepeopleinvolvedintheseartformscanattainbalanceandpeaceof

mind, self-restraint and love for all. Their performance makes them self-confident andcapableof adapting toall circumstances.Negative feelingsvanishas the soulofmusic,danceanddramateachesusallaboutlovingandcaring.

INTEXTQUESTIONS12.5

Answerthefollowingquestions:1. Name the Ministry of the Government of India propagating the three forms ofPerformingArts._______________________________________________________________2.NameanagencyoftheGovernmentofIndiaworkinginthedevelopmentofPerformingArts._______________________________________________________________3.Howdoesgovernmentpromoterenownedartists?_______________________________________________________________4.Howareperformingartshelpfultous?_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

Thethreeartforms-music,danceanddrama-havebeenanintegralaspectsofIndianculture.

Weowemuch toBharata, the authorofNatyashastra forhis contribution in thefieldofdrama.

Thepoliticalturmoilinthecountryformanyyearsdidnotdiminishtheinfluenceoftheseartforms.

The masses and the experts both took great pains and interest to retain theclassicismintheartforms.

Performing arts in India have been influenced to a significant extent by theWesternimpact.

Even in the present times, there is an enhanced status of these art forms in thecountryandabroad.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.WhatwastheaimandobjectiveofperformingartsinIndia?2.TracethedevelopmentofperformingartsinIndia?3.DescribethechangesintroducedinthemodernIndianmusic?4.Whatisthesignificanceoffolksongs?Namesomefolksongs.5.Whatistheimportanceofclassicalformsofdance?NamesomeoftheclassicaldanceformsofIndia.6.DramahasundergoneaseaofchangewiththeadventofBritish-Explain.7.PerformingartshaveagreatpotentialtogrowinIndia-Explain.

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

12.11.Dance,Drama,Music2.Itisalsoasourceofeducationtomasses.

3. Bharata’s Natyashastra. It was possibly compiled between 2nd century BC and 2ndcentuaryAD.4.Matanga’sBrihaddesi5.BrihaddesiTexts6.264ragas7.LoveofRadhaandKrishna8.SaivitnayanarsandVaishnaviteAlvars9.IbrahimAdilShahII10.Theyintroducednewragas12.21.(a)TheHindustaniclassicalmusicofNorthIndia.(b)TheCarnaticmusicofSouthIndia2.Dhrupad,Dhammar,Thumri,KhayalandTappa3.Theyareaparticularstyleofmusiconguru-shikshaparampara

4.JaipurGharana,KiranaGharana,GwaliorGharana5.Maincomposition6.(a)ShyamShastri(b)Thyagaraja(c)Mutthuswami(d)Purandardasa7.Flute,Veena,Nadaswaram,Mridangam,Ghatam.8.(a)CarnaticAlpanaissimilartoalapinHindustanimusic.(b)TilanaincarnaticresembleswithTaranaofHindustanimusic.(c)Bothlaystressontalaortalam9.(a)Mand-Rajasthan(b)Bhatiali-Bengal10.Thesearesimplesongscomposedtomarkeveryeventinlife.12.31.Creationanddestructionofcosmiccycle.2.Classicalformofdanceandfolddances.3.BihuAssamGarbaGujaratBhangraandGiddhaPunjabBamboodanceMizoramKoliMaharashtra(fisherman’sdance)DhumalKashmirChouBengal4.(a)Nritta(PadaSanchalan)(b)Nritya(angasanchalan)(c)Natya(abhinaya)5.Pt.BirjuMaharaj,Pt.SambhuMaharaj,SitaraDevi,Pt.GopiKrishnaandPt.LacchuMaharaj6.(a)GeetaChandran

(b)Dr.PadmaSubramaniam(c)Smt.SarojaVaidhyanathan12.41.Thechildenacts,mimicsandcaricates.2.AsuraParajaya,AmritManthan3.Drama4.Shailoosh5.Professionalsingerssingingheroictalesdramatically.6.(a)Stagetheatre(b)RadioTheatre(c)Nukkarorstreetplays(d)Monodrama(onemanshow)(e)Musicaltheatre(f)Shortskits(g)Oneactplays7.(a)AbhijnamShakuntalam(b)Vikramorvashiyam(c)Malvikagnimitram8.Madhusudan9.(a)Ajatshatru(b)Chandragupta(c)Prayashchit(d)Rajyashri(e)Karunalaya12.51.TheMinistryofHumanResourcesandDevelopment.2.IndianCouncilofCulturalRelations(ICCR)3.Bygivinggrants,scholarships,fellowshipandalsobyarrangingexchangeprogrammes.4.The preforming arts gives us balance ofmind, self-restraint, and love for all. It alsobuildsself-confidentandgivesuscapabilityofadaptinginallcircumstances.

13.INDIANARCHITECTUREAttimesitbecomesveryimportanttoberemindedthatwearethatcivilizationwhichhasspannedatleast4,500yearsandwhichhasleftitsimpactonnearlyeverythinginourlivesandsociety.ImagineUNESCOhaslisted830WorldHeritageSites,outofwhich26areinIndia. This is less than six other countries. Is this not a tangible proof of the creativegeniusand industryof thisancient land,people,andalsoof thegiftsbestowedon itbynature.BeittheBhimbetka’sprehistoricrockartatoneendortheinnumerablepalaces,mosques,temples,gurudwaras,churchesortombsandsprawlingcitiesandsolemnstupas.GoingthroughthecitiesofDelhi,Agra,Jaipur,MumbaiandCalcuttaetc.youfindmanybeautiful buildings. Some are monuments, palaces, temples, churches, mosques andmemorials.ManyofthemhadtheirfoundationbeforeChristandmanyafterthecomingofChrist.Manygenerationshavebeenapartof thisarchitecturewhich standsmightyandlofty reminding us of that glorious past which has been ours. This is because art andarchitectureformsan importantpartofIndianculture.Manydistinctivefeatures thatwefindinthearchitecturetodaydevelopedthroughoutthelongperiodofIndianhistory.TheearliestandmostremarkableevidenceofIndianarchitectureisfoundinthecitiesof theHarappanCivilizationwhichboastofauniquetownplanning.InthepostHarappanperiodarchitecturalstyleshavebeenclassifiedasHindu,BuddhistandJain,ThemedievalperiodsawthesynthesisofPersianandindigenousstylesofarchitecture.Thereafterthecolonialperiod brought the influence of Western architectural forms to India. Thus Indianarchitectureisasynthesisofindigenousstylesandexternalinfluenceswhichhaslentitauniquecharacteristicofitsown.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

identify the main characteristics and various styles of Indian architecture andsculptureatdifferenttimes;

tracetheevolutionofIndianarchitectureovertheyears;recognisethecontributionofBuddhismandJainismtothedevelopmentofIndian

architecture;appreciate the roleplayedbyGupta,Pallava andChola rulers in the flourishing

templearchitectureofIndia;identify thedifferent influences thatmarked the architectural impressionsof the

medievalperiod;and

pointouttheimportantarchitecturalstyleunderthecolonialregime.

13.1ARCHITECTURE-ORIGINSANDINDIANPERSPECTIVE

Architectureisnotamodernphenomenon.Itbeganassoonastheearlycavemanbegantobuildhisownsheltertolivein.Manfirstbegantocreateandfixhisownshelterwhenhesteppedoutfromthenaturalhabitatofdensejunglecovers.Withtheartisticfacultiesofmanawakenedinthesearchforlargerandbetter-shelteredspaces,hebegantobuild,withinherent aesthetic sense, shelters that seemed pleasing to the eye. Thus emergedarchitecturewhichisacombinationofneeds,imagination,capacitiesofthebuildersandcapabilitiesoftheworkers.ArchitecturalFormsandConstructionDetails:Architecture accommodated the localand regional cultural traditions and social requirements, economic prosperity, religiouspractice of different times. Hence, the study of architecture reveals to us the culturaldiversitiesandhelpsusunderstandtherichtraditionsofIndia.IndianArchitectureevolvedinvariousagesindifferentpartsandregionsofthecountry.Apartfromthesenaturalandobviousevolutionsfromthepre-historicandhistoricperiods,evolution of Indian architecture was generally affected by many great and importanthistoricdevelopments.Naturally,theemergenceanddecayofgreatempiresanddynastiesinthesub-continent,eachintheirwayinfluencedthegrowthandshapedtheevolutionofIndianarchitecture.ExternalinfluenceshavealsoshapedthenatureofIndianarchitectureand so has the influence of different regions of the country. Let us have a look at theprocessofevolutionofIndianArchitecture.

13.2HARAPPANPERIOD

TheexcavationsatHarappaandMohenjodaroandseveralothersitesoftheIndusValleyCivilisation revealed theexistenceofaverymodernurbancivilisationwithexpert townplanning and engineering skills. The very advanced drainage system along with wellplannedroadsandhousesshowthatasophisticatedandhighlyevolvedcultureexistedinIndiabefore the coming of theAryans. The sites of the IndusValleyCivilizationwereexcavatedundertheArchaeologicalSurveyofIndiaestablishedbytheBritish.The Harappan people had constructed mainly three types of buildings-dwelling housespillaredhallsandpublicbaths.

MainfeaturesofHarappanremainsare:

1.ThesettlementscouldbetracedasfarbackasthirdmillenniumBC.2,SomeimportantsettlementswereexcavatedonthebanksoftheriverIndusparticularlyatthebendsthatprovidedwater,easymeansoftransportationofproduceandothergoodsandalsosomeprotectionbywayofnaturalbarriersoftheriver.3.Allthesitesconsistedofwalledcitieswhichprovidedsecuritytothepeople.4.Thecitieshadarectangulargridpatternoflayoutwithroadsthatcuteachotheratrightangles.5.TheIndusValleypeopleusedstandardisedburntmud-bricksasbuildingmaterial.6.Thereisevidenceofbuildingofbigdimensionswhichperhapswerepublicbuildings,administrativeorbusinesscentres,pillaredhallsandcourtyards,Thereisnoevidenceoftemples.7.Publicbuildingsincludegranarieswhichwereusedtostoregrainswhichgiveanideaofanorganisedcollectionanddistributionsystem.8.Alongwithlargepublicbuildings,thereisevidenceofsmalloneroomedconstructionsthatappeartobeworkingpeoplesquarters.9.TheHarappanpeopleweregreatengineersasisevidentfromthepublicbaththatwasdiscoveredatMohenjodaro.The‘GreatBath’asitiscalled,isstillfunctionalandthereisno leakage or cracks in the construction. The existence ofwhat appears to be a publicbathingplaceshowstheimportanceofritualisticbathingandcleanlinessinthisculture.Itissignificantthatmostofthehouseshadprivatewellsandbathrooms.10.At some sites a dominant citadalwas excavated in thewestern part containing thepublicbuildingsincludingthegranaries.Thiscanperhapsbetreatedasevidenceofsomekindofpoliticalauthorityrulingoverthecities.11. There is evidence also of fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled citieswhichshowsthattheremayhavebeenafearofbeingattacked.

12. Lothal, a site in Gujarat also has the remains of a dockyard proving that tradeflourishedinthosetimesbysea.Another remarkable featurewas the existenceof awell planneddrainage system in theresidentialpartsof thecity.Smalldrains fromthehouseswereconnected to largeronesalong the sides of the main roads. The drains were covered and loose covers wereprovidedfor thepurposeof cleaning them.Theplanningof the residential houseswerealsometiculous.Evidenceofstairsshowshouseswereoftendoublestoried.Doorswereinthesidelanestopreventdustfromenteringthehouses.The most important features of Harrapan architecture are their superior town planningskillsandcitiesthathavebeenbuiltonacleargeometricpatternorgridlayout.Roadscuteach other at right angles andwere verywell laid out.As the IndusValley settlementswerelocatedonthebanksoftheriver,theywereoftendestroyedbymajorfloods.Inspiteof thiscalamity, theIndusValleypeoplebuilt freshsettlementson thesamesites.Thus,layersupon layersof settlements andbuildingswere foundduring the excavations.ThedeclineandfinaldestructionoftheIndusValleyCivilization,sometimearoundthesecondmillenniumBCremainsamysterytothisday.BoxstartManythicklayersofwellbakedbrickslaidingypsummortarwerejoinedtogetherforthepurposeofmakingthewholeconstructionverystrong.Thestrengthofthebuildingscanbe seen by the fact that they have successfully survived the ravages of atleast fivethousandyears.BoxCloseThe Harappans had the knowledge and skill of sculpting and craft. The world’s firstbronzesculptureofadancinggirlhasbeenfoundinMohenjodaro.Aterracottafigureofamaleinayogicposturehasalsobeenexcavated.Beautifulpersonalornaments,softstonesealswithapictoralscriptandimagesofhumpedbulls,Pashupatiunicornhavealsobeenexcavated.TheVedicAryanswhocamenext,livedinhousesbuiltofwood,bambooandreeds;theAryanculturewaslargelyaruraloneandthusonefindsfewexamplesofgrandbuildings.ThiswasbecauseAryansusedperishablemateriallikewoodfortheconstructionofroyalpalaceswhichhavebeencompletelydestroyedovertime.Themostimportantfeatureofthe Vedic period was the making of fire altars which soon became an important andintegral part of the social and religious life of the people even today. In many Hinduhomes and especially in their marriages, these fire altars play an important role eventoday.Sooncourtyardandmandapswerebuildwithaltarsforworshipoffirewhichwasthe most important feature of architecture. We also find references of Gurukuls andHermitages. Unfortunately no structure of the Vedic period remains to be seen. Theircontributiontothearchitecturalhistoryistheuseofwoodalongwithbrickandstoneforbuildingtheirhouses.In the6thcenturyB.C.Indiaenteredasignificantphaseofherhistory.Therearose twonewreligions-JainismandBuddhismandeventheVedicreligionunderwentachange.

Almostsimultaneously largerstatessprangupwhich furtherprovidedforanew typeofarchitecture. From this period i.e. the expansion of Magadha into an empire, thedevelopmentofarchitecturereceivedfurther impetus.Fromnowitwaspossible to traceIndianarchitectureinanalmostunbrokensequence.Emergence of Buddhism and Jainism helped in the development of early architecturalstyle.TheBuddhistStupaswerebuiltatplaceswhereBuddha’sremainswerepreservedand at themajor siteswhere important events inBuddha’s life tookplace. Stupaswerebuiltofhugemoundsofmud,enclosedincarefullyburntsmallstandardbricks.OnewasbuiltathisbirthplaceLumbini;thesecondatGayawhereheattainedenlightenmentunderthe Bodhi Tree, the third at Sarnath where he gave his first sermon and the fourth atKushinagarwherehepassedawayattainingMahaparinirvanaattheageofeighty.Buddha’s burial mounds and places of major events in his life became importantlandmarks of the significant architectural buildings in the country. These becameimportantsitesforBuddha’sorderofmonksandnuns-thesangha.Monasteries(viharas),andcentresofpreaching, teachingand learningcameupat suchplaces.Congregationalhalls (chaitya) for teaching and interaction between the commonpeople and themonkswerealsobuiltup.Fromnowonreligionbegantoinfluencearchitecture.WhileBuddhistsandJainsbegantobuild stupas, Viharas and Chaityas, the first temple building activity started during theGuptarule.

INTEXTQUESTIONS13.1

1.WhatdoyoumeanbytheevolutionofIndianculture?_______________________________________________________________2.HowdidHarappan’sprotecttheircivilization?_______________________________________________________________3.HowweretheengineeringskillsofHarappanpeopleevident?_______________________________________________________________4.WherewastheremainsofBuddhaburied?_______________________________________________________________5.WhereweretheBuddha’sstatuesfound?_______________________________________________________________6.WhenwasthefirsttemplebuiltinIndia?_______________________________________________________________

7.WhatdoyoumeanbyStupas,ViharasandChaityas?_______________________________________________________________8.Wherewasadockyardexcavated?_______________________________________________________________

13.3EARLYHISTORICPERIOD

AnimportantphaseofIndianarchitecturebeganwiththeMauryanperiod.ThematerialprosperityoftheMauryansandanewreligiousconsciousnessledtoachievementsinallfields.Megasthenes,theGreekambassadorofSelucasNikatorwhovisitedtheMauryancourtdescribedChandraguptaMaurya’spalaceasanexcellentarchitecturalachievement.Itwasalargepalacecarvedoutofwood.Figure.1BuddhistMonumentsatSanchi.It’sacircularbuildingwithadomeandstupasortallverticalstructuresattheentrance

IntheMauryanperiod(322-182BC)especiallyunderAshokaarchitecturesawagreatadvancement.MauryanartandarchitecturedepictedtheinfluenceofPersiansandGreeks.DuringthereignofAshokamanymonolithicstonepillarswereerectedonwhichteachingsof‘Dhamma’wereinscribed.Thehighlypolishedpillarswithanimalfiguresadorningthetop(capitals)areuniqueandremarkable.ThelioncapitaloftheSarnathpillarhasbeenacceptedastheemblemoftheIndianRepublic.Eachpillarweighsabout50tonnesandisabout50fthigh.Figure.2PictureofTajMahalThestupasofSanchiandSarnatharesymbolsoftheachievementofMauryan

architechture. The gateways of the Sanchi Stupa with the beautiful sculpture depictingscenesfromJatakastoriesarespecimensoftheskillandaestheticsenseoftheartisans.The blending of Greek and Indian art led to the development of Gandhara art whichdeveloped later. The other schools of artand architecturewere the indigenousMathuraschoolandAmaravatischool.AlargenumberofstatuesoftheBuddhawerebuiltby theartisans of these schools specially after first century AD under the influence of theKushanas.UndertheGandharaschoolofartlife-likestatuesofBuddhaandBodhisattavas

weremadeinthelikenessofGreekgodseven,thoughtheideas,inspirationsandsubjectswereallIndian.Richornaments,costumesdraperywereused to impartphysicalbeauty.Thesculptureswereinstone,terracotta,cementlikematerialandclay.

ThefiguresoftheMathuraschoolweremadeofspottedredstone.Theyhadmoreofspirituallookinthem.HerealongwithBuddhawefindsculpturesofJainadietiesalso.Figure3PictureofatemplewithstonefigurescarvedinstoneontheoutsideTheAmaravati schooldevelopedunder thepatronageof theSatavahanasof theAndhraregion.AgreatstupawasbuiltatAmaravatiintheLowerGodavariregion.Thewallsofthe stupa are adorned with bas relief, had carved medallion and decorative panels.NagarjunkondaisanotherplacethatisfamousforBuddhistarchitecture.TheGuptaperiodmarksthebeginningoftheconstructionoffree-standingHindutemples.AnexampleofthisisthetempleatDeogarh(Jhansidistrict)whichhadacentralshrineorgarbhagriha where the image of the deity was placed. Another temple at Bhitrigaon(Kanpurdistrict)aretwofineexamplesofthisperiod.

Cavearchitecture

Thedevelopmentofcavearchitecture isanotherunique feature andmarks an importantphaseinthehistoryofIndianarchitecture.MorethanthousandcaveshavebeenexcavatedbetweensecondcenturyBCandtenthcenturyAD.FamousamongthesewereAjantaandElloracavesofMaharashtra,andUdaygiricaveofOrissa. These caves hold Buddhist viharas, chaityas as well as mandapas and pillaredtemplesofHindugodsandgoddesses.

Figure.4GroupofMonumentsatMahaballpuramnearChennai

Rock-cuttemples

Templeswerehewnoutofhuge rocks.Theearliest rock-cut templeswere excavated inwesternDeccanintheearlyyearsoftheChristianera.ThechaityaatKarlewithfinehighhallsandpolisheddecorativewallisaremarkableexampleofrock-cutarchitecture.The

KailashtempleatEllorabuiltbytheRashtrakutasandtherathatemplesofMahabalipurambuiltbythePallavasareotherexamplesofrock-cuttemples.Most probably the stability and permanence of rocks attracted the patrons of art andbuilderswhodecoratedthesetempleswithbeautifulsculptures.

Free-standingtemples

The templebuildingactivities thatbeganduring theGupta rule continued to flourish inlater periods. In southern India the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoyshalas and later therulersoftheVijaynagarkingdomweregreatbuildersoftemples.ThePallavarulersbuiltthe shore temple at Mahabalipuram. Pallavas also built other structural temples likeKailashnath temple and Vaikuntha Perumal temples at Kanchipuram. The Cholas builtmanytemples

mostfamousbeingtheBrihadeshwaratempleatTanjore.TheCholasdevelopedatypicalstyleoftemplearchitectureofSouthIndiacalledtheDravidastyle,completewithvimanaorshikhara,highwallsandthegatewaytoppedbygopuram.MagnificenttempleswerebuiltatBelur,Halebidwherethestoneengravingsreachedevengreaterheights.Figure5PictureoftheRedFortinthetopandpictureoftheKhajurahoTempleinthebottomIn north and eastern India magnificent temples were also constructed and the stylefollowedbythemisreferredtoastheNagarastyle.Mostofthemconsistedoftheshikaras(spiralroofs),thegarbhagriha(sanctum)andthemandap(pillaredhall).Orissahassomeof themostbeautiful templessuchas theLingaraja templebuiltby theGangarulersandtheMukteshwaratempleatBhubaneshwarandtheJagannathtempleat

Puri.The sun temple at Konark was built in thirteenth century by the eastern Ganga rulerNarshimhaDevaI.ThetempleisdedicatedtoSurya(thesungod)andhasbeendesignedasatwelve-wheeledchariot.The temple complex atKhajurahowas builtbyChandella rulers between the tenth andeleventhcenturiesintheBundelkhandregionofMadhyaPradesh.MostimportantamongthemistheKandariyaMahadevtemple.MountAbuinRajasthanisknownfortheDilwaratemplededicatedtoJaintirthankaras.Thesewerebuiltinpurewhitemarbleandadornedwithexquisitesculpture.ThesewerebuiltunderthepatronageofSolankirulers.

Somnath templeatGujarat,Vishwanath templeatBanaras,Govinda templeatMathura,KamakhyatempleatGuwahati,ShankaracharyatempleatKashmirandtheKalitempleatKalighat of Kolkata are some other important temples which bear testimony to templebuildingactivityoftheIndiansub-continent.

INTEXTQUESTIONS13.2

1.HowdidMegasthenesdescribethepalaceofChandraGuptaMaurya?_______________________________________________________________2.NamethetwostupasthatshowstheachievementofMauryanarchitecture?_______________________________________________________________3.WhereweretheteachingsofDhammainscribedinAshokareign?_______________________________________________________________4.Namethefewschoolsofarchitectureofearlyhistoricperiod?_______________________________________________________________5.WhereareUdaygiricaves?_______________________________________________________________6.WhobuilttheKailashtempleofEllora?_______________________________________________________________7.WhobuilttheRathatemplesatMahabalipuram?_______________________________________________________________8.WhatisDravidastyleofarchitecture?_______________________________________________________________9.NamethetemplebuiltbyCholakingatTanjore?_______________________________________________________________10.DefineNagarastyleofarchitecture?_______________________________________________________________11.WhobuilttheSuntempleatKonark?_______________________________________________________________12.NamethefamousJaintempleatMountAbu.Rajasthan._______________________________________________________________

13.4MEDIEVALPERIODARCHITECTURE

DelhiSultanate

With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique ofarchitecture-thearchitecturalstylesofPersia,ArabiaandCentralAsia.Theengineeringfeatures of these buildingswere the domes, arches andminarets. The palaces,mosquesandtombsbuiltbytherulershadthesefeatureswhichwereblendedwiththefeaturesofthe indigenous architecture and a new synthesis in architecture was achieved. Thishappened because the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized the services of the local Indiancraftsmenwhowereveryskillfulandhadalreadyconstructedbeautifulbuildings. In thebuildings that came up we find the simplicity of the Islamic structure as well as thedetailedsculpturesanddesignstheymadeontheirownindigeniousstructures.Amiddlepathwasfollowedinalltheirdesignsinthearchitectureofthisperiod.

Figure6PictureofthetallKutubMinarmadeofredstonesThe earliest building of this period isQuwwatul IslamMosque atDelhi and theQutubMinar.Thelatterisatower,whoseheightis70metres.Itisataperingtowerthathasfivestories.Therearebeautifulengravingsofcalligraphybothinthemosqueandonthetower.Manyother buildingswere later constructedby theSultans.Ala-ud-dinKhalji enlargedtheQuwat-ul-Islam mosque and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. ThisgatewayiscalledtheAlahiDarwajaandisoneofthemostbeautifularchitecturaldesignseventoday.Decorativeelementswereusedtomakethebuildingoutstandinginitsbeauty.He also built the Hauz Khas in Delhi which was a hydraulic structure. The tomb of

Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq and the forts of Tughlaqabad are some examples.Though theirbuildingswerenotbeautifulbuthadverystrongwalls,massiveaswellasimpressive.During theAfghan rule the tombsof IbrahimLodi atDelhi andShershah’stombatSasaramwerebuilt.Thearchitectureof thisperiodalso showshow indigenousstyleswereadoptedandutilisedbythebuilders.Duringtheseyears,theTurkswerestillinthe process of settling down. The rulers were threatened by the Mongols, who madesuddeninvasionsfromthenorth.Thisiswhythebuildingsofthisperiodarestrong,sturdyandpractical.

RegionalKingdoms

WiththeestablishmentofregionalkingdomsinBengal,GujaratandtheDeccan,beautifulbuildings having their own stylewere constructed. The JamaMasjid, the Sadi SaiyyadMosqueandtheshakingtowersatAhmadabadareafewexamplesofthisarchitecture.In

Mandu(centralIndia)theJamaMasjid,HindolaMahalandJahazMahalwerebuilt.IntheDeccan, the Sultans erected a number of buildings. The JamaMasjid at Gulbarga, theMadarsaofMahmudGawanatBidar,IbrahimRauza,GolGumbazatBijapurandthefortatGolkunda are just a few famous buildings.GolGumbaz has the largest dome in theworld.All thesebuildingsvary indesignandstyle fromthebuildingsofnorthIndia. InBengal the oblong shape ofmany structures and the peculiar style of roof constructionweresomeofthedistinctivefeaturesoftheregionalarchitectureofBengalliketheAdinamosqueandthetombofJallal-ud-dinatPandua,KhilDarwazaandTantiparamosqueatGaur. In Jaunpur, the Atala mosque build by the Sharqui rulers had a gigantic screencoveringthedomewhilethetombofHoshangShahatMalwaismadeentirelyofmarbleand ismadeofyellowandblackmarble inlayworkbeautifullydonebycraftsmen.Therulers of Vijayanagar, an empire whichwas established during this period also erectedmanybeautifulbuildingsand templesandhadanumberofachievements to theircredit.ThoughonlyruinsremainbutthetemplesofVithalswamiandHazarRamaatHampiaregoodexamples.

BAHAMANI

TheBahamanisultansborrowedfromthestylesofPersia,Syria,TurkeyandthetemplesofSouthernIndia.TheJamaMasjidatGulbargaisquitewellknown.ThecourtyardofthismosqueiscoveredwithalargenumberofdomesandistheonlymosqueinIndiawhichhasacoveredcountryard.

Mughals

TheadventoftheMughalsbroughtanewerainarchitecture.Thesynthesisofstylewhichbeganearlierreacheditszenithduringthistime.ThearchitectureofMughalstylestartedduringAkbar’srule.ThefirstbuildingofthisrulewasHumayun’sTombatDelhi.Figure.7Humayun’sTombIn thismagnificentbuildingred stonewasused. It has amaingatewayand the tomb isplacedinthemidstofagarden.ManyconsideritaprecursoroftheTajMahal.AkbarbuiltfortsatAgraandFatehpurSikri.TheBulundDarwazareflectsthegrandeurofthemighty

Mughal empire. This building was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. TheArchoftheBulandDarwajaisabout41mhighandisperhapsthemostimposinggatewayin the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of JodhaBai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’sHouse and other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indianelements.DuringthereignofJehangir,Akbar’sMausoleumwasconstructedatSikandranear Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula which was built entirely ofmarble.ShahjahanwasthegreatestbuilderamongsttheMughals.He

usedmarble extensively.Decorative design in inlaywork, (called pietraduro) beautifularchesandminaretswerethefeaturesofhisbuildings.TheRedFortandJamaMasjidofDelhiandabovealltheTajMahalaresomeofthebuildingsbuiltbyShahjahan.TheTajMahal, the tombofShahjahan’swife, isbuilt inmarbleandreflectsall thearchitecturalfeaturesthatweredevelopedduringtheMughalperiod.Ithasacentraldome,fourelegantminarats, gateway, inlaywork and gardens surrounding themain building.TheMughalstyleofarchitecturehadaprofoundinfluenceonthebuildingsofthelaterperiod.Thebuildings showed a strong influence of the ancient Indian style and had courtyards andpillars.For the first time in the architectureof this style livingbeings- elephants, lions,peacocksandotherbirdsweresculpturedinthebracketsNext came theBritishwho ruled the country for 200 years and left behind a legacy ofcolonialstylearchitectureintheirbuildings.

MonumentsBuiltbyAkbaratFatehpurSikri

The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. He erected many importantbuildings.ThecrowningachievementsofhisreignwasthebuildingofhisnewcapitalcityofFatehpurSikri.,40kmfromAgra.FatehpurSikriisaromanceofstones.TheArchoftheBulandDarwajaisthemostimposinggatewayintheworld.ThetombofSaintSalimChisti is exquisite in its beauty. Jodha Bai Palace is a fine example of ancient Indianarchitecture. The Jama Masjid was built with the influence of the Persian style. TheDewan-i-AmmandtheDewan-i-Khasarefamousfor theirplanninganddecoration.TheIbadat Khana and Panch Mahal are another notable buildings. The Panch Mahal is apyramidalstructureinfivestoreys.ItwasbuildonthepatternofaBuddhistVihara.BoxStartFrom1526, theMughalarchitecturegavea totalydifferentdimension to tombbuilding.These are built on platforms and are surrounded by gardens laid out with ornamentalfountains.AfamousexampleisthemosqueatFatehpurSikri-threedomesof290ftby470ftandwithtworoyaltombs.AnotherfamoustombisAkbar’stombinSikandra(A.D.1593-1613).TheTajMahal,Agra (A.D.1630)builtbyShahJehan isconsideredoneof the ‘Wondersof theWorld’.Itisaroyaltombinmarblebuiltonaplatform18fthighand313ft.square.Eachcorner ismarked by aminaret 133ft high. The central dome is 80 ft. high and 58ft indiameter.Marbleisinlaidwithsemi-preciousstoneslikejasperandagate.ItstandsbythebankoftheriverJamunainthemiddleofmarbleterraces,fountainsandlakesflankedbycypresstrees.MughalarchitecturedeclinedwiththefailingpoliticalpoweroftheMughalEmpire.A unique architectural development in the Mughal time was the beautiful gardensdevelopedaroundthe tombsandotherbuildings.TheShalimarGardens inKashmirandlahoreweredevelopedbyJahangirandShahJahanrespectively.TheMughalsencouragedculturalandarchitecturalgrowthofIndia.BoxClose

INTEXTQUESTIONS13.3

1.WhatwasthestyleofarchitectureoftheTurks?_______________________________________________________________2.Namesomeofthetombsandmosquesconstructedduringthesultanateperiod?_______________________________________________________________3.Whichisthelargestdomeintheworld?_______________________________________________________________4.Whatispietradura?_______________________________________________________________5.WhichbuildingreflectsthegrandeurofthemightyMughalEmpire?_______________________________________________________________

13.5COLONIALARCHITECTUREANDTHEMODERNPERIOD

The colonial influence can be seen in office buildings. Europeans who started comingfrom sixteenth centuryAD constructedmany churches and other buildings. Portuguesebuiltmany churches atGoa, themost famous of these are Basilica Bom Jesus and thechruch of Saint Francis. The British also built administrative and residential buildingswhichreflecttheir imperialglory.SomeGreekandRomaninfluencecanbeobserved inthecolonnadesorpillaredbuildings.ParliamentHouseandConnaughtPlaceinDelhiaregood examples. The architect Lutyens, designed Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly theViceroy’sresidence.ItisbuiltofsandstoneandhasdesignfeatureslikecanopiesandjaalifromRajasthan.TheVictoriaMemorialinCalcutta,theformercapitalofBritishIndia,isahuge edifice in marble. It now houses a museum full of colonial artefacts. Writers’BuildinginCalcutta,wheregenerationsofgovernmentofficersworkedinBritishtimes,isstilltheadministrativecentreofBengalafterindependence.SomeGothicelementscanbeseen in the church buildings like St. Paul’s Cathedral in Calcutta. The British also leftbehind impressive railway terminals like the Victoria Terminus in Mumbai. Morecontemporary styles of building are now in evidence, after Independence in 1947.Chandigarh has buildings designed by the French architect, Corbusier. In Delhi, theAustrianarchitect,Stein,designedTheIndia InternationalCentrewhereconferencesareheldbyleadingintellectualsfromallovertheworldandmorerecently,theIndiaHabitatCentrewhichhasbecomeacentreofintellectualactivitiesinthecapital.

Inthepastfewdecades,therehavebeenmanytalentedIndianarchitects,sometrainedinpremier schools of architecture like the School of Planning and Architecture (SPA) inDelhi.Architects likeRajRewal andCharlesCorrea represent this new generationRajRewalhasdesignedtheSCOPEComplexandJawaharVyaparBhavaninDelhi.Hetakespride in using indigenous building material like sandstone for construction and alsocombinesstepsandopenspacesfromtheplazasofRome.AnexampleofthisistheC1ETbuildinginDelhi.CharlesCorreafromMumbaiisresponsiblefortheLICBuildinginConnaughtPlace,Delhi.Hehasusedglassfacadesinthehigh-risetoreflectlightandcreateasenseofsoaringheight.In domestic architecture in the last decade, Housing Cooperative Societies havemushroomedinallmetropolitancitiescombiningutilitywithahighlevelofplanningandaestheticsense.

INTEXTQUESTIONS13.4

1.WhichwerethemostfamouschurchesatGoabuiltbyProtuguese?_______________________________________________________________2.NamethearchitectwhodesignedtheRashtrapatiBhavan._______________________________________________________________3.Which architectural style canbeobserved in buildings built duringBritish empire inIndia?_______________________________________________________________4.WhatiscontainedintheVictoriaMemorialbuildinginCalcuttatheseday?_______________________________________________________________5.WhodesignedthecityofChandigarh?_______________________________________________________________6.NamethearchitectwhodeignedtheIndiaInternationalCentreofDelhi?_______________________________________________________________7.NamesomefamousarchitectsofmodernIndia._______________________________________________________________

13.6TOWNSANDCITIESININDIA

Youhaveread in this lessonabout thearchitectureof theancient,medievalandmodernperiodsinIndia.IntheprevioussectionyoureadabouttheSchoolofPlanningand

Architecture inDelhi.You can see that Planning goeswithArchitecture.Doyou knowthatthisPlanningisactuallyTownPlanning,whichislinkedwithurbandevelopment?Itisevidentthatwhenwethinkortalkofarchitecture,wehavetothinkoftherelatedideaoftownplanningorurbandevelopment.Inthissectionwewill learnaboutthegrowthanddevelopmentoftownsandcitiesinIndia.Itisindeedaninterestingstory.WewouldalsospendsometimeingoingintodetailsaboutthefourmajorcitiesofcontemporaryIndia-Chennai,Mumbai,Kolkata andDelhi.Wewill trace theoriginof these cities and learnabouttheirimportantstructuresandbuildings.YouwouldbesurprisedtoknowthatstartingfromtheHarappancivilization,(alsoknownasIndus-SaraswatiCivilizationbysomehistorians),Indiahashadaverylonghistoryoftownplanning,whichcanbetracedbackto2350B.C.Asyouhavealreadylearnt,thetwocitiesofHarappaandMohenjo-Darohadanelaboratedrainagesystem, roadswhichcuteachother at right angles, a citadelwhichwasbuilt on ahighgroundand in the lowerpartslivedtherestofthepopulation.KalibangaminRajasthanandSurkodainKutchhadsimilarcitystructure.From600B.C.onwards,wecomeacrossmoretownsandcitiesthatwereassociatedwithbothAryanaswellasDravidiancivilization.ThesewereRajgir,Varanasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur, Ujjain, Sravasthi, Kapilavastu and Kausambhi besidesmany others. We also come across many towns in the Mauryan period known asJanapadas(smalltowns)andMahajanapadas(bigtowns).With the comingof theMuslims to India, the scene changed. Islamic influencebecameevidentinthetowns.Mosques,fortsandpalacesnowdottedtheurbanscene.AccordingtoAbulFazal, therewere2,837towns in1594A.D.Thiswasmainlybecausemany largervillages were transformed into smaller towns which came to be called qasbas. Theseqasbas soon came to be occupied by local artisans and craftspersons, who startedspecializing in their chosen craft, for example leather works andmarble in Agra. Sindspecializedincottontextiles,silketc.,whileGujaratexcelledintheartofweavinggoldandsilkthreadsandmadebrocadesthatwereoftenexportedtoothercountries.Asyouknow,later,duringthe16thcentury,theEuropeanscametoIndiathroughthesearoute and thus began the establishment of new port towns like Panaji in Goa (1510),Bombay in Maharashtra (1532), Machilipatnam (1605), Nagapattnam (1658), Madras(1639)inthesouthandCalcutta(1690)intheeast.ThereasonwhythesenewporttownsweredevelopedbytheBritishwasbecauseduringthistimeEnglandhaddevelopedintoaleading industrial economy of the world, while India was the leading supplier of rawmaterialsfortheBritishindustriesaswellasapotentialmajorbuyerofthesegoods.After1853,railwaylineswerealso laidoutbytheBritish tocarrygoodsfromtheinteriors totheportsor connecting areaswhichwere supplying rawmaterials or receiving finishedgoods.By1905,nearly28,000milesofraillineshadbeenspreadtoservetheeconomic,politicalandmilitaryinterestsoftheBritish.Postandtelegraphlineswerealsolaidwhichwereneededforcommunicationpurposes.

By the beginning of the 20th century,Bombay (nowMumbai),Calcutta (nowKolkata)andMadras (nowChennai)hadbecomewellknown important cities for administration,commerceaswellas industries.Someplaces likeDalhousieSquare inCalcutta,FortSt.George in Madras, Connaught Place in Delhi and the sea shores of Marine Drive inBombay reminded the Europeans of their home in England. But they also wanted thecoolness of their environs back home in Europe. So new centres developed in the hillstationsnear thesebigcities tobeat thesultrysummermonthsof India,e.g.Mussoorie,SimlaandNainital intheNorth;DarjeelingandShillongintheEast;NilgiriandKodaikanal intheSouth.NewresidentialareaslikeCivilLinesandCantonmentscameupintowns.Theareawherecivilian administrative Officers lived was called Civil Lines, while cantonments wereareasmeantfortheBritishArmyOfficers.Doyouknowthateventodaythesetwoareasaremeantfortheeliteintheadministrationandthearmyasinthosedays?Let us now read the fourmetropolitan cities of India –Chennai,Kolkata,Mumbai andDelhi.Surely,youknowthesecities.

INTEXTQUESTIONS13.5

1.Name5citiesthatcameupintheancientperiodinIndia.i)_______________,ii)________________,iii)________________,iv)______________,v)________________2.Name5placeswhereportsweresetupbytheBritish.i)_______________,ii)________________,iii)________________,iv)________________,v)________________3.Name5HillStationsdevelopedbytheBritish.i)_______________,ii)________________,iii)________________,iv)________________,v)________________4.WholivedintheCivilLines?_______________________________________________________________5.WhatwastheCantonment?_______________________________________________________________

13.6.1Chennai

Chennai,formerlyknownasMadras,isthecapitalofthestateofTamilNadu,andisoneofthefourmetropolitancitiesofIndia.ThecitygrewuparoundFortSaintGeorge,and

with time, absorbed the surrounding towns and villages. In the 19th century, the citybecame the seat ofMadras Presidency, the southern division of British Imperial India.After independence in 1947, the city became the capital of Madras State, which wasrenamedasTamilNadu in1968. Ithas retained its traditionalTamilHinduculture, andhasbeenabletoprovideauniqueblendofforeigninfluenceandIndianculture.Chennai’sBritishinfluenceisevidentinvariouscathedrals,buildings,andwidetree-linedavenues.TheHighCourtBuilding,builtin1892,wassaidtobethelargestjudicialbuildingintheworld after theCourts ofLondon.Themain hallmark of Fort StGeorge, its decorativedomesandcorridors,arereminiscentofnewarchitecture.

TheIceHousewasusedtostoreenormousblocksoficecutfromtheGreatLakesinnorthernUSAandshippedtoIndiaforrefrigerationpurposesduringthecolonialrule.Figure.8TheIceHouse

AnotherbeautifulstructurethatcameupduringthistimewastheChurchofSt.JohnthathadwideGothicarchesandbeautifulstained-glasswindows.Ithadthenaveandaisles,atowerandaspire.Thewallsaremadeofrubble,facedwithcoarseKurlaStonebuffwhilethepiers,arches,anddressingsareofPorbunderStone;theroofisbuiltofteakwoodandtheflooroftilesimportedfromEngland.Figure.9ChurchofSt.John,awhiteChurchwithacrossontop.YetanotherstructureworthmentioningthatwasbuiltduringthisperiodwastheGeneral

PostOffice.Completed in 1872, theGeneral PostOffice inChennai has a vast centralhall,with a veryhigh dome. Itwas built in local basaltwith dressings of yellowstonefromKurlaandwhitestonefromDhrangadra.Itisanimportanttouristattraction.Inside,the marble topped tables, the high vaulted ceilings, and the sweeping staircases aredesignedforanostentatiousshowofwealthandpoweroftheBritish.

13.6.2Kolkata

It is interestingtoexplore theorigin&historyofKolkata.Doyouknowthat itwas thecapitalofBritishIndiatill1911?ItwasestablishedasCalcuttaintheyear1686,asaresultoftheexpansionplansoftheBritish.Thecitykeptprogressinguntil1756,whenSiraj-ud-Daula(NawabofBengal)attacked

andsucceededindrivingtheBritishawayfromthetown.In1757,thefollowingyear,BattleFigure.10Theorigin&HistoryofKolkata

OfPlasseytookplace,inwhichRobertClivetookoverthecitybydefeatingtheNawab.WiththeestablishmentofSupremeCourtatalcuttain1774,itbecametheseatofjustice.ThecapitalofBritishIndiawasshiftedfromCalcuttatoNewDelhiin1911.YoumaybeawarethatCalcuttawasofficiallyrenamedasKolkatain2001.LetusnowtakealookatthefamousstructuresandbuildingsofKolkatathatexisttilltoday.

HowrahBridgeislocatedovertheHooghlyRiver.ItconnectsthecityofHowrahtoCalcutta.Itstandsontwo270feethighpillarsandwasconstructedwithoutusinganynutsandbolts.ThisbridgeactsasanimportantsymbolofKolkata.Itisprobablythebusiestbridgeoftheworld.Figure.11theHowrahbridgemadeoutofsteelLocatedinnorthCalcutta,MarblePalacewasconstructedin1835.Itservesasanexquisiteartgallery.Itdisplaysmarvelousobjectsofart,sculptures,pictures&oilpaintings.Italsohasazoo,whereyoucanfinddifferentkindsofbirdsandanimals.Infact,ithasararecollectionofbirds.

Figure.12WhilteMarblePalacesurroundedbyagardenandtrees

FortWilliamissituatedatthebanksofriverHooghly.ItwasestablishedbytheBritish,initiatedbyRobertClivein1696;itgotcompletedby1780.ThebasicpurposeofsettingupFortWilliamwastopreventattacksfrominvaders.Theareathatwasclearedaroundtheforthasbecomeamaidan,whereseveralexhibitionsandfairstakeplacetilltoday.Figure.13FortWilliamissituatedatthebanksofRiverHooghly

VictoriaMemorialHallinCalcuttaisafabulousmuseumthatwasestablishedintheyear1921.Itisafantasticplacethattakesvisitorsintotheworldofpasthistory.Today,VictoriaMemorialisoneofthefinestartmuseumsinKolkata.Itisa184fttalledificethatwasconstructedon64acresofland.Figure.14reflectiononthewater

DoyouknowthatEdenGardensCricketClubinCalcuttacameintoexistenceintheyear1864.TodayithasthecapacitytoFigure.15cricketstadium

accommodateabout1,20,000persons.EdenGardensofCalcuttadefinitelyfallsintothecategoryofmustseeplaces.TheconstructionofWritersBuildingbeganasearlyasin1690.ItgotitsnameowingtothefactthatitservedasthedwellingplaceforthejuniorwritersoftheEastIndiaCompany.ThisGothicstructurecameintoexistenceduringthetenureofLt.GovernorAshleyEden(1877).Figure.16WritersBuilding

13.6.3Mumbai

You know thatMumbai is located on the shores ofArabian Sea, on theWestCoast ofIndia.Youwillbesurprisedtoknowthatitwasonceagroupofsevenislands.Althoughitssitehasbeen inhabitedsincepre-historic times, thecityofMumbaidatesonly to thearrivaloftheBritishinthe17thcentury,whenitcameupasBombay.However,itreallytookshape in the19thcentury. Itwas the first Indiancity tohave railways.AlongwithCalcutta,itwasoneofthefirsttwoIndiancitieswherenewspaperscameintoexistence.

Duringthesecondhalfofthe19thcenturymanycivicandpublicbuildingswereconstructedinBombayinVictorianGothicStylee.g.theSecretariat(1874)theCouncilHall(1876)andElphinstoneCollege(1890).ButthemostimpressivestylewastheVictoriaTerminus(modernChhatrapatiShivajiTerminus),themassiverailwayconstructionin1887.Itlooksmorelikeacathedralthanarailwaystation.Itcontainscarvedstonefriezes,stainedglasswindowsandflyingwalls.Figure.17thesecondhalfofthe19thcenturymanycivicandpublicbuildingswere

constructedinBombayinVictorianGothicStylee.g.

ThefamousGatewayofIndiawasbuiltwithyellowstoneinIndo-SaracenicstyleofarchitecturetohonourthevisitofKingGeorgeVandQueenMarytoIndia.Itwascompletedin1924atacostofRupees24lakhs,whichwasafortuneinthosedays.Ithasa26metrehigharchwayandiscompletewithfourturretsandintricatelatticeworkcarvedintotheyellowbasaltstone.

Figure.18ThefamousGatewayofIndiaSinceindependence,MumbaihascontinuedtobeIndia’sleadingcommercialandindustrialcity.Thestockexchange,thebusinesscentres,thefamousfilmindustrycalledBollywood

andanythingyoucallinthenameofwesternizationandmodernizationisallhere.Asyouknow,todayitisthemostimportantfinancialcityofIndiawithimportantindustriesliketextiles, finance and filmmaking.You are awareof the famousBollywood, thebiggestfilmindustryintheworld,wheresomanyHindifilmsareproduced.OnceknownastheGatewaytoIndia,tracesofBritishrulearestillevidentinthecityofMumbai.

INTEXTQUESTIONS13.6

1.Name4famousplacesofChennai.i)____________________ii)____________________iii)____________________iv)____________________2.Name4famousplacesofKolkata.i)____________________ii)____________________iii)____________________iv)____________________3.Name4famousplacesofMumbai.i)____________________ii)____________________iii)____________________iv)____________________

13.6.4Delhi

DoyouknowthatDelhibecamethecapitalofBritishIndia in1911?That iswhyDelhicelebrated its100thanniversary in2011.Evidently, itwas in 1911 that themodern citynowcalledNewDelhicameup.However,Delhihasahistorymucholderthanthat.ItisbelievedthatthereareatleastsevenimportantoldcitiesthathavecometogethertoformDelhi.ThefirstcityofDelhiisbelievedtohavebeenestablishedontherightbankoftheYamuna by Yudhishthira, the oldest of the Pandava brothers by the name ofIndraprastha.Surely,yourememberthestoryofMahabharata,whichisthe

legendofthePandavasandKauravas!Figure.19IndraprasthaAccordingtofolklore,DelhiwasfoundedbyRajaDhilu.Duringthe2ndcenturyA.D,

Ptolemy,theGeographermarkedDelhiinhismapasDaidala.ButitwasmuchbeforethisthatamongtheinnumerableHarappasitesfiguresthecitynowcalledDelhi.TheevidenceofthiscanbeseenifyouvisittheNationalMuseumatDelhi.

Fromthattimeonwards,Delhihascontinuedtogrow.Todayithasexpandedsomuchthatitisnowoneofthelargestcities,notonlyinthecountry,butinthewholeworld.A very interesting legend is associated with Delhi. The story goes like this: A snakeVasukiwaspushedundergroundbyanIronPillarintheQutabMinarComplexduringthetimeofKingAshoka.Severalyears later,when theTomarkingAnangPalofLa lKot,establishedhisruleinDelhi,hepulledoutthispillarandsettheserpentfree.Atthattime,itwaspredictedthatnodynastywouldnowbeabletoruleoverDelhiforlong.AftertheTomarscametheChauhans,whobuiltacitycalledQilaRaiPithoraintheLalKotarea,nearMehrauli.PrithviRajChauhanofthisdynastyruledfromMehrauli.

Figure.20LalKot,Delhi again came into prominencewhen the SlaveDynasty came into power.YouwillrememberreadingthatQutb-ud-dinhadstartedbuildingthefamousQutubMinar,whichwaslaterfinishedbyIltutmish.

Later,whenAlauddinKhiljibecametheSultan,itwasSirithatbecamethecentreofpower.TheSiriFortstillexistsandthisareainDelhiisknownasShahpurJat.Sirialsohasaninterestingstorytotell.AlauddinKhilji’srulewasconstantlythreatenedbytheMongolinvasions.SomeoftheseMongolswhostayedbackinthecityrebelled.AlauddinKhiljigotthembeheadedandtheirheadswereburiedunderthewallsofthecity.ThatishowtheplacecametobecalledSiri.Asyouknowthewordsirmeanshead.Westillusethatwordforhead.

Figure.21SiriFort

Someyearslater,whentheTughlaqdynastycametopower,SultanGhiyasuddinTughlaqconstructedthecitycalledTughlaqabad.Thiswasdesignedasafortifiedtown.AfterGhiyasuddin’sdeath,MohammedBinTughlaq(1320-1388)enclosedtheearliercitiesofDelhiintoasingleunit

andnameditJahanpanah.Figure.22Tughlaqabad

Ibn Batuta, who served in the court of Mohammed Bin Tughlaq, has given a veryinterestingdescriptionofthiscity.Hehasdescribeditas“____themetropolisofIndia,avastandmagnificentcity,unitingbeautywithstrength. It issurroundedbyawall thathasnoequalintheworld,andisthelargestcityinIndia,nayratherthelargestcityintheentireMoslemOrient.”AnotherimportantrulerofTughlaqdynastywasFirozShah.Duringhisreign,Delhihadan enormous population and covered an extensive area. He constructed Firozabad,locatednearFirozShahKotla.However,theinvasionofTimur,thekingofSamarkand,in1398,destroyeditsglory,includingthecityofJahanpanah.TimurtookwithhimIndianarchitectsandmasonstobuildthemosquesatSamarkand.ThesucceedingrulersshiftedtheircapitaltoAgra.It was the Mughal ruler Humayun, who built Dinpanahon the mound of ancientIndraprastha. However, it was Humayun’s grandson, Shah Jehan, who revived the lostgloryofDelhi.HestartedbuildingtheRedFortin1639andfinisheditin1648.In1650,he started the work of building the famous JamiMasjid. Shah Jehan’s city was calledShahjahanabad.Great poets such asDard,MirTakiMir andMirzaGhalib, etc.madeGhazalsandthe languageofGhazals, i.e.Urdufamousduringthisperiod.It isbelievedThat Shahjahanabad was more beautiful than Baghdad in Iraq and Constantinople inTurkey.Overthecenturies,thecitywaslootedanddestroyedbythearmiesofNadirShah(1739),AhmadShahAbdali (1748)aswellascontinuousattacksfromwithin.All theseweakened the city. But, in spite of all these problems, Delhi still had much to offer -Music,Dance,Drama and variety of delicious food alongwith a rich cultural languageandliterature.ItwassaidthatDelhiwasthehometoat least24SufisofwhichthemostfamouswerefromtheJahanpanaharea.Someofthemwere:1.KutbuddinBakhtiyarKakiwhosekhanqahorderawasatMehrauli;2.NizamuddinAuliya,whosekhanqahwasatNizamuddin;3.SheikhNasiruddinMahmud,whoispopularlyknowntodayasChiragh-e-Delhi;4.AmirKhusro,whowasagreatpoet,magicianandscholar.After 1707, theMughal powerweakened andDelhi became a pale shadowof itself. In1803,theBritishoccupiedDelhiafterdefeatingtheMarathas.TheareasaroundKashmereGateandCivilLinesbecameimportantcentres,wheretheBritishbuiltmanystructures.In1911, theBritishshifted theircapital toDelhiandbuiltanentirelynewcitycalledNewDelhi.Itwasmadeonamajesticscale.ThelargestructureoftheIndiaGate,theViceroyHousewhichisnowtheRashtrapatiBhavan,ParliamentHouseandtheNorthandSouthBlockswereallmadetoimpresstheIndiansubjectsoftheBritishrule.Theyweremeanttoshowthesupremacy,themajesticpoweraswellastheregalityoftheBritish.Thisnewcitywascompletedby1932.TheConnaughtPlacestillremainsanimportantcommercial

centreofthecity.Delhiremainsanimportantcommercial,culturalandpoliticalcentreofIndia. Massive buildings, beautiful parks, flyovers, the Metro, a beautiful airport,educationalcentres,museums,bigwholesalemarkets,EmbassiesandHighCommissionsofallcountriesoftheworld,largemalls,majorindustries,etc.allcontributetomakingitabeautifulcity.Itissaid:Dillihaidilwalonki(Delhibelongs to thosewhohavea largeheart).

INTEXTQUESTIONS13.7

1.MatchthecitieswithinDelhiwiththekingwhobuiltthem

S.No.NameoftheCityNameofkingwhobuiltit

1. Indraprastha PrithviRajChauhan

2. LalKot MohammedBinTughlaq

3. Mehrauli Yudhishthira

4. Siri FirozShahTughlaq

5. Jahanpanah Humayun

6. Tughlaqabad ShahJehan

7. Firozabad AlauddinKhilji

8. Dinpanah AnangPalTomar

9. Shahjahanabad GhiyasuddinTughlaq

2.Name4famousSufisaintsoftheJahanpanaharea.i)____________________ii)____________________ii)____________________iv)____________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

The history of Indian architecture and sculpture is as old as the civilization oflndusValley.

Architecture holds the key to the understanding of the cultural diversity of anypartofIndiaasitisinfluencedbytheculturaltraditionsandreligiouspractices

ofdifferenttimes.Buddhismand Jainsimhelped in the development of early architectural style of

Indiainbuildingstupas,viharasandchaityas.

DuringthetimeofGupta,PallavasandCholastemplearchitectureflourished.DelhiSultanateandMughalsbroughtwiththemPersianinfluenceandwewitness

anIndo-persianstyleofarchitecture.TheBritishersandothercolonialpowersbroughttheEuropeanimpactonIndian

architectureandeffecteda synthesisof thosewith indigenous stylesandalsoinstitutedthetypicalcolonialstyleofarchitecturewherematerialswereusedtofashionmajesticbuildingsandoffices.

StartingfromtheHarappacivilization,Indiahashadaverylonghistoryoftownplanning,whichcanbetracedbackto2350B.C.

Severaltownscameupsincethen.Therewere2,837townsin1594.By the beginning of the 20th century, Bombay (now Mumbai), Calcutta (now

Kolkata)andMadras(nowChennai)hadbecomewellknownimportantcitiesforadministration,commerceaswellasindustries.

Delhibecame thecapitalofBritish India in1911.However,Delhihasahistorymucholderthanthat.

It is believed that there are at least seven important old cities that have cometogether to formDelhi. These are probably Indraprastha, Lal Kot,Mehrauli,Siri,Tughlaqabad,FirozabadandShahjahanabad

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.DescribearchitecturalstylesofHarappancivilization.2. Elaborate the contributions of Gupta, Pallavas and Chola rulers in the templearchitectureofIndia.3.WhatwerethedifferentstylesofarchitectureandsculpturefoundinIndia?4.BuddhismandJainismhadcontributedinthearchitecturedevelopemntofIndia-discuss.5. How would you view the construction of monuments during the regime of DelhiSultanate?6.ThearchitectureduringMughalperiodwasasynthesisoftheIndian,Persian,MongolandMughalstyle.Elaborate.7.NarratethestoryofDelhiinyourownwords.

8.FindoutthetruthaboutthesayingDillihaidilwalonki.Writeanessayonit.Youcansearchontheinternetorgetbooksfromalibrary.

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

13.11. The emergence and decay of great empires and dynasties in the sub-continentinfluencedthegrowthandshapeofIndianculture.2.ThePublicbathatthesiteofMohenjodaroisanevidenceoftheirengineeringskills.3.Kushinagar4.Lumbini,Sarnath,BodhiTree,Kushinagar5.DuringGuptaperiod6.ReligiousarchitecturalremainsrelatedtoLordBuddha7.AtLothal,Gujarat13.21.Alargepalacecurvedoutofwood.2.SanchistupasandSarnathstupas3.OnMonolithicstonepillars4.GandharaArtMathuraSchoolAmaravatiSchool5.InOrissa6.TheRashtrakutas7.ThePallavas8. A temple architecture style having vimana or shikara, high walls and the gatewaytoppedbygopuram.9.BrihadeshwaraTemple10.Temples constructedwith shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha (sanctum) and themandap(PillaredHalls)11.NarshimhaDevaI

12.DilwaraTemple13.31.Domes,arches,minarets2.QuwwatifulIslammosqueatDelhiQutabMinar-AtDelhiTombofMohammadTuglaqTombofFirozTuglaqTombofIbrahimLodhi-AtDelhiSherShahTombatSasaram3.GolGumbaz4.Decorativedesignininlayworkinbuildingconstructedduringmughalperiod.5.BulandDarwaja13.41.BasilicaBomJesusandthechurchofSaintFrancis.2.Lutyens3.GreekandRomanarchitecturalstyles.4.Ithousesmuseumfullofcolonialartefacts.5.FrencharchitectCorbusier.6.AnAustrianarchitectStein7.(i)RajRewal(ii)CharlesCorrea13.51.Harappa,Mohenjo-Daro,Kalibangam,SurkodaRajgir,Varanasi,Ayodhya,Hastinapur, Ujjain, Sravasthi, Kapilavastu, Kaushambi or any other/s not mentioned inthislesson.2.Any5outofPanaji,Bombay,Machilipatnam,Nagapattnam,Madras,Calcuttaoranyother/snotmentionedinthislesson.3.Any5outofMussoorie,Simla,Nainital,Darjeeling,Shillong,Nilgiri,Kodaikanaloranyother/snotmentionedinthislesson.4.CivilianOfficers5.ArmyOfficers

13.61.TheHighCourtBuilding,TheIceHouse,ChurchofSt.John,GeneralPostOfficeoranyother/snotmentionedinthislesson.2. Any 4 out of Howrah Bridge,Marble Palace,Writers Building, FortWilliam, EdenGardens,VictoriaMemorialHalloranyother/snotmentionedinthislesson.3.Any4outofSecretariat,CouncilHall,ElphinstoneCollege,VictoriaTerminus(modernChhatrapati Shivaji Terminus), Gateway of India or any other/s not mentioned in thislesson.13.71.

S.No. NameoftheCityNameofkingwhobuiltit

1. Indraprastha Yudhishthira

2. LalKot AnangPalTomar

3. Mehrauli PrithviRajChauhan

4. Siri AlauddinKhilji

5. Jahanpanah MohammedBinTughlaq

6. Tughlaqabad GhiyasuddinTughlaq

7. Firozabad FirozShahTughlaq

8. Dinpanah Humayun

9. Shahjahanabad ShahJehan

2. Kutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Nizamuddin Auliya, Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, AmirKhusro,oranyother/snotmentionedinthislesson.

MODULE6.SCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGY

14.SCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYININDIALike people in any other part of theworld Indians too, have a rich legacy of scientificideas.Adesiretonowtheunknown,accompaniedwithexperimentationandobservationhavealwaysgeneratedscientific temper.Thishas led to theassumption that truth lay inthe real world with all its diversity and complexity. It has been the responsibility ofscientists to unravel themystery behind the truth and utilise available resources for theprogressofhumanity.1n the followingpagesyouwillbe readingabout thiscontinuoussearchforknowledgeandtruthleadingtodiscoveriesandinventionsandtheirapplicationinday-to-daylifeinIndia.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

identifythedevelopmentofscienceinIndia;recognise the various scientific fields in which Indians have made their

contributions;examinethevariousforcesandfactorsthathelpindevelopingscienceduringany

period;anddrawlinkagesbetweenmodernIndianscienceanditsrichscientificheritage.

14.1DEVELOPMENTOFSCIENCEINANCIENTINDIA

MathematicshasbeencalledbythegeneralnameofGanitawhichincludesArithmetic’s,Geometry,Algebra,AstronomyandAstrology.Arithmeticiscalledbyseveralnamessuch

as Pattin Ganita (calculations on board), Anka Ganita (calculations with numerals).Geometry iscalledRekhaGanita (lineworks)andAlgebra,BijaGanita (seedanalysis),AstronomyandAstrologyareincludedinthetermJyotisa.Indiahasa richheritageofscienceand technology.Thedependenceonnaturecouldbeovercomebydevelopments in science. In ancient India, religion and scienceworked inclose proximity. Let us find out about the developments in the different branches ofscienceintheancientperiod.

Astronomy

Astronomymade great progress.Themovement of planets came to be emphasized andcloselyobserved.Jyotishvedangatextsestablishedsystematiccategoriesinastronomybutthe more basic problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). His Aryabhattiya is aconcise text containing 121 verses. It contains separate sections on astronomicaldefinitions, methods of determining the true position of the planets, description of themovementofthesunandthemoonandthecalculationoftheeclipses.Thereasonhegaveforeclipsewasthattheearthwasasphereandrotatedonitsaxisandwhentheshadowoftheearthfellonthemoon,itcausedLunareclipseandwhentheshadowofthemoonfellontheearth,itcausedSolareclipse.Onthecontrary,theorthodoxtheoryexplaineditasaprocess where the demon swallowed the planet. All these observations have beendescribedbyVarahamihirainPanchSiddhantikawhichgivesthesummaryoffiveschoolsofastronomypresentinhistime.AryabhattadeviatedfromVedicastronomyandgaveitascientific outlook which became a guideline for later astronomers. Astrology andhoroscopewerestudiedinancientIndia.Aryabhatta’stheoriesshowedadistinctdeparturefromastrologywhichstressedmoreonbeliefsthanscientificexplorations.

Mathematics

The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge ofmeasurement and geometry. By third centuryADmathematics developed as a separatestreamofstudy.IndianmathematicsissupposedtohaveoriginatedfromtheSulvasutras.Apastamba in second centuryBC, introduced practical geometry involving acute angle,obtuse angle and right angle. This knowledge helped in the construction of fire altarswhere the kings offered sacrifices. The three main contributions in the field ofmathematics were the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. Thenotations and the numerals were carried to the West by the Arabs. These numeralsreplaced theRomannumerals.Zerowas discovered in India in the second centuryBC.Brahmagupta’sBrahmasputaSiddhanta is thevery firstbook thatmentioned ‘zero’ as anumber,hence,Brahmaguptaisconsideredasthemanwhofoundzero.Hegaverulesofusing zero with other numbers. Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated theareaofatriangle,whichledtotheoriginofTrignometry.

TheSurya Siddhanta is a very famouswork.Varahamihira’sBrihatsamhita of the sixthcenturyADisanotherpioneeringworkinthefieldofastronomy.Hisobservationthatthemoonrotatedaroundtheearthandtheearthrotatedaroundthesunfoundrecognitionandlater discoveries were based on this assertion. Mathematics and astronomy togetherignitedinterestintimeandcosmology.Thesediscoveriesinastronomyandmathematicsbecamethecornerstonesforfurtherresearchandprogress.

Medicine

Diseases,cureandmedicineswerementionedforthefirsttimeintheAtharvaVeda.Fever,cough, consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and seizure are the diseasesmentioned.Thediseases are said tobe causedby thedemonsand spirits enteringone’sbody.Theremediesrecommendedwererepletewithmagicalcharmsandspells.From 600BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and Taranasi emerged ascentresofmedicineandlearning.ThetwoimportanttextsinthisfieldareCharaksamhitaby Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta. How important was their work can beunderstood from the knowledge that it reached as far as China, Central Asia throughtranslationsinvariouslanguages.TheplantsandherbsusedformedicinalpurposeshavebeenmentionedinCharaksamhita.SurgerycametobementionedasaseparatestreamaroundfourthcenturyAD.Sushrutawas a pioneer of this discipline. He considered surgery as “the highest division of thehealingartsandleastliabletofallacy”.Hementions121surgicalinstruments.Alongwiththis he alsomentions themethods of operations, bone setting, cataract and so on. ThesurgeonsinancientIndiawerefamiliarwithplasticsurgery(repairofnoses,earsandlips).Sushrutamentions760plants.Allpartsoftheplantroots,barks,flowers,leavesetc.wereused.Stresswaslaidondiet(e.g.saltfreedietfornephrites).BoththeCharaksamhitaandtheSushrutsamhitabecamethepredecessorsofthedevelopmentofIndianmedicineinthelater centuries. However, surgery suffered in the early medieval time since the act ofdisectingwitharazorbecametheworkofabarber.

Metallurgy

TheglazedpotteriesandbronzeandcopperartefactsfoundintheIndusvalleyexcavationspointtowardsahighlydevelopedmetallurgy.Thevedicpeoplewereawareoffermentinggrainandfruits,tanningleatherandtheprocessofdyeing.BythefirstcenturyAD,massproductionofmetals likeiron,copper,silver,goldandofalloyslikebrassandbronzeweretakingplace.TheironpillarintheQutubMinarcomplexis indicativeof thehighqualityof alloying thatwasbeingdone.Alkali and acidswereproduced and utilised for making medicines. This technology was also used for othercrafts likeproducingdyesandcolours.Textiledyeingwaspopular.TheAjanta frescoesreflectonthequalityofcolour.Thesepaintingshavesurvivedtilldate.

A two metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (NearBhagalpur)

Geography

The constant interaction between man and nature forced people to study geography.Thoughthepeoplewereclearabouttheirownphysicalgeography,thatofChinaandalsotheWesterncountries,theywereunawareoftheirpositionontheearthandthedistanceswith other countries. Indians also contributed to shipbuilding. In the ancient period,voyagesandnavigationwasnotafamiliarforayfortheIndians.However,Lothal,asiteinGujarathastheremainsofadockyardprovingthattradeflourishedinthosedaysbysea.Intheearlymedievalperiodwiththedevelopmentoftheconceptoftirthaandtirthayatra,avastmassofgeographicalinformationwasaccumulated.TheywerefinallycompiledaspartsofPuranas.Inmanycasesseparatesthalapuranawasalsocompiled.

INTEXTQUESTIONS14.1

1.Whatistheimportanceofdevelopingscience?_______________________________________________________________2.WhatwasthecontributionofAryabhattainAstronomy?_______________________________________________________________3.WhowasApastamba?WhatwashiscontributiontoMathematics?_______________________________________________________________4.WhatwerethethreecontributionsinthefieldofmathematicsofAncientIndia?_______________________________________________________________5.WhichbookmentionsplantsandherbsusedformedicinalpurposesinAncientIndia?_______________________________________________________________6.HowmanysurgicalinstrumentswerementionedinSushrutsamhita?_______________________________________________________________7. Name the two books which became predecessors of the development of IndianMedicine?_______________________________________________________________8.HowmanymedicinalplantswerethesurgeonsofancientIndiafamiliarwith?_______________________________________________________________

14.2SCIENTIFICANDTECHNOLOGICALDEVELOPMENTSINMEDIEVALINDIA

During themedieval period (eleventh to eighteenth century) science and technology inIndiadevelopedalongtwolines:oneconcernedwiththealreadychartedcourseofearliertraditionsandtheotherwiththenewinfluenceswhichcameupasaresultofIslamicandEuropean influence.Themaktabsandmadrasas came into existence that followed a setcurricular. These institutions used to receive royal patronage. The two brothers, SheikhAbdullah andSheikhAzzizullah, specialists inRationalSciences (Magulat), headed themadrasasatSambhalandAgra.LearnedmenfromArabia,PersiaandCentralAsiawereinvitedtoteachinthesemadrasas.Alargenumberofkarkhana(workshops)weremaintainedbythekingsandthenoblestosupplyprovisions,storesandequipmenttoroyalhouseholdandgovernmentdepartments.Thekarkhanasnotonlyworkedasmanufacturingagenciesbutalsoservedascentresfortechnical and vocational training to young men. The karkhanas trained and turned outartisans and craftsmen in different branches, who later set up their own independentkarkhanas(workshops).Muslim rulers attempted to reform the curriculum of primary schools. Some importantsubjects like arithmetic, mensuration, geometry, astronomy, accountancy, publicadministration and agriculture were included in the course of studies for primaryeducation. Though special efforts were made by the rulers to carry out reforms ineducation,yetsciencedidnotmakemuchheadwayduringthisperiod.Effortsweremadeto seek a kind of synthesis between the Indian traditional scientific culture and theprevalentapproachtoscienceinothercountries.

Biology

Hamsadeva compiledMrga-pasi-sastra in the thirteenth century which gives a general,hough not always scientific account of some of the beasts and birds of hunting. Themedievalrulersaswarriorsandhunters,keptanimalssuchashorses,dogs,cheetahsandfalcons.Animals,bothdomesticatedandwild,existedintheirmenageries.Akbarshowedspecial interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals, elephants and horses.Jahangir,inhisTuzuk-i-Jahangiri,recordedhisobservationsandexperimentsofweedingandhybridisation.Hedescribedaboutthirty-sixspeciesofanimals.Hiscourtartists,speciallyMansur,producedelegantandaccurateportraitureofanimals,someofwhicharestillpreservedinseveralmuseumsandprivatecollections.Asanaturalist,Jahangirwasinterestedinthestudyofplantsandhiscourtartistsintheirfloralportraituredescribesomefifty-sevenplants.

Mathematics

Brahmagupta the great 7th century mathematician has given a description of negativenumbersasdebtsandpositivenumbersasfortunes,whichshowsthatancientBharatiyasknewtheutilityofmathematicsforpracticaltrade.In theearlymedievalperiod the twooutstandingworks inmathematicswereGanitasaraby Sridhara and Lilavati by Bhaskara. Ganitasara deals with multiplication, division,numbers, cubes, square roots, mensuration and so on. Ganesh Daivajna producedBuddhivilasini,acommentaryonLilavati,containinganumberof illustrations. In1587,Lilavatiwas translated into Persian by Faidi. Bija Ganitawas translated by AtaullahRashidi during Shah Jahan’s reign.Nilkantha Jyotirvid, a courtier of Akbar, compiledTajik, introducing a large number of Persian technical terms. Akbar ordered theintroductionofmathematicsasasubjectofstudy,amongothersintheeducationalsystem.Bahauddin-Amuli,NasiruddinTusi,Arraq andAl-Kashimadevaluable contributions tothis field. Nasiruddin Tusi, the founder director of the Maragha observatory, wasrecognisedasanauthority.

Chemistry

Before the introduction of writing paper, ancient literature was preserved generally onpalm leaves in South India and birch-bark (bhoj-patra) in Kashmir and other northernregionsofthecountry.UseofpaperbeganduringtheMedievalperiod.Kashmir,Sialkot,Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Mysore were well-knowncentres of paper production. During Tipu’s time, Mysore possessed a paper-makingfactory, producing a special type of paper that had a gold surface. The paper makingtechniquewasmoreorlessthesamethroughoutthecountry,differingonlyinpreparationofthepulpfromdifferentrawmaterials.TheMughalsknewthetechniqueofproductionofgunpowderanditsuseinguns.Indiancraftsmen learnt the technique and evolved suitable explosive compositions. Theywereawareofthemethodofpreparationofgunpowderusingsaltpetre,sulphurandcharcoalindifferent ratios for use in different types of guns.. The principal types of fireworksincluded thosewhichpierced throughair (rockets),producedsparksof fire,blazedwithvarious colours and ended with explosion. Tuzuk-i—Baburi gives an account of thecastingofcannons.Themeltedmetalwasmade to run into themould till full and thencooleddown.Besidesexplosives,otheritemswerealsoproduced.Ain-i-Akbarispeaksofthe ‘Regulations of the Perfume Office of Akbar’. The attar of roses was a popularperfume,thediscoveryofwhichisattributedtothemotherofNurjehan.Mentionmayalsobemadehereoftheglazedtilesandpotteryduringtheperiod.

Astronomy

In astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already establishedastronomical

notionsappeared.Ujjain,Varanasi,MathuraandDelhiwerethemainobservatories.FirozShahTughaq established observation posts atDelhi. Firoz ShahBahmani underHakimHussainGilaniandSyedMuhammadKazimisetupanobservatoryinDaulatabad.Bothlunarandsolarcalendarswereinuse.MehendraSuri, acourtastronomerofFirozShahdevelopedanastronomical instrumentcalledYantraja.ParameshvaraandMahabhaskariyawerefamousfamiliesofastronomersand almanac-makers. Nilakantha Somasutvan produced a commentary on Aryabhatta.Kamalakar studied the Islamic ideas on astronomy. He was an authority on Islamicknowledge as well. Jaipur Maharaja, Sawai Jai Singh II set five astronomicalobservatoriesinDelhi,Ujjain,Varanasi,MathuraandJaipur.

Medicine

Therewasanattempttodevelopspecialisedtreatisesondifferentdiseases.Pulseandurineexaminations were conducted for diagnostic purposes. The Sarangdhara Samhitarecommendsuseofopiumformedicines.Therasachikitsasystem,dealtprincipallywithahostofmineralmedicinesincludingmetallicpreparations.TheTuhfat-ul-MumininwasaPersiantreatisewrittenbyMuhammadMunininseventeenthcenturywhichdiscussestheopinionsofphysicians.The Unani Tibb is an important system of medicine which flourished in India in themedievalperiod.Ali-bin-RabbansummarizedthewholesystemofGreekmedicineaswellas the Indian medical knowledge in the book Firdausu-Hikmat. The Unani medicinesystemcametoIndiaalongwiththeMuslimsaroundtheeleventhcenturyandsoonfounda congenial environment for its growth. Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled a book,Majinye-e-Diyae, incorporating the Arabic, Persian and Ayurvedic medical knowledge.FirozShahTughlaqwroteabook,TibbeFirozshahi.TheTibbiAurangzebi,dedicatedtoAurangzeb, is based on Ayurvedic sources. The Musalajati-Darashikohi of NuruddinMuhammad,dedicatedtoDarashikohdealswithGreekmedicine.

Agriculture

Inthemedievalperiod,thepatternofagriculturalpracticeswasmoreorlessthesameasthat in early and early ancient India. Some important changes, however, were broughtabout by the foreigners such as the introduction of new crops, trees and horticulturalplants. The principal crops were wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton,sugarcaneandindigo.TheWesternGhatscontinuedtoyieldblackpepperofgoodqualityandKashmirmaintained its tradition for saffron and fruits. Ginger and cinnamon fromTamilnadu, cardamom, sandalwood and coconuts from Kerala were becomingincreasinglypopular.Tobacco,chillies,potato,guava,custardapple,cashewandpineapplewere the important new plants which made India their home in the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries. The region of Malwa and Bihar were also well known for theproductionofopiumfromthepoppyplants.Improvedhorticulturalmethodswereadoptedwithgreatsuccess.The

systematic mango grafting was introduced by the Jesuits of Goa in the middle of thesixteenthcentury.Inthefieldofirrigation,wells,tanks,canals,rahats,charas(bucketmadeofleather)anddhenkli,wereused to liftwaterwith thehelpofyokedoxen,whichcontinued tobe themeansof irrigation.PersianwheelwasusedinandaroundAgraregion.Inthemedievalperiod,agriculturewasplacedonasolidfoundationby theStatewhichbroughtaboutasystemoflandmeasurementandlandclassification,beneficialbothtotherulersandtothetillers.

INTEXTQUESTIONS14.2

1.WhatwerethefunctionsofKarkharnasinMedievalIndia?_______________________________________________________________2.WhocompiledMrga-Paksi-Sastrainthe13thCentury?_______________________________________________________________3.WhowasthefounderdirectoroftheMaraghaObservatory?_______________________________________________________________4.WhogotLilavatitranslatedintoPersian?_______________________________________________________________5.WhichMughalkingintroducedMathematicsasasubjectofstudy?_______________________________________________________________6.Howwasliteraturepreservedbeforetheinventionofpaper?_______________________________________________________________7.WhichbookgivesanaccountofthecastingofcannonsinMedievalperiod?_______________________________________________________________8.NametheperfumediscoveredbythemotherofNurJehan?_______________________________________________________________9.WhatdoesAin-i-Akbarispeakabout?_______________________________________________________________10.HowmanyobservatoriesweresetupbyMaharajaSawaiJaiSinghIIofJaipur?Whereweretheseobservatorieslocated?_______________________________________________________________

11.WhodevelopedYantraja?_______________________________________________________________12.WhatwasYantraja?_______________________________________________________________13.WhichUnanimedicinesystemcametoIndiaalongwithMughalsinmedievalperiod?_______________________________________________________________14.WhatwastheRasachikitsadealwith?_______________________________________________________________15.WhichnewplantsarrivedinIndiainthe16thand17thcenturies?_______________________________________________________________

14.3SCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYINMODERNINDIA

BeforeconsideringtheprogressofscienceandtechnologyinIndiasinceindependence,itisnecessary tounderstandwhatwemeanby the terms scienceand technology.Sciencecanbedefinedasanysystematicactivitythatseekstogainknowledgeaboutthephysicalworld.Technologyisthatactivitywhichseekstoputthisknowledgetoproductiveuse.Asthesedefinitions show,scienceand technologyareclearly interlinked in thepresentdayworld.In India the role of science and technology in national development has been dulyrecognized by the government. The Second Five Year Plan emphasised that “the mostimportantsinglefactorinpromotingeconomicdevelopmentisthecommunity’sreadinessto apply modem science and technology”. In 1971, the Department of Science andTechnology(DST)wassetuptopromotenewareasofscienceandtechnology.SimilarlyStateCouncilsofScienceandTechnologyhavealsobeenestablishedat thestate levels.As part of the national policy, the government is promoting various research anddevelopmentschemes to encourage scientific activities. In this section,wewill take upsomeofthemainareasinwhichscientificknowledgeandmodemtechnologyhavemadeanimpact.

Agriculture

It ismainlybecauseof the applicationofmodern science and technology in agriculturethat India is able toproduce135million tonnesof foodgrains todayas compared to50million tonnes thirty years ago.These applications range from the cultivation of hybridseeds to energymanagement in agriculture andpost-harvest technology. In these effortstheIndianCouncilforAgriculturalResearchhasplayedaleadingrole.Throughseventythree agricultural, thirty two veterinary, eight agricultural engineering and one dairycolleges,the

ICARhas been playing a key role in the scientific education of the farmers aswell asothersengagedindifferentsectorsofagriculture,animalhusbandry,fisheriesandforestry.Thechallengesthatlieaheadinagricultureareintheareasofincreasingtheyieldsofrice,pulses,oilseedsandmanycashcrops;initiatingplantationsandpromotingsocialforestry;andshiftingfromagriculturebasedonchemicalfertilizerstoorganicfertilizers.

Industry

Itisinthefieldofindustrythatmodernscienceandtechnologymadeitsearliestandmostrevolutionaryimpact.InIndiathegovernmenthasconsistentlytriedtousemodernscienceand technology for industrial development. Two government organisations, Council forScientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Defence Research and DevelopmentOrgnisation(DRDO)coverbetweenthemawiderangeofscienceandtechnologyresearchfor civil and defence purposes. A large number of items have emerged from CSIRlaboratories for industrial production, such as, indigenous agricultural machinery,chemicals, drugs and pesticides, products in the areas of food technology, furnishedleather goods, glass and ceramics, colour television, and receiver sets. The researchcarriedoutinthefieldofcoal,suchas,upgradingofcoalandextractionofelectricityfromcoal has been effectively utilized. In the area of defence, India’s own technologicalcapabilityhasincreasedconsiderably.Themost recentexampleofsuchcapability is theadvancedresearchthatisnowbeingdonetoproducemissilesinIndia.Somemissileshavealreadybeentestedforfurtherdevelopment.

NuclearEnergy

India’saimis toutilisenuclearenergyforpeacefulpurposes.During the lastsixty threeyears,sincetheestablishmentoftheAtomicEnergyCommissionin1948,Indiahasmadesignificant progress in the field of nuclear technology. In 1957, the Bhabha AtomicResearch Centre (BARC)was established at Trombay. It is the largest single scientificestablishment in the country. Nuclear power stations have already been established atTarapur (Maharashtra), Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (UP) andKakrapar (Gujarat). The adoption of modern technology has led to the increase inindigenous content of nuclear power reactors constructed in India.As a result, India istodayoneofthefewcountriesintheworldwhichcanindigenouslydesign,constructandoperate nuclear reactors without relying on foreign help. Besides nuclear sciences,research and development work in fields such as electronics, medicine, biology,agriculture,metallurgyisalsobeingdoneatsomenuclearcentres.

SpaceTechnology

The Indian space programme is directed towards the goal of self-reliance in the use ofspace technology for national development. Over the years, the space programme hasestablished itselfwith a succession ofachievements. They include the launching of thefirstIndianspacesatelliteAryabhattain1975andthenBhaskaraIandBhaskaraIIfromthe

SovietUnion,theRohinisatelliteonIndia’sownSLV-3rocketandtheApplesatelliteonthe EuropeanArianne rocket. A far reaching experiment in education through satellite,SITE, was conducted in India in 1975. Subsequently, INSAT I-IB, launched in 1983,providedradio,television,telecommunicationandmeteorologicalservices.Aperspectiveofmajorspacemissionplannedforthedecade1985-95aimsatusingspacetechnologyfornationwide application in communication, survey andmanagement of natural resourcesandmeteorology.

Electronics

Since independence, India has acquired the capability to produce a wide variety ofelectronicgoodssuchasradioandtelevisionsets,communicationsystems,broadcastingequipments, radars, nuclear reactors, power control systems and underwater systems.Avery large part of the components required for these are produced indigenously. Theproductionofelectronicgoodshasbeengrowingattherateof18percentperannumoverthe past decade.Todaywe are even exporting electronic goods to different parts of theworld. Further, computers have been introduced to improve efficiency and enhanceproduction. Major facilities, recently set up, include the Semi Conductor Limited(Chandigarh), National Computer Centre (Bombay), National Information Centre (NewDelhi)andanumberofregionalcomputercentres.

MedicalandHealthSciences

Inthefieldofmedicinetherehavebeenmanyachievements.Majoradvanceshavebeenmade in preventing and treating various diseases. Small pox has been eradicated.Treatment of diseases like tuberculosis, malaria, filaria, goitre, and cancer has beenconsiderably improved.Research isbeingcarriedout tocontrolcommunicablediseases.Research based activities have already increased life expectancy appreciably and deathrate has declined, while schemes such as the immunization programme have reducedinfantmortalityconsiderably.Improvedmedicalfacilitiesintheformofgovernment-runhospitalsanddispensaries,researchcouncils,andprimaryhealthcentresforruralareasarealsobeingprovided.

OceanDevelopment

India has many interests in the field of ocean development, such as, exploration ofoffshore oil, fishery resources to increase food supplies, etc. A department of OceanDevelopment was established in 1981, under the charge of the Prime Minister, tocoordinateanddirectIndia’sactivitiesinthefieldofoceanresearch.ThisdepartmenthastwovesselsORVSagarKanyaandFORVSagarSampada,whichhaveadvancedfacilitiesfor working in the field of physical, chemical, biological, geological and geophysicaloceanography andmeteorology. India’s achievements during the past few years includesea-bedminingusingtheresearchshipGaveshnaandsettingupofresearchstationnamedDakshinGangotriontheAntartica

OtherAreas

Apart from themajor areasmentioned above, India hasmademuchprogress in severalotherfieldsaswell.TheseincludetheactivitiesoftheOilandNaturalGasCommissioninoil exploration and refining and of the National Committee Environment Planning inenvironmentprotectionandproductionof solar energy.ACentralGangaAurthorityhasbeensetuptocheckpollutionintheriverGangabyusingsewagetreatmentplants.

EvaluationofProgressofScienceandTechnology

It is clear that progress of science and technology in India has been quite significant.Manynewmethods,productsandbetterqualitygoodshavebeendevelopedinthecountry.Indiahasmaderapidprogress in thefrontierareasofscienceand technology likespaceresearch and atomic energy. At present the country has a strong base in modemtechnology.Italsohasthethirdlargestscientificandtechnicalmanpowerintheworld.Atthesametimetherehavebeensomeseriousshortcomingsinthisprogress.Forinstancein basic products like textiles and steel, India has been importing foreign technologies.Continuousimportofforeigntechnologyshowslackofabilitytocreatenewtechnologytosuit our needs and this creates dependence on other countries. Excessive reliance onforeign technology is also visible in the important areas of defence, where the latestweapons are often imported fromother countries.Apart from thisweakness in creatingnewtechnology,Indiahasalsolaggedbehindindevelopingtechnologytomeettheneedsof the poor. In the area of housing for instance, India is yet to develop, low-costtechnologytomeettheneedsofthepoorwhodonothavehouses.Advancesinthefieldsofnuclearandspaceresearcharepraiseworthybutthesehavenothelpedthepoorpeoplesofar.Wemaysaythattheprogressofmodemscienceandtechnologyhavenot,asyet,benefitedthepeopleofIndiaequally.

INTEXTQUESTIONS14.3

1.Whatisscience?_______________________________________________________________2.Definetechnology?_______________________________________________________________3.WhenwasDepartmentofScienceandTechnologysetupbytheGovt.ofIndia?_______________________________________________________________4.NamethetwogovernmentorganisationsdoingresearchforcivilanddefencepurposesinScience&Technology._______________________________________________________________

5.GivethenameoffivenuclearpowerstationsofIndia._______________________________________________________________6.WhenandwherewasBhabhaAtomicResearchCentreestablished?_______________________________________________________________7.WhichwasthefirstIndianspacesatellite?_______________________________________________________________8.WhatwerethefunctionsofINSAT-1Bsatellite?_______________________________________________________________9.Howisimmunisationprogrammebeneficial?_______________________________________________________________10.WhereisDakshinGangotrilocated?_______________________________________________________________11.WhatistheareaofactivityoftheDepartmentofOceanography?_______________________________________________________________12.WhichauthorityisworkingtocheckpollutionintheriverGanga?_______________________________________________________________13.Namethenationalauthoritylookingforoilexplorationandrefiningnaturalgases?_______________________________________________________________14.Whatisthemaindrawbackinimportingforeigntechnology?_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

AncientIndiansmadeconsiderablescientificprogressinthefieldsofscienceandtechnology.

Their contribution in astronomy, mathematics, medicine, metallurgy, chemistryhavemadeanimpactonmodemscientists.

During the medieval period Indians came in contact with Arabic scientificknowledge.

TurkishrulersandMughalsintroducedgunpowder.Astronomicalobservatorieswere setupatUjjain,Varanasi,Mathura, Jaipurand

Delhi.In modem India scientific development has been duly recognised by the

governmentandisbeingimplementedthroughtheFiveYearPlan.Nuclearenergyisbeingusedforpeacefulpurposesaswell.

The Indian space programme is directed towards the goal of self-reliance andnationaldevelopment.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.DiscussthemetallurgycapabilitiesofthepeopleoftheAncientIndia?2.Describethetwoinventionsinthefieldofchemistryduringmedievalperiod?3.DescribetheprogressmadebyIndiainthefieldofmedicineandhealthservices?4.StatetheapplicationsofScienceandTechnologyinthefieldofagricultureanditsalliedproducts?5.HowdidrichscientificheritageactsasanassetinthemodernIndianscienceprogress?

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

14.11.Developingsciencereducesourdependenceonnature.2.HedeviatedfromVedicastronomyandgaveit’sscientificoutlook.3.ApastambawasasecondcenturyBCmathematician.Heintroducedpracticalgeometryinvolvingacute,obtuse,rightangles.4.(a)Notationsystem(b)Decimalsystem(c)Useofzero5.Charaksamhita6.121surgicalinstruments7.CharaksamhitaandSushrutsamhita8.760plants.14.21.Besidesmanufacturingofgoods,theyalsoprovidedtechnicalandvocationaltrainingtoyoungmen.2.HamsaDeva3.Nasiruddin4.Faizi

5.Akbar6.ItwaspreservedonpalmleavesinSouthIndia.InKashmir,literaturewaspreservedonbirch-bark(bhojpatra)7.Tuzuk-i-Baburi8.Theattarofroses9.AboutregulationsoftheperfumeofficeofAkbar.10.5Delhi,Ujjain,Varansi,Mathura,Jaipur11.MahendraSuri,acourtastronomerofFirozShah12.Anastronomicalinstrument13.TheUnaniTibb14.Itdealtprincipallywithahostofmineralmedicinesincludingmetallicpreparations.15.Tobacco,chillies,potato,guava,custardapple,cashewandpineapple.14.31. It can be defined as any systematic activity that seeks to gain knowledge about thephysicalworld.2.Activitywhichseekstoputtheknowledgeofscienceintoproductiveuse.3.19714.CSIRCouncilforScientificandIndustrialResearchDRDODefenceResearchandDevelopmentOrganisation5. Tarapur (Maharashtra), Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (UP),Kakrapar(Gujarat)6.In1971,atTrombay7.Aryabhatta8.Itprovidedradio,television,telecommunicationandMeteorologicalservices.9.Itreducesinfantmortality10.OntheAntarica11. It is working in the field of physical, chemical, biological and geophysicaloceanographyandmeterology.12.CentralGangaAuthority13.OilandNaturalGasCommission14.Itshowslackofourabilitytocreatenewtechnology.

15.SCIENTISTSOFANCIENTINDIAIn the previous lesson, you have read about the relationship between science andtechnology.Inthislesson,youwillreadaboutthecontributionsmadebyancientIndiansin the field of Mathematics and Science, including Medical Science, Ayurveda, Yoga,Astronomy, Astrology, etc. You will be surprised to know that a lot of scientificknowledgewasevolvedinancientIndia,somanyyearsago.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

listthecontributionsofIndiatotheworldinthefieldofMathematicsandScience.discuss the contributions made to knowledge by ancient Indian scientists like

Baudhayan, Aryabhatta, Brahmgupta, Bhaskaracharya, Kanad, Varahamihira,Nagarjuna,Susruta,Charak,Patanjali

15.1MATHEMATICS&ASTRONOMY

Science and Mathematics were highly developed during the ancient period in India.Ancient Indians contributed immensely to the knowledge in Mathematics as well asvarious branches of Science. In this section, we will read about the developments inMathematicsand thescholarswhocontributed to it.Youwill be surprised toknow thatmany theories of modern day mathematics were actually known to ancient Indians.However, since ancient Indianmathematicianswere not as good in documentation anddisseminationas their counterparts in themodernwesternworld, their contributionsdidnot find the place they deserved.Moreover, the western world ruled over most of theworldforalongtime,whichempowered

themtoclaimsuperiority ineveryway, includingin thefieldofknowledge.LetusnowtakealookatsomeofthesecontributionsofancientIndianmathematicians.

15.1.1Baudhayan

BaudhayanwasthefirstoneevertoarriveatseveralconceptsinMathematics,whichwerelaterrediscoveredbythewesternworld.Thevalueofpiwasfirstcalculatedbyhim.Asyou know, pi is useful in calculating the area and circumference of a circle. What isknownasPythagorastheoremtodayisalreadyfoundinBaudhayan’sSulvaSutra,whichwaswrittenseveralyearsbeforetheageofPythagoras.

15.1.2Aryabhatta

Aryabhattawas a fifth centurymathematician, astronomer, astrologer and physicist.Hewasapioneerinthefieldofmathematics.Attheageof23,hewroteAryabhattiya,whichisasummaryofmathematicsofhistime.Therearefoursectionsinthisscholarlywork.Inthefirstsectionhedescribesthemethodofdenotingbigdecimalnumbersbyalphabets.Inthesecondsection,wefinddifficultquestionsfromtopicsofmoderndayMathematicssuchasnumber theory,geometry, trigonometryandBeejganita (algebra).Theremainingtwosectionsareonastronomy.Aryabhatta showed that zerowas not a numeral only but also a symbol and a concept.DiscoveryofzeroenabledAryabhattatofindouttheexactdistancebetweentheearthandthemoon.Thediscoveryofzeroalsoopenedupanewdimensionofnegativenumerals.Aswehaveseen, the last twosectionsofAryabhattiyawereonAstronomy.Evidently,Aryabhattacontributedgreatlytothefieldofscience,too,particularlyAstronomy.In ancient India, the science of astronomy was well advanced. It was called Khagol-shastra.Khagolwas the famousastronomicalobservatoryatNalanda,whereAryabhattastudied.Infactscienceofastronomywashighlyadvancedandourancestorswereproudofit.Theaimbehindthedevelopmentofthescienceofastronomywastheneedtohaveaccurate calendars, a better understanding of climate and rainfall patterns for timelysowing and choice of crops, fixing the dates of seasons and festivals, navigation,calculation of time and casting of horoscopes for use in astrology. Knowledge ofastronomy,particularlyknowledgeof the tidesand thestars,wasofgreat importance intrade,becauseoftherequirementofcrossingtheoceansanddesertsduringnighttime.Disregardingthepopularviewthatourplanetearthis‘Achala’(immovable),Aryabhattastated his theory that ‘earth is round and rotates on its own axis’He explained that theappearanceof the sunmoving fromeast towest is falsebygiving examples.One suchexamplewas:Whenapersontravelsinaboat,thetreesontheshoreappeartomoveintheoppositedirection.Healsocorrectlystatedthatthemoonandtheplanetsshinedby

reflected sunlight. He also gave a scientific explanation for solar and lunar eclipseclarifyingthattheeclipsewerenotbecauseofRahhuand/orKetuorsomeotherrakshasa(demon,).Doyourealizenow,whythefirstsatellitesent intoorbitbyIndiahasbeennamedafterAryabhatta?

15.1.3Brahmgupta

In7thcentury,Brahmguptatookmathematicstoheightsfarbeyondothers.Inhismethodsof multiplication, he used place value in almost the same way as it is used today. Heintroducednegativenumbersandoperationsonzerointomathematics.HewroteBrahmSputaSiddantikathroughwhichtheArabscametoknowourmathematicalsystem.

15.1.4Bhaskaracharya

Bhaskaracharyawastheleadinglightof12thCentury.HewasbornatBijapur,Karnataka.HeisfamousforhisbookSiddantaShiromani.Itisdividedintofoursections:Lilavati(Arithmetic),Beejaganit(Algebra),Goladhyaya(Sphere)andGrahaganit(mathematicsofplanets).BhaskaraintroducedChakrawatMethodortheCyclicMethodtosolvealgebraicequations.ThismethodwasrediscoveredsixcenturieslaterbyEuropeanmathematicians,who called it inverse cycle. In the nineteenth century, an English man, James Taylor,translatedLilavatiandmadethisgreatworkknowntotheworld.

15.1.5Mahaviracharya

There is an elaborate description ofmathematics in Jain literature (500B.C -100B.C).Jain gurus knew how to solve quadratic equations. They have also described fractions,algebraic equations, series, set theory, logarithms and exponents in a very interestingmanner.JainGuruMahaviracharyawroteGanitSaraSangrahain850A.D.,whichisthefirst textbook on arithmetic in present day form. The current method of solving LeastcommonMultiple(LCM)ofgivennumberswasalsodescribedbyhim.Thus,longbeforeJohnNapierintroducedittotheworld,itwasalreadyknowntoIndians.

INTEXTQUESTIONS15.1

1.MentiontwocontributionsofBaudhayaninthefieldofMathematics._______________________________________________________________2.Whodiscoveredzero?_______________________________________________________________3.WhatistheimportanceofBrahmSputaSiddantika?_______________________________________________________________4.Matchthefollowingworkswiththeirauthors:

NameoftheWork NameoftheAuthor

1.SulvaSutra 1.Aryabhatta

2.Aryabhattiya 2.Mahaviracharya

3.BrahmSputaSiddantika 3.Baudhayan

4.SiddantaShiromani 4.Brahmgupta

5.GanitSaraSangraha 5.Bhaskaracharya

15.2SCIENCE

AsinMathematics,ancientIndianscontributedtotheknowledgeinScience, too.LetusnowlearnaboutthecontributionsofsomescientistsofancientIndia.

15.2.1Kanad

Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika School, one of the six systems ofIndianphilosophy.HisoriginalnamewasAulukya.HegotthenameKanad,becauseevenasachild,hewasinterestedinveryminuteparticlescalled“kana”.Hisatomictheorycanbeamatchtoanymodernatomictheory.AccordingtoKanad,materialuniverseismadeupofkanas,(anu/atom)whichcannotbeseenthroughanyhumanorgan.Thesecannotbefurthersubdivided.Thus,theyareindivisibleandindestructible.Thisis,ofcourse,asyoumaybeknowing,whatthemodernatomictheoryalsosays.

15.2.2Varahamihira

VarahamihirawasanotherwellknownscientistoftheancientperiodinIndia.Helivedinthe Gupta period. Varahamihira made great contributions in the fields of hydrology,geologyandecology.Hewasoneof thefirstscientists toclaimthat termitesandplantscouldbetheindicatorsofthepresenceofundergroundwater.Hegavealistofsixanimalsand thirty plants, which could indicate the presence of water. He gave very importantinformationregarding termites (Deemakor insects that destroywood), that theygoverydeep to the surface of water level to bring water to keep their houses (bambis) wet.Another theory,whichhasattracted theworldof science is theearthquakecloud theorygivenbyVarahmihirainhisBrhatSamhita.Thethirtysecondchapterofthissamhitaisdevoted to signs of earthquakes. He has tried to relate earthquakes to the influence ofplanets, undersea activities, underground water, unusual cloud formation and abnormalbehaviourofanimals.Another field where Varahamihira’s contribution is worth mentioning is Jyotish orAstrology.Astrologywasgiven a very highplace in ancient India and it has continuedeven today. Jyotish, which means science of light, originated with the Vedas. It waspresentedscientifically in a systematic form byAryabhatta andVarahmihira.You havealreadyseenthatAryabhatta

devotedtwooutofthefoursectionsofhisworkAryabhattiyamtoastronomy,whichisthebasis forAstrology.Astrology is the scienceofpredicting the future.Varahamihirawasoneof the nine gems,whowere scholars, in the court ofVikramaditya.Varahamihira’spredictionsweresoaccuratethatkingVikramadityagavehimthetitleof‘Varaha’.

15.2.3Nagarjuna

Nagarjunawasatenthcenturyscientist.Themainaimofhisexperimentswastotransformbaseelementsintogold,likethealchemistsinthewesternworld.Eventhoughhewasnotsuccessfulinhisgoal,hesucceededinmakinganelementwithgold-likeshine.Tilldate,thistechnologyisusedinmakingimitationjewelry.Inhistreatise,Rasaratnakara,hehasdiscussedmethodsfortheextractionofmetalslikegold,silver,tinandcopper.

INTEXTQUESTIONS15.2

1.WhowasKanad?Howdidhegethisname?_______________________________________________________________2.WhowroteBrhatSamhita?_______________________________________________________________3.WhatwasNagarjunatryingtoachieveinlife?_______________________________________________________________4.WhatisthesubjectmatterofNagarjuna’streatiseRasaratnakara?_______________________________________________________________

15.3MEDICALSCIENCEINANCIENTINDIA(AYURVEDA&YOGA)

Asyouhaveread,scientificknowledgewasinahighlyadvancedstageinancientIndia.Inkeeping with the times, Medical Science was also highly developed.Ayurveda is theindigenoussystemofmedicinethatwasdevelopedinAncientIndia.ThewordAyurvedaliterallymeansthescienceofgoodhealthandlongevityoflife.ThisancientIndiansystemofmedicine not only helps in treatment of diseases but also in finding the causes andsymptomsofdiseases.Itisaguideforthehealthyaswellasthesick.Itdefineshealthasanequilibriumin threedoshas,anddiseasesasdisturbance in these threedoshas.Whiletreating a disease with the help of herbal medicines, it aims at removing the cause ofdiseasebystrikingattheroots.Themainaimofayurvedahasbeenhealthandlongevity.Itistheoldestmedicalsystemofourplanet.AtreatiseonAyurveda,AtreyaSamhita,isthe

oldestmedicalbookof theworld.CharakiscalledthefatherofayurvedicmedicineandSusrutathefatherofsurgery.Susruta,Charak,Madhava,VagbhattaandJeevakwerenotedayurvedicpractitioners.DoyouknowthatAyurvedahaslatelybecomeverypopularinthewestern world? This is because of its many advantages over the modern system ofmedicinecalledAllopathy,whichisofwesternorigin.

15.3.1Susruta

Susruta was a pioneer in the field of surgery. He considered surgery as “the highestdivisionofthehealingartsandleastliabletofallacy”.Hestudiedhumananatomywiththehelpof adead body. InSusruta Samhita, over 1100 diseases arementioned includingfeversoftwenty-sixkinds,jaundiceofeightkindsandurinarycomplaintsoftwentykinds.Over760plantsaredescribed.Allparts,roots,bark,juice,resin,flowersetc.wereused.Cinnamon,sesame,peppers,cardamom,gingerarehouseholdremedieseventoday.InSusrutaSamhita,themethodofselectingandpreservingadeadbodyforthepurposeof itsdetailed studyhasalsobeendescribed.Thedeadbodyofanoldmanorapersonwhodiedofaseverediseasewasgenerallynotconsideredforstudies.Thebodyneededtobeperfectlycleanedandthenpreservedinthebarkofatree.Itwasthenkeptinacageandhidden carefully in a spot in the river. There the current of the river softened it. Aftersevendaysitwasremovedfromtheriver.Itwasthencleanedwithabrushmadeofgrassroots,hairandbamboo.Whenthiswasdone,everyinnerorouterpartofthebodycouldbeseenclearly.Susruta’s greatest contribution was in the fields of Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) andOphthalmicsurgery(removalofcataracts).Inthosedays,cuttingofnoseand/orearswasacommonpunishment.Restorationof theseor limbs lost inwarswasagreatblessing. InSusrutaSamhita, there is a very accurate step-by-step description of these operations.Surprisingly, the steps followed by Susruta are strikingly similar to those followed bymodernsurgeonswhiledoingplasticsurgery.SusrutaSamhitaalsogivesadescriptionof101 instruments used in surgery. Some serious operations performed included takingfoetusoutofthewomb,repairingthedamagedrectum,removingstonefromthebladder,etc.Doesitnotsoundinterestingandwonderful?

15.3.2Charak

Charak is considered the father of ancient Indian science ofmedicine.Hewas theRajVaidya(royaldoctor)inthecourtofKanishka.HisCharakSamhitaisaremarkablebookonmedicine. It has thedescriptionof a largenumberof diseases andgivesmethodsofidentifyingtheircausesaswellasthemethodoftheir treatment.Hewasthefirst totalkaboutdigestion,metabolismandimmunityasimportantforhealthandsomedicalscienc.InCharakSamhita,more stresshasbeen laidon removing the causeofdisease ratherthan simply treating the illness.Charak also knew the fundamentals ofGenetics.Don’tyoufinditfascinatingthatthousandsofyearsback,medicalsciencewasatsuchanadvancedstageinIndia.

15.3.3Yoga&Patanjali

ThescienceofYogawasdevelopedinancientIndiaasanalliedscienceofAyurvedaforhealing without medicine at the physical and mental level. The term Yoga has beenderived from the SanskritworkYoktra. Its literal meaning is “yoking themind to theinnerselfafterdetachingitfromtheoutersubjectsofsenses”.Likeallothersciences, ithasitsrootsintheVedas.Itdefineschittai.e.dissolvingthoughts,emotionsanddesiresofaperson’sconsciousnessandachievingastateofequilibrium.Itsetsintomotiontheforcethatpurifiesandupliftstheconsciousnesstodivinerealization.Yogaisphysicalaswellasmental. Physical yoga is calledHathyoga.Generally, it aims at removing a disease andrestoring healthy condition to the body. Rajayoga is mental yoga. Its goal is selfrealization and liberation from bondage by achieving physical mental, emotional andspritiualbalance.Yoga was passed on by word of mouth from one sage to another. The credit ofsystematically presenting this great science goes to Patanjali. In the Yoga Sutras ofPatanjali,AumisspokenofasthesymbolofGod.HereferstoAumasacosmicsound,continuouslyflowingthroughtheether,fullyknownonlytotheilluminated.BesidesYogaSutras,PatanjalialsowroteaworkonmedicineandworkedonPanini’sgrammarknownasMahabhasaya.

INTEXTQUESTIONS15.3

1.WhatisAyurveda?_______________________________________________________________2.Theoldestbookonmedicineis_______________.3.SusrutaSamhitaisabookon____________________.4.ThefatherofancientIndianMedicalScienceis_______________________.Hewrotethebookcalled____________________________.5.WhatdoesYogamean?_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

Science and Mathematics were highly developed during the ancient period inIndia.

Some famous ancient Indian Mathematicians were Baudhayan, Aryabhatta,Brahmgupta,Bhaskaracharya,Mahaviracharya.

SomefamousscientistswereKanad,Varahamihira,Nagarjuna.

MedicalSciencewasalsohighlydevelopedinancientIndia.Ayurveda is the indigenous system ofmedicine thatwas developed inAncient

India.ThewordAyurveda literallymeans thescienceofgoodhealthand longevityof

life.CharakiscalledthefatherofayurvedicmedicineandSusrutathefatherofsurgery

inancientIndia.Susruta’s greatest contributionwas in the fields ofRhinoplasty (plastic surgery)

andOphthalmicsurgery(removalofcataracts).CharakSamhita,writtenbyCharakisaremarkablebookonmedicine.The science of Yoga was developed in ancient India as an allied science of

Ayurvedaforhealingwithoutmedicineatthephysicalandmentallevel.Patanjaliwas the first scholar to present this great science systematically in his

YogaSutras.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.WhatarethetheoriesgivenbyAryabhattainthefieldofastronomicalscience?2.WhatdoesBhaskaracharya’sSiddantaShiromanidealwith?3.Name the first text book inArithmetic.Whowrote it?Mention some topics it dealswith.4.DiscussVarahamihira’scontributionstoscientificknowledge.5.WhatwasNagarjuna’scontributiontomakingofimitationjewellery?6.WriteanessayonAncientIndianMedicalScience.7.Explainthefollowing:a)MethodofselectingandpreservingdeadbodyinSusrutaSamhitab)HathayogaandRajayoga.c)Tri-DosatheoryofCharak.d)Conceptof‘Chitta’inrelationtoYoga.

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

15.11.i)Firstmathematiciantocalculatethevalueofpi;

ii)DerivationoftheTheoremthatisnowcalledPythagorasTheorem.2.Aryabhatta3.Arabscametoknowourmathematicalsystemthroughthisbook.

NameoftheWork NameoftheAuthor

SulvaSutra Baudhayan

Aryabhattiya Aryabhatta

BrahmSputaSiddantikaBrahmgupta

SiddantaShiromani Bhaskaracharya

GanitSaraSangraha Mahaviracharya

15.21.A sixth century scientist ofVaisheshika school; even as a child, hewas interested inveryminuteparticlescalled“kana”,sohewasnamedKanad.2.Varahamihira3.totransformbaseelementsintogold4.Hemadeanelementwithgold-likeshine;devisedmethodsfortheextractionofmetalslikegold,silver,tinandcopper.15.31.indigenoussystemofmedicinethatwasdevelopedinAncientIndia;thescienceofgoodhealthandlongevityoflife.2.AtreyaSamhita3.Surgery4.Charak;CharakSamhita5.‘yokingthemindtotheinnerselfafterdetachingitfromtheoutersubjectsofsenses’

ACTIVITIES

1.Have you heard ofVedicMathematics? It is becoming popular even at school levelnow-a-days.Findoutaboutitandwriteanessayonit.2. Find out about the differences between Ayurveda and Allopathy. Write a report,bringingoutreasonsfortheincreasingpopularityofAyurveda,eveninwesterncountries.Yogaisanothersystemofhealingthathasbecomeverypopular.Readmoreaboutit.

FindoutabouttheeightstagesinYoga(AshtangMarg)andwriteareport.

16.SCIENCEANDSCIENTISTSOFMEDIEVALINDIAYouhavereadaboutScienceandscientistinIndiaduringtheAncientPeriod.Duringthemedievalperiod,ScienceandTechnology in Indiadeveloped two facets:oneconcernedwith thealreadycharteredcourseofearlier traditionsandotherwith thenew influenceswhichcameupasaresultofIslamicandEuropeanimpact.Wewill read insomedetailaboutthesedevelopmentsinthislesson.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

discusstheeducationalpracticesthatemergedduringthemedievalperiod;tracethedevelopmentsinscience&technologyinMedievalIndia;andlist some well-known scholars in the field of science & technology and their

worksduringthisperiod.

16.1SCIENCESINMEDIEVALPERIOD

Asyouknow, themedievalperiodmarks thecomingofMuslimsinIndia.Bythis time,thetraditionalindigenousclassicallearninghadalreadyreceivedasetback.Thepatternofeducationasprevalent inArabcountrieswasgraduallyadoptedduring thisperiod.Asaresult,MaktabsandMadrasascameintoexistence.Theseinstitutionsusedtoreceiveroyalpatronage.Achainofmadrasas,openedatseveralplaces,followedasetcurriculum.Thetwobrothers,SheikhAbdullahandSheikhAzizullah,whowerespecialistsinrational

science,headedthemadrasasatSambalandAgra.Apartfromthetalentavailablelocallyinthecountry,learnedmenfromArabia,PersiaandCentralAsiawerealsoinvitedtotakechargeofeducationinmadrasas.Do you know that the Muslim rulers attempted to reform the curriculum of primaryschools. Some important subjects like Arithmetic, Mensuration, Geometry, Astronomy,Accountancy, Public Administration and Agriculture were included in the courses ofstudiesforprimaryeducation.Thoughspecialeffortsweremadebytherulertocarryoutreformsineducation,yetsciencesdidnotmakemuchheadway.Effortsweremadetoseeka kind of synthesis between the Indian traditional scientific culture and the prevalentmedievalapproachtoscienceinothercountries.Letusnowseewhatdevelopmentstookplaceinvariousfieldsduringthisperiod.Large workshops called karkhanas were maintained to supply provision, stores andequipments to royal household and government departments. The karkhanas not onlyworkedasmanufacturingagencies,butalsoservedascentresfortechnicalandvocationaltrainingtoyoungpeople.Thekarkhanastrainedandturnedoutartisansandcraftspersonsindifferentbranches,wholateronsetuptheirownindependentkarkhanas.

16.1.1Mathematics

Severalworks in the field ofMathematicswere produced during this period.NarayanaPandit, son of Narsimha Daivajna was well known for his works inMathematics–Ganitakaumudi andBijaganitavatamsa. Gangadhara, in Gujarat, wroteLilavatiKaramdipika, Suddhantadipika ,andLilavatiVyakhya. These were famoustreatises which gave rules for trigonometrical terms like sine, cosine tangent andcotangent.NilakanthaSomasutvanproducedTantrasamgraha,whichalsocontainsrulesoftrigonometricalfunctions.GanesaDaivajnaproducedBuddhivilasini-acommentaryonlilavati-containinganumberofillustrations.KrishnaoftheValhallafamilybroughtoutNavankuraontheBijaganitofBhaskara-IIandelaborationoftherulesofindeterminateequationsofthefirstandsecondorders. Nilakantha Jyotirvida compiled Tajik, introducing a large number of Persiantechnical terms. Faizi, at the behest of Akbar, translated Bhaskara’s Bijaganit. AkbarorderedtomakeMathematicsasasubjectofstudy,amongothersintheeducationsystem.Naisiru’d-din-at-tusi,wasanotherscholarofMathematics.

16.1.2Biology

Similarly,therewereadvancementsinthefieldofBiology.HamsadevacompiledaworkinthefieldofBiologyentitledMrga-paksi-sastrainthethirteenthcentury.Thisgivesageneral,thoughnotalwaysscientific,accountofsomeanimalsandbirdsofhunting.TheMuslim kings, who were warriors and hunters, maintained a fleet of animals such ashorses, dogs, cheetahs and falcons for hunting. Animals, both domesticated as well aswild,havebeen

described.BothBaburandAkbar,inspiteofbeingbusyintheirpoliticalpreoccupationsandwar, found time to study thework.Akbar had a special interest in producinggoodbreeds of domestic animals like elephants and horses. Jahangir, in hiswork -Tuzuk-i-jahangiri-recordedhisobservationsandexperimentsonbreedingandhybridization.Hedescribed about 36 species of animals. His court artists, specially, Mansur, producedelegantandaccurateportraituresofanimals.Someofthesearestillpreservedinseveralmuseumsandprivatecollections.Asanaturalist,Jahangirwasalsointerestedinthestudyofplants.Hiscourtartistshavedrawnaround57plantsintheirfloralportraitures.

16.1.3Chemistry

Do you know that in the medieval period, use of paper had begun? An importantapplication of Chemistry was in the production of paper. Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad,Patna,Murshidabad,Ahmedabad,AurangabadandMysorebecamewellknowncentresofpaperproduction.Thepapermakingtechniquewasmoreorlessthesamethroughoutthecountrydifferingonlyinpreparationofthepulpfromdifferentrawmaterials.TheMughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder and its use in gunnery,anotherapplicationofChemistry.TheIndiancraftspersonslearntthetechniqueinevolvedsuitableexplosivecomposition.TheworkSukranitiattributed toSukracarya contains adescription of howgunpowder can be prepared using saltpeter, sulphur and charcoal indifferent ratios for use in different types of guns.. The principal type of fire worksincludedthosewhichpiercethroughair,producesparksoffire,blazewithvariouscoloursandendwithexplosion.TheworkAin-I-akbarispeaksoftheregulationofthePerfumeofficeofAkbar.The attar (perfume) of roseswas a popular perfume,which is supposed to havebeendiscoveredbyNurjehan

INTEXTQUESTIONS16.1

1.Whatsubjectsweretaughtinprimaryschoolsinthemedievalperiod?_______________________________________________________________2.Thesubject__________________wasorderedbyAkbartobeacompulsorysubjectofstudyatprimarystage.3.Whatwerethe2functionsof‘Karkhanas’?_______________________________________________________________4.Matchthefollowingscholarswiththeirworks:

NameofScholar NameofWork

1.NarayanaPandit 1.Buddhivilasini

2.Gangadhara 2.Mrga-paksi-sastra

3.GanesaDaivanja 3.Ganitakaumudi

4.Hamsadeva 4.LilavatiVyakhya

5.Jahangir 5.Tajik

6.Sukracarya 6.Tuzuk-i-jahangiri

7.NilakanthaJyotirvida 7.Sukraniti

NameofScholarNameofWorkNarayanaPanditGangadharaGanesaDaivajnaHamsadevaJahangirSukracaryaNilakanthaJyotirvida5.Name4placesinIndiaduringthemedievalperiodwherepaperwasmanufactured.

16.1.4Astronomy

Astronomywasanotherfieldthatflourishedduringthisperiod.Inastronomy,anumberofcommentariesdealingwiththealreadyestablishedastronomicalnotionsappeared.MehendraSuri, a court astronomer ofEmperor FirozShah, developed an astronomical,instrument ‘Yantraja’. Paramesvara and Mahabhaskariya, both in Kerala, were famousfamilies of astronomers and almanac-makers. Nilakantha Somasutvan producedcommentaryofAryabhatiyaa.KamalakarstudiedtheIslamicastronomicalideas.HewasanauthorityonIslamicknowledge.MaharajaSawaiJaiSingh-IIofJaipurwasapatronofAstronomy. He set up the five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varansasi,MathuraandJaipur.

16.1.5Medicine

TheAyurvedasystemofmedicinedidnotprogressasvigorouslyasitdidintheancientperiodbecauseoflackofroyalpatronage.However,someimportanttreatisesonAyurvedalike the Sarangdhara Samhita and Chikitsasamgraha by Vangasena, theYagaratbajara

and the Bhavaprakasa of Bhavamisra were compiled. The Sarangdhara Samhita,written in the thirteenthcentury, includesuseofopium in itsmaterialmedicaandurineexaminationfordiagnosticpurpose.Thedrugsmentionedincludemetallicpreparationoftherasachikitsasystemandevenimporteddrugs.The Rasachikitsa system, dealt principally with a host of mineral medicines, bothmercurial and non-mercurial. The Siddha system mostly prevalent in Tamil Nadu wasattributed to the reputed Siddhas, who were supposed to have evolved many life-prolongingcompositions,richinmineralmedicines.TheUnaniTibbsystemofmedicineflourishedinIndiaduring themedievalperiod.Ali-bin-Rabban summarized the whole system of Greek medicine as well as the Indianmedicalknowledgeinthebook,Firdausu-Hikmat.TheUnanimedicinesystemcametoIndiaalongwiththeMuslimsbyabouttheeleventhcenturyandsoonfoundpatronageforitsgrowth.HakimDiyaMuhammadcompiledabook,Majiny-e-Diyae,incorporatingtheArabic,PersianandAyurvedicmedicalknowledge.FirozShahTughalaqwroteabook,Tibbe Firozshahi. The Tibbi Aurangzebi, dedicated to Aurangzeb, is based onAyurvedic sources. TheMusalajati-Darshikohiof Nuruddin Muhammad, dedicated toDarashikoh, deals with Greek medicine and contains, at the end, almost the whole ofAyurvedicmaterialmedica.

16.1.6Agriculture

Inthemedievalperiod,thepatternofagriculturalpracticeswasmoreorlessthesameasthat in early India. Some important changes occurred in the introduction of new crops,trees aswell as horticultural plants by foreign traders. The principal cropswerewheat,rice, barley,millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, sugar-cane and indigo.TheWesternGhatscontinuedtoyieldblackpepperofgoodqualityandKashmirmaintaineditstraditionforsaffron and fruits.Ginger and cinnamon fromTamilNadu, cardamom, sandalwood andcoconut from Kerala, were becoming increasingly popular. Tobacco, chillies, potato,guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple were the important plants which wereintroduced to India during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It was during thisperiodthattheproductionofopiumfrompoppyplantsbeganinMalwaandBiharregions.Improvedhorticulturalmethodswereadoptedwithgreatsuccess.Thesystematicmango-graftingwasintroducedbytheJesuitsofGoainthemiddleofsixteenthcentury.ImperialMughalGardensweresuitableareaswhereextensivecultivationoffruittreescameup.For irrigation,wells, tanks, canals, rahat, charas and dhenklicharas (a sort of a bucketmadeofleatherusedtoliftwaterwiththehelpofyokedoxen)wereused.Persianwheelwas used in theAgra region. In themedieval period, agriculturewas placed on a solidfoundation by the State by introducing a system of land measurement and landclassification,beneficialbothtotherulersaswellasthetillers.

INTEXTQUESTIONS16.2

1.NamethecitieswhereastronomicalobservatoriesweresetupbyMaharajaSawaiJaiSingh-IIofJaipur._______________________________________________________________2.Name2treatisesofAyurvedawrittenduringthemedievalperiod._______________________________________________________________3.WhatisFirdausu-Hikmat?_______________________________________________________________4.WhichbookbringstheArabic,PersianandAyurvedicmedicalknowledgetogether?_______________________________________________________________5.Name4cropsthatwerestartedtobegrowninIndiaduringthemedievalperiod._______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

Therewasaconsiderablechangeintheeducationsystem.TheArabicsystemwasintroducedinabigway.MadrasasandMaktabswereestablishedallover.Therulerstriedtointroducereforms.

Several works were written in the fields of Mathematics, Chemistry, Biology,AstronomyandMedicine.

Mostof the scientificworks in thisperiodwerecommentariesorexpositionsoftheearliertreatises.

Severalimportantscientificworksinastronomy,medicineandotherscienceswererenderedfromSanskrittoPersian/ArabicandfromPersian/ArabictoSanskrit.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.Describetheeducationsystemthatdevelopedduringthemedievalperiod.2.DiscussthedevelopmentsinthefieldofMedicineduringthemedievalperiod.3.Howwasirrigationdoneduringthisperiod.4.Writeanessayon“ScienceandScientistsduringthemedievalperiod.

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

16.11.Arithmetic,Mensuration,Geometry,Astronomy,Accountancy, PublicAdministrationandAgriculture2.Mathematics3.i)Manufacturingagenciesii)centresfortechnicalandvocationaltrainingtoyoungpeople4.

NameofScholar NameofWork

NarayanaPandit Ganitakaumudi

Gangadhara LilavatiVyakhya

GanesaDaivajna Buddhivilasini

Hamsadeva Mrga-paksi-sastra

Jahangir Tuzuk-i-jahangiri

Sukracarya Sukraniti

NilakanthaJyotirvida Tajik

5.Any4outofKashmir,Sialkot,Zafarabad,Patna,Murshidabad,Ahmedabad,AurangabadandMysore.16.21.Delhi,Ujjain,Varanasi,MathuraandJaipur.2.Any2outofSarangdharaSamhita,Chikitsasamgraha,YagaratbajaraandBhavaprakas.3.AbookwrittenbyAli-bin-RabbansummarizingthewholesystemofGreekmedicineaswellastheIndianmedicalknowledge.4.Majiny-e-Diyae5.Any4outofTobacco,chillies,potato,guava,custardapple,cashewpineapple.

ACTIVITIES

1. Try to visit any one of the observatories set up byMaharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II ofJaipur. Write a report bringing out the utility of an observatory and describing theinstrumentsavailable.

2.Trytovisitafactorythatproducespaper.Writeareportontheprocessofproduction.3.You have learnt about the two systems ofmedicine -Ayurvedic thatwas developedduringtheancientperiodandtheUnaniTibbsystemthatwasintroducedtoIndiaby theMuslimsduringthemedievalperiod.Doyouknowthatthedoctorswhomyougenerallyconsult when you are ill follow the Allopathic system, which was introduced by theBritishersduringtheModernperiod.Findoutthebasicprinciplesofthesethreesystemsandhow theydiffer.For this youmaydo anyoneormoreof the following for gettinginformation:

DiscusswithyourteacherGetbooksfromthelibraryonthisandreadSearchtheinternetMeetadoctoranddiscuss

Writeareportbringingoutthedifferencesinthesesystems,statingthebasicprinciplesofeach.4.ChooseanytwoofthecropsthatwereintroducedtoIndiaduringthemedievalperiodandfindouttheiroriginandhowtheycametoIndia.Writetheirstories.

17.SCIENTISTSOFMODERNINDIAThedevelopmentofscientificthoughtinmodernIndiacanbeattributedtothescientistsofthis period.Towards the secondhalf of thenineteenth century,SirC.V.RamanbroughtaboutanunprecedentedchangeinIndianscientificthought,Dr.HomiJ.Bhabha,knownasthefatherofourNuclearPhysics,predictedthefutureofIndianscience.Dr.J.C.Bose,in the fieldofplantphysiology,Dr.VikramSarabhai, in the fieldof atomicenergyandindustrializationandDr.AbdulKalam,inthefieldofdefencetechnology,broughtaboutrevolutionarychangestoreawakenthegloryofModernIndia.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

enumerate the important achievements of some of the great Indian scientists ofmoderntimes:and

enlisttheircontributionstotheserviceofhumansociety.

17.1SRINIVASRAMANUJAN(1887-1920)

SrinivasaAiyangarRamanujan(FRS)betterknownasSrinivasaIyengarRamanujan,oneof India’s greatest mathematical genius, was born at Erode in Tamil Nadu on 22December, 1887. Later on, his parents shifted to Kumbakonam, 160 kilometres fromChennai.RamanujanstudiedattheTownHallSchoolinKumbakonam,whereheprovedhimself to be an able all-rounder. However, his love of mathematics was unusual.Numbers seemed to draw him by a strange magnetism. In school itself at the age ofthirteen,hecameacrossabookcalledSynopsisofElementaryResultsinPureMathemeticbyG.S.Carr.Thoughoutdated,thisbookintroducedhimtotheworldofmathematics.Hestartedworking

anddevelopinghisownideasinmathematics.Heusedtowritehisideasandresultsandmakenotesonhisfindings.Threeofhisresearchnotebooksareavailabletous.TheyarecalledRamanujan’sFrayedNotebooks. He could not complete his college education as he kept on developing hisideasandstartedposingproblemsandsolvingthemintheJournalofIndianMathematicalSociety.In1911,hepublishedinthesamejournalabrilliantresearchpaperonBernoulliNumbers. This got him recognition and he becamewell known inMadras circles as amathematicalgenius.Lack of formal educationmade it very difficult for him tomake both endsmeet.WithgreatdifficultyhecouldgetthejobofaclerkatMadrasPortTrustwhichprovedfortunateforhim.Herehecameincontactwithmanypeoplewhohadtraininginmathematics.Hefound a book ‘Orders of Infinity’ written byG.H. Hardy. Hewrote a letter to him inwhichhementioned120theoremsandformulae.HardywasquicktorecognisehisgeniusandherespondedbyarrangingforhimapassagetoLondon.DespitehislackofrequiredqualificationhewasallowedtoenrollatTrinityCollegefromwherehegothisBachelorofSciencedegreeinlessthantwoyears.HeformedawonderfulteamwithHardyandJ.E.Littlewood and made amazing contributions to the field of mathematics. He publishedmany papers in London. He was the second Indian to be elected Fellow of the RoyalSocietyofLondonandthefirstIndiantobeelectedFellowofTrinityCollege.Ramanujanhadanintimatefamiliaritywithnumbers.In1917,hefellseriouslyill,butthenumbers remained his friend, though his body betrayed him. Unfortunately, his healthbecame worse and he returned to India in 1919, “With a scientific standing andreputation”.Hediedin1920.HismathematicalgeniusisaproofthatIndiaindeedisthebirthplaceandsourceofgreatmathematicalideas.

17.2CHANDRASEKHARAV.RAMAN(1888-1970)

ChandrasekharaV.Raman,popularlyknownasC.V.Raman,wasnotonlyagreatscientistbutalsobelievedinthepromotionofhumanwellbeingandhumandignity.HewontheNobelPrizeforPhysicsin1930.HewasthefirstAsiantoreceivethisaward.C.V.Ramanwasbornon7November1888 inTiruchirapalli, inTamilNadu.His fatherwasaprofessorofPhysicsandMathematics.HegrewupinanenvironmentofSanskritliterature,music and science.Nature had gifted himwith great power of concentration,intelligenceandspiritofinquiry.Eveninhischildhood,hewaspopularasachildgenius.HestoodfirstintheIndianAuditandAccounts(IAAS)Examinationandwasappointedas Assistant Accountant General in the Finance Department in Calcutta at the age ofnineteen. He sacrificed his high post for his love for science and joined the ScienceCollegeofCalcuttaUniversityasaprofessorofPhysics.Duetohisdeeploveofmusic,hestartedworking onmusical instruments like the veena, violin, tabla andmridangam. In1921,he

readapaperonthetheoryofStringedInstrumentsbeforetheRoyalSocietyofLondon.In1924,hewasmadeFellowoftheRoyalSociety.OnhisjourneytoEngland,hewasgreatlyattractedbythebluecolourofthesea.Hewascurious toknowwhy it remainedblueevenwhenbigwaves rolledup.Thenhegot theintuitive flash that itwas due to the breaking up of sun’s light bywatermolecules.Heconductedmanyexperimentsandprepareda longpaperonmolecularscatteringof lightandsentittotheRoyalSocietyofLondon.Theworldofsciencewasdumbstruckatthebrillianceofhismind.

RamanEffect

Whenabeamofmonochromatic(havingsinglecolour)lightpassesthroughatransparentsubstance, it scatters. Raman studied the broken light. He found that there were twospectrallinesofverylowintensity(strength)paralleltotheincidentmonochromaticlight.This showed that broken light was not monochromatic, though the incident light wasmonochromatic. Thus a great phenomenon hidden in nature was revealed to him. ThisphenomenonbecamefamousasRamanEffectandspectral linesinthescatteredlightasRamanLines.Whilescientistshadbeendebatingoverthequestionwhetherlightwaslikewavesorlikeparticles,theRamanEffectprovedthatlightismadeupofparticlesknownasphotons.Dr. Raman was a great teacher and a great guide as well. He generated immenseconfidenceamonghis students.Oneofhis studentswas invery lowmoralebecausehehadonlyone kilowatt poweredX -Ray equipment,whereas a scientist in Englandwasworkingwith5kilowattpoweredX-Rayequipment.Dr.Ramaninspiredhimtousehis10kilowattpoweredbraininstead.Dr.Raman’slifeisagreatexampleforustofollow.EvenwhenIndiawasunderBritishruleand therewashardlyanybasic infrastructure forexperimentation,heusedhisgreatmind as his laboratory. He proved through the example of his life, how our ancestorsformulatedgreattheoriesusingthepoweroftheirmind.

17.3JAGDISHCHANDRABOSE1858-1937

J.C.BoseanothergreatscientistofmodemIndiabroughtgloryandrespectforthecountry.Hewasbornon30November,1858atMymensingh,nowinBangladesh,wherehehadhisearlyeducation.HehadhishighereducationatSt.XaviersCollege,Calcutta.In1885hewasappointedAssistantProfessorofPhysicsatthePresidencyCollegebutrefusedtotakesalarybecause itwasnearlyhalfof thatofanEnglishman.Lateron,hedecided tobecome a scientist to recover the fame that India enjoyed all over theworld in ancienttimes.Hemadeanapparatustostudythepropertiesofelectricwaves.Forhispaperon“TheElectromagneticRadiationandPolarizationofElectricRay”,hewasmadeaKnight

in 1917 and Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1920. He was the first IndianscientistinPhysicstoreceivethishonour.Dr.BoseisfamousallovertheworldastheinventorofCrescographthatcanrecordeventhemillionthpartofamillimeterofplantgrowthandmovement.Dr.Boseprovedthroughgraphs takenby theCrescograph thatplantshaveacirculatorysystem too.Crescographhasalsoshownthattheupwardmovementofsapinplantsistheactivityoflivingcells.Dr. Bose also made many other instruments famous all over the world as Boseinstruments,toprove thatevenmetals react tooutwardstimuli.Bose’s instrumentshaveshown, how even steel andmetals used in scissors andmachinery get tired and regainefficiencyafteraperiodofrest.Besides Crescograph and other Bose instruments, his wireless inventions too antedatedthoseofMarconi.Hewasthefirsttoinventawirelesscoherer(radiosignaldetector)andan instrument for indicating the refraction of electric waves.When someone drew hisattention towards this fact, he simply remarked that it is an invention which is moreimportantformankindthantheinventor.

INTEXTQUESTIONS17.1

1.WhoiscalledthefatherofnuclearphysicsinIndia?_______________________________________________________________2.SrinivasaRamanujanexcelledinwhichfield?_______________________________________________________________3. Which work of Ramanujan Srinivasa was published in the Journal of IndianMathematicalSociety?_______________________________________________________________4.WhowrotetheOrdersofInfinity?_______________________________________________________________5.WhendidC.V.RamanwinNobelprizeforphysics?_______________________________________________________________6.WhatattractedthemosttoC.V.RamanduringhisjourneytoEngland?_______________________________________________________________7.WhichpaperwaswrittenbyC.V.RamanandsenttoRoyalSocietyofLondon?_______________________________________________________________

8.WhatiscalledRamanEffect?_______________________________________________________________9.Whatarephotons?_______________________________________________________________10.WhatworkofJagdishChandraBosegavehimKnightpositioninLondon?_______________________________________________________________11.WhoinventedCrescograph?_______________________________________________________________12.WhatdoesaCrescographrecord?_______________________________________________________________13.Whoinventedthefirstwirelesscoherer?_______________________________________________________________

17.4HOMIJEHANGIRBHABHA(1909-1966)

Dr.HomiJehangirBhabhawasagreatscientist.HeledIndiaintoatomicage.HeiscalledthefatherofIndianNuclearScience.Hewasbornon30October,1909inafamousParsifamily.Evenasaboy,heshowedhisintelligenceandwonmanyprizes.Hedidhisearlystudies in Mumbai. He took a degree in Mechanical Engineering in First Class fromCambridge,completedresearchworkthereandreceivedhisdoctoratein1935.Till1939,hecarriedoutstandingoriginalresearchrelatingtocosmicradiation.HereturnedtoIndiawhentheSecondWorldWarstarted.Dr.BhabhajoinedtheIndianInstituteofSciencesatBangaloreasaReaderattherequestofDr.C.V.Raman.SoonhebecameaProfessorofPhysics.ItwasherethathegottheideaofbuildingaresearchinstituteforsomeofthenewareasofPhysics.Hetookaverybolddecision andwrote a letter toSirDorab JiTata suggesting that an institution shouldbeestablished which would lay the foundation of India as a world nuclear power. Thisinstitutewould produce its own experts and the country would not have to depend onoutsidesources.Asaresult,TataInstituteofFundamentalResearch(TIFR)wasstartedin1945,atDr.Bhabha’sancestralhome.India’sfirstatomicresearchcentrenowcalledBhabhaAtomicResearchCentre(BARC)was established at Trombay. India’s First atomic reactor, Apsara was also establishedunder his expert guidance. Bhabha became the first chairman of the Atomic EnergyCommission setup in1948.His studies in the fieldof atomicenergyare consideredofgreatimportanceininternationalcircles.Heservedasthechairmanofinternational

conference on peaceful uses of atomic energy, supported by the United Nations. TheGovernmentofIndiahonouredhimwithPadmaBhushan.In1966,Dr.Bhabhadiedinaplanecrash.

17.5DR.VIKRAMAMBALALSARABHAI(1919-1970)

Dr.VikramAmbalalSarabhai isanothergreatgeniusofmodemIndia.Hewasthemainpersonality behind the launching of India’s first satellite Aryabhatta. He received hisprimary education at a school run by his parents. He studied cosmic rays under theguidanceofDr.C.V.Ramanand receivedhisPh.D.degree fromCambridgeUniversity.His studies of cosmic rays havemade it clear that cosmic rays are a stream of energyparticlescomingfromtheouterspace.Whilereachingtheearth,theyareinfluencedonthewaybythesun,theearth’satmosphereandmagnetism.Dr.Sarabhaihadamultifacetedpersonality.Hewasagreatindustrialist.Today,therearemany industries founded by him such as SarabhaiChemicals, SarabhaiGlass, SarabhaiGeigyLtd.,SaraBhaiMerckLtd. andmanyothers.He alsohelped in saving croresofrupeesforIndiabystartingthemissionofmanufacturingmilitaryhardwareandproducingantibioticsandpenicillin in Indiawhichwerebeing imported fromabroad.Hewasalsothe founder of Ahmedabad Textile Industrial Association and Ahmedabad MoneyAssociation.Inthisway,heestablishedalargenumberofsuccessfulindustries.Dr. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai established many institutes which are of internationalrepute.MostnotableamongthemareIndianInstitutesofManagement(IIMS)whichareconsideredworldclassfortheirmanagementstudies.He was the Chairman of the Indian National Commission for Space Research(INCOSPAR) and of the Atomic Energy Commission. He directed the setting up ofThumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS). He also made plans to takeeducation to the villages through Satellite communication. Hewas awarded the PadmaBhushanin1966andthePadmaVibhushanafterhisdeath.Hisdeathwasagreatlosstothenation.

17.6DR.A.P.J.ABDULKALAM

Dr.A.P.J.AbdulKalam,theeleventhPresidentofIndiawasbornon15October,1931,inthe island town of Rameshwaram, in Tamil Nadu. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna,India’s highest civilian honour in 1997 for his contributions in the field of science andengineering.Dr.Kalam had his primary education at Rameshwaram.He passed his class ten examsfrom Schwartz High School, Ramanathapuram and obtained a degree in AeronauticalEngineeringfromMadrasInstituteofTechnology.

Dr.KalamservedinIndianSpaceResearchOrganisation(ISRO)from1963to1982.AtVikramSarabhaiSpaceCentre,hedevelopedtheSatelliteLaunchVehicle(SLV3),whichput the satelliteRohini intoorbit. In1982, asDirector,DefenceResearchDevelopmentOrganisation (DRDO), he was given the responsibility of Integrated Guided MissileDevelopment Programme (IGMDP). He developed five projects for defence services -Prithvi,Trishul,Akash,NagandAgni.HeledIndiaintoaneraofself-dependence.Agni,whichisasurfacetosurfacemissile,isauniqueachievement.ItssuccessfullaunchmadeIndia a member of the club of highly developed countries. The light weight carbonmaterial designed for Agni has been used to make calipers for the polio-affected. Thematerialhasreducedtheweightofcalipersto400gramsfrom4kgs.Itisagreatblessingfor human beings. Thematerial has also been used formaking spring like coils calledstents,whichareusedinBalloonAngioplastyfortreatingheartpatients.Dr.Kalam’s life is a symbol of the true spirit of India.He is a real follower of Indiantraditionandreligion.Hehasintegratedsciencewithreligionandphilosophy.Hestronglybelieves in being guided from inside i.e. “relying more on inner signals and less onexternalcues”aswellasdoingdutiesselflessly.Dr.Kalamsays,“Ihavenobelongingsintheworldlysense.Ihaveacquirednothing,builtnothing,possessnothing,nofamily,sons,daughters.”

INTEXTQUESTIONS17.2

1.WhatwastheresearchworkofDr.HomiJ.Bhabha?_______________________________________________________________2.WhichinstitutionwasopenedatDr.Bhabha’sancestralhomein1945?_______________________________________________________________3.WhatwasthenameofthefirstAtomicReactor?_______________________________________________________________4.Whatarecosmicrays?_______________________________________________________________5.HowdidDr.VikramSarabhaiabletosavecroresofIndianrupees?_______________________________________________________________6.WhatisTERLS?_______________________________________________________________

7.NametheprojectsfordefenceservicesdevelopedbyDr.A.P.J.AbdulKalam._______________________________________________________________8.HowdidDr.AbdulKalamhelppolio-affectedpeople?_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

SrinivasaRamanujanwas agreatmathematical geniusof Indiawhohas severaloutstandingachievementsinthisfieldtohiscredit.

C.V. Raman was an outstanding Indian scientist who won the Nobel Prize forPhysics in 1930. His finding that light is made up of particles known asphotonsisknownastheRamanEffect.

Dr. J.C.Bose is creditedwith the invention of theCrescograph that can recordplant growth and movement, among other achievements, like devisinginstrumentsknownasBoseinstruments.

Dr.HomiBhabhawasanothergreatIndianScientistwholedIndiaintotheatomicage.

Dr.VikramSarabhaiwasanothergreatgeniusofmodemIndiawhowasbehindthe launching of India’s first satellite Aryabhatta. He was also a greatindustrialist who founded many industries. He was the chairperson ofINCOSPARandtheAtomicEnergyCommissions.

Dr.A.P.J.AbdulKalam,thePresidentofIndia,developedtheSLV3whichputthesatelliteRohiniintoorbit.AsDirectorofDRDO,hedevelopedfiveprojects-Prithvi,Trishul,Akash,NagandAgni.HecontinuestoinspiretheIndianyouthtilltoday.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1. Describe the contributions of Jagdish Chandra Bose in the field of science andTechnology.2.ElaboratetheeffortsofDr.HomiJ.BhabhainbuildingIndiaasupernuclearpower.3.HowwasC.V.Ramanabletoprovethatourancestorsformulatedgreattheoriesusingthepoweroftheirmind?4.Dr.Kalam’slifeisasymbolofthetruespiritofIndia.Discuss.

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

17.1

1.HomiJ.Bhabha2.Mathematics3.AresearchpaperonBernoullinumbers.4.G.H.Hardy5.In19306.Bluecolourofthesea7.Onemolecularscatteringoflight8.Inthebrokenlight,thereweretwospectrallinesoflowintensityparalleltotheincidentmonochromatic light.This showed that thebroken lightwasnotmonochromatic thoughtheincidentlightwasmonochromatic.9.Particlesthattogethermakelight10.HispaperontheElectromagneticRadiationandpolarization.11.JagdishChandraBose12.Themillionthpartofacentimetergrowthofaplantanditsmovement.13.JagdishChandraBose

17.2

1.CosmicRadiation2.TataInstituteofFundamentalResearch(TIFR).3.Apsara4.Cosmicraysareastreamofenergyparticlescomingfromtheouterspace.5. He started the manufacturing of military hardware and producing antibiotics andpenicillininIndia.6.ThumbaEquatorialRocketLaunchingStation7.Prithvi,Trishul,Akash,Nag,andAgni8.Hereducedtheweightofcaliphersfrom4kgsto400gmsonly.

MODULE7.EDUCATION

18.EDUCATIONININDIASofar,youhavebeenreadingaboutdifferentaspectsofculture,suchasart,architecture,religion and science.Another important aspect of our culture is education. Butwhat iseducation?Youmaysaythatitmeanslearningsomethinginschoolorfrombooks.Thisispartiallytrue.Educationisalearningexperience.Butlearningtakesplaceatall times inone’s life.However,whereas someother learning experiences couldbe of a random oraccidental nature, an educational experience is usually a deliberate and pre-designedprogrammewith thepurposeofaffectingcertainpre-determinedbehaviouralchanges inanindividual.Youaregoingthroughsuchanexperiencerightnowasyouproceedthroughvarious lessonsof this course.Buthaveyoueverwonderedhoweducation is related toculture? Culture is the sum total of the accumulated experiences and achievements ofprevious generations inherited by succeeding generations as members of society. Thestructuredprocessofpassingonthiscollectivepoolofexperiencesandachievementsmaybecallededucation.Henceeducation isnotonlyameansofpassingoncultural beliefsand ideas, but it is also shaped by cultural beliefs since it is a product of culture. Thesystemofeducation thuschangesalongwithchanges inculture. In this lessonwe shallfindoutabouttheevolutionofthesystemsofeducationthatprevailedinIndiasince themostancienttimesbecausesocietyconsideredtheeducationofitsmembersasoneofitsprimaryobligation.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

describe the nature of education imparted during different periods of Indianhistory-ancient,medievalandmodern;

assessthecontributionsoftheJainandtheBuddhistsystemsofeducation;

assess the educational status of women in society with regard to access toeducationandnatureofeducationimpartedtothem;

recallthestepsundertakeninthefieldofeducationwiththeestablishmentoftheDelhiSultanateinmedievalIndia;

appreciatetheroleofMughalRulersinmakingeducationmorerationalistic;examinetheimpactofspreadofmoderneducationduringthecolonialperiod;assess the role of education in independent India in its various aspects such as

elementary education, vocational education, higher education and adulteducation.

18.1EDUCATIONINTHEANCIENTPERIOD

18.1.1VedicPeriod

Learning in ancient Indiawas imparted by the teachers calledGurus to the pupilswhogatheredaroundthemandcametolivewiththemintheirhouseasmembersofthefamily.Such a place was called Gurukul. The Gurukul functioned as a domestic school, anashrama,where the children’s learning was developed by the Guru who gave personalinstructionaswellasattentiontothestudents.Educationwasprimarilytheprivilegeoftheupper castes. Learning was an intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupilcalled the Guru-Shishya Parampara. The process of learning generally began with areligious ceremony, ‘Upanayana’ (sacred thread ceremony). Education was normallyimpartedorally.ItincludedmemorizationoftextslikeVedasandDharmashastras,fullyorpartially. Later subjects like Grammar, Logic, andMetaphysics came to be taught andstudied.TheMaitrayaniUpanishad teachesus that thesupremeknowledge(gyan) is theresultoflearning(vidya),reflection(chintan)andausterity(tapas).Throughintrospection(atmavishleshana)onewastoattaingoodness(Satva),purityofmindandsatisfactionofthesoulinstages.Duringthis timeselfeducationwasregardedas thepropermethodofattainingthehighestknowledge.Thebestexampleof thiscanbefound in theTaitteriyaUpanishadwhereBhrgu,sonofVaruna,approacheshisfatherandaskshimtoteachwhatisBrahmana.Thefathertellshimtofindthisoutthroughmeditation.

18.1.2MauryanPeriod

During theMauryan and the post-Mauryan periods, the Indian society went through aphase of intensive change.With the growth of urban centres and trade, the mercantilecommunitycametoacquireanimportantposition.Asaresult,theguildsofthemerchantsbegan to play an active role in providing education. They became centres of technicaleducation and fostered the knowledge of mining, metallurgy, carpentry, weaving anddyeing.Therewerenewformulationsinbuildingandarchitecture.Withtheemergenceofcity life,newarchitectural formsevolved.Theguildsalsogavepatronage toastronomy,thestudy

of the position of stars, to help them in ocean navigation. The astronomers andcosmologistsbeganadebateon“time”(kala).Thishelpedinthedevelopmentofasharpsense of “time” (kala) in comparison to the past. Medical knowledge began to besystemisedasAyurveda.TheelementsformedthebasisfortheIndianmedicalsystem.Aright combination of the three was necessary for a healthy body. Knowledge of themedicinalpropertiesofherbsand their usage reached a very advanced stage. ‘Charaka’became famous for medicine and ‘Sushruta’ for surgery. ‘Charak Samhita’ written byCharakawasanauthenticandexhaustiveworkonmedicines.YoumusthaveheardofChanakya,whowasarenownedphilosopher,scholarandteacher.His most famous work is ‘Arthashastra’. The currcula of studies mentioned in theArthashastra refers primarily to the education of princes. After Upanayana the princelearnt thefourVedasand theVedicstudy includedastudyofsciences.Theyalso learntlogic, economics and politics. Education of those times was primarily life skills basedwhichissodifferentfromwhateducationistoday.ThecurriculaintheRamayanafortheprinceswasDhanurveda,Nitishastra,Siksha(lore)ofelephantsandchariots,AlekhyaandLekhya(Paintingandwriting),Langhana(jumping)andTairana(swimming).

18.1.3GuptaPeriod

In the Gupta period, the Jain and Buddhist systems of education assumed a differentdimension.Buddhistmonasteriesadmittedstudentsfortenyears.Learningbeganwiththeoral method. Later they shifted to the reading of literary texts. The monasteries hadlibraries. Important manuscripts were copied and stored. Students from other countrieslike China and South-East Asia came to the Buddhist monasteries for education. Themonasterieswerenormallymaintainedbygrantsfromkingsandtherichmercantileclass.They attracted scholars from far and near. Fa-Hien also spent several years in themonastery at Pataliputra, studying Buddhist religious books. Besides Pataliputra, therewere other centres of learning like Vanarasi, Mathura, Ujjain and Nasik. NalandaUniversitywas known all overAsia for its high standards of scholarship. The subjectstaught included Vedanta, philosophy, study of the Puranas, epics, grammar, logic,astronomy, philosophy, medicine etc. Sanskrit, the court language was the medium ofinstruction. The Jains used Sanskrit literature like ‘Adipurana’ and ‘Yashatilaka’ foreducational purposes in the earlier phase. But to make education more popular, themediumwaschangedtoPrakritandotherregionallanguageslikeTamil,Kannadaandsoon.Books in the JainandBuddhist librarieswerewrittenonpalm leaves thatwere tiedtogether and were known as “granthas”. Slowly, Jainism and Buddhism lost royalpatronageandtheirmonasteriesstarteddecliningascentresofeducationandlearning.The‘mathas’ supported by Brahmins were institutions parallel to Jain and Buddhistmonasteries.The‘mathas’functionedlikeashramasforeducationalpurposes.

18.1.4PostGuptaPeriod

ArtandeducationmadegreatstridesinthereignofHarsha.Heencouragededucationatall levels; education was given in temples and monastries and higher education inuniversities

of Taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and Nalanda. In Nalanda, Hiuen Tsang spent several yearsstudyingBuddhistssculptures.Shilabhadra,arenownedscholarwasitshead.In the seventh and eighth centuries, ‘ghatikas’, or colleges attached to the templesemergedasnewcentresoflearning.The‘ghatikas’,providedBrahmanicaleducation.ThemediumofinstructionwasSanskrit.Entrytothesetemplecollegeswasopenonlytotheupper castes or ‘dvijas’ (twice born). Use of Sanskrit as the medium of instructiondistancedthecommonpeoplefromeducation.Educationbecametheprivilegeofonlytheuppermostsectionsofsociety.

18.2AIMSOFEDUCATION

InancientIndia,educationwasamatterofindividualconcern.Theaimofeducationwasthedevelopmentofpupil’soverallpersonality.Withthisviewofeducationasaprocessofone’sinnergrowthandself-fulfïlment,techniques,rulesandmethodswereevolved.Itwasbelievedthatthedevelopmentofapersonmeant,primarily,thetrainingofhis/hermindasthe instrument of acquiring knowledge.This knowledgewould enhancehis/hercreativecapacity.Thethinkingprinciple‘mananashakti’wasreckonedhigherthanthesubjectofthinking.Thus,theprimarysubjectofeducationwastheminditself.

18.3SUBJECTS

Knowledge of applied sciences like metallurgy, baked bricks, glazing, measurement ofareas and volumes were known to people in ancient India. The scientific system ofmedicinewasdevelopedinthepost-Vedicperiod.Medicinebecameasubjectatcentresoflearning like Takshila and Varanasi. The ‘Charak Samhita’ on medicine and ‘SushrutaSamhita’onsurgeryweretwoimportantworksinthisfield.Sushrutaconsideredsurgeryas “the highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”.Mathematics or‘ganita’ includedArithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy andAstrology. Interest inArithmeticwasduetoitsuseintradeandcommerce.‘Aryabhattiya’,byAryabhattawasamajor contribution in the field of mathematics. Astronomy was overshadowed byBrahmanical superstitions. ‘Surya Siddhanta’, a work on astronomy consisted of thedescriptionoftheinstrumentsandthemethodsofobservationwhichwereneitheraccuratenorimpressive.ThebronzeandcopperremainsfromthetimeofIndusValleyCivilizationare indicative of the development of chemistry andmetallury. The processes of leathertanning,dyeing,andfermentingweredevisedduringthisperiod.

18.4LANGUAGE

Sanskrit enjoyed a position of privilege in ancient India. It served as a medium ofBrahmanical education. Sanskrit was the lingua franca of the educated upper castes aswellastheHindurulersandcourtiers.‘Prakrit’asalanguagedevelopedwiththeriseofBuddhism.It

becamethelanguageofthemasses.Ashoka,theMauryankingused‘Prakrit’inhisedicts.It is interesting to note that in Sanskrit drama,women and the humble charactersweremadetospeakinformalisedPrakrit.PaliwasoneoftheearlyvariantsofPrakrit.MostoftheBuddhist canonicalwritings are in Prakrit and Pali, though someSanskrit literaturewas also in circulation. Another language ‘Apabhramsha’ was used by Jain writers inGujarat and Rajasthan for the composition of poetry. The Dravidian languages Tamil,Telugu,KannadaandMalyalamwere in use in the southern parts of India.They foundexpressionintheliteratureofthisperiodaswell.BoxStartThebest exampleof ancient India’s advancementwas theuniversityofNalanda.HiuenTsangafamousChinesetravellerrecordsNalandaUniversityasapostgraduateuniversityforadvancedstudyandresearch.Nalandawasalsofamousforits‘SchoolsofDiscussion”as noted by the studentswho had their own hostels.KingBalaputradeva constructed atempleforthestudentsofJavawhocametostudyatNalanda.BoxClose

INTEXTQUESTIONS18.1

1.Howiseducationrelatedtoculture?_______________________________________________________________2.WhatisUpanayanaceremony?_______________________________________________________________3.Wherewaseducationimpartedintheancientperiod?_______________________________________________________________4.WhatwasthebasisofIndianMedicalsysteminancientperiod?_______________________________________________________________5.NamethetwoliteraryworkusedbyJainsforteachingsinancientIndia?_______________________________________________________________6.Whatwere the reasonsbecauseofwhich commonpeople distanced themselves fromeducationinancientperiod?_______________________________________________________________

18.5EDUCATIONINTHEMEDIEVALPERIOD

With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, Islamic system of education wasintroduced. Education in medieval India was designed on the lines of the tradition ofeducationdeveloped

under the Abbasids of Baghdad. As a result, scholars from countries like Samarqand,Bukhara and Iran looked up to the Indian scholars for guidance. Amir Khusrau, anexemplarypersonality,notonlydeveloped theskillofwritingproseandpoetrybutalsodevisedanewlanguagewhichsuitedthelocalconditions.SomecontemporaryhistorianslikeMinhaj-us-Siraj,ZiauddinBaraniandAfifhavewrittenaboutIndianscholarship.Theinstitutionsthatprovidedschooleducationwereknownas‘makhtabs’,whilethoseofhigher learning were called ‘madrasas’. The ‘makhtabs’ were generally run by publicdonations while ‘Madrasas’ were maintained by the rulers and nobles. There were sixdifferent typesof institutions: (i) thoseestablishedandmaintainedbynoblesand rulers,(ii) thosewhichwere started by individual scholarswith the help of state assistance ordonations,(iii)thosethatwereattachedtothemosques,(iv)thosethatwereattachedtothetombs, (v) those thatwere started andmaintainedby individual scholars, and (vi) thosethatwereattachedtotheSufihospices.Thefamous‘madrasas’weretheMuizzi,theNasiriandtheFiruzimadrasasinDelhi,MohammedGawani’smadrasainBidarandAbulFazl’smadrasa in Fatehpur Sikri. The Sirat-i-figuz Shahi gives a list of 14 subjects thatweretaught in the Madarsas like Jurisprudence or Dirat which was a method of recitation,punctuationandvocalizationofthetextQuranetc.ThemainfeatureoftheMuslimeducationalsystemwasthatitwastraditionalinspiritandtheological in content. The curriculum was broadly divided into two categories: thetraditional(Manqulat)andtherational(Maqulat)sciences.Traditions,lawandhistoryandliteraturecameunder the traditional sciences.Logic,philosophy,medicine,mathematicsand astronomy came under rational sciences. Later, rational sciences came to beemphasizedmore than the traditional sciences.Traditional subjectsdominatededucationfrom the time of Iltutmish (1211-36) till the reign of Sikander Lodi (1489-1517). Thescenariostartedchanging from the time of Sikander Lodiwhen he invited the brothersSheikhAbdullahandSheikhAzizullahfromMultantoDelhi.Theyintroducedthestudyofphilosophyandlogicinthecurriculum.BoxStart

EducationSystemundertheGreatMughals

TheMughalperiodmadeimmensecontributioninthefieldoflearningandeducation.TheMughal emperors had great love for learning and they contributedmore in thefield ofspreading education through Pathshalas, Vidyapeeths, Makatabs and Madarsas. Akbargave grants to educational institutions.He started a College near JamaMasjid. At thattime, education was not a state subject. Generally the temples and mosques were thecentreof elementary education.Theyweredependenton the donations given by rulers,richmenanddonors.SanskritandPersianweretaughtintemplesandmosques.Therewasno provision for women’s education. The women of the royal and rich families goteducationathome.BoxCloseTheMughalrulersweregreatpatronsoflearningandliterature.ThisperiodsawtheriseofUrduasalanguagewhichcameoutofalongcontactbetweenPersianandHindii.e.the

Turks and the Indians. Babar wrote his own biography known as Tazuk-i-Babari. TheMughal Emperor Humayun introduced the study of mathematics, astronomy andgeography

in the ‘madrasas’ in Delhi. This helped in reducing the bias in the existing educationsystem.ManyHindustooktolearningPersianandanumberoftranslationsfromSanskritto Persian were made. Akbar added subjects like accountancy, public administration,geometryandbuiltaworkshopnearhispalace.Hepersonallysupervised theworkshop.Akbar’sattempttointroducesecularandscientificsystemofeducationwasnotlikedbytheorthodoxsections.Akbar’seffortsusheredinachangewhichcontinuedforcenturies.IntheeighteenthcenturysomenobleswereagainsttheintroductionofWesternmethodsineducationwhichinvolved inquiry,observation, investigationandconductingexperiment.Memorising,discussing andwriting out the lessonswere the basis of instruction in theMuslim‘madrasas’.Akbar patronisedmany scholars such asAbulFazal, Faizi,RajaTodarMal,Birbal andRahim.Theywereamongtheninegemsofhiscourtwhohelpedinspreadingcultureandeducation.

INTEXTQUESTIONS18.2

1.Whichinstitutionsprovidedschooleducationinmedievalperiod?_______________________________________________________________2.WhomaintainedMadarsasinthemedievalperiod?_______________________________________________________________3.Namesomeofthefamousmadarsasofmedievalperiod._______________________________________________________________4.WhatwasthemainfeatureoftheMuslimeducationalsystem?_______________________________________________________________5.Whatwerethemethodsadoptedbywesterncountriesinmedievalperiod?_______________________________________________________________6.WhatwerethechangesmadebyAkbarineducation?_______________________________________________________________

18.6EDUCATIONINTHEMODERNPERIOD

18.6.1EighteenthCentury:TheBeginningofModernPeriod

As in other aspects of social life in India, many of the traditional features of thepreceedingcenturieshadcontinued in the fieldofeducation.Theold famouscentresofhigherlearning

like thoseatTaxila,Nalanda,VikramshilanearBhagalpur,at Jagaddal inNorthBengal,Vallabhi at Kathiawar and Kanchi in the South had disappeared long ago. Islamiceducation,on the other hand flourished subsequently under the patronage of rulers andnobles.StillthemajorityoftheHindupopulationcontinuedtoreceiveeducationintheirtimehonouredinstitutionsandwiththegrowthofvernacularliteraturetheystudiedtheirclassicalworks.‘Thereisnotcountry’wroteThomasin1891‘wheretheloveoflearninghadsoearlyanoriginorhasexercisedso lastingandpowerful influence’.According tohim‘TheEnglishfoundinIndia,awidespreadstyleofelementaryeducationandhighereducation, of which the former was mainly practical while the latter mainly literary,philosophicalandreligious.For about 150 years, theBritishwere involved in trade and conquest in India. So theymaintained a distance from all kinds of cultural activities including education. ThebeginningoforientalscholarshipwasmadebyWarrenHastingsin1781whenhestartedtheCalcuttaMadrasa.Hisendeavourwasprimarilyduetoadministrativereasons.Elevenyearslater,in1792,JonathanDuncan,aResidentofVaranasistartedaSanskritcollegetoeducatenativeHindustoassisttheEuropeans.Meanwhile,ChristianmissionariesweremakingeffortstointroduceWesterneducationbyopeningelementaryschoolsandprovidingeducationto themorehumblesectionsof thesociety,includingthesocalleduntouchablecastes.

18.6.2NineteenthCentury

Thefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturycanbecalledaperiodofeducationalexperiments.TheEastIndiaCompany’sCharterActof1813enabledtheCompanytosetasideonelakhrupees for“the revival and improvementof literatureand theencouragementof learnednativesofIndiaandfortheintroductionandpromotionofaknowledgeofsciencesamongtheinhabitantsoftheBritishterritoriesinIndia”.AdebateensuedbetweentheOrientalistsand the Anglicists which was finally settled by Macaulay’s Minutes and Bentinck’sResolutionof1835.ItwasdecidedthatthisfundwouldbeutilisedtopromoteEuropeanliteratureandsciences.WilliamBentinckadoptedEnglishas theofficial languageof thegovernment. LordHardinge in 1844, decided to grant employment to Indianswho hadreceivedEnglisheducation.Wood’sDespatchof1854underlined theobjectiveof educational policywhichwas thediffusion of “the improved arts, sciences, philosophy and literature of Europe” throughEnglishor othermodern Indian languages as themedium.TheDespatch suggested thatUniversities should be set up inBombay (modernMumbai),Madras (modernChennai)andCalcutta (modernKolkata). It emphasized the development of private enterprise, asystemofgrants-in-aid,trainingteachersintheschools,women’seducationandsoon.In1857,theUniversitiesofBombay,MadrasandCalcuttawereestablished.TheUniversitiesofPunjabandAllahabadwereestablishedin1882and1887respectively.

18.6.3Beginningof20thCentury

In1901,LordCurzonconvened theconferenceofDirectorsofPublic Instructionwhichbegan an era of educational reforms based on its decisions. In 1904, the IndianUniversitiesActwaspassedthatenabledtheUniversities toassumeteaching, inspectionofcollegesandundertakemeasuresforqualitativeimprovementinhighereducation.UndertheColonialRule,masseducationwasneglectedandtheattemptwastocreateanurban educated elite that would act as interpreter between the ruler and the ruled. TheexaminationsystemwasemphasisedinbothhighschoolsandUniversities.TheimpactofEnglisheducationwasnoteven.Literacyandeducationweremorewidespreadintownsthan in villages. The positive aspectwas that it produced a breed of educated politicalleaders and social reformerswho played important roles in the freedom struggle of thecountry. The publication of newspapers and pamphlets brought about an awakeningamongthemasses.

18.6.4ImpactofEnglishEducation

TheBritishencouragedtheteachingofEnglishlanguageinschoolsandcollegesastheyneededpeopletoworkintheadministrativeofficeseitherasclerksorbabus.Thishelpedin creating a new class of people who later helped them in governance as well as incontrollingmany aspects of administration in India. As a result, ChristianmissionarieswhocametoIndiastartedopeningschoolswhereEnglishwastaught.Youwillfindmanyschools in India even today who were opened during those times. One such school isPresentationConventinDelhi,whichisstillrunningandprovidinggoodeducation.ManyIndianssenttheirchildrentotheseschoolsastheythoughtitwouldhelpthemingettingjobsingovernmentoffices.Do you know that the teaching ofEnglishwas encouraged by theBritish rulers to suittheir own interest but it proved to be useful for the Indians in a different way. PeoplelivingindifferentpartsofIndiaspokedifferentlanguagesandtherewasnolanguagethatcould be understood by all. Use of English by Indians provided one language that cutacross the entire country and became a common link for them. English books andnewspapers brought to them new ideas from across the sea, i.e. other countries. Freshideasfromthewestlikefreedom,democracy,equalityandbrotherhoodbegantohaveitsimpact on the thinking of the English knowing Indians which gave rise to nationalconsciousness.TheeducatedIndiansnowthoughtofgettingfreedomfromBritishrule.

18.7EDUCATIONINPOST-INDEPENDENCEINDIA

As you know,we got independence fromBritish rule in 1947 and the responsibility ofplanning for theeduationofourpeople fellon the IndianGovernmentof free India.Toachievethegoalsofpersonal,economic,social,politicalandculturaldevelopment,itis

necessary tomake appropriate provisions for an integrated programmeof education forpeoplewho happen to be living at different levels of development, possessing differentlinguistic, social and cultural attributes. Such programmes have to be based upon acommon curriculum to strengthen unity within diversity and also to facilitate mobilityfromonepartofthecountrytoanotherIf adequate measures are not taken for the spread of education, economic inequality,regional imbalanceandsocial injusticecanwidenfurther resulting in thebuildingupoftensionsinsociety.Thatiswhyin1966,theReportoftheEducationCommission(1964-66) (popularly known as Kothari Commission) referred to education as the onlyinstrumentofpeacefulsocialchange.Tothisend,theConstitutionalAmendmentof1976includededucation in theconcurrent list, that is, thecentreandstatesbothassume jointresponsibilityofeducation.

18.7.1ElementaryEducation

Elementaryeducationisthemostcrucialstageofeducation,spanningthefirsteightyearsofschooling(classItoVIII)andlayingthefoundationforthedevelopmentofpersonality,attitudes,socialconfidence,habits,lifeskillsandcommunicationskillsofthepupils.TheConstitution under Article 45 provided for the State to introduce compulsory and freeeducationforchildrenuptotheageoffourteen.Theperiodofelementaryschool isnowalso recognised as a period of free and compulsory schooling vide the constitutionalamendmentmakingeducationafundamental right.Wewill readabout thisAct indetailunderSection18.9ofthislesson.TheNationalPolicyonEducation1986emphasizedthatthrustareasinelementaryeducationwillbei)universalaccessandenrolment.ii)universalretentionofchildrenuptofourteenyearsofageintheschool.iii)substantial improvement in thequalityofeducation toenableallchildren toachieveessentiallevelsoflearning.Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was a flagship programme of the Central Government foruniversalizationofelementaryeducationstartedin2001.

18.7.2SecondaryEducation

“Secondaryschool isaperiodof intensephysicalchangeandformationof identity. It isalsotheperiodofintensevibrancyandenergy.”There has been a phenomenal expansion of secondary education since independence. Itcoverschildrenofagegroup14-18(classes9thto12th).Accordingto2001census88.5million children are enrolled in secondary education. However enrolment figures showthatonly31millionofthesechildrenwereattendingschoolsin2001-2002.Whileagreatincreasehastakenplaceinnumberofschoolsandinenrolment,therehasbeenalesser

increase in the number of teachers. It is obvious that, on the whole it has adverselyaffected the teacher-pupil ratio.Thepressure for expansionwillmost certainly continueand may indeed increase as the country progresses towards the universalisation ofeducation.Although anyone in India who wishes to pursue secondary education (uptoclassX)isallowedtodoso,notmorethanhalfofthosewhopasstheupperprimarystagejoin the secondary classes. After the success of SSA at elementary stage, the centralgovernmentisallsettoachievethegoalofuniversalizationofsecondaryeducationundertheRashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, about which we will read in some detailunderSection18.9.VocationaleducationisadistinctstreamatSeniorSecondaryStage.Itaimsatpreparingstudentsforvariousoccupationsinvolvingvariouskindsofactivities.Vocationalisationofhigher secondary educationwas amajor objectiveof the reforms envisaged in theFirstEducationPolicyadopted in1968.However, theattemptsmade tillnowhavenotbornefruitsandenrolmentinthescheme,whichwasexpectedtoincludearound50%ofstudentsat the +2 level, has remainedmarginal and confined to a few states. According to theplanning commission report for the 11th five year plan, there are about 5114 IndustrialTraining Institutes (ITI’s) imparting training in 57 engineering and 50 non-engineeringtrades.ApositivestepinthisdirectioninrecenttimeshasbeenthesettingupofaNationalSkillDevelopmentMissionandTraining.

18.7.3HigherEducation

ThefirstPrimeMinisterofIndia,latePt.JawaharlalNehru,wholaidthefoundationoftheprocess of India’s modernisation, declared that if all is well with the Universities, allwouldbewellwith thenation.Highereducationbeginsafterastudentcompletesseniorsecondary(classXII)stage.Hethenentersacollegewhichispartofauniversity.Despitethekeyroleassignedtohighereducation,thedevelopmentinthisfieldhasbeenextremelyuneven. While few colleges and universities are playing a crucial role in academicexcellence,thegeneralconditionofuniversitiesandcollegesisamatterofgreatconcerntothenation.Thenumberofstudentsintheagegroupof18-20yearsenrolledforhighereducationislow.Theproportionisevenmoreadverseinsomeregions,particularlyincaseofwomen,scheduled castes and tribes. Rural areas have been touched only marginally by highereducationofquality.Thefacilitiesincollegesvarywidely.Itisimportantthatcoursesinhighereducationofferprogrammesofstudyandcoursescloselyrelatedto life,aimedatthedevelopmentofpersonality,reasoningandlearningcapabilitiesofstudents.TheStatehassubsidisedhighereducationverygreatly.Acollegestudentpaysbywayoffeesaverysmallamountofmoney.TherestoftheexpensesonhiseducationispaidbytheStateortheCentralGovernment.This is publicmoneywhichmust be carefully spent for thosewhodeservehighereducation.AsperreportofHigherEducationinIndia,thegrossenrolmentratioincreasedfrom0.7%

in 1950-51 to 11% by 2006-2007. By 2012 (the end of 11th plan), it is expected toincreaseto15%.

AdultEducation

Removalofadultilliteracyhasalsobeenacceptedasanimperativegoal,Adulteducationparticularly in the age group of 15-35 years has been included as part of theminimumneeds programme in the sixth plan. In this regard National Literacy Mission (NLM)objectiveistoimpartfunctionalliteracyto80millionilliteratepersons.Theliteracyrateafterindependencein1951of7+populationwas18.3%whichincreasedin2011to74.0percent.Themaleliteracyrateis82.14%andfemaleis65.46%.

18.7.4TechnicalandVocationalEducationTraining(TVET)

It is impossible tooverestimate the importanceof technicaleducation. Indiaalreadyhasoneofthelargestreserviorsoftrainedmanpower.Technicalandmanagementcurriculumwas targeted on current as well as the projected needs of industry. Technically trainedpersonshavealreadybeenasourceofstrengthforscientificandindustrialdevelopment.Itisoftensuggestedthattalentedengineeringstudentsarenotprovidedthekindofjobsandwork environmentwhichwould give thema sense of achievement and job satisfaction.Thishasresultedinasignificantincidenceofbraindraineithertothedevelopedcountriesor to the management stream.When brilliant young men and women, who are highlyeducatedand talented, leave thecountryandgo to a foreigncountry in searchofbetterincome, it is calledbraindrain.Thereare several centresof excellence in technical andprofessionaleducaiton in India like the Indian InstitutesofTechnology (IIT)and IndianInstitutesofManagement(IIM)

NationalEducationPolicy

Sinceindependence,theNationhasinvestedalargepartofitsresourcesineducation.It,therefore, has a right to expect the efficient functioning of educational institutions.Thefirst National Education Policy of 1968 marked a significant step in the history ofeducation inpost-independence India. It aimed topromotenationalprogress, a senseofcommoncitizenshipandculture,andtostrengthennationalintegration.Itlaidstressontheneedfora radical reconstructionof the education system, technology, the cultivationofmoralvaluesandacloserrelationbetweeneducationandthelifeofthepeople.The new National Policy of Education (1986), was formulated on the strength ofconsiderable achievements in the last fewyears. India alreadyhas extensivenetworkofschools.Approximately95%ofthepopulationiswithinonekilometreofaprimaryschooland80%iswithin threekilometresofamiddleschool. Inaccordancewith theNationalPolicy on Education (1986) a comprehensive programme ‘National Literacy Mission’(NLM)hasbeenstartedforimpartingliteracyamongstthe15-35agegroup.Indiahasalargenetworkoftelevisionandradiostations.Theavailabilityofasatelliteand

atelevisionnetworkcoveringamajorityofthepopulationispotentiallyoneofthemostsignificantfactors,whichcanundoubtedlyrevolutionisetheteaching-learningsystembyenriching formal education and by supporting non-formal education, as well as thedistancelearningprogramme.ThedecisiontosetuppacesettingNavodayaVidyalayasineverydistrictreflectsnotonlytheextentofcentralcommitmenttoeducationbutalsoitsconcernforequalityforall ineducation.Throughtheseschoolsthemostmeritoriouschildren,particularlyinruralareas,willbeabletogetqualityeducationirrespectiveoftheeconomicstatusoftheirparents.

OpenandDistanceLearningSystem

There are many learners who are compelled to discontinue their studies in the formalsystem. This may be because of financial, geographical, academic or medical reasons.OpenandDistanceLearning(ODL)systemismeantforsuchlearners.Inthissystemthelearner can learn through lessons sent by the institutions of distance learning withoutattending classes. These students can keep themselves engaged in service or businesswhilestudying.The learner is not in direct touchwith the teacher.He is at a distance.OpenSchool atpresentoffersbothsecondary(ClassX)andseniorsecondary(ClassXII)education.Youhave joinedOpenSchool.Youknowthatwhile retainingyour regularemployment,youarealsostudyingthroughthelessonssenttoyou.Theselessonshavebeenpreparedwithalotofcare.Thesystemisopenbecausethereisflexibilityintermsofpace,placeandtime.Youarefreetoselectanycombinationofsubjectsandpassthematyourconvenienceovera period of five years. Similar facility is being provided at higher level by the IndiraGandhiNationalOpenUniversity.TheseinstitutionswillgoalongwayintakingeducationtoeveryIndiancitizenwhomaynothavebeenabletocontinuewiththeregularstreamofeducation.Thus,educationhasdevelopedatarapidpaceinIndiasinceindependence.Thenationalgoalsofdevelopment,integration,excellenceandequalityinthesphereofeducationcanbefulfilledonlywhenevery child in the country crosses a minimum threshold of educational attainment. Aholisticatmosphereofdevelopment,hardworkandexcellencehastobebuiltupthroughaprogrammewhichinvolveseverybodyasapromoteraswellasarecipientofnewattitudesandideas.

18.8RECENTDEVELOPMENTSINEDUCATION

RighttoEducationAct

The86thConstitutionalamendment,makingeducationafundamentalrightwaspassedbyParliamentin2002.TheRightofChildrentoFreeandCompulsoryEducationAct,alawtoenable the implementationof the fundamental right,waspassedby theParliament inApril2010.Thelawmakesitobligatoryonpartofthestategovernmentsandlocalbodiestoensure

thateverychild in theagegroup6-14gets freeelementaryeducation ina school in theneighbourhood.Atpresent, therearenearly22crorechildren in the relevantagegroup.However,4.6percentofthesechildren(nearly92lakh)areoutofschool.Asper theAct, theschoolmangementcommitteeor the localauthoritywill identify thedrop-outs or out of school children above six years of age and admit them in classesappropriatetotheirageaftergivingspecialtraining.

RastriyaMadhyamikShikshaAbhiyan(RMSA)

RMSAisacentrallysponsoredschemeforUniversalisationofaccesstoandimprovementof quality education at Secondary stage was implemented during 11th five year planperiod.ThegoalofRMSAis tomakesecondaryeducationofgoodqualityavailable,accessibleandaffordabletoallyoungstudentsintheagegroup15-16years(classesIXandX).Themajor target of the scheme is (i) Universal access of Secondary level education to allstudentsintheagegroup15-16yearsby2015byprovidingasecondaryschoolwithin5kilometers of any habitation and a higher secondary schoolwithin 7 kilometers of anyhabitationand(ii)Universalretentionby2010.

StrategiesforimplementationofRMSA

(i)Toprovideaccessofsecondaryschooltostudents,followingstrategieshaveenvisagedintheRMSAframework.(a)upgradationofupperprimaryschoolsthroughconstructionofclassroomslaboratories, computer rooms, headmaster room, library rooms, separate toilets for girlsandboys,appointmentofadditionalteachersand(b) Strengthening of existing secondary schools through construction of classrooms,computer rooms, separate toilets for girls and boys, appointment of additional teachers,strengtheningoflabfacilitiesandrepairandrenovationofexistingschoolbuildings.(ii)Toremovedisparityamongthedifferentsocialgroupsofpeople,theschemeenvisagesthespecialincentiveforstudentsbelongingtoSC/ST/minorities/otherweakersectionsofthesociety.(iii)To improve thequalityofRMSAscheme ithasbeenproposed that followingworkshouldbecarriedout.a.Constructionofsciencelab,librariesb.Inservicetrainingofteachersc.Leadershiptrainingofschoolheadd.Curricularreforms

e.ScienceandMathseducationf.Computeraidededucaitong.Co-curricularactivitiesh.Teachinglearningaids

INTEXTQUESTIONS18.3

1.WhatwasBentinck’sResolutionof1835?_______________________________________________________________2.WhoadoptedEnglishastheofficiallanguageofthegovernment?_______________________________________________________________3.WhenwasIndianuniversitiesActpassed?_______________________________________________________________4.Wherewerethethreeuniversitiesestablishedin1857?_______________________________________________________________5.Whatwasthebasisofeducationunderthecolonialrule?_______________________________________________________________6.WhatwasthepositiveaspectofEnglisheducationinpre-independenceIndia?_______________________________________________________________7.Whendideducationcomeundertheconcurrentlistoftheconstitution?_______________________________________________________________8.WhenwasNewNationalPolicyonEducationformulated?_______________________________________________________________9.Whicharethethrustareasinelementaryeducation?_______________________________________________________________10.Whatistheimportanceofsecondaryeducation?_______________________________________________________________11.WhatisthealarmingsituationinHigherEducationstage?_______________________________________________________________

12.Whatistheagegroupforadulteducation?_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

In the Vedic period, education was imparted in the ‘ashramas’ which wereprimarilyaprivilegeofthesocalleduppercastes(varnas).

Education was also provided by the guilds which became centres of technicaleducationduringtheperiodBC200-AD300.

BuddhistmonasteriesandtheJainsystemofeducationplayedasignificantroleinmakingIndiaaleadinglearningcentreintheworld.

After the establishment of theDelhi Sultanate, theMuslim systemof educationwasintroducedwhichwasanelaboratesystemencompassingbothelementaryandhigherlearning.

TheintroductionofWesterneducationbroughtsomeradicalchangesintermsofproviding education to all sections of society including the so called“untouchables”.

TheNationalPolicyofEducation1986,markedasignificantstepinthehistoryofeducationinindependentIndia.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.BrieflydescribethedevelopmentofeducationintheAncientperiod?2. Discuss the steps undertaken in the field of educationwith the establishment of theDelhiSultanateinmedievalIndia?3.WhatwerethechangesintroducedinthesystemofeducationduringMughals?4.Elaboratethedevelopmentofeducationfrom1854to1904.5.DiscussthemeasuretakeninindependentIndiatoeradicateilliteracy?

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

18.11.Thesystemofeducationchangesalongwiththechangeinculture.2.Theprocessoflearningbeginswithasacredthreadceremony.

3.IntheAshramas.4.Vayu,Kaf,Pitt(Air,Mucus,bile)5.AdipuranaandYashatilaka6.(a)Educationwasapriviledgeofupperclasssociety.(b)UseofSanskritlanguageineducation18.21.Makhtabs2.Kings(therulers)andnobles3.Muizzi,Nasiri,Firuzi-inDelhiMohammedGawani’sMadarsa-BidarAbdulFazl’smadarsa-FatehpurSikri4.Itwastraditionalinspiritandtheologicalincontent.5.Itinvolvedinquiry,observation,investigationandexperimentineducation.6.Heintroducedsecularandscientificsystemineducation.18.31.TopromoteEuropeanliteratureandsciences.2.WilliamBentinck3.19044.Bombay,Madras,Calcutta5.Tocreateaneducatedurbanelitethatwouldactasinterpreterbetweentherulerandtheruled.6. A new class of social reformers and educated political leaders were produced thathelpedinthefreedomstruggleofthecountry.7.BytheConstitutionalAmendmentof1976.8.In1986.9.(a)Universalaccessandenrolment(b)Universalretentionofchildrenupto14yearsofage.(c)Substantial improvement in thequalityofeducationtoenableallchildrentoachieveessentiallevelsoflearning.

10.Itmakeschildrenfamiliarwiththebasicbranchesofknowledge.11. (a) The number of students in the age group of 18-20 years enrolled for highereducationislow.(b)Theproportionofwomen,scheduledcastesandtribesinhighereducationisworse.12.15-35years

MODULE8.SOCIALSTRUCTURE

19.INDIANSOCIALSTRUCTUREWehavebeendiscussingaboutthediversityinIndianculture,thevariouskindsofpeopleinhabitingthiscountryandtheirdiversecustomsandtraditions.Perhapsmorethaninanyother part of theworld, India is a countrywhere people havecome to acquiremultipleidentitiesbasedon region (e.g.North India,NorthEast India,DeccanandSouth India),language (e.g. Hindi, Tamil, and Telugu), religion (e.g. Hindu, Muslim, Christian,Buddhist, Jain, andSikh), etc.Each set of these andother identitiescorresponding to adistinctsetofsocial relations, i.e.,adistinctsocialstructure.However, thereare threadswhich bind many of them together. Therefore understanding Indian social structure isnecessarybecauseitexplainsourrelationswitheachotherinsociety.Ittellsuswhatkindofsocialinstitutionsexistinsocietyandhowtheygotmodifiedoveraperiodoftime. Inthis lessonyouwill readabout theevolutionof Indiansociety through theagesand theshapeittookwhenwereadaboutittoday.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

examinethestructureofIndiansociety;describe the practice of untouchability which became prevalent in the Indian

socialsystem;giveanaccountoftheinstitutionofslaveryasitexistedinIndia;understandPurushartha,AshramaandSamskara;describethe‘jajmani’system;assesstheroleoffamilyandmarriageinIndianSocialSystem;

assessthepositionofwomenintheIndiansocialstructure;andexaminetheconditionoftribalsinIndia.

19.1STRUCTUREOFINDIANSOCIETY

Tribe is one of the earliest identifiable ethenic cum social organizations.A fairly goodnumber of tribes such asMunda,Ho,Oraon,Bhil,Gaddi, Santhal,Kol,Kandh,Khasi,Garo,Mizo,NagaexistindifferentpartsofIndia.ThesehavebeenclubbedtogetherinagroupinascheduleoftheConstitutionofIndiaandareknownastheScheduledTribes.Thepertinentquestionhereis:Whoisatribal,andwhatdifferentiatesatribefromothergroups based on caste or varna? The answer to this lies in the functioning of theinstitution.Wecanidentifyatribebythefollowingfeatures:(i)Allmembersarerelatedtoeachotherbyblood(ii)Allmembersareequalinstatus(iii)Allmembersbelievethattheyhave descended from a common ancestor (iv) All members have equal access to theresources(v)Thesenseofprivatepropertyisleastvisible(vi)Socialdifferentiationexistsonlyonthebasisofageandsex.Tribesareveryoftenmadeupofmorethanoneclan.Aclanisanexogamousinstitutionwhereasatribeisendogamous.Such tribes existed during the Vedic period. The Bharatas, Yadus, Turvasas, Druhyus,PurusandAnusweresomeoftheprominentTribes.TheheadoftheTribewasknownasRajaorKingwhowasfirstamongtheequals.Themajordifferentiationexistedbetweenpeopleonthebasisof‘varna’orcolour.Thus,thepeoplewhodidnotbelongtothevedictribeswere termed as dasa varna. They are said to have had an alien language, a darkcomplexionandworshipeddifferentgods.Thisinitialdifferentiationlaterdevelopedintoacomplex‘varnasystem’,whichinplaceoftheTribehaddividedsocietyintoBrahmana,Kshatriya,VaishyaandShudracategories.Thesecategoriesemergedprincipallybecauseoffrequentinter-tribalandintra-tribalwars,subjugation of the vanquished, appropriation of loot by the war-leaders, and unequaldistributionofwealth.ThemembersoftheBrahman‘varna’usuallyfunctionedaspriests.TheKshatriyaswereassociated with the political functions, the Vaishyas were mostly agriculturists and theShudraswere the servile class.The first two ‘varnas’ exploited themost numerous andproductiveVaishyavarna,whereas the three inunisionexploited theShudras.The threehigher ‘varnas’were also entitled to the sacred (upanayana) thread ceremony andwereknownas‘dvijas’(twice-born).Many changes took place in the economy during the post-vedic period. These changesneedednewideologicalsupportwhichcameintheformofnumerousunorthodoxreligiousmovements such asBuddhismwhich ridiculed theHindu social system.ButBuddhismcouldnotnegatethecastesystemcompletely.TheKshatriyaswereconsideredthehighest‘varna’inthesocialhierarchyasseenbytheBuddhists.TheVaishyaswhowereexploited

underBrahmanismbecamemembersofthesereligionsinlargenumbersinordertogainrespectability. However, there was no caste hierarchy within the Buddhist and Jainmonasticcommunities.‘Varna/Jati’ system underwent further changes when new groups such as the Shakas,Kushanas, Parthians and Indo-Greeks people arrived in India. The economy was alsoundergoing changes.Growth of urbanisation, craft production, and trade resulted in therise of guilds or ‘shreni’ which in later times became castes. The behaviour of guildmemberswascontrolledthroughaguildcourt.Customarilytheguild(shreni-dharma)hadthe power of law. These guilds could act as bankers, financiers and trustees as well.Generally,thesefunctionswerecarriedoutbyadifferentcategoryofmerchantsknownasthe‘shreshthins’(presentdaySethsofNorthIndiaandtheChettisandChettiyarsofSouthIndia).Thus,theperiodbetween500BCand500ADsawthecrystallisationofthecastesystem.Thenumberofcastes increasedmanifoldbecauseof thegrowthofanumberofcrafts, arrival of new elements in the population, inter-caste marriages (anuloma andpratiloma)andinclusionofmanyTribesintocastehierarchy.TheDharmashastrasandtheSmritistriedto fix thedutiesofeachcaste.Therelationsbetweencastesweregenerallygovernedbytherulesofendogamy,commensualityandcraft-exclusiveness.Between the fifth and seventh centuries further changes occurred in the varna/casteorganisation.AcreationoflandlordsthroughlandgrantsresultedinthetransformationofVaishyas into servile peasants. Large numbers of tribal cultivators were enrolled asShudras.ConsequentlytheShudrasnowemergedasfarmersliketheVaishyas.Now,theVaishyasandShudraswere lumped together.However, in regions other than theGangabasin, thecaste system took a different shape. InBengal, South India and other borderareas mainly two castes emerged i.e. the Brahmanas and the Shudras. The RajputsemergedasasignificantfactorinthesocietyofNorthernIndiafromtheseventhcenturyonwards.Inthisperiodcastesystembecamesoentrenchedinthepsycheofthepeoplethateven theplantsweredividedon thebasisof thevarna/castesystem.One textprescribesvaryingsizesofhousesaccordingtothevarnas.An important development duringmedieval times, particularly in South India, was thedivisionoftheShudrasinto‘pure’(sat)and‘impure’(asat)categories.Alsotypicalofthesouth were the so called ‘left-hand’ (idangai) and ‘right-hand’ (velangai) castes. Manunoted 61 castes whereas a later text counted hundreds of mixed castes (varnasankara).OtherthantheRajputs,anothercastethatdevelopedduringthisperiodwastheKayastha.TheKayasthasweretraditionallyscribeswhogottransformedintoaseparatecasteasalltypesofscribesgotclubbedtogethertoformoneendogamousgroup.Veryoftenalargenumber of these castes claim origin from highly respected ancestors and explain theircurrentlowerstatusintermsofeconomicorotherfactors.TheKhatris,animportantcasteinNorthernIndia,claimthattheywereofKshatriyaorigin,buttooktocommerce,whichbrought them thecontemptof theircaste fellowsand theyhad toacceptVaishyastatus.TheGurjaras,JatsandAhirsallclaimKshatriyaorigin,thestatustheycametoloselater

for various reasons. This process of claiming high caste origin continued till the 1950swhen the Constitution of India provided for reservations for lower castes in mostgovernmentjobs.The caste system has its regional variations. The formation of regions and regionalconsciousnessaftertheeighthcenturyADcontributedtothisvariation.TheNorthIndianBrahmanas are divided not only on the basis of gotra but also on the basis of theirresidence.ThuswehaveKanyakubja,SarayuparierandMaithilabrahmanasbelongingtoKanauj,SarayuriverandMithilarespectively.AlargenumberofRajputsub-castescarrytheirearlier tribal names such as,Tomaras,Kacchavahas,Hadas andChauhanas.Thesesub-castesalsoacquiredgotrasforthemselves.Thusthenumberofcastesandsub-castesaswellasthatofthegotraskeptincreasinginmedievaltimes.TheMarathasalsobecameacaste.In modern times the caste system acquired some new features. Thus, the idea of‘surnames’ was also added. One particular caste or sub-caste came to acquire one,sometimesmore,‘surnames’.However,amplevariationisfoundinthismatter.Casteandanti-castemovementsofthemodernperiodresultedintheformationoffurthernewcastes.ThustheBrahma-samajisacquiredstatuswhichisverysimilartoacaste.The caste system, as can be seen from the above description, has a complex workingmethod.Substantialregionalvariationisfoundandhenceithasbeenimpossibletodefineitinaprecisemannerregion,sub-region,economicstatus,nearnesstopoliticalauthority,craft,vocation, followingaparticulardeityallhavecometoplayarole in its formationandsubsequentchanges.TheinfluenceofcastesystemhasbeensogreatthateventhoughtheegalitarianreligiousreformersofthemedievalperiodsuchasBasava,RamanandandKabir, tried to abolish caste among their followers, their sects soon took on thecharacteristics of new castes. The Sikhs, could not overcome caste feelings. Even theMuslimsformedcastegroups.SyrianChristiansofKerala, earlier divided into sections,tookonacastecharacter.TheChristianconvertsbroughttheircasteprejudiceswiththemandhighcasteconvertsconsiderthemselvesalooffromthoseofthelowerorders.

INTEXTQUEST1ONS19.1

1.Whichistheearliestidentifiablesocialorganisation?_______________________________________________________________2.NameanytwoTribeswhichexistedduringtheVedicperiod._______________________________________________________________

3.Whatisthemeaningof‘dvijas’?_______________________________________________________________4. Who were the people whose arrival in India brought a lot of changes in the castesystem?_______________________________________________________________5.WhenweretheShudrasdividedintopureandimpure?_______________________________________________________________

19.2UNTOUCHABILITY

TheconceptofpurityandpollutioninIndiansocietyisbestreflectedintheformationofacategoryknownasuntouchables (antyajas).Thesepeoplewere considered asbelongingoutside theBrahmanicalsociety.Thisnotionofuntouchability tookrootsduring the lastphaseoftheVedicperiodandbecameaseparatesocialcategoryintheageoftheBuddha.Sometimestheywerecalledthefifthvarna(panchamd).Chandalaisthetermusedlooselyformanytypesofuntouchables.Theywerenotallowedtoresideinthecastevillagesandhadtostayinspecialquartersoutsidethemainsettlements.Theirmaintaskwastocarryandcrematethecorpses.Thelaw-bookshaveprescribedthattheyshouldbedressedinthegarmentsof thecorpses theycremated, shouldeat food frombrokenvesselsandshouldwearonly ironornaments.By theGuptaperiod their status fell somuch that theywereforcedtofurtherstrikeawoodenclapperonenteringatown.Thehunters(nishada),fishermen (kaivartas) leather workers (charmakaras), sweepers (kukkusa), and basketmakers(vend)allbecameuntouchables.‘Dom’and‘Domb’wasatribewhichbecameanuntouchable category after coming into contact with the caste divided groups.We alsohear of domb kings apart from many Shudra Kings. Mlechchas were also considereduntouchables.Thisuntouchabilityhascontinuedtillrecenttimes.Althoughthepracticeofuntouchabilityisconsideredacrimebutinruralareasitstillcontinues.MahatmaGandhiinitiated a campaign against this practice. He preferred to call them harijans. TheGovernment of India has enacted many laws against anyone practising or promotinguntouchability. Education and social movements has contributed towards bridging thelarge gulf between them and the others. It is hoped that this very inhuman practise iswipedoutsoon.

19.3SLAVERY

Slaveryas it existed in Indiawasdifferentboth in formandessence, from theclassicalGreekandRomanslavery.ThatiswhyMegasthenescouldnotfindslavesinIndia.Andhewascertainlywronginhisjudgement.Slaverywasanestablishedinstitutionandthelegalrelationshipbetween theownerand slavewasclearlydefined.Forexample, if a femaleslaveborehermasterason,notonlywasshelegallyfreebutthechildwasentitledtothe

legalstatusofthemaster’sson.The‘Arthashastra’statesthatamancouldbeaslavebybirth,byvoluntarilysellinghimself,bybeingcapturedinwar,orasaresultofajudicialpunishment.Thesanskritwordforslaveis‘dasa’whichinitiallymeantamemberofthepeoplecapturedbymigratingAryanhordes.Manysuch‘dasas’werereducedtobondage.InIndia,theslavesweregenerallyemployedasdomesticservantsandpersonalattendants.Theslavewas,infact,asubordinatememberofhismaster’shousehold.Themastershadnorightsoverthelivesoftheirslaves.Therewerenoslavemarketsintheearlyperiods,howeverintheearlycenturiesoftheChristianera,therewastradeinslave-girlsbetweenIndia and the Roman empire in both directions, and slave markets existed in the 16thcenturyVijayanagaraempire.TheSultansofDelhikeptalargenumberofslaves(Bandagans).However,theirsituationwasquitedifferent.OneoftheslavesnamedMalikKafurbecamethecommander-in-chiefofAlauddinKhilji. In the sixteenthcentury thePortuguese indulged in slave tradeonalarge scale. Linschoten has given harrowing accounts of the slave trade atGoa saying,“theydriveslavesaswedohorseshere”.AlargenumberofslaveswereusedinKhalisa(crownland)landandinkarakhanas(workshops).ThiskindofslaverycontinuedduringBritish domination and was attacked by Lord Cornwallis in a proclamation. The slavetradeisnowcompletelyprohibited.

19.4PURUSHARTHA,ASHRAMAANDSAMSKARA

Thethreeconceptsof‘purusharth’,‘ashrama’,and‘samskara’areinterlinked.‘Purushartha’meansaimsof lifewhich isdivided into four ‘ashramas’or stagesof life.For each of the ‘ashramas’ there are prescribed ‘samskaras’ or rites that need to beperformed.Weoftenhearof‘varnashrama’–‘dharma’i.e.,thedharmaofvarnaandstagesoflife.There-arefouraimsoflife‘dharma’(rightconduct),‘artha’(pursuitsthroughwhichlivelihoodisearned),‘kama’(worldlydesires)and‘moksha’(salvation).Toenableapersontopractisethefour‘purusharthas’,thelifeofapersonisdividedintofour‘ashrama’orstages.Detailedrulesofconducttobeobservedineach‘ashrama’isalsolaiddown.Thefour‘ashramas’arelikethefourstepsofaladder.The first ‘ashrama’ is known as ‘brahmacharya’, which a person enters after the‘upanayanasanskara’orthesacredthreadceremony.Duringtheperiodofthis‘ashrama’hereceiveseducationandlearnstodisciplinehiswillandemotions.Hehastolivewiththeguruathis‘ashrama’intheforestandlearntoobeyandservehim.Hebegsalmsforhimself and his teacher and does odd jobs like fetchingwater and cleaning around the‘ashrama’.Hepractises the idealsofplain livingandhigh thinking.Evenaroyalprinceperformedalltheseduties.The‘brahmacharya’stagethuspreparedtheindividualto takeontheresponsibilitiesofahouseholder.The‘grihasthaashrama’isthemostimportantstageinaperson’slife.Inthisstagehe

practisesarthaandkamainaccordancewiththedharma.Hegetsmarried,begetschildrenand earns livelihood to support his family and discharge his obligations towards thesociety.After discharging all the duties of a householder, he enters the ‘vanaprastha ashrama’.During this stage he leaves the family and retires to the forest, where he practisesdetachment from all worldly pursuits and interests. He had to live only on fruits andvegetablesandwearclothesmadeofdeer-skinorbarksofatree.Hepracticesmeditationandausteritiesaswell,andifhediesinthisstageheattainsmoskha,Otherwise,heentersthe ‘sanyasa ashrama’ inwhich he practises complete renunciation. Breaking all bondswiththesociety,heliveslikeanasceticstrivingconstantlyfortheattainmentmoksha.This scheme represents the ideal and not the real situation. Most men never passedthrough the first stageof life in the form laiddown,whileonlya fewwentbeyond thesecond,Thiscould also be an attempt to find room for the conflicting claims of study,familylife,andasceticisminasingle life time. It isalsopossible that thesystemof theashramas was evolved partly to counter the unorthodox sects such as Buddhism andJainism which encouraged young men to take up asceticism and by-pass family lifealtogether,apracticewhichdidnotreceivetheapprovaloftheorthodox,thoughinlatertimesprovisionwasmadeforit.According to the scheme, the four stagesof lifebegannotwithphysicalbirth,butwithsacredthreadceremony.Thusthechildcouldbecomethefullmemberofthesocietyonlyafter investiture with the scared thread. This was one of the important ceremonies or‘samskara’atallthestagesoflifeofamanfromhisconceptiontodeath.Therearesomefortysuch‘samskaras’.Someimportantonesare:‘garbhadana’(conception),‘pumsavana’(male child), ‘simantonnayana’ (safety), ‘jatakarma’ (birth ceremony) ‘nishkramana’(showing the sun) ‘annaprashana’ (first feeding of solid food), ‘chudakarma’ (tonsure)‘upanayana’(investiturewithsacredthread),‘samavartana’(endofthefirststage)‘vivaha;(marriage), ‘antyesti’ (the last rites)etc.All these‘sanskarasareprescribedfor the threeupper varnas and not for the shudras and untouchables. In facteven thewomen of thehighervarnaswerenotentitledtoalargenumberofthe‘sanskaras’.

19.5JAJMANISYSTEM

Animportantinstitutionthatdevelopedduringtheearlymedievalperiodandcontinuedtillmodern times in the rural society was the ‘Jajmani System’. It was a complementaryrelationshipbetweenthegroupsofdominantpeasantcastesontheonehandandserviceandartisancastesontheother. In thissystemtheservicecastesrenderedservices to theland-owningpeasantcastesaswellastothehighanddominantcastesandwereentitledtotraditionallyfixedsharesoftheproduceandinsomecasestoasmallplotofland.Thus,theleather-workers,thebarbers,thepriests,thegarlandmakers,theploughmen,andvarioustypesofsmithsworkedforthehighcastesordominantlandowninggroupsandwerepaidinkindoncertainoccasionsorintheformofalandallotment.However,suchservice

castes always retained some freedom to sell their goods and services. This system ofservice-relationshipisnowbreakingupundertheinfluenceofmonetisation,urbanisationand industrialisation. During medieval period this system of relationships acted as asafeguardin timesofdistressandcalamities.Thus, itwasnoted thatduringfamines theartisanswhowere not tied into the Jajmani systemwere harder hit than even the ruralpoor.

INTEXTQUESTIONS19.2

Fillintheblanks1.__________arecalledthefifthVarna(Panchana).2.MahatmaGandhiinitiatedacampaignagainstthepracticeofuntouchabilityandcalledthem________________.3.__________couldnotfindslavesinIndiathoughslaveryexistedinadifferentform.4. “A man could be a slave either by birth, by voluntarily selling himself, by beingcapturedinwar,orasaresultofajudicialpunishment”isstatedby__________________5.‘Purushartha’(aimsoflife)isdividedintofour_________________.6.Whatisthereasonbehindthebreakingupofthe‘Jajmani’system?_______________________________________________________________

19.6FAMILY

ThetraditionalIndianfamilyisalargekinshipgroupcommonlydescribedasjointfamily.Ajoint family isone inwhich twoormoregenerations liveunderone roofordifferentroofshavingacommonhearth.Allthemembersowntheimmovablepropertyofthelineincommon.This family isgenerallypatriarchalandpatrilineal, that is, the fatheror theoldestmalemember is the head of the house and administrator of the property and theheadshipdescendsin themale line.Inmoderntownsa largenumberofnuclearfamiliesexistwhichconsistofwife,husbandand thechildren.Suchfamiliesarealsopartiarchalandpatrilineal.But there aremany regionswhere families arematrilineal inwhich theheadship descends in the female line such as in Kerala and the northeastern region ofNagalandandMeghalaya.Whateverbethenatureofthefamilyitistheprimaryunitofthesociety.Themembersofthe family are bound together by ‘shraddha’, the rite of commemorating the ancestors.‘Shraddha’ defined the family; those who were entitled to participate in the ceremonywere ‘sapindas’,members of the family group. The bond between themembers of thefamilygaveasenseofsocialsecuritytoitsmembers.Indistressamancouldrelyonthe

other members of the extended family. At the time of festivals and marriages, theresponsibilitiesweresharedreinforcingthefamilybond.Traditionally thefamily inIndia isgovernedbytwoschoolsofsacredlawandcustoms.Thesearebasedon ‘Mitakshara’ and ‘Dayabhaga’.Most familiesofBengal andAssamfollow the rules of ‘Dayabhaga’while the rest of India generally follows ‘Mitakshara’.Thesacredlawmadeprovisionsforthebreak-upoftheverylargeandunmanageablejointfamilies. Such break-ups took place on the death of the patriarch. The joint familypropertydidnotincludeindividualpropertiesofthemembersatleastfrommedievaltimesonwardsandhencesuchpropertiescouldnotbedivided.Inthepost-independenceperiodthe Constitution provided that each religious community would be governed by theirreligiouspersonallawsinmartersofmarriage,divorce,inheritance,successionadoption,guardianship,custodyofchildrenandmaintenance.Thus,theHindu,Buddhist,SikhandJaincommunitiesaregovernedbythecodifiedHinduActsof1955-56.TheMuslimandChristianandParsifamilieshavetheirownsetofpersonallawsbasedonreligion.

19.7MARRIAGE

Families are the result of a very important ‘samskara’ ceremony known as marriage.Depending on its nature, marriage is of many kinds such as hypergamous (man of socalledhighcasteandwomanoflowcaste)oranulomaandhypogamous(manoflowcasteandwomanofhighcaste)orpratilomabasedonanalliancebetweendifferentvarna/caste;monogamous,polygamousandpolyandrousbasedonthenumberofspouses.ExamplesofallkindsofmarriagescanbefoundintheIndiansociety.Traditionallyspeaking,marriageswerearrangedbytheparentsofthecouplewhousuallybelongtothesamecaste,butofdifferent‘gotras’(personshavingcommonancestor)and‘pravaras’(prohibiteddegree),iftheywereof‘dvija’category‘Gotra’and‘pravara’didnotexistforthelowervarna/castecategories. However a large number of communities have acquired ‘gotras’ forthemselves. ‘Pravara’ relates to the “rules of prohibited degrees” which are very strictwheremarriage is forbidden between persons with a common paternal ancestor withinsevengenerationoramaternalancestorwithinfive.InthesouthernpartofIndia,however,thisrulebasneverbeenfollowedandtherearerecordsofmarriagebetweencousinsandcross-cousinmarriagewhichareconsideredlegalandsociallyapproved.ExemptionsareprovidedforthesegroupsintheHinduMarriageActof1955.Commonlymonogamousmarriagesinwhichonepersonismarriedtoonlyonepersonatatime, is followedbut traditionally polygamywas not prohibited.The rich andpowerfulcouldhave, andoftenhadmore thanonewife.Polygamywasgenerally, followed for avariety of reasons. In ancient time the kings needed to forge alliances with powerfulpeopleandmarriagewasaconvenientmethod.MarriagesofChandraguptaandAkbarareof thisnature.The religious ideabehindhavinga sonalsobecomesa reason for takingmanywives.However,underthemodernlawspolygamyhasbeenrenderedillegal.OnlyMuslimscanmarryfourtimesthattoowithsomepreconditions.

TheBrahmanicalSacredLawconsideredamarriageindissolubleoncethesevensteps(i.e.sevenphera)hadbeentakentogether.Thismeansthattherewasnoplacefordivorce.The‘Arthashastra’ however, shows that in certain cases divorcewas allowed. In later timessuch provisions were forgotten. Among many lower castes, however, divorce is stillpermitted. In modern times, mutual consent, incompatibility, desertion, cruelty areconsideredvalidreasonsforgettingadivorceonbothsides.We all know about the case ofDraupadimarrying five Pandava brothers. This kind ofmarriageisknownaspolyandrousmarriage.Thereareanumberofcommunitiesinwhichthistypeofmarriageisconsideredavalidandpreferredtypeofmarriage.Generallythewomanmarriesbrothersandrarelymenofdifferentparentageinsuchcommunities.Suchmarriagesareconsideredanti-socialby theupper-varna/castepeopleof theplainsbut inthe societies where such marriages are solemnized having more than one husband isconsideredamatterofprideandnotofshame.

19.8WOMEN

ThehistoryofwomeninIndiaisthestoryofprogressivedecline.DuringtheVedicperiodevenunderpatriarchywomenparticipatedinalltheaffairsoftheTribebarringwars.Theywerecomposersofhymns,theycouldmarrythemenoftheirchoiceatamatureage.Inthepost-vedicphasewiththebreak-upoftribalinstitutionstheirpositiondeteriorated.Theearly lawbooks reduced the women to the status of a ‘Shudra’. Except some personalproperty(‘stridhana’)theywerenotentitledtoanyproperty.EvenVedicknowledgewasclosedtowomen.Atthistimetheheterodoxsectsgavethemsomeplaceofrespect.TheTantricsectsoftheearlymedievalperiodgavewomananimportantplaceintheircultandinstitutedordersoffemaleascetics.In general throughout the early historical and earlymedieval periods women were notencouragedtotakeupanyintellectualactivity.Theirtruefunctionwasmarriageandtakincareof their families.Womenbelonging toupper castes received someeducationandafew of them are mentioned as poets and dramatists. The chief female characters inSanskrit dramas are often described as reading, writing and composing songs. In themedievalperiodandtillveryrecenttimesmusicanddancingwerelookedonasunfitforhighcastewomenandwerepractisedonlybylow-castewomenandprostitutes.Butitwasnotthecase inearlyperiods.Barring theRig-Vedicperiodwomenseemtooccupyverylowstatus in society.Marriageat anearlyagebecamesanctified. ‘SatiSystem’becamequitecommon.However,IbnBattutah,aforeigntraveller,mentionsthat in themedievalperiod,permissionfromtheSultanhadtobetakenfortheperformanceof‘sati’.Widowremarriagewasnotpermissiblebut right topropertyof thewidows incertaincaseswasrecognised.In themedieval period, the practice of keeping a veil on the faces forwomen becamewidespreadamongtheupperclasswomen.TheArabsandtheTurksadoptedthiscustomfrom the Iranians and brought it to India with them. Because of them, it became awidespread

practice in north India.A careful look at the treatment towomen shows that itwas theresult of a process set inmotion in the Vedic period itself. In themedieval period thesystemofveilbecameasymbolofthehigherclassesinsocietyandallthosewhowantedto be considered respectable tried to copy it. It was less prevalent among lower castewomen.With thedeclineof theMughal supremacyandexpansionofcolonial structure in India,theinfluenceofmodern ideasset inmotionaprocessofchange inadifferentdirection.Under the influence of modern education, a set of social reformers campaigned forlegislationwhichwould uplift the status ofwomen in society.With the efforts of RamMohanRoy,RadhakantaDeb,BhawaniCharanBanerji thepracticeof‘sati’wasbannedin1829. In1895,killingof female infantswasdeclaredamurder. In independent Indiathrough theHinduMarriageActof1955set theminimumage limit for thebridegroomwas fixed ateighteen years and for the bride at fifteen. In 1856, through the efforts ofIshwarChandraVidyasagarthefirstwidowremarriagetookplace.PanditVishnuShastrifounded Widow Marriage Association in 1860. All their efforts have resulted in aconsiderable upliftment of women. Recently the Supreme Court of India has furtherrecognisedthedaughter’sshareinherfather’sproperty.Theconditionofwomenisgoingtoimproveinfuturewithgrowingawarenessinsocietyaswellasthroughlegislation.

INTEXTQUESTIONS19.3

1.Whatisthebasisof‘anuloma’and‘pratiloma’marriages?_______________________________________________________________2.Whatismonogamousmarriage?_______________________________________________________________3.NamethetwoschoolsofsacredlawandcustomwhichgovernthetraditionalfamilyinIndia._______________________________________________________________4.WhatwasthepersonalpropertyofwomencalledinancientIndiaexceptwhichtheydidnothaveanyotherrighttoproperty?_______________________________________________________________

19.9TRIBALCOMMUNITIESOFINDIA

Tribe is a modern term for communities that are very old, being among the oldestinhabitantsofthesubcontinent.Ingeneraltribalpopulationisexpectedtopossesssomeofthefollowingcharacteristics:

1.Tribeshavetheirrootsinthesoildatingbacktoaveryearlyperiod.2.Theyliveinrelativeisolationinthehillsandforests.3.Theirsocio,economicandeducationaldevelopmentneedtobegivenpriority.4. In termsof theirculturalethos (language, institutions,beliefs andcustoms), their lifestyleisverydifferentfromtheothersectionofsociety.TribesareindigenouspeoplewhoaretermedastheFourthWorld.Thesepeoplesarethedescendents from a country’s aboriginal population and today they are completely orpartly deprived of the rights to their own territory. Indigenous peoples are strikinglydifferentanddiverseintheirculture,religion,socialandeconomicorganisations.Theyarestillbeingexploitedbytheoutsideworld.Bysometheyareidealizedastheembodimentofspiritualvalues, byothers they aredesignated as anobstacle impedingeconomciprogress.Theycherish their own distinct cultures. They are victims of past colonialism. Some liveaccordingtotheirtraditions,somereceivewelfare,someworkinfactories,someinotherprofessions.They havemaintained a close living relationship to the land inwhich theyliveandthereexistsacooperativeattitudeofgiveandtake,arespectfortheearthandlifeitsupports.In India, tribes are generally called adivasis, implying original inhabitants. The ancinetandmedievalIndianliteraturementionalargenumberoftribeslivinginIndia.Beforetheintroduction of the caste system during the Brahminic Age, people were divided intovarioustribes.Government of India has specified 427 communities and has included them in thescheduleoftribes.Thesetribesareknownasscheduledtribes.TheyareentitledtospecialprotectionandprivilegesundertheconstitutionofIndia.Numerically, the threemost important tribes are theGonds, theBhils and the Santhalseachhavingapopulationofmorethan30lakh.NexttothemaretheMinas,theMundas,theorgonseachhavingapopulationofmore than5 lakh.Then thereare42 tribeseachhavingapopulationbetweenoneandfivelakh.The tribal people of India,who comeunder the categoryofScheduledTribes (ST’s) intermsof the provisions of the constitutionof India, number 8.43 crore, constituting8.2percentofthepopulationofthecountryaccordingto2001census.Fromthepointofviewofdistributionanddiversityofthetribalpopulation,Indiacanbedividedintosevenzones.

1.NorthZone

This zone covers Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, sub-Himalayan Uttar Pradesh, Bihar. Theprominent tribes here are Khasa, Tharu, Bhoksa, Bhotias, Gujjars and the Jaunsaris.Khasasareapolyandroustribe.BhotiasmakecarpetsandareinvolvedintheIndo-chinaborder

trade.TheGujjarsareapastoral tribe.Themajorproblemsofthetribesofthiszoneareinaccessibilty,lackofcommunication,poverty,illiteracyandlandalienation.

2.North-EasternZone

Thiszoneincludessevennorth-easternstates,andthemajortribalgroupshereareNagas,Khasi,Garo,Mishing,Miri,Karbi and theApatauis.Ecological degradationbecause ofshifting cultivation and inaccessibility due to lack of communication facilities are twomajorproblemsof these tribes.Because of a highdegree of isolation, the tribes of thissectorhavenotreallysharedhistorywiththemainstreamIndiansandhaveinsteadsharedhistorywith the neighbouring communities. This explains why there is an element ofhostilityofthesetribeswiththemainstream.

3.CentralZone

This zone has maximum concentration of tribal population. It stretches from southernMadhyaPradeshtoSouthBiharacrossnorthernOrissa.ThemajortribeslyinginthiszonearetheSanthals,HO,Baiga,Abhujanaria,Muria,MundaandBirhor.Themajorproblemsfacedby the tribesof this regionare landalienation, indebtedness.Among the tribesofthisregion,theSanthalshavediscoveredascriptoftheirown,calledolechiki.Baigasareaprominentshiftingcultivationtribe.Birhorsareaverybackwardtribeofthisregionandbecauseofextremebackwardnessandnosecuremeansoflivelihood,theyarethreatenedwithextinction.

4.SouthernZone

This zone comprises the Nilgiris together with the adjoining hilly regions in AndhraPradeshandKarnataka.Itisthesmallest,themostbackwardandthemostisolatedtribalcommunitiesonthemainland.TribesofthisregionareToda,Koya,ChenchuandAllars.Todasareapastoralpeoplewhopractisebuffaloherding.Allarsarecavedwellers,whoalsoliveontreetops.Chencusareaverybackwardtribewhosurvivemainlyonhuntinggathering. The major problem of these tribes are shifting cultivation, economicbackwardness,isolation,lackofcommunicationandthreatofextinctionoflanguages.

5.EasternZone

This zone includes West Bengal, Orissa and tribes such as Paraja, Kondhas, Bondas,Bhumiya,Gadabas,BhuinyasandSqoras.Themajorproblemsof the tribesof thiszoneare economic backwardness, exploitation by forest officials and contractors, landalienation,prevalenceofdiseaseanddisplacementduetoindustrialprojects.

6.WesternZone

RajasthanandGujarat are included in this zone.Tribeswhichare foundhereareBhils,GarasiyaandMeenas.Meenasareaveryadvancedandwelleducatedtribe.

7.IslandRegion

Andaman andNicobar islands, lakshadweep andDaman andDiu included in this zone.GreatAndamanese,Santinelese,Jarwas,Onges,NicobarisandShampenaretribesofthisregion.Someofthesetribesareextremelybackwardandarestrugglingtocomeoutofthestoneagemodeoflivelihood.Mostofthesetribesareclassifiedasminortribeswhichfacethe threat of extinction.Apart from the problem of survival, prevalence of disease andmalnutritionaresomeotherproblemsofthetribesofthisregion.Thebasicstrategyofthegovernmentforthetribalregionisaimedatprovidingprotectiontothetribalsandbringingabouttheireconomicdevelopment.Thetribalsubplanstrategywas initiated during the Fifth five year plan. This is a comprehensive, well-knit andintegrated programme. It’s objective is, elemination of exploitation of tribals, socio-economic development, bridging the gap in development vis-a-vis other areas,improvementofqualityoflife.

INTEXTQUESTIONS19.4

1.Statetwocharacteristicsoftribalpopulation._______________________________________________________________2.Whoareindigenouspeople?_______________________________________________________________3.WhatisthetermusedforTribesinIndia?_______________________________________________________________4.HowmanycommunitieshavebeengivenseheduletribestatusinIndia?_______________________________________________________________5.WhatpercentageoftribalpopulationisinIndia?_______________________________________________________________6.WhatarethedeterminentsoftribalpopulationinIndia?_______________________________________________________________7.WhataretwoparametersforidentificationoftheScheduledTribes?_______________________________________________________________8.WhataretheprominenttribesofNorthIndia?_______________________________________________________________

9.Whatarethemainproblemsofthetribalsofeasternzone?_______________________________________________________________10.Namesometribeswhcihhaveaverysmallpopulation._______________________________________________________________11.Whenwastribalsubplanstrategyinitiated?_______________________________________________________________12.Whatistribalsubplananditsobjectives?_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

India is a country ofmultiple identities based on region, language and religion,eachhavingmoreor less distinct social structureswhichhavebeen evolvingthroughtheages.

Tribes, one of the earliest identifiable social organisations, can be traced to theVedicperiod.

The initial differentiation was based on the colour of the skin which laterdeveloped into a complex ‘varna system’ with tribes being divided into‘Brahmana’,‘Kshatriy’,‘Vaishya’and‘Shudra’categories.

‘Varna/Jatisystem’underwentfurtherchangesinthepost-VedicsocietieswiththeriseofBuddhismandJainismandlaterwiththearrivalofnewpeopleinIndiasuchastheShakas,Kushanas,Parthians,andtheIndoGreeks.

Caste system has its regional variations due to the formation of regions andregional consciousness after the eighth centuryAD and it becamemore andmore complex,multiplying into a number of castes and sub-castes due to anumberoffactors.

Untouchability, themost obnoxiouspractice, took roots during the last phaseofthe Vedic period and crystallised into a separate identity in the age of theBuddha.

Slavery existed in India though it was different from the classical Greek andRomanslavery,

‘Purushartha’,‘ashramas’and‘samskaras’areinter-linkedconcepts.The‘Jajmanisystemwasan important institutionofcomplementaryrelationship

betweengroups of dominant peasant castes on the one hand and service andartisancasteson the other,which continued tillmodern times in Indian ruralsociety,butisnowbreakingupundertheimpactofmonetisation,urbranisationandndustrialisation.

Familiesaretheresultofaveryimportantsanskaraceremonycalledmarriageanddifferent kinds ofmarriages such as ‘anuloma’ and ‘pratiloma’ based on thealliances between different varna/caste; monogamous, polygamous andpolyandrous based on the number of spouses; all can be found in Indiansociety.

ThetraditionalIndianfamilyisajointfamilygovernedbytwoschoolsofsacredlawandcustomswhichare‘Mitakshara’and‘Dayabhaga’.

The position of women in the history of India has been a story of progressivedecline until the modern times when, with the spread of western education,efforts were made through social and religious reforms to improve theirconditions.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.ExplaintheoriginofthemultipleidentitiesinIndia.2.Distinguishbetweenthevarnaandthejstisystem.3.DiscussthecharacteristicsofthecastesysteminIndia.4.Explainhow‘purushartha’,‘ashrama’and‘sanskara’arerelatedtoeachother.5.GiveanaccountofthedifferenttypesofmarriagethatareprevalentinIndiansociety.6.CriticallyexaminethepositionofwomeninthehistoryofIndiansociety.7.WhatisJajmanisystem?Whyisitbreakingupinrecenttimes?

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

19.11.Tribe.2.Bharatas,Yadus,Purusetc.(anytwo).3.Twiceborn.4.Shakas,Kuishanas,Parthianas,Indo-Greeksetc.5.Medievaltimes.19.21.Untouchables2.Harijan3.Megasthenes

4.Arthashastra5.Ashramas6.UrbanisationandIndustrialisation19.31.Theyarebasedonanalliancebetweendifferentvarna/caste.2.Amarriageinwhichapersonismarriedtoonlyonepersonatatime.3.‘Mitakshara’and‘Dayabhaga’.4.‘Stridhana’19.41.(a)Tribeshavetheirrootsinthesoildatabacktoaveryearlyperiod.(b)Theyliveinrelaitveisolationofhillsandforests.2.Tribes.3.Adivasis4.427communities5.8.2percent6. They are determined primarily by the political and adminsitrative consideration ofupliftmentasectionoftheIndianpeoplewhichhasbeenrelativelyremotelysituatedinthehillsandforestsandwhichisbackwardintermsofindicesofdevelopment.7.Relativeisolationandbackwradness8.Khasa,Tharu,Bhoksa,Bhotias,GujjarsandJaunsaris.9. Economic backwardness, exploitation by forest officials and contractors, landalienation,prevalenceofdiseaseanddisplacementduetoindustrialprojects.10.GreatAndamanese,Jarwas,NicobarsandShampur.11.Duringthefifthfiveyearplan.12. This is comprehensive, well-knit and integrated programme. It’s objective iselimination of exploitation of tribals, socio-economic development, bridging gap indevelopmentvis-a-visotherareas,improvementofqualityoflife.

20.SOCIO-CULTURALISSUESINCONTEMPORARYINDIAInthepreviouslessonyouhavelearntaboutthesocialstructureinIndia.Youreadabouttribal, rural and urban societies, about stratification in terms of caste and class, aboutfamily, marriage, and the position of women in Indian society. The Indian society hasevolvedthroughtheagesandadvancementshavetakenplaceindiversefields.YouhavealsoreadinearlierlessonsaboutsocialreformsintheIndiansociety.However, ineverysociety therearesocio-cultural issues thatneed tobeaddressedand tackled.Securityofpeople, particularly of thevulnerable sections, such aswomen, children and the elderlypeopleisamajorconcerninthecontemporaryIndiansociety.Inthislesson,wewillreadabout the major socio-cultural issues that need our immediate attention, if we have topreserveour social andculturalvalues.Someof the important socio-cultural issues thatneedtobeaddressedtodayarecasteism,dowry,communalism,drinking,drugaddiction,etc.Theissuesdiscussedherearenotcomprehensive.Therearemanyotherissuesfacedbythenation ingeneralandregionsandcommunities inparticular, thatallofusshouldthinkabout.Canyoumakealistofothersuchissues?

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto

listsomemajorissuesandproblemsofcontemporaryIndiansociety;discussissueslikecastesystem,dowry,substanceabuseetc.;examine the issues relatedwithvulnerablegroups like the children,womenand

theelderlypeople;anddiscusseconomicissueslikepovertyandunemployment.

20.1CASTESYSTEM

Asyouhavealreadylearntinthepreviouslesson,therearefourcastes.Canyourememberthem?Writethemhere:1.______________;2.________________;3._______________________;and4.________________________.ThecastesysteminIndiahas itsroots inancientIndia.Justas theashramadharmalaiddownrulesanddutieswithreferenceto the individual’s life in theworld,varnaorcastesystem prescribed duties with reference to the particular caste to which an individualbelonged. Earlier they were all regarded equal in social status and could take up anyprofession they liked.Therewasno restriction in thematter of eating foodormarriagewithmembers of other profession.Butwith the beginning of specializing in hereditaryprofessionsandcomingincontactwiththeindigenouspeoplesituationschangedandthebirthofthepersondecidedtheircaste.Hencethevarnasystemthatdevelopedduringthattimewastheoutcomeofthesocialandeconomicdevelopment.Butastimepassed,itledto the division of society into high-caste and low-caste peoplewho could notmixwitheachother.Inter-castediningormarriagewasforbidden.Peoplebelongingtothesocalledlowercasteswereexploitedandslowlydowntheages,theirconditionbecamemiserable.Theywerepooranddidnotenjoyequalityinsociety.Theywerenotevenallowedtodrawwaterfromthecommonwellsofthevillages,orevencouldgotothetemplesortocomeclosetothepeopleofthesocalledhighercastes.Thuscastesystemhamperedthehealthygrowthofdifferentprofessionsasentryintoaparticularprofessionwasbasedonbirthandnotonability.Caste-baseddiscriminationhasattimesevenledtoviolence.Thecaste-systemalsomakesthe working of democracy in our country difficult. Society gets divided into artificialgroups that tend to support the candidatewho belongs to their caste. They do not paymuchattentiontothefactwhetherhe/sheisadeservingcandidateornot.Thisisnotgoodfor thehealthofdemocracy in India.Ourcountrycannotmake realprogressunless thissystemisuprootedcompletely.During the post-independence period, i.e. after 1947, the Government has takencognizanceof these issuesand tried to tackle themthrough legislation(enacting laws tocounter these issues) aswell as by social action (by involving the civil society, NGOs(Non-Governmental Organizations) and social groups. These steps have helped inimprovingthesituationbutstillalotmoreneedstobedone.

BoxStartVisitthehouseofapersonwhobelongstoacommunityotherthanyours.Doyoufindanydifference in theirwayof livingandeatinghabits?Writea shortessaybringingout thedifferencesaswellassimilarities.BoxClose

20.2ISSUESRELATEDTOWOMEN

OurConstitutiongivesequalrightstobothmenandwomenineveryfield.Today,womenenjoyvoting rights, right to inheritanceandproperty. In fact, theConstitution laydownthatthegovernmentshouldpromotewithspecialcaretheinterestsoftheweakersectionsofthepeople.Severallawshavebeenpassedsinceindependencetopromotetheinterestsofwomen.Theselawsrelatetomarriage,inheritanceofproperty,divorce,dowry,etc.In1976,theEqualRemunerationActwaspassedtoprovideforequalremunerationtomenandwomenforsimilarwork.Recently,thegovernmenthasstartedaschemefortheprotectionofgirlchild.Theschemeiscalled ‘Ladli’, inwhichanamount is setasideat the timeof thebirthofagirlchildwhichshegetswhenshecompleteseighteenyearsofage.Thisamountisthenusedfortheeducationor themarriageof thechild.Similarly, there isanotherschemecalled ‘JacchaBacchascheme’.Under this scheme, the stategovernments takecareof thebirthof thechild and all expenditure related to medical assistance for the upbringing of the child.However,inspiteoftheseprovisions,wefindalotofdiscriminationagainstwomen.

20.2.1GenderDiscrimination

In India femalesarediscriminated invarious fields likehealth, educationand jobs.Thegirlscarrytheliabilityofdowryontheirhead,andtheyhavetoleavetheirparentshomeaftermarriage.Besides, in order to safeguard their old age parents prefer to havemaleoffspring. Many female babies are aborted, abandoned, deliberately neglected andunderfedsimplyastheyaregirls.ThisisworstinthestateofRajasthan.Butnowthereisagreatchangeinthisdirection.InsomestateslikeHaryanawheregirlchildratioisverylow, the government has taken out many schemes to promote education of girls.Reservationofjobsforwomenandevensixmonthsmaternityleaveisprovidedtothembesidesmanyothers.The World Bank Document, “A New Agenda for Women’s Health and Nutrition”(Washington1995)estimatesthatindevelopingcountries,450millionadultwomenhavetheirdevelopmentproblemsduetolackofproteininputduringtheirchildhood.Inmanycommunities,womenandgirlsget less foodorpoorquality foodcompared tomenandboys.When theyare ill, theyget lessattentionor receivesomeattentiononlywhen thedisease becomes extremely serious. There is ample evidence at the global level ofdisparityinhealthstatusbetweenmenandwomenandtheiraccesstomedicalservices.Inamajorityofthecountries,literacyrateforwomenissignificantlylowerthanthatformen.In66countries,thegapbetweenthemaleandfemaleliteracyratesisestimatedtobelargerthan10percentagepointsandin40countries,itislargerthan20percentagepointsintheagegroupof6-11,whichcorrespondstoprimaryleveleducation.Accordingto2011census,thereisagapof16.7percentbetweentheliteracyrateofmenandwomen

i.e.men’s literacyrate is82.14percentcomparedtowomen’s literacyrate thatstandsat65.46percent.About24.5percent(85million)ofthegirlsintheworldareestimatedtobeoutofschoolcomparedto16.4percent(60million)boys.In most Indian families, a girl child is least welcome although in India women wererespectedfromtheearlyages.Eventhoughtherearegrowinginstancesofgirlsexcellingineducation, tradition, custom, and socialpracticesplacegreatervalueon sons thanondaughters,whoareoftenviewedasaneconomicburden.Thisattitudeofthesocietyalsostandsinthewayofthegirlchildbeingabletoachieveherfullpotential.Arecentreporton the girl child makes the following observations: “Girls are the world’s mostsquandered gift. They are precious human beings with enormous potential, butacrosstheworld,theyaregenerallythelasttohavetheirbasicneedsmetandfirsttohavetheirbasicrightsdenied.”Theneedofgirlsforfoodclothing,shelter,healthcare,education,nurture,andtimetoplayoften goes unmet. Their rights to safety, freedom from harassment and exploitation, asalsotheirrightstogrow,developandblossom,aredenied.Prejudiceagainstthegirlchildbecomesclearerandsharperfromthedatainsexratiointheagegroup0-6years. In theCensus,2011 this ratiohasbeen recordedas914,downfrom927intheCensus,2001.Thechildsexratiohassteadilydeclinedfrom976in1961to914in2011.

20.2.2DowrySystem

Thepracticeofdowryisoneoftheworstsocialpracticesthathasaffectedourculture.Inindependent India, one of the landmark legislations is the passing of the DowryProhibitionActin1961bytheGovernmentofIndia.Despitethefactthatthepracticeofbothgiving aswell as accepting dowry is banned by law and such acts are punishableoffences,thesystemissothoroughlyimbeddedinourculturethatitcontinuesunabated.Whether it is ruralorurban India, theblatantviolationof this law is rampant.Notonlydowry deaths, even most of the acts of domestic violence against women includingpsychologicalaswellasphysicaltorturearerelatedtomattersofdowry.Someoftheverybasichumanrightsofwomenareviolatedalmosteveryday.Sometimesitishearteningtoseesomegirlsstandfirmtoasserttheirrightsagainstdowry.Butthereisanurgentneedtostrengthen such hands by taking some concrete as well as comprehensive social,economic, political and administrative measures in order to free Indian society of thisdisease.

BoxStartFindoutagirlchildwhoisnotgoingtoschool.TellherparentsthatthegovernmenthasstartedaschemecalledLadli for thedevelopmentof thegirl childand that shewill nolongerremainaburdentothem;rathershewillbecomeanasset.Sotheyshouldsendhertoschool.BoxClose

INTEXTQUESTIONS20.1

1.Howdoescastesystemaffectdemocracy?_______________________________________________________________2.Whatisthe‘Ladli’schemeofgovernmentofIndia?_______________________________________________________________3.WhichActprohibitsdowryviolations?_______________________________________________________________

20.3SUBSTANCEABUSE/ADDICTION

The habitual use of or dependence on harmful substances like liquor/alcoholic drinks,tobacco, bidis/cigarettes, drugs (for other than prescribed medical treatment) calledsubstanceabuseoraddiction.As the rangeofaddictivesubstancescontinues toexpand,more andmore persons particularly, in the younger age groups get addicted. There aremanyfactorsthatareresponsibleforpushingtheyoungaswellasadultsintothetrapofsubstanceabuse.Thesefactorsincludepeer-pressure,non-conducivefamilyenvironmentandstress.Substanceabuseisaconditionwhichneedsmedicalandpsychologicalhelp.Theparentshave tobeconsiderate tochildren,particularlyduring their transition fromchildhood toadolescenceandadulthood,whenmanychangesoccurintheirphysique.Adolescentsarenaturallycurious,theyareexploringnewworlds,ideas,behaviorsandrelationships.Intheprocess, some are exposed to drugs. Unless their environment, families, schools andfriendseducate them about the ill effects of using drugs, they are likely to be trapped.Drinkingandsmokingarethemostcommonaswellasharmfuladdictiveactions.Drinkingorintakeofliquor/alcoholisaveryseriousproblemofthesociety.Theeasiestpastimeistodrinkandforgetworries,frustrations,eventhoughtemporarily.Itsaddictioncreatesseriousconsequences.Evenwithmeagreearnings,drunkardsbuy liquorkeepingthefamilyneedsatstake.If theycannotaffordthestandardvariety,whichisexpensive,they go for the cheap variety. At times they drink even the poisonous things. Afterdrinking, they lose their senses. Sometimes it results in death or permanent disability.Mostofthetime,theyill-treattheirwivesandchildrenafterdrinking.Smoking is ahabitwhich isveryharmful tohealth, evenmore thandrinking.Notonlydoesitharmthesmokersthemselves,butalsothepeoplearoundthemwhoareaffectedbythesmokeintheatmosphere.Ifwerespecttherightsofothers,thenweshouldnotsmokein

publicplaceslikebuses,trains,markets,officesetc.Smokingisamajorcauseofpollutionand develops deadly diseases like cancer, heart diseases, breathing problems etc.According toWorldHealthOrganization, tobacco use, particularly smoking, is numberonekillerallovertheworld.TheUnioncabinethasbannedsmokinginpublicplaces.Ithas banned the sale of tobacco products near schools and colleges. It ismandatory formanufacturersoftheseproductstoissueawarningtotheconsumersofitsilleffectswithacaptionontheproductitself.

20.4COMMUNALISM

Indiaisacountryofdifferentreligiousfaiths.Personsbelongingtodifferentcommunitiessuch as Hindus, Sikhs,Muslims, Christians, Parsees, etc. live in India. The aggressiveattitude of one community towards the other creates tension and clashes between tworeligious communities.Hundreds of people die in communal riots. It breeds hatred andmutual suspicion. Communalism is an issue that needs to be tackled and eradicated. Itposes a great challenge to democracy and unity of our country. It is therefore, amajorobstacleinthepathofourprogress.Educationisoneveryimportantmeansthroughwhichwecanhope tobringpeaceandharmony insociety.Wemust remember thatweareallhuman beings first, before we belong to a religious community. We must respect allreligions.Our country is secular,whichmeans that all religions are treated equally andeveryoneisfreetofollowtheirownreligion.BoxStartTrytomeetanypersonwhoisaddictedtosmoking,drugs,drinkingorgambling.Tellhimtheilleffectsofthesethingsandsuggestsomewaystoovercomethishabit.BoxClose

20.5ISSUESRELATEDTOTHEELDERLY

Theworldpopulation is ageing.Globally, theagedwere8% in1950,10% in2000andestimated to increase to 21% in 2050. In India, the number of elder personswas 5.8%(25.5million)in1961.In1991thisfigureincreasedto6.7%(56.6million).In2011,itisestimatedtoincreaseto8.1%(96million)thatisexpectedtogrowto137millionin2021.Thesizeof theIndianelderly(60yearsandabove) isexpected to triple in thenext fewdecades.Providingsocial,economic,andpsychologicalsupporttotheagedisemergingasafundamentalconcernofsocialdevelopment.Withthejointfamilybreakingdown,especiallyintheurbanareas,wherenuclearfamiliesare the trend, the aged are increasingly becoming unwelcome members in their ownfamilies.Communitysupportbasetotheagedisassuminggreaterimportance.Ourcultureto respect elders should be again imbibed in young generation so that the aged canmaintaintheirselfrespect.Remember,theelderlypeopleshouldberespected.Theyhavelookedafteryouwhentheywereyoungerandnowitisyourturntopayback.Youmustlookafterandserveyouroldgrandparents.

Visitanoldhomeandtalktotheelderlypeoplelivingthere.Thinkhowyoucanhelptheminlivingabetterandhappylife.

INTEXTQUESTIONS20.2

1.Whatissubstanceabuse?_______________________________________________________________2.WhatisnumberonekilleraccordingtoWorldHealthOrganization?_______________________________________________________________3.WhatistheexpectedpopulationoftheagedpeopleinIndiaby2021?_______________________________________________________________4.Whatisthemainreasonfortheelderlypeoplenotbeinglookedafter?_______________________________________________________________

20.6ISSUESOFPOVERTYANDUNEMPLOYMENT

Indiaisalargecountryinarea.Itisroughly2.4percentofthetotalareaoftheworld.Butdoyouknowwhatpercentageoftheworld’spopulationithas?Well,itisabout16.7%.AsperCensus2011,India’spopulationis1210million.Withsuchahugepopulation,someeconomicproblemshavedeveloped.Thesearetheproblemsofunemployment,inflation,poverty and price rise. A large section of our population lives under the poverty line.Thereisahugeunemployment.Inflationandpricerisehasaddedtotheproblem.With a significant numberof people livingbelow thepoverty line, its impact on socio-economicallymarginal families in theformofpoorqualityof life,disease, lowliteracy,malnutrition, and child labour becomes a serious concern. Nearly a quarter of thepopulation thatbelongs to the scheduledcategory is almost entirelybelowpoverty line.Povertyisafundamentalproblem,hinderingdevelopmentobjectives.Unemploymentisasituationwhereanablebodiedperson,willingtoworkfailstofindajob toearna living.Chronicunemploymentand theconsequentpovertyare responsiblefortheerosionofhumanvalues.Underthecompulsionofpoverty,parentsdonothesitateeventosendtheirchildrentothelabourmarket.Millionsofchildrenmisstheirchildhoodbecause of this phenomenon. They remain uneducated, and ignorant –which results intheirunemploymentorunder-employmentandconsequentpoverty.

20.6.1Beggary

It isapainfulexperience tocomeacrossbeggarswhereverwego.At themarketplace,railway station, hospital, temple, even at road crossings, you will notice some peopleapproaching you with open palms. They ask for money or food. We also see manychildrenbegging in the streets. Beggary is amajor social problem in India. Themajorcausesofbeggaryinourcountryarepovertyandunemployment.Thesedaysmanygangsare operating in our society as well, that thrives on begging in an organized manner.Howeverbeggary isa social cursewhichmustbeeradicated. Ifyou seebeggarson theroadorelsewhere,tellthemthatbeggingisanoffencepunishablebylawbothfortheonewhoisbeggingandtheonewhogivesalms.

20.7PROBLEMSOFCHILDREN

Nocountrycanprogressunlessitpaysadequateattentiontothedevelopmentofchildren.A child is the future citizen of the country.Only those childrenwhogrow in a healthyatmospherecancontributetothedevelopmentandstrengthoftheircountry.Ourcountryhasalargepopulationofchildren.Itisourdutytomakesurethattheyareprovidedwiththeopportunitiesforgoodhealthandeducation.Alargenumberofchildren,becauseofpoverty,donotgotoschoolorarewithdrawnfromschoolsbeforetheycompletetheirelementaryeducationandareforcedtostartworkingata young and tender age in factories, brick-klins, restaurants, hotels, shops etc. Thishampers their growthphysically,mentally, andemotionally.Theygrowwithhatredandagonyandfailtobecomeworthycitizensofthenation.Achildintheagegroupof6-14yearsissupposedtobeintheschool.Butunfortunately,ofthe200millionIndianchildreninthisagegroup,about11.3millionarelabourers.Theestimate byNGOs puts it at 60million, ofwhich 2,00,000work as domestic help andalmost an equal number as bonded labourers. These children become vulnerable tophysical andmental exploitation, they are starved, beaten and even sexually exploited.Thisisaseriousproblemandisgenerallyknownas‘childabuse’.RighttoEducationAct,2009providesforeducationofallchildrenbetweentheageof6-14yearsofage.Oncethischerishedgoalofeducationforallisachieved,thestateofourchildrenwillbemuchbetter.

INTEXTQUESTIONS20.3

1.WhatisthepopulationofIndiaasper2011census?_______________________________________________________________

2.Whatcausespeopletobegformoney,foodandclothesfromotherpeople?_______________________________________________________________3.Ifyoucomeacrossabeggar,whatadvicewouldyougivetohim/her?_______________________________________________________________4.Whatischildabuse?_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

Theevilssuchasdowry,childlabour,childabuse,drugabuseanddrinkinghaveassumedalarmingproportionsinrecenttimes.

Gender discrimination againstwomen and girls and the related difficulties theyface in Indiansociety issorampant that itprevents themfromrealizing theirfullpotential.

Breakdownof the joint familysystemand theemergenceof thenuclear familyhasincreasedtheproblemsfacedbyelderlypersons.

Poverty and unemployment have detrimental effects upon the quality of life insociety.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1. How does casteism become a hindrance in selecting a profession of choice by anindividual?2.“Dowryisasocialproblem.”Elaborate.3.Howisthedevelopmentoffemalepersonsbeneficialtoanation?4.AChildisanassetofourcountry.Doyouagreewiththisstatement?5.DoyouthinkthatDowryProhibitionAct1961iseffectiveforcurbingdowryproblem?Giveareasonedanswer.6.“Girlsaretheworld’smostsquanderedgift.”Discuss.7.Povertyandunemploymentaretherootcauseofmanysocialproblems.Discuss.

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

20.1

1. Society gets divided into artificial groups that tend to support the candidate whobelongs to their caste. They do not paymuch attention to the fact whether he/she is adeservingcandidateornot.

2.Aschemefortheprotectionofgirlchild,inwhichanamountissetasideatthetimeofthebirthof agirl childwhich shegetswhen she completes eighteenyearsof age.Thisamountisusedfortheeducationorthemarriageofthechild.3.TheDowryProhibitionActin1961

20.2

1.Thehabitualuseofordependenceonharmfulsubstanceslikeliquor/alcoholicdrinks,tobacco, bidis/cigarettes, drugs (for other than prescribed medical treatment) calledsubstanceabuseoraddiction.2.Tobacco3.137million4. With the joint family breaking down, especially in the urban areas, where nuclearfamiliesare the trend, theagedare increasinglybecomingunwelcomemembers in theirownfamilies.

20.3

1.1210million2.Povertyandunemployment3.Beggingisanoffencepunishablebylawbothfortheonewhoisbeggingandtheonewhogivesalms.4. A child in the age group of 6-14 years is supposed to be in the school. Butunfortunately,ofthe200millionIndianchildreninthisagegroup,about11.3millionarelabourers. The estimate by NGOs puts it at 60 million, of which 2,00,000 work asdomestichelpandalmostanequalnumberasbonded labourers.Thesechildrenbecomevulnerabletophysicalandmentalexploitation,theyarestarved,beatenandevensexuallyexploited.Thisisaseriousproblemandisgenerallyknownas‘childabuse’.

MODULE9.SPREADOFINDIANCULTUREABROD

21.SPREADOFINDIANCULTUREABROADPeoplehavestartedtravellingalottoday.Theygobyroad,byair,bysea,byrailandanyotherwaytheycan.Butdoyouknowpeopletravelledlongdistanceseveninthosedayswhen there were no trains or aeroplanes in India. India had been in contact with theoutside world commercially right from about the middle of the third millennium B.C.EventhoughIndiaissurroundedbyseaonthreesidesandtheHimalayaninthenorthbutthatdidnotstopIndiansfrominteractingwiththerestoftheworld.Infacttheytravelledfar and wide and left their cultural footprints wherever they went. In return they alsobrought home ideas, impressions, customs and traditions from these distant lands.However,themostremarkableaspectofthiscontacthasbeenthespreadofIndiancultureand civilization in various parts of theworld, especiallyCentralAsia, SouthEastAsia,China,Japan,Koreaetc.Whatismostremarkableofthisspreadisthatitwasnotaspreadby means of conquest or threat to life of an individual or society but by means ofvoluntaryacceptanceofculturalandspiritualvaluesofIndia.InthislessonweshallfindouthowIndianculturespreadtoothercountriesandtheimpactithadonthesecountries.This lesson also brings forward the beautiful idea that peace and friendshipwith othernations,othersocieties,otherreligionsandothercultureshelpourlivesandmakeitmoremeaningful.

OBJECTIVES

Afterreadingthislessonyouwillbeableto:

explainvariousmodesthroughwhichIndianculturespreadabroad;identifythetraderoutesthroughwhichtraderswentandbecamethefirstcultural

ambassadorstospreadIndianculture;

explaintheroleofancientuniversities,teachersandmissionariesinthespreadofIndianculture;

tracethespreadofIndiancultureinEastAsiaandtheSoutheastAsiancountries;describeIndia’straderelationswiththeRomanempire;discussthespreadofBuddhisminmanycountriesasareligionofpeace;examine the impactofSanskrit languageon the languageand literatureof these

countries;give an account of the popularity of Indian Epics, Indian Philosophy, Indian

modesofadministrationandlawinthesecountries;illustratethesharedheritageintheformofhugetemples,sculpturesandpaintings

producedoverthecenturiesinthesecountries;anddescribeIndia’sculturalinteractionwiththeArabcivilization.

21.1SPREADOFINDIANCULTURETHROUGHTRADERS,TEACHERS,MISSARIESANDMISSIONARIES

Inancienttimes,tradersfromIndiawenttodistantlandsinsearchofnewopportunitiesinbusiness. They went to Rome in the west and China in the east. As early as the firstcenturyBC, they travelled to countries like Indonesia andCambodia in search of gold.Theytravelledespecially to the islandsofJava,SumatraandMalaya.This is thereasonwhy these countries were called Suvarnadvipa (suvarna means gold and dvipa meansisland).ThesetraderstravelledfrommanyflourishingcitieslikeKashi,Mathura,Ujjain,Prayag and Pataliputra and from port cities on the east coast like Mamallapuram,Tamralipti,Puri,andKaveripattanam.ThekingdomofKalingahadtraderelationswithSriLankaduring the timeofEmperorAshoka.Wherever the traderswent, theyestablishedculturallinkswiththoseplaces.Inthisway,thetradersservedasculturalambassadorsandestablishedtraderelationswiththeoutsideworld.Like the east coast,manycultural establishmentshavealsobeen foundonandnear thewestcoast.Karle,Bhaja,Kanheri,AjantaandElloraarecountedamongthewellknownplaces.MostofthesecentresareBuddhistmonasticestablishments.The universitieswere themost important centres of cultural interaction. They attractedlargenumbersofstudentsandscholars.ThescholarscomingfromabroadoftenvisitedthelibraryofNalandaUniversitywhichwassaidtobeasevenstoreybuilding.StudentsandteachersfromsuchuniversitiescarriedIndiancultureabroadalongwithitsknowledgeandreligion. The Chinese pilgrim Huien-tsang has given ample information about theuniversitieshevisited in India.Forexample,Huien-tsangdescribeshis stayat twoveryimportantuniversities—oneintheeast,Nalandaandtheotherinthewest,Valabhi.

Vikramashilawas another university thatwas situated on the right bank of theGanges.The Tibetan scholar Taranatha has given its description. Teachers and scholars of thisuniversityweresofamousthattheTibetankingisstatedtohavesentamissiontoinvitetheheadoftheuniversitytopromoteinterestincommoncultureandindigenouswisdom.AnotheruniversitywasOdantapuriinBiharwhichgrewinstatureunderthepatronageofthePalakings.AnumberofMonksmigratedfromthisuniversityandsettledinTibet.TwoIndianteacherswenttoChinaonaninvitationfromtheChineseEmperorinAD67.Their names are Kashyapa Martanga and Dharmarakshita. They were followcd by anumber of teachers from universities like Nalanda, Takshila, Vikramashila andOdantapuri.WhenAcharyaKumarajivawenttoChina,thekingrequestedhimtotranslateSanskrittextsintoChinese.ThescholarBodhidharma,whospecialisedinthephilosophyofYogaisstillveneratedinChinaandJapan.AcharyaKamalasheelofNalandaUniversitywas invitedby thekingofTibet.Afterhisdeath,theTibetansembalmedhisbodyandkeptitinamonasteryinLhasa.Another distinguished scholarwas Jnanabhadra.Hewent toTibetwith his two sons topreachDharma.AmonasterywasfoundedinTibetonthemodelofOdantapuriUniversityinBihar.TheheadoftheVikramashilaUniversitywasAcharyaAteesha,alsoknownasDipankaraShreejnana. He went to Tibet in the eleventh century and gave a strong foundation toBuddhisminTibet.ThonmiSambhota,aTibetanministerwasastudentatNalandawhentheChinesepilgrimHuien-tsangvisitedIndia.ThonmiSambhotastudiedthereandaftergoing back, he preached Buddhism in Tibet. A large number of Tibetans embracedBuddhism.EventhekingbecameaBuddhist.HedeclaredBuddhismastheStatereligion.Amongthenoteworthyteachers,Kumarajivawasactiveinthefifthcentury.

21.2SPREADOFINDIANCULTURETHROUGHOTHERMODES

RomasorGypsiesSomegroupsofIndianswentabroadaswanderers.TheycalledthemselvesRomasandtheirlanguagewasRomani,butinEuropetheyarefamousasGypsies.TheywenttowardstheWest,crossingthepresent-dayPakistanandAfghanistan.Fromthere,theircaravanswentthroughIranandIraqtoTurkey.TravellingthroughPersia,TaurusmountainsandConstantinople,theyspreadtomanycountriesofEurope.TodaytheyliveinGreece,Bulgaria,StatesofformerYugoslavia,Romania,Hungary,theCzechandSlovakRepublics,Russia,Poland,Switzerland,France,Sweden,DenmarkandEngland.Ittookthemalmostfourhundredyearstospreadtothesecountries.Bythattime,thoughtheyhadforgottentheiroriginalhome,theydidretaintheirlanguage,customs,waysofliving,andtheirprofessions.

The Romas are known for their dance and music as well. It is said that every Romamusicianisasplendidartist.

INTEXTQUESTIONS21.1

1.Whospreadourcultureabroad?_______________________________________________________________2.WhichtwouniversitiesdidChinesepilgrimHuien–tsangvisit?_______________________________________________________________3.NametheTibetanscholarwhogaveadescriptionofVikramashilaUniversity?_______________________________________________________________4.WhowerethetwoteacherswhovisitedChinaduringAD67?_______________________________________________________________5.WhydidAcharyaKumarajivagotoChina?_______________________________________________________________6.WhowereGypsiesinancienttimes?_______________________________________________________________

21.3INDIANCULTUREINCENTRALASIA

From the 2nd century B.C. onwards India maintained commercial contact with China,Central Asia,West Asia and the Roman empire. Central Asia is a landmass bound byChina,Russia,Tibet,IndiaandAfghanistan.TraderstoandfromChinaregularlycrossedtheregiondespitehardships.Theroute,thatwasopenedbythem,laterbecamefamousasthe Silk Route. The route was so named because silk was one of the chief mercantilecommodities ofChina. In later times, the same routewas used by scholarsmonks andmissionaries.The routeservedasagreatchannel for the transmissionofculturesof thethenknownworld.TheimpactofIndianculturewasfeltstronglyinCentralAsia.AmongthekingdomsofCentralAsia,KuchiwasaveryimportantandflourishingcentreoftheIndianculture.ItwasthekingdomwheretheSilkRoutebifurcatesandmeetsattheDun-huangcavesinChinaagain.Thus,thereistheNorthernandtheSouthernSilkRoute.TheNorthern route goes via Samarkand,Kashgarh,Tumshuk,Aksu,Karashahr, Turfanand Hami and the Southern route via Yarkand, Khotan, Keriya, Cherchen and Miran.ManyChineseandIndianscholarstravelledthroughtheseroutesinsearchofwisdomandtopropagatethephilosophyofBuddhism.

Cultural exchanges that took place between India and the countries ofCentralAsia arevisiblefromthediscoveriesofancientstupas,temples,monasteries,imagesandpaintingsfound in all these countries. Along the route there were resting places forMonks andMissionaries, for pilgrims and merchants and later these became famous centres ofBuddhistlearning.Silkandjade,horsesandvaluableschangedhands,butthemostlastingtreasure that travelled along the routewasBuddhism. Thus, the trade route transmittedreligionandphilosophy,ideasandbeliefs,languagesandliterature,andartandculture.Khotanwasoneofthemostimportantoutposts.ItwasontheSouthernSilkRoute.ThehistoryofculturalrelationshipbetweenIndiaandthekingdomgoesbacktoovertwomillennia. Khotan was famous for its silk industry, dance, music, literary pursuits,commercialactivitiesandforgoldandjadeexports.The history of the Indo-Khotanese relationship is witnessed by a continuous flow ofteachersandmonks from India toKhotan.Coins found from the first centuryADbearengravings in Chinese on the obverse and Prakrit in Kharosthi script on the reverseproviding evidence of a composite culture in Khotan. A large number of Sanskritmanuscripts,translationsandtranscriptionsofBuddhisttextsinSanskritwerediscoveredfromthemonasteriesburiedinsand.

21.4INDIANCULTUREINEASTASIA

China

ThecontactbetweenIndiaandChinabeganaroundthe2ndCenturyB.C.IndianculturefirstenteredChinawithtwomonkscholars-KashyapaMartangaandDharmarakshitawhowenttoChinainAD67ontheinvitationoftheChineseEmperorMingTi.AfterKashyapaMartangaandDharmarakshita, therewasa continuous flowof scholarsfromIndiatoChinaandfromChinatoIndia.TheChinesewereahighlyculturedpeople.TheylistenedtothethrillingstoriesoftheBuddhawithgreatattention.TheChinesewhocameinsearchofwisdomwroteaboutIndiaandtheIndianculturetosuchanextentthattodaytheyarethemostimportantsourcesofIndianhistory.ProminentteachersfromtheIndian Universities and monasteries became famous in China. For example, a scholarnamedBodhidharmawenttoChinafromKanchipuram.HewenttoNalanda,studiedthereand left for China. He carried the philosophy of Yoga with him and popularized thepractice of ‘dhyana’, (meditation), which was later known in China as ch’an.BodhidharmabecamesuchaneminentfigurethatpeoplebegantoworshiphiminChinaandJapan.TheBuddhistsphilosophyappealedtotheChineseintellectualsbecausetheyalreadyhadadevelopedphilosophicalschoolinConfucianism.

InthefourthcenturyADWeiDynastycametopowerinChina.ItsfirstEmperordeclaredBuddhismasthestatereligion.ThisgaveanimpetustothespreadofBuddhisminChina.ThousandsofSanskritbooksweretranslatedintoChinese.BravingthehazardsofalongandperilousjourneytheycametovisitthelandoftheBuddha.TheystayedinIndiaandcollectedBuddhistrelicsandmanuscriptsrelatedtoBuddhismandlearntaboutitstayingatthevariouseducationalcentres.WiththespreadofBuddhism,Chinabegantobuildcavetemplesandmonasticcomplexeson a large scale.Colossal imageswere carved on the rocks and caveswere beautifullypaintedfromtheinside.Dun-huang,Yun-kangandLung-menareamongthemostfamouscavecomplexesintheworld.Indianinfluencesarequiteevidentonthesecomplexes.The two way traffic of scholars and monks was responsible for cultural contacts andexchangeofideas.

Korea

Korea is situated on the Northeast of China. Korea received Indian cultural elementsthroughChina.SundowasthefirstBuddhistMonkwhoenteredKorea,carryingaBuddhaimageandsutrasinAD352.HewasfollowedbyAcharyaMallananda,whoreachedthereinAD384.InAD404,anIndianmonkbuilttwotemplesinthePyongyangcityinKorea.HewasfollowedbyanumberofteachersfromIndia.Theybroughtphilosophy,religion,the art ofmaking images, painting, andmetallurgy.Many scholars came to India fromKoreainsearchofknowledge.Theyweretrainedinastronomy,astrology,medicineandinseveralother fieldsofknowledge.Monasteriesand templesactedascentresofdevotionandlearningalloverKorea.AlargenumberofBuddhisttextsweretranslatedthere.Thephilosophyof ‘dhyanayoga’ reachedKorea in theeighth toninthcenturyAD.Thekingsandqueens,princesandministers,evenwarriorsbegantopractiseyogatobebraveandfearless.Outofdevotiontowisdom,BuddhisttextswereprintedbytheKoreansinsixthousandvolumes.IndianscriptshadalsoreachedKoreabythan.

Japan

ThestoryofIndiancultureinJapanisbelievedtogobacktomorethanfïfteenhundredyears.ButtheearliesthistoricalevidenceofIndianculturegoingtoJapanisfromAD552.Atthattime,theKoreanEmperorsentaBuddhiststatue,sutras,instrumentsforworship,artists,sculptors,paintersandarchitectsasgiftsfortheJapaneseEmperor.Soon,Buddhismwasgiven the statusofStateReligion.Thousandsof Japanesebecamemonksandnuns.SanskritwasacceptedasthesacredlanguageinJapan.Monksweregivenspecialtraining

towrite the Sanskrit syllables andmantras. The script inwhich all these arewritten isknown as ‘Shittan’. Shittan is believed to be Siddham, the script that gives ‘siddhi’(accomplishment).Eventoday, thereisakeendesireamongtheJapanesescholars tolearnSanskrit.AsthelanguageofBuddhistscriptures,itisacementingforcebetweenIndiaandJapan.Buddhistsutras, translated into Chinese, were brought to Japan during the time of PrinceShotokutaishiintheseventhcentury,whowashighlyimpressedbytheirphilosophy.

Tibet

Tibet is situated on a plateau to the north of the Himalayas. The people of Tibet areBuddhists. The Tibetan king Naradeva is believed to have sent his minister ThonmiSambhot accompanied by sixteen outstanding scholars toMagadha where they studiedunderIndianteachers.Aftersometime,ThonmiSambhotwenttoKashmir.ItissaidthathedevisedanewscriptforTibetintheseventhcenturyonthebasisofIndianalphabetsoftheBrahmiscript.Tilltoday,thesamescriptisbeingusedinTibet.ItalsoinfluencedthescriptsofMongoliaandManchuria.ItseemsThonmiSambhotcarriedwithhimanumberofbooksfromIndia.Ongoingbackto Tibet, he wrote a new grammar for the Tibetans which is said to be based on theSanskritgrammarwrittenbyPanini.Thekingwassoattractedtotheliteraturebroughtbyhimthathedevotedfouryearstostudythem.HelaidthefoundationforthetranslationofSanskritbooksintoTibetan.Asaresult,fromseventhtoseventeenthcentury,therewerecontinuouseffortontranslation.Accordingtothistradition,ninety-sixthousandSanskritbooksweretranslatedintoTibetan.

INTEXTQUESTIONS21.2

1.WhywastheroutetoChinanamedassilkroute?_______________________________________________________________2.WhereisKuchi?Whyisitfamous?_______________________________________________________________3.Where were the coins of the first century AD bearing engraving in Chinese on theobverseandPrakritinKharosthiscriptonthereversediscovered?_______________________________________________________________4.WhatareDun-huang,Yun-kangandLung-men?_______________________________________________________________5.Whendidthephilosophyof‘dhyanayoga’reachKorea?_______________________________________________________________

6.HowdidIndianculturereachJapan?_______________________________________________________________7.WhatisknownasShittaninJapan?_______________________________________________________________8. How many books of Sanskrit language got translated into Tibetan during seventhcenturytoseventeenthcenturyAD?_______________________________________________________________

21.5INDIANCULTUREINSRILANKAANDSOUTHEASTASIA

SriLanka

You might have read the great epic called Ramayana in which Lord Rama, King ofAyodhyagoestoSriLankatobringbackSita.ItispossiblethattheLankaofthattimeandSri Lanka might be different places. King Ashoka made great efforts to propagateBuddhism outside India. He sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to SriLankatospreadthemessageoftheBuddha.Anumberofotherscholarsalsojoinedthem.ItissaidthattheycarriedacuttingoftheBodhitreefromBodhgayawhichwasplantedthere.At that timeDevanampiyaTissawas thekingofSriLanka.The teachingsof theBuddhaweretransmittedorallybythepeoplewhohadgonefromIndia.Foraroundtwohundredyears,thepeopleofSriLankapreservedtherecitationofBuddhistscripturesastransmittedbyMahendra.ThefirstmonasteriesbuiltthereareMahaviharandAbhayagiri.Sri Lanka became a stronghold of Buddhism and continues to be so even today. Palibecametheirliterarylanguage.BuddhismplayedanimportantroleinshapingSriLankanculture.TheDipavansaandMahavamsaarewellknownSriLankanBuddhistsources.WithBuddhism, IndianArt formsalso reachedSriLanka,where the themes, stylesandtechniquesofpaintings,dance, folkloresandartandarchitecturewere takenfromIndia.Themost renownedpaintingsofSriLanka are found in the cave-sheltermonasteries atSigiriya.KingKashyapisbelievedtohaveconvertedit intoafortifiedplaceinthefifthcenturyAD.FigurespaintedinthecaveareintheAmaravatistyleofIndia.

Myanmar

PeopleandcultureofIndiabegantoreachMyanmarinthebeginningoftheChristianera.Myanmar is situated on the route to China. People coming from the port towns ofAmaravatiandTamralipti often settleddown inMyanmar after the second centuryAD.Thepeoplewhohadmigratedincludedtraders,brahmins,artists,craftsmenandothers.InBurma,PaganwasagreatcentreofBuddhistculturefromtheeleventhtothethirteenthcentury.ItisstillfamousforitsmagnificentPagodas.KingAniruddhawasagreatbuilderwhobuiltShwezegonPagodaandabouta thousandother temples.TheyalsodevelopedtheirownPalilanguageandtranslatedbothBuddhistandHinduscripturesintheirversionofPali.IndiantraditionswerequitestrongattheBurmesecourt.Uptotherecenttimesthecourtastrologers,soothsayersandprofessorswereknowntobebrahminscalledponnas.MostofthemwerebelievedtobefromManipur.Punditsweresaidtobeveryactive.Theywerealsoknownfortheirknowledgeofscience,medicine,andastrology.

Thailand

Tilltheyear1939,ThailandwascalledSiam,itsoriginalname.IndianculturalinfluencesbegantoreachthereinthefirstcenturyAD.ItwasfirstcarriedbyIndiantraders,followed

by teachers and missionaries. The Thai kingdoms were given Sanskrit names such asDwaravati,Shrivijay,SukhodayaandAyutthiya.Thenamesoftheircitiesalsoindicateastrong cultural interflow. For example, Kanchanaburi is fromKanchanapuri, Rajburi isfromRajpuri,LobpuriisLavapuri,andnamesofthecitieslikePrachinaburi,Singhaburiare all derived from Sanskrit. Even the names of the streets like Rajaram, Rajajrani,MahajayaandCakravamsharemindusofthepopularityoftheRamayana.Brahminical images and Buddhist temples began to be constructed in third and fourthcenturyAD.TheearliestimagesfoundfromThailandarethoseofLordVishnu.Atdifferentpointsof time, theThaikingdomwasshiftedfromoneplace toanother.Ateveryplaceanumberoftempleswerebuilt.Ayutthiya(Ayodhya)isonesuchplacewherelargenumberof temples still stand though todaymostof the temples thereare in ruins.TherearefourhundredtemplesinBangkok,thepresentcapitalofThailand.

Cambodia

ThefamouskingdomsofChampa(Annam)andKamhuja(Cambodia)wereruledbythekingsofIndianorigins.Thehistoryofdeep-rootedculturalrelationshipbetweenIndiaandCambodia goes back to the first and second centuries AD. In Kambuja, KaundinyadynastyofIndianoriginruledfromthefirstcenturyA.D.Wecanreconstructtheirhistoryfrom numerous Sanskrit inscriptions and from literary works. We can also see theirsplendourfromthemagnificenttemples.Cambodians constructed huge monuments and embellished them with sculpturalrepresentationsofShiva,Vishnu.BuddhaandotherdivinitiesfromIndianEpicsand thePuranas. The episodes from these texts were chosen by the kings to symbolise greathistorical events. Sanskrit remained their language for administration till the fourteenthcentury.

TheirkingsboreSanskritnames.Brahminsassumedthehighestposition.Thegovernmentwas run according to the Hindu polity and Brahminical jurisprudence. Ashrams weremaintained in temple vicinities as seats of learning. A large number of localities weregivenIndiannameslikeTamrapura,DhruvapuraandVikramapura.Thenameofmonthsintheirlanguageareknownaschet,bisak,jes,asadhandsoon.Infact, thousandsofsuchwordsarestillinusewithaslightvariationinpronunciation.Angkor Vat is supposed to be the abode of Vishnu, that is, Vaikunthadhama. Its fivetowers are said tobe the fivepeaksof theSumerumountain.ThekingSuryavarman isportrayedthereasanincarnationofVishnuwhohadattainedaplaceinheavenbecauseofhismeritoriousdeeds.The temple representsasquaremileofconstructionwithabroadmoat running around adding to its spectacular charm. Scenes from Ramayana andMahabharataareengravedonthewallsofthistemple.ThelargestamongallofthemisthescenesofSamudramanthanthatischurningoftheocean.Another grand temple constructed atYashodharapura in the eleventh century, known asBaphuon, isembellishedbyscenes fromtheepicssuchas thebattlebetweenRamaandRavana,ShivaonmountKailashawithParvatiandthedestructionofKamadeva.

Vietnam(Champa)

Indian culture was carried to the distant land of Vietnam by a number of enterprisingtraders andprinceswhomigrated andestablished themselves aspioneers in the fieldofpolitics and economics. They named the cities there as Indrapura, Amaravati, Vijaya,KautharaandPanduranga.ThepeopleofChampaarecalledCham.TheybuiltalargenumberofHinduandBuddhisttemples. The Cham people worshipped Shiva, Ganesha, Saraswati, Lakshmi, Parvati,Buddha and Lokeswara. Images of these deities and Shivalingas were housed in thetemples.Mostofthetemplesareinruinnow.

Malaysia

Malaysiawasknowntoussinceancienttimes.TherearereferencesintheRamayana,theJataka stories, Malindapanha, Shilapadikaram, Raghuvamsha and many other works.Evidence of Shaivism has been discovered in Kedah and in the province ofWellesly.Femalefigurineswithtridenthavebeenunearthed.TheHeadofaNandimadeofgranitestone, a relief of Durga image, Ganesha and Shivlingas belonging to the seventh andeighthcenturieshavebeendiscoveredfromvarioussites.Brahmi, in its late form, was the script of ancientMalaysia. Tablets of Buddhist textswritteninascriptthatresemblesoldTamilhavebeenfoundatKedah.Sanskritwasoneofthesourcelanguagesforthem.TilltodayafairlylargenumberofSanskritwordscanbeseenintheirlanguage,forexample,svarga,rasa,guna,dahda,mantri,dhipati,andlaksha.HanumanandGarudawereknowninMalaysiafortheirsuperhumanqualities.

SanskritinscriptionsaretheearliestrecordsofourculturalrelationswithMalaysia.Theyare written in Indian script of fourth and fifth centuries AD. The most importantinscriptionisfromLigor.Overfiftytempleswerefoundaroundthisplace.

Indonesia

Inthefieldofreligiousarchitecture,thelargestShivatempleinIndonesiaissituatedintheisland of Java. It is called Prambanan. Itwas built in the ninth century. It has a ShivatempleflankedbyVishnuandBrahmatemples.Oppositethesethreetemplesaretemplesconstructed for their vahanas. They areNandi (Bull) for Shiva,Garuda forVishnu andGoose for Brahma. In between the two rows are the temples dedicated to Durga andGanesh,numberingeightinall,surroundedby240smalltemples.Itisanexampleofwonderfularchitecture.ThestoriesofRamayanaandKrishna,carvedonthewallsofthetemple,aretheoldestrepresentationsintheworld.Sanskrithymnsarerecitedatthetimeofpuja.Overfivehundredhymns,stotrasdedicatedtoShiva,Brahma,Durga,Ganesha,Buddha,andmanyotherdeitieshavebeendiscoveredfromBali.InfactBaliistheonlycountrywhereHinducultureflourishedandsurvived.Today,while theentireArchipelagohasaccepted Islam,Bali still followsHinducultureandreligion.AlargenumberofscripturalworkshavebeenfoundfromJava.TheyaremostlywrittenonpalmleavesintheirancientscriptcalledKawi.KawiscriptwasdevisedonthebasisofBrahmi.SomeofthemcontainSanskritverses(shlokas)followedbycommentaryinKawilanguage. Among the texts on Shaiva religion and philosophy, Bhuvanakosha is theearliestandthelongesttext.ThishasfivehundredandtwentyfiveshlokasinSanskrit.Acommentaryiswrittentoexplainthemeaning.PerhapsnootherregionintheworldhasfelttheimpactofIndia’scultureandreligionasSouth East Asia. The most important source of study of the remains of this culturalintercourseand impact are the Sanskrit inscriptionswritten in Indian script. They havebeenfoundalloverthisregionandastudyoftheseinscriptionsandotherliteratureshowsthat the language, literature, religious, political and social institutions were greatlyinfluencedbyIndia.TheVarnasystemandthedivisionofsocietyintothefourcastesi.e.Brahmins,Kshatriyas,VaishyasandSudraswasknowntothem.ButthesystemwasnotasrigidasinIndia.ItwasmorelikeintheRigVedicagewherethesocietywasdividedonthebasisofprofessionandnotonthebasisofbirthespeciallyinBali.Evensomeoftheirmarriagecustomsaresimilar.ThemostpopularformofamusementwastheshadowplaycalledWayung(liketheIndianpuppet shows) where the themes are derived mainly from the epics – Ramayana andMahabharata,stillverypopularinSouthEastAsia.

INTEXTQUESTIONS21.3

1.NamethefirsttwomonasteriesofSriLanka?_______________________________________________________________2.HowdidBuddhismreachSriLanka?_______________________________________________________________3.WhichlanguagebecametheliterarylanguageofSriLanka?_______________________________________________________________4.WhatisAnkorVat?_______________________________________________________________5.WhatarethefivetowersofAnkorVatcalled?_______________________________________________________________6.WhatisportrayedattheAnkorVat?Why?_______________________________________________________________7.WhatdoestheAnkorVattemplerepresent?_______________________________________________________________8.WhatisengravedonthewallsofAnkorVat?_______________________________________________________________9.WhichisthemostimportantsceneengravedonthewallsofAnkorVat?_______________________________________________________________10.WhatisembellishedatBaphuon?_______________________________________________________________11.NamesomecitiesofVietnam(Champa)whosenamewerebasedonIndianculture?_______________________________________________________________12.WherewereevidencesofShaivismdiscoveredinMalaysia?_______________________________________________________________13.WhataresomeoftheimportantfigurinesunearthedinMalaysia?_______________________________________________________________

14.WhicharesomeofthewordsofSanskritfindplaceintheMalaysianlanguage?_______________________________________________________________15. Which is the most important inscription of the fourth and fifth centuries AD inMalaysia?_______________________________________________________________16.HowmanytempleswerefoundatLigor?_______________________________________________________________17.WhatisPrambanan?_______________________________________________________________18.WhatisconstructedoppositethethreetemplesofShiva,VishnuandBrahma?_______________________________________________________________19.HowmanytemplesarethereintheJavaislandofIndonesia?_______________________________________________________________20.WhichstorieswerecarvedonthewallsofthetemplesinIndonesia?_______________________________________________________________21.WhatwasdiscoveredatBaliinIndonesia?_______________________________________________________________

21.6CONTACTSBETWEENINDIAANDTHEARABCIVILIZATION

India’s links withWest Asia, by land as well as sea routes, goes back to very ancienttimes. These ties between the two culture zones (the idea of nations had not yetdeveloped)became particularly closewith the rise and spread of Islamic civilization inWestAsia.Abouttheeconomicaspectsofthisrelationship,wehavefromaboutmid-ninthcenturyAD a number of accounts byArab and other travellers, such as Sulaiman, theMerchant,Al-Masudi,IbnHauqal,AlIdrisi,etc,whichattesttoaflourishingcommercialexchange between these areas. Evidence for a very active interaction in the culturalsphere,however,goesbacktotheeighthcenturyandearlier.ThefruitfulculturalintercoursebetweenIndiaandWestAsiaisevidentinmanyareas.Weshall see here how the Islamic world was enriched as a result of this. In the field ofastronomy,twoimportantworksnamelytheBrahma-sphuta-siddhantabetterknowntotheArabworldasSindhinandKhandakhadyaka(knownasArkand)werebroughttoBaghdadbyembassiesfromSindh.WiththehelpofIndianscholarsoftheseembassies,theywere

translated into Arabic by Alfazari, who probably also assisted Yakub Iun Tarik. LaterAryabhatta’sandVarahamihira’sworksonastronomywerealsostudiedandincorporatedintothescientificliteratureoftheArabs.AnotherimportantcontributionofIndiatoArabcivilizationwasmathematics.TheArabsacknowledged their debt to Indiaby callingmathematics ‘hindisa’ (pertaining to India).Indian mathematics, in fact, became their favourite field of study and discussion, itspopularity being enhanced by theworks ofAlkindi among others. Theywere quick toappreciate the revolutionary character of the Indian decimal systemwith its concept ofzero;acontemporarySyrianscholarpaidglowingtributetoit:‘Iwishonlytosaythatthiscomputation is done bymeans of nine signs. If thosewho believe, because they speakGreek,thattheyhavereachedthelimitsofscience,shouldknowthesethings,theywouldbeconvincedthattherearealsootherswhoknowsomething”.A number of Arab sources dating back to the tenth and thirteenth centuries inform usaboutseveralIndianworksonmedicineandtherapeuticsthatwererenderedintoArabicatthe behest of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid, the ruler of Baghdad from AD 786 to 809.Indian scholars were also involved in these translations. For instance, the SushrutaSamhitawastranslatedbyanIndiancalledMankhinArabic.Apart fromastronomy, astrology,mathematics, andmedicine,Arabs admiredwith keeninterest many other aspects of Indian culture and civilization as well. They translatedIndian works on a wide variety of subjects, but did not remain satisfied with thetranslationsandwentontoworkoutoriginalcompositionsbasedonorderivedfromthetreatisestheytranslated.TheotherfieldsofIndianknowledgetheystudiedincludedworksonsnakepoison,veterinaryartandbooksonlogic,philosophy,ethics,politicsandscienceofwar.Intheprocesstheirvocabularywasalsoenrichedconsiderably.Forinstance,inthefieldofshipping,ofwhichtheywererenownedmasters,youcaneasilyidentifyanumberof Arabic words that had Indian origin: hoorti (a small boat) from hori, banavi frombaniyaorvanik,donijfromdongiandsoon.

21.7INDIA’SCONTACTWITHROME

ItwasSouthernIndiawhichhadthemonopolyoftheproductsthatwereingreatdemandintheWest.Infact,thefirstthreecenturiesoftheChristianerasawaprofitablesea-bornetradewiththeWestrepresentedmainlybytheRomanEmpirewhichhadbecomeIndia’sbestcustomer.ThistradehappenedmostlyinSouthIndiaandistestifiedbothbyliterarytextsandfindsofRomancoinsspeciallyatCoimbatoreandMadurai. Itemslikepepper,betel, spices, scents and precious stones like beryl, gem, diamond, ruby and amethyst,pearls,ivory,silkandmuslinswereingreatdemand.ThistradewithRomewasboundtobring in gold to India which gave her a favourable position in trade and established astable gold currency for the Kushana empire of those days. The Tamil kings evenemployed‘yavanas’ to guard their tents on the battlefield and the gates ofMadurai. Inancient India the term ‘yavana’wasused forpeoplebelonging toWesternAsia and theMediterranean

region and included Greeks and Romans. Some historians feel that the ‘yavana’bodyguardsmighthaveincludedRomanlegionaries.By this time Kaveripattinam had become a very important centre of foreign trade. AtKaveripattinam raised platforms, godowns and warehouses for storing goods unloadedfrom shipswere constructed on the beach. These goodswere stampedwith the ‘Tiger’emblemof theCholasafterpaymentofcustomsdutyand thenpassedon tomerchants’warehouses(pattinappalai).Closebywere“settlementsofYavanamerchantsandquartersofforeigntradersspeakingvarioustongues”.Theywereservedbyabigbazarwhereallnecessary things were available. Here one could find “vendors of fragrant pastes andpowders,of flowersand incense; tailorswhoworkedon silk,woolor cotton; traders insandal,coral,pearl,goldandpreciousstones;grainmerchants;washermen;dealersinfishandsalts;butchers;blacksmiths,carpenters,coppersmiths,goldsmiths;painters,sculptors,cobblersandtoy-makers.Therewerealsohorsesbroughttothemarketfromdistantlandsbeyondtheseas.”Mostofthesegoodsweregatheredforexport.AccordingtoPliny,India’sexportsincludedpepperandgingerwhichfetchedapricethatwasahundredtimesmorethantheiroriginalvalue. Therewas also a demand for incenses, spices and aromatics from India. LavishconsumptionofthesecommoditiestookplaceinRome.The importanceof tradewith foreignerswasquitehighasonecanunderstand from thenumberofambassadorsthatwereeithersenttoorreceivedbytheIndiankings.APandyaking sent an ambassador to Roman Emperor Augustus of the first century BC.Ambassadors were also sent to Troy after AD 99. Claudius (from Ceylon), Trajan,Antonmis, Puis, Instiman and other ambassadors adorned the courts of various Indiankings.The volume of tradewithRomewas so high that to facilitate itsmovement, ports likeSopara,andBarygaza(Broach)cametobebuiltinthewestcoast,whiletheCoromandalcoast in theeastcarriedon tradewith“GoldenChersonese (Suvarnabhumi)andGoldenChyrse (Suvarnadvipa)”. The Chola kings equipped their ports with lighthouses,exhibitingblazinglightsatnighttoguideshipstoports.AtasitecalledArikamedunearPondicherryspecimensof the famous ItalianpotteryknownasArretinewith the Italianpotter’s stamps imprinted on them and the fragment of a Roman lamp have also beenfound.There is evidence of foreign trade in theAndhra region aswell. Some of its ports andinland towns took part in this trade. Thus, the town of Paithana (Pratishthana) shippedabroadstones,tagara,cotton,muslinandothertextiles.TheAndhrakingYajnasriissuedararetypeofcoinfiguringtheshipasthesymbolofthestate’ssea-bornetrade.

21.8THESHIPSANDFOREIGNTRADE

Trade thus became a very important mode that helped in the spread of Indian cultureabroad.Eveninveryancienttimesourshipscouldsailacrossthevastopenseasandreach

foreignshores toestablishcommercial tieswithseveralcountries.Theliterature,artandsculptureoftheneighbouringcountriesclearlyshowstheinfluenceofIndiancultureandcivilization.EveninplaceslikeSurinamandtheCaribbeanIslandsthatareasfarastheAmericancoast,thereisevidenceofancientIndianculture.SamudraGupta(AD340-380)notonlyhadapowerfularmybutalsohadastrongnavy.Some inscriptions discovered in the Trans-Gangetic Peninsula and the MalayaArchipelago testify to the activitiesof Indiannavigators in theGupta age.Hsuan-tsang,whovisitedIndiaduring the reignofEmperorHarsha (AD606-647),hasalsowrittenadetaileddescriptionofIndiaduringthosetimes.TheCholarulershadbuiltastrongnavyandconductedraidsacrossthesea.ThePortuguesehavenoted that somemerchants in Indiaownedasmanyas fifty ships.Accordingtothem,itwasausualpracticeforthemerchantstohavetheirownships.CertainobjectsbelongingtotheIndusCivilizationfoundatvarioussitesintheWestprovethat there were trade and cultural contacts with the Egyptian and Mesopotamiancivilizations in the third millennium BC. India also had contacts with ancient Persia,GreeceandRomewhichprovidedagreat impetus to theexchangeofcultural, religiousandsocial ideas.This flourishing tradecontactwith theRomanEmpire isconfirmedbytheRomanhistorianPlinywhodeploredthedrainofwealthfromRometoIndia.

21.9WHATDIDTHEINDIANSLEARNFROMTHISCONTACT

The Indians learntmany new things from the foreigners for examplesminting of goldcoinsfromthepeopleofGreeceandRome.TheylearnttheartofmakingsilkfromChina.They learnt how to grow betel from Indonesia. They established trade contactwith theforeigners.TheartandcultureofthevariouscountriesgotitselfreflectedovertheIndianculture,butthanthiswasreflectedintheothercountriesalso.

INTEXTQUESTIONS21.4

1.HowoldiseconomicrelationsbetweenIndiaandArab?_______________________________________________________________2.NamesomeoftheprominenttravellersofArab._______________________________________________________________3.NamethetwoastronomicalworksgiventoArabworldbyIndia._______________________________________________________________

4.WhatwasthecontributionofIndiainthefieldofmathematicstotheArabs?_______________________________________________________________5.WhotranslatedSushrutaSamhitaintoArabic?_______________________________________________________________6. At whose behest, Indian works on medicine and therapeutics were rendered intoArabic?_______________________________________________________________7.WhatotherfieldsofIndianknowledgewasstudiedbyArabs?_______________________________________________________________8.WherewereRomancoinsfoundinIndia?_______________________________________________________________9.WhatwerethethingsingreatdemandinArab?_______________________________________________________________10.HowwasastablegoldcurrencyestablishedfortheKushanaempire?_______________________________________________________________11.WhowereYavanas?_______________________________________________________________12.WhatwastheworkofYavanasinancientIndia?_______________________________________________________________13.WherewerespecimensoffamousItalianpotteryArretinefoundinIndia?_______________________________________________________________14.WhichAndhra kings issued a rare type of coin figuring the ship as the symbol ofstate’sseabornetrade?_______________________________________________________________

WHATYOUHAVELEARNT

Indian culture spread to various parts of the world in ancient times throughdifferentmodes.

IndianUniversitieswerefamousfor theirstandardsofeducationwhichattractedstudents from many countries. These students acted as agents for spreadingIndianculture.

Sanskrit/Buddhisttextsweretranslatedintodifferentlanguages.TheybecamethebestmodestospreadIndianculture.

AlargenumberofmonasteriesandtempleswerebuiltinallthesecountrieswhereIndiancultureandreligionreached.

Indianartstyleswereadoptedbytheartistsofmanycountries.IndianEpicsarefamousinmanycountries.TheRamayanaandtheMahabharata

arepopularEpicsinSoutheastAsiancountries.SriLankawasthefirstcountrytoembraceBuddhism.Indian script Brahmi was the model for many scripts in the Southeast Asian

countries.A large number of Sanskrit inscriptions found in these countries are the major

sourcesforthehistoryofIndo-Asianculturalconnections.Buddhism is a living religion in countries likeBurma,Thailand,SriLanka, and

Cambodia.AnimportantcontributionofIndiatoArabcivilizationwasmathematics.

TERMINALEXERCISE

1.WhatwerethevariousmodesthroughwhichIndianculturespreadabroad?2.WhatwastheroleoftheancientuniversitiesinspreadingIndiancultureabroad?3.HowwouldBuddhismreachthecountriesofEastAsiaasareligionofpeace?4.GiveanaccountoftheIndiancultureinThailand?5.DescribethereligiousarchitectureofIndonesia?6.BrieflydescribeIndia’straderelationswiththeRomanEmpire.7.AncientIndiahadagreataccesstoseaandforeigntrade.Discuss.

ANSWERSTOINTEXTQUESTIONS

21.1

1.Traders,teachers,emissariesandmissionaries.2.NalandaandValabhiuniversities.3.Taranatha,theTibetanscholar.4.KashyapaMartangaandDharmarakshita

5.HewentontherequestofthekingtogetsomeSanskrittextstranslatedintoChinese.6.PeoplewholeftIndiaandwanderedinEuropeorsettledthere,weretheambassadorsofIndiancultureabroad.

21.2

1.BecausesilkwasthemainmercantilecommodityofChina.2. Kuchi was in Central Asia. It was a famous centre of Indian culture. Silk routebifurcatedhere.3.Khotananoasiskingdom.4.Famouscavecomplexesoftheworld5.IntheeighthtoninthcenturyAD6. Indian culture reached Japan throughKorea. In 552AD the Korean emperor sent aBuddhastatue,sutras,implementsforworship,artists,sculptors,painters,andarchitectsasgiftsforJapaneseemperor.7.Ascriptinwhichmantrasandsyllablesarewritteninknownasshittan.8.96,000Sanskritbooks.

19.3

1.MahaviharandAbhayagiri2. It was Ashoka who sent his sonMahendra and daughter Sanghamitra along with adelegationtoSriLanka.AbranchofBodhitreefromBodhgayawasplantedhere.3.Pali4.ItissupposedtobetheabodeofVishnu.5.TheyarecalledthefivepeaksoftheSumeruMountain.6.ThekingSuryavarmanisportrayedasanincarnationofVishnu.Hehadattainedaplaceinheavenbecauseofhismeritoriousdeeds.7.Itrepresentsasquaremileofconstructionwithabroadmoatrunningaroundaddingtoitsspectacularcharm.8.ScenesfromRamayanaandMahabharataareengravedonthewallsofthistemple.9.ThesceneofSamudramanthan(churningoftheocean)10.ScenesformtheepicsofRamaandRavana,ShivaonmountKailashawithParvatiandthedestructionofKamdeva.11.Indrapura,Amaravati,Vijaya,Kauthara,Panduranga.12.InKedahandintheprovinceofWellesly

13.Femalefigurineswithtrident,theheadofNandi,areliefofDurgaimage,GaneshaandShivlingas.14.Somewordsaresvarga,rasa,guna,dahda,mantri,dhipati,laksha15.ThemostimportantinscriptionisfromLigor.16.Overfiftytemples.17.ThelargestShivatempleontheislandofJavaiscalledPrambanan.18.TherearetemplesofvahanasofShiva,Vishnu,andBrahma19.Eightbigtemples,surroundedby240smalltemples.20.RamayanaandKrishna21. Over five hundred hymns, stotras dedicated to Shiva, Brahma, Durga, Ganesha,Buddhaandmanyotherdeitieshavebeendiscovered.

21.4

1.ItstartedintheninthcenturyAD.2.Sulaimanthemerchant,Al-masudi,IbnHauqal,AlIdrisi.3.(a)Brahma-sphuta–siddhantabetterknownasSindhininArab.(b)Khandakhadyaka–knownasArkand.4.Thedecimalsystemwithitsconceptofzero.5.Mankh6.CaliphHarunal-Rashid.7.Worksonsnakepoison,veterinaryartandbooksonlogic,philosophy,ethics,politicsandscienceofwar.8.AtCoimbatoreandMadurai9.Itemslikepepper,betel,spices,scents,preciousstoneslikesberyl,gem,diamond,ruby,amenthyst,pearls,ivory,silk,muslins.10.ThetradewithRomebroughtingoldtoIndia.ThisestablishedastablegoldcurrencyfortheKushanaEmpire.11.Peoplebelonging toWesternAsiaand theMediterranean region. It includedGreeksandRomans.12.GuardingtentsonthebattlefieldsandthegatesofMadurai.13.AtasitecalledArikamedunearPondicherry.14.Yajnasri.

223CURRICULUM

INDIANCULTUREANDHERITAGE

1.0Rationale

Indiaisoneoftheancientcivilizationsoftheworldwhichhasstoodthetestoftime.Infactwhatmakes Indian cultureunique amongother ancient civilizations is its ability toaccommodate and assimilate external influences and weave them into its own culturalfabric.ThiscompositeinfluencehasnotonlyenrichedtheculturalmilieuofIndia,ithasalsomade it stronger. Indian art, architecture,music, language, philosophy and religionreflectthisdiversityofinfluencethathasoccurredthroughcenturies.ThisisthebeautyofIndianCultureandHeritage.AsIndiancitizensnotonlydoweneed tobeproudof thispluralisticandrichculturalheritagebutalsotostudyitobjectivelyandassessitcritically.

2.0Objectives

Themainobjectivesofthiscourseare:

tofamiliarizelearnerswithvariousaspectsofthecultureandheritageofIndia.toacquaintlearnerswiththecontributionsofourancestorsintheareasofreligion,

philosophy,science,arts,education,languagesandliterature.toenablelearnerstoappreciatetheunderlyingunityamidstdiversityinallaspects

ofIndia’sculture.

toacquaintlearnerswiththeimpactofIndiancultureindifferentcountriesoftheworld.

toenablelearnerstoappreciatethecompositenatureofIndianculture.todevelopamonglearnersafeelingofloveandasenseofbelongingtowardsthe

nation.

3.0DescriptionofCourse

ModuleTitle Marks

1. Culture 10

2. HistoryandCulturethroughtheAges 15

3. LanguagesandLiterature 10

4. ReligionandPhilosophy 12

5. Painting,PerformingArtsandArchitecture 12

6. ScienceandTechnology 10

7. Education 09

8. SocialStructure 10

9. SpreadofIndianCultureAbroad 12

Total 100

DescriptionofCourse

Module1:Culture

Marks:10StudyHours:20ApproachThis module is designed to develop an understanding of the concept and meaning ofculture.ThesalientfeaturesofIndianculturewhichmakeitdistinctwillalsobediscussed.

Lesson1:Culture:AnIntroduction

ConceptofCultureCultureandcivilizationCultureandHeritageGeneralCharacteristicofcultureComponents–AspectsofcultureImportanceofcultureinhumanlife

Lesson2:IndianCulture

MeaningofcultureCharacteristicsofIndiancultureCulturalIdentity,Religion,RegionandEthnicityCulturalInfluence

Module2:HistoryandCulturethroughtheAges

ApproachMarks:15StudyHours:35ThismoduleaimsatdevelopinganunderstandingofthehistoricaldevelopmentofIndianCulture.The evolution of IndianCulture through theAgeswill be traced. Thismoduleaims to highlight significant cultural developments during the ancient, medieval andmodernperiodsofIndianhistory.

Lesson3:AncientIndia

HarappanCivilization.VedicCulture:SocietyandReligion,MaterialLifeandEconomy.PopularReligiousReforms.PersianInvasionanditsImpactonIndianCulture.GreekInvasionanditsImpactonIndianCulture.AshokatheGreat.ArtandArchitectureintheMauryanandPost-Mauryanperiod.Guptaperiod:ArchitectureandPainting.TransformationofVedicBrahminismintoPuranicHinduism.Nalanda’sEmergenceasagreatcentreoflearning.ChristianityinIndia.SouthIndia:ThePallavasandtheCholas.

Lesson4:MedievalIndia

ArrivaloftheMuslims.RiseofSufism.PoliticalBackgroundoftheperiod.CulturalDevelopmentinIndia.InfluenceonReligionandSociety.DevelopmentofFolkArts,Music,Painting.RiseofModernIndianLanguages.RiseofNewFaiths:Sikhism,Zoroastrianism. South India: Development under the Cholas, the Vijayanagara and Bahmani

Kingdoms.

Lesson5:ModernIndia

ImpactofwesternRenaissanceandReformationMovementsonIndia.IndiabytheendoftheEighteenthCentury:SocialandReligiousconditions.SocialandReligiousReformers:RamMohanRoy,SwamiDayanandSaraswati,

JyotibaPhule,NarayanaGuru,PanditaRamabai.PressandtheGrowthofModernLanguagesandLiterature:Roleofnewspapers,

Someimportantnewspapers.IndiaSinceIndependence:SocialandPoliticalDevelopments.

Module3:LanguagesandLiterature

Marks:10StudyHours:25ThismoduleisintendedtoacquaintthelearnerswiththelanguagesandliteratureofIndia.ThismoduleshallexaminetheimportantroleofSanskritinancientIndia.Itexplorestherange of literature available in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali. It also seeks to familiarizelearnerswiththerichlegacyofSangamliteratureinTamil,andtheliteratureavailableinotherSouthIndianlanguagesi.e.Telugu,KannadaandMalayalam.

Lesson6:IndianLanguagesandLiterature-I

IndianLanguages:TheroleofSanskrit.TheVedas:RigVeda,YajurVeda,SamaVeda,AtharvaVeda.TheUpanishads.Epics:RamayanaandMahabharata.BhagavadGitaPuranasandSmritis.BuddhistandJainLiteratureinPali,PrakritandSanskrit:TheTripitakasandthe

Jatakastories. Other Sanskrit Literature: The Dharmashastras, Kautilya’s Arthashastra arid

works of Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidasa and Banabhatta, books on MedicalScience,SanskritLiteratureinKashmir.

Sangamaliterature.Telugu,KannadaandMalayalamliterature.

Lesson7:IndianLanguagesandLiterature-II

NorthernIndianLanguagesandLiterature-Evolutionoflanguages:Thespokenandthewrittenlanguages,Brahmiscript,HindianditsDialects.

UrduandPersianLiterature.HindiLiterature.

Bengali,AssameseandOriyaLiterature.PunjabiandRajasthaniLiterature.GujaratiLiterature.SindhiLiterature.MarathiLiterature.KashmiriLiterature.Role of Christian Missionaries: Role of Lithographic press and Missionaries

SchoolsandColleges.

Module4:ReligionandPhilosophy

Marks:12StudyHours:25ApproachThismoduleaimstotracethedevelopmentsinIndianphilosophicalthoughtandexaminethe major religious traditions that emerged and flourished in India over the ages. ThismodulealsodiscussesthemovementsstartedinthemodernperiodtoreformthevariousillsthathadcreptintothedifferentreligionsofIndia.

Lesson8:ReligionandPhilosophyinAncientIndia

Pre-VedicandVedicReligion.UnorthodoxReligiousmovements-BuddhismandJainism.TheisticReligions-Vaishnavism,ShaivismandShaktism.FolkCults-WorshipofYakshasandNagas.VaishnavaandShaivaMovementsintheSouth.Vedicphilosophy-Samkhya,Yoga,Nyaya,Vaisheshika,Mimamsa,Advaita.CharvakaschoolofPhilosophy.JainPhilosophy.BuddhistPhilosophy.

Lesson9:ReligionandPhilosophyinMedievalIndia

TheSufimovement-theChishtiandSuhrawardisilsilahs,importanceoftheSufimovement.

TheBhaktimovement -Nirgun andSagun schools ofBhakti; the role of saintslikeKabir,Nanak,Mirabaiandothers.

Philosophy inmedieval India -Vishistadvaita, Sivadvaita,Dvaita,Dvaitadvaita,Suddhadvaita.

Lesson10:ReligiousReformMovementsinModernIndia

BrahmoSamajandRajaRammohanRoy.PrarthanaSamajandRanade.AryaSamajandDayanandSaraswati.RamakrishnaMissionandSwamiVivekananda.TheosophicalSocietyandAnnieBesant.TheAligarhMovementandSayyidAhmadKhan.

Module5:Painting,PerformingArtsandArchitecture

Marks:12StudyHours:25ApproachIndian culture is often characterisedby its artisticproductions, be it painting, sculpture,musicordance.Thisisbecausetheartsarethemostmanifestaspectofculture.Inasensethey may be regarded as cultural production. This module traces the evolution of thevariousartformsinIndiasuchaspainting,handicrafts,music,dance,drama,architectureandsculpture.

Lesson11:IndianPainting

Art in Ancient India: Creative painting in the Harappan civilization, Buddhistpaintingsandrock-cutcaves,chitrashalasandshilpashastras.

ArtinMedievalIndia:MughalMiniaturePainting,PahariPainting.ArtintheModernPeriod:InfluenceofRabindraNathTagoreandAbinandranath

Tagore,NandalalBose,M.F.Hussainandothers.DecorativeArt:Rangoli,Alpana,Aipan,Rangavalli,KullamandMendana.Folk Painting; Mithila Painting, Kalamkari Painting, Warli Painting, Kalighat

Painting.IndianHandicrafts:Bandhni fromRajasthan,Bidri andPochampalli sarees from

Andhra Pradesh and Kanjeevaram silk sarees from Tamil Nadu, silk andsandalwood items from Mysore, cane furniture from Assam and terracottamodelsfromBengal.

Lesson12:PerformingArts:Music,DanceandDrama

ConceptofPerformingArts:ABriefHistory.DivisionsofIndianclassicalmusic:HindustaniandCarnatic.ModernIndianMusicandFolkMusic.DancesofIndia:VariousDanceforms,well-knownDancersofModernIndia.Drama: Classical and Folk, Rise of Modern Theatre, Various types of Drama,

ImportantDramasandtheirAuthors.PerformingArtsanditsImpactonHumanPersonality.

Lesson13:IndianArchitecture

Architecture:ItsOriginandtheIndianPerspective.EvolutionofIndianArchitecture:Pre-Historic;HarappanPeriod;Developmentin

the Rig Vedic Period; Early Historic Period : Cave Architecture; Rock-cut

temples;FreestandingTemples,ArchitectureintheMughalEra.ColonialArchitectureandTheModernPeriod.

Module6:ScienceandTechnology

Marks:10StudyHours:30ApproachAsinallotherfieldsofculture,sotoointhefieldofscienceandtechnology,Indianshaveinherited a rich legacy from their ancestors. This module examines the importantdevelopments in the field of science and technology in India, during the course of itshistory. It also assesses the contributionsmadebyoutstanding scientistsof Indiaduringthemodernperiod.

Lesson14:ScienceandTechnologyinIndia

Development indifferentbranchesofScience inAncientIndia:ContributionsofAryabhatta and Varahamihira in the fields of Astronomy and Mathematics;Contribution of Charaka and Sushruta; Developments in metallurgy;DevelopmentofGeography.

Scientific and Technological Developments inMedieval India; Influence of theIslamicworld andEurope;The role ofmaktabs,madrasas and karkhanas setup; Developments in the fields of Mathematics, Chemistry, Astronomy andMedicine;Innovationsinthefieldofagriculture -newcrops introduced,newtechniquesofirrigationetc.

ScienceandTechnologyinModernIndia:Developmentofresearchorganisationslike CSIR and DRDO; Establishment of Atomic Energy Commission;Launching of the space satellites, other advances made in Science andTechnology.

Lesson15:ScientistsofAncientIndia

MathematicsandAstronomyBaudhayanAryabhtattaBrahmguptaBhaskaracharyaMahaviracharyaScience

KanadVarahamihiraNagarjunaMedicalScienceofAncientIndia(Ayurveda&Yoga)SusrutaCharakYoga&Patanjali

Lesson16:ScienceandScientistsofMedievalIndia

SciencesinMedievalPeriodMathematicsBiologyChemistryAstronomyMedicineAgriculture

Lesson17:ScientistsofModernIndia

SrinivasRamanujan:PaperonBernoulliNumbers.C.V.Raman:RamanEffect.JagdishChandraBose:InventionofCrescographandWirelessInstruments.Homi Jehangir Bhabha: Started TIFR; First Chairman of Atomic Energy

Commission.Dr. Vikram Sarabhai: A great Industrialist; started manufacturing Military

HardwareandPenicillin;Chairmanof IndianNationalCommissionforSpaceResearch;Directed ThumbaAtomicRocket Launching Station; Recepient ofthePadmaBhushanandthePadmaVibhushan.

Dr.A.P.J.AbdulKalam:EleventhPresidentofIndia;heldprestigiouspositionsininstituteslikeISROandDRDO;LedIndiaintoaneraofself-defence.

Module7:Education

Marks:9StudyHours:30ApproachEducation is a means of cultural transmission. It is the mode through which theaccumulated knowledge available within a social group is passed on, in a structuredmanner.Indiahas,sinceveryancienttimes,evolveditsownuniquesystemofeducationoftenimbibing

influences from other civilizations. This module traces the evolution of educationalsystems, over the different periods of Indian history. It also highlights significantdevelopments in this field, thesubjectsandcontentsofeducation, etc.Themodulealsoaimstoenablelearnerstomakeacriticalassessmentof thestrengthsandweaknessesofthepre-modernandmodernsystemsofeducationinIndia.

Lesson18:EducationinIndia

EducationinAncientIndia:Vedicashramas;MauryanandPost-Mauryanguilds;Jain and Buddhist Monasteries; Ghatikas or colleges; Aims of Education;SubjectsTaught;StatusofWomen’sEducation.

Education in theMedieval period:Madrasas,Maktabs;Traditional andRationalSciences, Introduction of subjects like Public Administration, Geometry andAccountancy.

Education in theModernPeriod:ColonialLegacy;Macaulay’sMinutes,Wood’sDespatch,IndianUniversitiesAct

Education in Post-Independence India: Elementary Education: Universal accessand Retention; Secondary Education, The 10+2+3 system; VocationalEducation; Higher Education; Adult Education; Social Relevance andTechnical Education; National Education Policy; Correspondence Education;DistanceEducation

Module8:SocialStructure

Marks:10StudyHours:30ApproachToknowIndiancultureinallitsaspects,itisnecessarytostudythestructureofitssociety.Thismodule aims to examine thevarious components of Indian society and analyze itsstructure. It also tries to examine some contemporary socio-cultural issues ofcontemporaryIndia.

Lesson19IndianSocialStructure

Tribes,VarnaandJatiUntouchabilitySlaveryPurushartha,Ashrama,SanskaraJajmanisystemFamilyandMarriageinIndiaPositionofwomenTribalcommunitiesofIndia

Lesson20:Socio-CulturalIssuesinContemporaryIndia

CasteSystem

IssuesRelatedtowomenDowrysystemTheproblemsofgirlschildandwomenSubstanceabuseCommunalismIssuesrelatedtotheElderlyIssuesofpovertyandunemploymentBeggaryProblemofChildren

Module9:SpreadofIndianCultureAbroad

Marks:12StudyHours:30ApproachIndians have interacted with the outside world since very ancient times. They havetravelled far and wide and left indelible impressions wherever they went. Similarlythroughout its history, India has also been frequented by foreign travellers who havecarried home some traces of Indian culture. In turn, India has also imbibed severalelementsofthecultureofallthesedifferentpeoplesandtheircivilizations.InthismoduleweshallexaminetheexchangeofculturalinfluencesbetweenIndiaandotherpartsoftheworld.

Lesson21:SpreadofIndianCultureAbroad

Modes of Cultural Exchange - Through Traders, Teachers, Emissaries,MissionariesandGypsies

IndianCultureinCentralandEastAsiaIndiancultureinSriLankaandSouthEastAsia.India’sCulturalcontactwiththeArabcivilizationIndia’scontactwithRomeTheRoleofShipsandForeignTradeintheculturalexchangebetweenIndiaand

theWorld

INDIANCULTUREANDHERITAGE(223)

QuestionPaperDesign

Subject:IndiancultureandHeritageLevel:SecondaryMaximumMarks:100Time:3HoursWeightagebyObjectives

Objectives Marks%ofTotalMarks

Knowledge 50 50%

Understanding 30 30%

Application 20 20%

Total 100 100%2.WeightagebyTypesofQuestions

TypeofQuestionsNo.ofQuestionsMarksofQuestions Total

LongAnswer 5 8 40

ShortAnswer 9 4 36

VeryShortAnswer 8 2 16

MCQ 8 1 08

30 1003.WeightagebyContent

Module9 Marks

1.Culture 10

2.HistoryandCulturethroughtheAges 15

3.LanguagesandLiterature 10

4.ReligionandPhilosophy 12

5.Painting,PerformingArtsandArchitecture 12

6.ScienceandTechnology 10

7.Education 09

8.SocialStructure 10

9.SpreadofIndianCultureAbroad 12

Total 100

SAMPLEQUESTIONPAPER

Subject:IndianCultureandHeritage(223)SecondaryCourse

Max.Marks:100Time:3Hrs1.HowwastheKharoshthiscriptwritten?1(A)Righttoleft(B)Lefttoright(C)Upsidedown(D)Incapital2.WherewaseducationimpartedbytheJainsandBuddhistsinancientIndia?1(A)Temples(B)Monasteries(C)School(D)Panchayatghar3.WhenwastheDowryProhibitionActpassed?1(A)1951(B)1971(C)1961(D)19814.Whatisfemaleinfanticide?1(A)Killingofboychild(B)Killingofgirlchild(C)Killingofmother(D)Killingofstepmother5.Whatmakesanuclearfamily?1(A)Husband,wifeandtheirchildren(B)Husbandalone(C)Wifealone(D)Grandparents6.Whatisupnayanceremony?1(A)Lastrites(B)Funeralprayers(C)Sacredthreadceremony

(D)Pollutioncontrolmeasures7.Give reason for the split inBhuddhismbetweenMahayana andHinayana schools ofthought.1(A)War(B)Untouchability(C)Imageworshipcontinuedpracharoftheearlier(D)Childabuse8.HowweretheteachingsofKabirdifferentfromtheothernorthIndianpoets?1(A)Movedfromplacetoplaceanddidnotbelieveininstitutionalisminreligion.(B)Stayedataplaceanddidnotbelieveininstitutionalisminreligion.(C)MovedforplacetoplaceandBelieveininstitutionalisminreligion.(D)Stayedataplaceandbelieveininstitutionalisminreligion.

9.StatetworeasonswhichmadeSangamliteraturefamous?210.WhatarethefourdistinctivefeaturesofIndo-Islamicarchitecture?211. What was the contribution of Sayyid Ahmad Khan in spreading education amongMuslimsinthenineteenthcentury.212.BrieflydiscusstheachievementsofDr.A.P.J.AbdulKalaminthefieldofScienceandTechnology.213.ListthechangesintroducedbytheforeignersinAgricultureduringthemodernperiod.14.HowcanyousaythatinAncientIndiatherewasagoodknowledgeofMedicine?215.Howiseducationrelatedtoculture?216.Whyshouldelementaryeducationbemadecompulsoryforchildrenbetween6to14yearsofage?217.Whatdoyouunderstandbysubstanceabuse?418.GivefourreasonsfortheriseofJainismandBuddhismasreligionsinancintIndia.419.HowdidUrdubecomepopularasalanguageintheearlyeighteenthcentury?420.DiscusstheroleofChristianMissionariesinthedevelopmentofliteratureinIndia.421.Differentiatethearchitecturalfeaturesofancient,medievalandmodernIndia.422.ElaboratethecontributionsofMughalsinthedevelopmentofArmsandAmmunition.423.DiscusstheeducationalreformsintroducedinIndiabetween1854to1904.424.HowdidWestAsiabecomefamiliarwithIndiancultureintheancienttimes?425.Whatmakesaparticualrtribediffereentfromanyothertribe?426. Explain how unity in diversity has become a landmark of our Indian culture fromancienttimes?827.DiscusstheroleofsocialandreligiousreformersinbringingaboutchangesinIndiansocietyduringmedievaltimes.828. Name the six different philosophies called ‘Shada Darshana’ in ancinet India.Elaborateanyoneofthem.3+5=829.WhatchangeswereintroducedintheatrewiththecomingofEuropeanstoIndia?830.DiscusstheroleofIndiantradersandmissionariesinspreadingIndiancultureChinaandSouthEastAsia?8

INDIANCULTUREANDHERITAGE

MarkingScheme

Q.No.Expectedvaluepoints

DistributionofMarks

TotalMarks

1. (A)Righttoleft 1 1

2. (B)Monasteries 1 1

3. (C)1961 1 1

4. (B)Killingoffemalechildatbirth 1 1

5. (A)Husband,wifeandtheirchildren 1 1

6. (C) Sacred Thread ceremony; initiationintothe 1 1

7. (C) Imageworship continuedprachar oftheearlier ½+½ 1

8. (A)Kabir-adevoteeofformlessgod.

-Movedfromplacetoplace

-Didnotbelieveininstitutionalisationofreligion ½+½ 1

9. 1.Literature-secularinnature

2. long and short poems composed byvarious poets in praise of numerousheroesandheroines.

1+1 2

10.

1. Equal rights for men and women insocialandeducationalmatters2.Rejectedhereditarycastesystem3.Foughtagainstuntouchability.

4. Encouraged inter-caste marriage (anytwo) 1+1 2

11.

1.BelieveinWesternEducation2.Educationofwomen3. Interpreted the Quran in the light ofrationalismandScience

4. Liberal, social, cultural movements(anytwo) 1+1 2

12.1.Defenceprogrammeservices2.Space(SLV-3)3.Rohini

4. Integrated sciencewith religion andphilosophy(anytwo) 1+1 2

13.1. Integrated new crops, trees and horticulturalplants.2.Irrigation-Persianwheelintroduced

3. System of land measurement and landclassification(anytwo) 1+1 2

14.1.ArthvaVeda-Diseases,cure,medicines2.CharaksamhitabyCharak(medicinalherbs)3.Sushrutsamhita-Sushruta(Surgery)

4.Saltfreediet.(anytwo) 1+1 2

15. 1. Culture is accumulated experiences of ageneration

2. Education is the process of transmission ofculture 1+1 2

16. Laysfoundationforthe

1.developmentofpersonality2.attitudes3.Socialconfidence4.Habits5.Learningskills6.Communicatingskills

7.Capabilities.(anytwo) 1+1 2

17.Use of drugs for other than prescribed medicaltreatment. 4 4

18.

1.Brahminsdevelopedvestedinterestinritualism.2.Largecharitiesweredemanded3.Animalsacrificesonalargescale4.VerycostlyYajnas5.SuperioritycomplexinBrahminscommunity.6.ArrogantnatureofBrahamanas

7.Divisionofsocietyintorigidvarnas(Anyfour) 1+1+1+1 4

19.1.Meansofcommunicationforupperclasses.2.languageofculture

3.linklanguagebetweenMuslimsandHindus.

4.Courtlanguage 1+1+1+1 4

20.

1.PublishdictionariesinlocallanguagePublishgrammarinlocallanguage2.Helpingbooksforclergymen3.Lithographicsprintingpress.

4.Establishmentofschoolsandcolleges 1+1+1+1 4

21.

Ancient-Rock cut temples, Stupas, Use of wood, Cave,PersianandGreekstyle

Medieval-Domes,Minarets,Arches.

Modern--PersianandRomanstyle-CanopiesandJaaliused

-Indegenousmateriallikesandstone 4 4

22.1.Tehcniqueofproductionofgunpowder2.Fireworkandexplosion.3.Castingofcannons

4.Perfumes 1+1+1+1 4

23.

1. Woods Despatch of 1854:- objective ofeducationalpolicy2. Establishment ofUniversities in 1857-Bombay,Madras,CalcuttaEstablishmentofuniversitiesPunjab,Allahabad in1882/1887.3. Lord Curzon (1901- conference of Publicinstructionswhichbeganeducationalreform4. 1904 Indian Universities Act was passedpermitting–Inspectionofcolleges–Assumeteaching

–Qualityeducationathigherlevel 1+1+1+1 4

24.

1.Tradecommercialexchanges2.Fruitfulculturalintercourse-Astronomy-Mathematics-Decimalsystem

-zeronumber-9sign3.TranslationofBookse.g.SushrutaSamhita-Medicine

-Astrology 4 4

25.

1.Allmembersarerelatedtoeachotherbyblood.2.Equalstatusforallmembers.3.Descendedfromcommonancestors4.Allmembershaveequalaccesstoresources5.Nosenseofprivateproperty.

6.Socialdifferentiationexistedonthebasisofageandsex.(Anyfour) 1+1+1+1 4

26.

Reasonsforvareity(i) Vastness of the country with variation ofphysicalandclimaticfeatures.(ii)interminglingamongvariousethnicgroups.(iii)culturalexchangebetweendifferentregionsofIndia.(iv) languages, cultural differences in dress, foodandsomecustoms.BasesofUnity:(i)Travelling fromone part of country to anotherfortradeorpilgrimage(ii)militarycampaigns(iii)climate

(iv) music, dance forms, drama, art forms likepainting,sculptureandarchitecture(v)Politicalforms

(vi) transportation, means of communication,migration(anyfourfromeach) 4+4 8

27.

NameofReligiousreformersKabir, Nanak, Mira Bai, Raskhan, Abdur RahimKhan e Khannah, Surdas, Kalidas, Chaitanya,NamdevSufisandBhakisaints.(a)Theylookeduponreligionnotasaworshipbutas a loving bond based upon love between theworshippedandthe

worshipper.

(b)Theymade no distincion between caste, creedorreligionbeforeGod.(c) stressed on equality before God, the castesystemandattackedinstitutionalreligion.(d)OpposedSatiandFemaleinfanticide.

(e)aimed tobridgebetweenHindusandMuslims.anyfour 4+4 8

28.

SamkhyaYogaNyayaVaisheshika

Mimamsa ½*6=3

Vedanta

Explainanyoneofthem 3+5 8

29.

1.Theatrewasestablished2.AnrussianformedBengalisTheatre3.Thestageevolved4. Drama depicts tragedies, comedies andcomplexitiesofurbanlife5.Dramewritteninregionallanguage6.Folk-theatreflourished7.Connoisseurindifferentfields

8. Introduced folk arts to reach the masses (Anyfour)

2+2+2+2 8

30.

China1.Continuousflowofscholars2.ProminentteachersfromIndianuniversitiesvisitChina3.PhilosophyofYoga4.PracticeofDhyana5.ThouandsofbookstranslatedintoChinese6. Cave temples andmonastic complexes built inChinaKorea-IndianCulturalelementsbrought

PhilosophyReligionTheartofmakingimagesPaintingMetallurgyDhyanaYogaPhilosophyIndianScriptssenttoKoreaJapan-1.Buddismgivenstatusasstatusreligion2.Sanskritwasacceptedasthesacredlanguage

3.SanskritlanguagebecameacementingforcebetweenjapanandIndia 2+2+2+2 8