Index

ContentsArticles

Management 1Marketing strategy 8Marketing plan 11Promotion (marketing) 20Brand 22Positioning (marketing) 33The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing 36

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 38Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 40

Article LicensesLicense 41

Management 1

ManagementManagement in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desiredgoals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning,organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities)or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation ofhuman resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.Since organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as human action, including design,to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a system. This view opens the opportunity to 'manage' oneself, apre-requisite to attempting to manage others.

HistoryThe verb manage comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle — especially tools), which in turn derives from theLatin manus (hand). The French word mesnagement (later ménagement) influenced the development in meaning ofthe English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries.[1]

Some definitions of management are:• Organization and coordination of the activities of an enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in

achievement of clearly defined objectives. Management is often included as a factor of production along withmachines, materials, and money. According to the management guru Peter Drucker (1909–2005), the basic taskof a management is twofold: marketing and innovation.

• Directors and managers have the power and responsibility to make decisions to manage an enterprise when giventhe authority by the shareholders. As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions offormulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the firm's resources to achievethe policy's objectives. The size of management can range from one person in a small firm to hundreds orthousands of managers in multinational companies. In large firms the board of directors formulates the policywhich is implemented by the chief executive officer.

Theoretical scopeAt the beginning, one thinks of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basisand of adjusting some initial plan; or as the actions taken to reach one's intended goal. This applies even in situationswhere planning does not take place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol(1841–1925)[2] considers management toconsist of six functions:forecasting, planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. He was one ofthe most influential contributors to modern concepts of management.Another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), who wrote on the topic in the early twentieth century,defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She described management as philosophy.[3]

Some people, however, find this definition, while useful, far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managersdo" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions, and theconnection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class.One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes managementin places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More realistically, however, everyorganization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, etc. in order to maximize its effectiveness.Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments which teach management as "business schools." Someinstitutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name while others (such as the Yale School ofManagement) employ the more inclusive term "management."

Management 2

English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing themanagers of an organization, for example of a corporation. Historically this use of the term was often contrasted withthe term "Labor" referring to those being managed.

Nature of managerial workIn for-profit work, management has as its primary function the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. This typicallyinvolves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), andproviding rewarding employment opportunities (for employees). In nonprofit management, add the importance ofkeeping the faith of donors. In most models of management/governance, shareholders vote for the board of directors,and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such asemployee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers; but this occurs only very rarely.In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies, voters elect politicians to public office.Such politicians hire many managers and administrators, and in some countries like the United States politicalappointees lose their jobs on the election of a new president/governor/mayor.

Historical developmentDifficulties arise in tracing the history of management. Some see it (by definition) as a late modern (in the sense oflate modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, only harbingers (such asstewards). Others, however, detect management-like-thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders of thepyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating adependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given theirsmall scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such asthe spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494)provided tools for management assessment, planning and control.Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before theindustrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functionsby and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners(individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists inplanning and control) gradually became more common.

Early writingWhile management has been present for millennia, several writers have created a background of works that assistedin modern management theories.[4]

Sun Tzu's The Art of War

Written by Chinese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC, The Art of War is a military strategy book that, formanagerial purposes, recommends being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager'sorganization and a foe's.[4]

Management 3

Chanakya's Arthashastra

Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra around 300BC in which various strategies, techniques and management theorieswere written which gives an account on the management of empires, economy and family. The work is oftencompared to the later works of Machiavelli.

Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince

Believing that people were motivated by self-interest, Niccolò Machiavelli wrote The Prince in 1513 as advice forthe city of Florence, Italy.[5] Machiavelli recommended that leaders use fear—but not hatred—to maintain control.

Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations

Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The Wealth of Nations aims for efficient organizationof work through Specialization of labor.[5] Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in themanufacture of pins. While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved inmanufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled production of 48,000 pins per day.[5]

19th centuryClassical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a theoreticalbackground to resource-allocation, production, and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney(1765–1825), James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) developed elements of technicalproduction such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, andwork-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy.That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-massproduction.By the late 19th century, marginal economists Alfred Marshall (1842–1924), Léon Walras (1834–1910), and othersintroduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical underpinnings of management. Joseph Wharton offered thefirst tertiary-level course in management in 1881.

20th centuryBy about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientificbasis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science ofmanagement in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Frank andLillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first collegemanagement textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became first managementconsultant of the "Japanese-management style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance.The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School invented theMaster of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and AlexanderChurch described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, peoplelike Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management,while other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), Chester Barnard(1886–1961), Max Weber (1864–1920), Rensis Likert (1903–1981), and Chris Argyris (1923 - ) approached thephenomenon of management from a sociological perspective.Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation(published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a studyof the organisation. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett combined these statistical theories with microeconomic theory

Management 4

and gave birth to the science of operations research. Operations research, sometimes known as "managementscience" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solvingmanagement problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations.Some of the more recent developments include the Theory of Constraints, management by objectives, reengineering,Six Sigma and various information-technology-driven theories such as agile software development, as well as groupmanagement theories such as Cog's Ladder.As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitionersof the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems ofmanagement ideas to peddle their wares. In this context many management fads may have had more to do with poppsychology than with scientific theories of management.Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches, namely:• Human resource management• Operations management or production management• Strategic management• Marketing management• Financial management• Information technology management responsible for management information systems

21st centuryIn the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in thisway. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of thevarious processes, tasks, and objects subject to management.Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as public administration,public management, and educational management. Further, management programs related to civil-societyorganizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship.Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business ethics viewpoints,critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.As one consequence, workplace democracy has become both more common, and more advocated, in some placesdistributing all management functions among the workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However,these models predate any current political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy. Allmanagement to some degree embraces democratic principles in that in the long term workers must give majoritysupport to management; otherwise they leave to find other work, or go on strike. Despite the move toward workplacedemocracy, command-and-control organization structures remain commonplace and the de facto organizationstructure. Indeed, the entrenched nature of command-and-control can be seen in the way that recent layoffs havebeen conducted with management ranks affected far less than employees at the lower levels of organizations. Insome cases, management has even rewarded itself with bonuses when lower level employees have been laid off.[6]

According to leading leadership academic Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, it seems almost inevitable these days thatthere will be some personality disorders in a senior management team.[7]

Management 5

Topics

The photo shows a training meeting with factory workers in a stainless steel ecodesigncompany from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Endomarketing is a part of the management and is

very important to motivate the work force

Basic functions

Management operates through variousfunctions, often classified as planning,organizing, staffing, leading/directing,and controlling/monitoring.i.e• Planning: Deciding what needs to

happen in the future (today, nextweek, next month, next year, overthe next 5 years, etc.) andgenerating plans for action.

• Organizing: (Implementation)making optimum use of theresources required to enable thesuccessful carrying out of plans.

• Staffing: Job Analyzing,recruitment, and hiring individualsfor appropriate jobs.

• Leading/Directing: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to do it.• Controlling/Monitoring: Checking progress against plans.• Motivation : Motivation is also a kind of basic function of management, because without motivation, employees

cannot work effectively. If motivation doesn't take place in an organization, then employees may not contribute tothe other functions (which are usually set by top level management).

Basic roles• Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees.• Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information.• Decisional: roles that require decision-making.

Management skills• Technical: used for specialized knowledge required for work.• Political: used to build a power base and establish connections.• Conceptual: used to analyze complex situations.• Interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate.• Diagnostic: ability to visualise most appropriate response to a situation .[8]

Management 6

Formation of the business policy• The mission of the business is the most obvious purpose—which may be, for example, to make soap.• The vision of the business reflects its aspirations and specifies its intended direction or future destination.• The objectives of the business refers to the ends or activity at which a certain task is aimed.• The business's policy is a guide that stipulates rules, regulations and objectives, and may be used in the managers'

decision-making. It must be flexible and easily interpreted and understood by all employees.• The business's strategy refers to the coordinated plan of action that it is going to take, as well as the resources that

it will use, to realize its vision and long-term objectives. It is a guideline to managers, stipulating how they oughtto allocate and utilize the factors of production to the business's advantage. Initially, it could help the managersdecide on what type of business they want to form.

Implementation of policies and strategies

• All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff.• Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies.• A plan of action must be devised for each department.• Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.• Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.• Assessments of progress ought to be carried out regularly by top-level managers.• A good environment and team spirit is required within the business.• The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be analysed to determine their roles

in achieving the business's mission.• The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment.• A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed

at achieving the same mission and objectives.All policies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff that is required in the execution of anydepartmental policy.• Organizational change is strategically achieved through the implementation of the eight-step plan of action

established by John P. Kotter: Increase urgency, get the vision right, communicate the buy-in, empower action,create short-term wins, don't let up, and make change stick.

[9]

Policies and strategies in the planning process

• They give mid- and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an organization.• A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made.• Mid- and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategic ones.

Levels of managementIn organizations, there are generally three different levels of managers: first-level managers, middle-level managers,and top-level managers. These levels of managers are classified in a hierarchy of importance and authority, and arealso arranged by the different types of management tasks that each role does. In many organizations, the number ofmanagers in every level resembles a pyramid, in which the first-level has many more managers than middle-leveland top-level managers, respectively. Each management level is explained below in specifications of their differentresponsibilities and likely job titles.[10]

Management 7

Top-Level Managers

Typically consist of Board of Directors, President, Vice President, Chief Executive Officers, etc. These individualsare mainly responsible for controlling and overseeing all the departments in the organization. They develop goals,strategic plans, and policies for the company, as well as make many decisions on the direction of the business. Inaddition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources and are for the most partresponsible for the shareholders and general public.According to Lawrence S. Kleiman, the following skills are needed at the top managerial level. [11]

• Broadening their understanding of how factors such as competition, world economies, politics, and social trendsinfluence the effectiveness of the organization.

Middle-Level Managers

Typically consist of General Managers, Branch Managers, Department Managers, etc. These individuals are mainlyresponsible to the top management for the functioning of their department. They devote more time to organizationaland directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing plans of the organization in conformance withthe company's policies and the objectives of the top management, they define and discuss information and policiesfrom top management to lower management, and most importantly they inspire and provide guidance to lower levelmanagers towards better performance.• Designing and implementing effective group and intergroup work and information systems.• Defining and monitoring group-level performance indicators.• Diagnosing and resolving problems within and among work groups.• Designing and implementing reward systems that support cooperative behavior.

First-Level Managers

Typically consist of Supervisors, Section Officers, Foreman, etc. These individuals focus more on the controllingand direction of management functions. For instance, they assign tasks and jobs to employees, guide and superviseemployees on day-to-day activities, look after the quantity and quality of the production of the company, makerecommendations, suggestions, and communicate employee problems to the higher level above, etc. In this level,managers are the "image builders" of the company considering they are the only ones who have direct contact withemployees.• Basic supervision.• Motivation.• Career planning.• Performance feedback.

References[1] Oxford English Dictionary[2] Administration industrielle et générale - prévoyance organization - commandment, coordination – contrôle, Paris : Dunod, 1966[3] Vocational Business: Training, Developing and Motivating People by Richard Barrett - Business & Economics - 2003. - Page 51.[4] Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin and Robert L. Cardy (2008). Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition. New York,

New York USA: McGraw-Hill. pp. 19. ISBN 978-0-07-302743-2.[5] Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin and Robert L. Cardy (2008). Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition. New York,

New York USA: McGraw-Hill. pp. 20. ISBN 978-0-07-302743-2.[6] Craig, S. (2009, January 29). Merrill Bonus Case Widens as Deal Struggles. Wall Street Journal. (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/

SB123318892645426723. html?mod=googlenews_wsj)[7] Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries The Dark Side of Leadership - Business Strategy Review 14(3), Autumn Page 26 (2003).[8] Kleiman, Lawrence S. "Management and Executive Development." Reference for Business: Encyclopedia of Business (2010): n. pag. Web.

25 Mar 2011. (http:/ / www. referenceforbusiness. com/ management/ Log-Mar/ Management-and-Executive-Development. html).[9] Kotter, John P. & Dan S. Cohen. (2002). The Heart of Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.

Management 8

[10] Juneja hu Juneja, FirstHimanshu, and Prachi Juneja. "Management." Management Study Guide. WebCraft Pvt Ltd, 2011. Web. 17 Mar2011. (http:/ / www. managementstudyguide. com/ management_levels. htm).

[11] Kleiman, Lawrence S. " MANAGEMENT AND EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT."Reference for Business:Encyclopedia ofBusiness(2010): n. pag. Web. 25 Mar 2011. (http:/ / www. referenceforbusiness. com/ management/ Log-Mar/Management-and-Executive-Development. html).

Marketing strategy

Marketing

Key concepts

Product • PricingDistribution • Service • Retail

Brand managementAccount-based marketing

Marketing ethicsMarketing effectiveness

Market researchMarket segmentationMarketing strategy

Marketing managementMarket dominance

Promotional content

Advertising • Branding • UnderwritingDirect marketing • Personal Sales

Product placement • PublicitySales promotion • Sex in advertising

Loyalty marketing • Premiums • Prizes

Promotional media

Printing • PublicationBroadcasting • Out-of-home

Internet marketing • Point of salePromotional merchandise

Digital marketing • In-gameIn-store demonstration

Word-of-mouth marketingBrand Ambassador • Drip Marketing

Marketing strategy is a process that can allow an organization to concentrate its limited resources on the greatestopportunities to increase sales and achieve a sustainable competitive advantage.[1]

Developing a marketing strategyMarketing strategies serve as the fundamental underpinning of marketing plans designed to fill market needs andreach marketing objectives.[2] Plans and objectives are generally tested for measurable results. Commonly, marketingstrategies are developed as multi-year plans, with a tactical plan detailing specific actions to be accomplished in thecurrent year. Time horizons covered by the marketing plan vary by company, by industry, and by nation, however,time horizons are becoming shorter as the speed of change in the environment increases.[3] Marketing strategies aredynamic and interactive. They are partially planned and partially unplanned. See strategy dynamics.Marketing strategy involves careful scanning of the internal and external environments which are summarized in a SWOT analysis.[4] Internal environmental factors include the marketing mix, plus performance analysis and strategic

Marketing strategy 9

constraints.[5] External environmental factors include customer analysis, competitor analysis, target market analysis,as well as evaluation of any elements of the technological, economic, cultural or political/legal environment likely toimpact success.[3] [6] A key component of marketing strategy is often to keep marketing in line with a company'soverarching mission statement.[7] Besides SWOT analysis, portfolio analyses such as the GE/McKinsey matrix [8] orCOPE analysis[9] can be performed to determine the strategic focus.Once a thorough environmental scan is complete, a strategic plan can be constructed to identify business alternatives,establish challenging goals, determine the optimal marketing mix to attain these goals, and detail implementation.[3]

A final step in developing a marketing strategy is to create a plan to monitor progress and a set of contingencies ifproblems arise in the implementation of the plan.

Types of strategiesMarketing strategies may differ depending on the unique situation of the individual business. However there are anumber of ways of categorizing some generic strategies. A brief description of the most common categorizingschemes is presented below:• Strategies based on market dominance - In this scheme, firms are classified based on their market share or

dominance of an industry. Typically there are four types of market dominance strategies:• Leader• Challenger• Follower• Nicher

• Porter generic strategies - strategy on the dimensions of strategic scope and strategic strength. Strategic scoperefers to the market penetration while strategic strength refers to the firm’s sustainable competitive advantage. Thegeneric strategy framework (porter 1984) comprises two alternatives each with two alternative scopes. These areDifferentiation and low-cost leadership each with a dimension of Focus-broad or narrow.• Product differentiation (broad)• Cost leadership (broad)• Market segmentation (narrow)

• Innovation strategies - This deals with the firm's rate of the new product development and business modelinnovation. It asks whether the company is on the cutting edge of technology and business innovation. There arethree types:• Pioneers• Close followers• Late followers

• Growth strategies - In this scheme we ask the question, “How should the firm grow?”. There are a number ofdifferent ways of answering that question, but the most common gives four answers:• Horizontal integration• Vertical integration• Diversification• Intensification

A more detailed scheme uses the categories[10] :• Prospector• Analyzer• Defender• Reactor• Marketing warfare strategies - This scheme draws parallels between marketing strategies and military strategies.

Marketing strategy 10

Strategic modelsMarketing participants often employ strategic models and tools to analyze marketing decisions. When beginning astrategic analysis, the 3Cs can be employed to get a broad understanding of the strategic environment. An AnsoffMatrix is also often used to convey an organization's strategic positioning of their marketing mix. The 4Ps can thenbe utilized to form a marketing plan to pursue a defined strategy.There are many companies especially those in the Consumer Package Goods (CPG) market that adopt the theory ofrunning their business centered around Consumer, Shopper & Retailer needs. Their Marketing departments spendquality time looking for "Growth Opportunities" in their categories by identifying relevant insights (both mindsetsand behaviors) on their target Consumers, Shoppers and retail partners. These Growth Opportunities emerge fromchanges in market trends, segment dynamics changing and also internal brand or operational business challenges.TheMarketing team can then prioritize these Growth Opportunities and begin to develop strategies to exploit theopportunities that could include new or adapted products, services as well as changes to the 7Ps.

Real-life marketingReal-life marketing primarily revolves around the application of a great deal of common-sense; dealing with alimited number of factors, in an environment of imperfect information and limited resources complicated byuncertainty and tight timescales. Use of classical marketing techniques, in these circumstances, is inevitably partialand uneven.Thus, for example, many new products will emerge from irrational processes and the rational development processmay be used (if at all) to screen out the worst non-runners. The design of the advertising, and the packaging, will bethe output of the creative minds employed; which management will then screen, often by 'gut-reaction', to ensure thatit is reasonable.For most of their time, marketing managers use intuition and experience to analyze and handle the complex, andunique, situations being faced; without easy reference to theory. This will often be 'flying by the seat of the pants', or'gut-reaction'; where the overall strategy, coupled with the knowledge of the customer which has been absorbedalmost by a process of osmosis, will determine the quality of the marketing employed. This, almost instinctivemanagement, is what is sometimes called 'coarse marketing'; to distinguish it from the refined, aesthetically pleasing,form favored by the theorists.

References[1] Baker, Michael The Strategic Marketing Plan Audit 2008. ISBN 1902433998. p.3[2] Marketing basics Marketing strategy based on market needs, targets and goals (http:/ / perso. orange. fr/ pgreenfinch/ mkting/ mkting3. htm).[3] Aaker, David Strategic Market Management 2008. ISBN 9780470056233[4] Hausman Marketing Letter Definition of Marketing Series (http:/ / hausmanmarketresearch. org/ marketing-strategy/

definition-of-marketing-series-marketing-strategy/ )[5] Aaker, David Strategic Market Management 2008. ISBN 9780470056233.[6] http:/ / www. marketingthatworks. tv/ marketing-explained-in-short-easy-words/ definition-of-marketing-series-marketing-strategy. html

MarketingThatWorks.TV Marketing Strategy.[7] Baker, Michael The Strategic Marketing Plan Audit 2008. ISBN 1902433998. p. 27[8] (http:/ / www. mckinseyquarterly. com/ Enduring_ideas_The_GE-McKinsey_nine-box_matrix_2198)[9] COPE analysis explained (http:/ / www. copeanalysis. com)[10] Miles, Raymond (2003). Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804748403.

Marketing strategy 11

Further reading• Laermer, Richard; Simmons, Mark, Punk Marketing, New York : Harper Collins, 2007 ISBN 978-0-06-115110-1

(Review of the book by Marilyn Scrizzi, in Journal of Consumer Marketing 24(7), 2007)

Marketing planA marketing plan may be part of an overall business plan.Solid marketing strategy is the foundation of a well-written marketing plan. While a marketing plan contains a list ofactions, a marketing plan without a sound strategic foundation is of little use.

The marketing planning processMarketing process can be realized by the marketing mix in step 4. The last step in the process is the marketingcontrolling. In most organizations, "strategic planning" is an annual process, typically covering just the year ahead.Occasionally, a few organizations may look at a practical plan which stretches three or more years ahead.To be most effective, the plan has to be formalized, usually in written form, as a formal "marketing plan." Theessence of the process is that it moves from the general to the specific, from the vision to the mission to the goals tothe corporate objectives of the organization, then down to the individual action plans for each part of the marketingprogram. It is also an interactive process, so that the draft output of each stage is checked to see what impact it hason the earlier stages, and is amended.

Marketing planning aims and objectivesBehind the corporate objectives, which in themselves offer the main context for the marketing plan, will lie the"corporate mission," which in turn provides the context for these corporate objectives. In a sales-orientedorganization, the marketing planning function designs incentive pay plans to not only motivate and reward frontlinestaff fairly but also to align marketing activities with corporate mission.This "corporate mission" can be thought of as a definition of what the organization is, of what it does: "Our businessis …". This definition should not be too narrow, or it will constrict the development of the organization; a toorigorous concentration on the view that "We are in the business of making meat-scales," as IBM was during the early1900s, might have limited its subsequent development into other areas. On the other hand, it should not be too wideor it will become meaningless; "We want to make a profit" is not too helpful in developing specific plans.Abell suggested that the definition should cover three dimensions: "customer groups" to be served, "customer needs"to be served, and "technologies" to be used.[1] Thus, the definition of IBM's "corporate mission" in the 1940s mightwell have been: "We are in the business of handling accounting information [customer need] for the larger USorganizations [customer group] by means of punched cards [technology]."Perhaps the most important factor in successful marketing is the "corporate vision." Surprisingly, it is largelyneglected by marketing textbooks, although not by the popular exponents of corporate strategy - indeed, it wasperhaps the main theme of the book by Peters and Waterman, in the form of their "Superordinate Goals." "In Searchof Excellence" said: "Nothing drives progress like the imagination. The idea precedes the deed." [2] If theorganization in general, and its chief executive in particular, has a strong vision of where its future lies, then there isa good chance that the organization will achieve a strong position in its markets (and attain that future). This will benot least because its strategies will be consistent and will be supported by its staff at all levels. In this context, all ofIBM's marketing activities were underpinned by its philosophy of "customer service," a vision originally promotedby the charismatic Watson dynasty. The emphasis at this stage is on obtaining a complete and accurate picture.

Marketing plan 12

A "traditional" - albeit product-based - format for a "brand reference book" (or, indeed, a "marketing facts book")was suggested by Godley more than three decades ago:1. Financial data—Facts for this section will come from management accounting, costing and finance sections.2. Product data—From production, research and development.3. Sales and distribution data - Sales, packaging, distribution sections.4. Advertising, sales promotion, merchandising data - Information from these departments.5. Market data and miscellany - From market research, who would in most cases act as a source for this information.

His sources of data, however, assume the resources of a very large organization. In most organizations they wouldbe obtained from a much smaller set of people (and not a few of them would be generated by the marketingmanager alone).

It is apparent that a marketing audit can be a complex process, but the aim is simple: "it is only to identify thoseexisting (external and internal) factors which will have a significant impact on the future plans of the company." It isclear that the basic material to be input to the marketing audit should be comprehensive.Accordingly, the best approach is to accumulate this material continuously, as and when it becomes available; sincethis avoids the otherwise heavy workload involved in collecting it as part of the regular, typically annual, planningprocess itself - when time is usually at a premium.Even so, the first task of this annual process should be to check that the material held in the current facts book orfacts files actually is comprehensive and accurate, and can form a sound basis for the marketing audit itself.The structure of the facts book will be designed to match the specific needs of the organization, but one simpleformat - suggested by Malcolm McDonald - may be applicable in many cases. This splits the material into threegroups:1. Review of the marketing environment. A study of the organization's markets, customers, competitors and the

overall economic, political, cultural and technical environment; covering developing trends, as well as the currentsituation.

2. Review of the detailed marketing activity. A study of the company's marketing mix; in terms of the 7 Ps - (seebelow)

3. Review of the marketing system. A study of the marketing organization, marketing research systems and thecurrent marketing objectives and strategies. The last of these is too frequently ignored. The marketing systemitself needs to be regularly questioned, because the validity of the whole marketing plan is reliant upon theaccuracy of the input from this system, and `garbage in, garbage out' applies with a vengeance.

• Portfolio planning. In addition, the coordinated planning of the individual products and services cancontribute towards the balanced portfolio.

• 80:20 rule. To achieve the maximum impact, the marketing plan must be clear, concise and simple. It needsto concentrate on the 20 percent of products or services, and on the 20 percent of customers, that willaccount for 80 percent of the volume and 80 percent of the profit.

• 7 Ps: Product, Place, Price and Promotion, Physical Environment, People, Process. The 7 Ps can sometimesdivert attention from the customer, but the framework they offer can be very useful in building the actionplans.

It is only at this stage (of deciding the marketing objectives) that the active part of the marketing planning process begins. This next stage in marketing planning is indeed the key to the whole marketing process. The "marketing objectives" state just where the company intends to be at some specific time in the future. James Quinn succinctly defined objectives in general as: Goals (or objectives) state what is to be achieved and when results are to be accomplished, but they do not state "how" the results are to be achieved.[3] They typically relate to what products (or services) will be where in what markets (and must be realistically based on customer behavior in those markets). They are essentially about the match between those "products" and "markets." Objectives for pricing, distribution, advertising and so on are at a lower level, and should not be confused with marketing objectives. They

Marketing plan 13

are part of the marketing strategy needed to achieve marketing objectives. To be most effective, objectives should becapable of measurement and therefore "quantifiable." This measurement may be in terms of sales volume, moneyvalue, market share, percentage penetration of distribution outlets and so on. An example of such a measurablemarketing objective might be "to enter the market with product Y and capture 10 percent of the market by valuewithin one year." As it is quantified it can, within limits, be unequivocally monitored, and corrective action taken asnecessary.The marketing objectives must usually be based, above all, on the organization's financial objectives; convertingthese financial measurements into the related marketing measurements.He went on to explain his view of the role of"policies," with which strategy is most often confused: "Policies are rules or guidelines that express the 'limits' withinwhich action should occur."Simplifying somewhat, marketing strategies can be seen as the means, or "game plan,"by which marketing objectives will be achieved and, in the framework that we have chosen to use, are generallyconcerned with the 8 P's. Examples are:1. Price - The amount of money needed to buy products2. Product - The actual product3. Promotion (advertising)- Getting the product known4. Placement - Where the product is located5. People - Represent the business6. Physical environment - The ambiance, mood, or tone of the environment7. Process - How do people obtain your product8. Packaging - How the product will be protected(Note: At GCSE the 4 Ps are Place, Promotion, Product and Price and the "secret" 5th P is Packaging, but whichapplies only to physical products, not services usually, and mostly those sold to individual consumers)In principle, these strategies describe how the objectives will be achieved. The 7 Ps are a useful framework fordeciding how the company's resources will be manipulated (strategically) to achieve the objectives. However, theyare not the only framework, and may divert attention from the real issues. The focus of the strategies must be theobjectives to be achieved - not the process of planning itself. Only if it fits the needs of these objectives should youchoose, as we have done, to use the framework of the 7 Ps.The strategy statement can take the form of a purely verbal description of the strategic options which have beenchosen. Alternatively, and perhaps more positively, it might include a structured list of the major options chosen.One aspect of strategy which is often overlooked is that of "timing." Exactly when it is the best time for each elementof the strategy to be implemented is often critical. Taking the right action at the wrong time can sometimes be almostas bad as taking the wrong action at the right time. Timing is, therefore, an essential part of any plan; and shouldnormally appear as a schedule of planned activities.Having completed this crucial stage of the planning process, youwill need to re-check the feasibility of your objectives and strategies in terms of the market share, sales, costs, profitsand so on which these demand in practice. As in the rest of the marketing discipline, you will need to employjudgment, experience, market research or anything else which helps you to look at your conclusions from all possibleangles.

Detailed plans and programsAt this stage,you will need to develop your overall marketing strategies into detailed plans and program. Althoughthese detailed plans may cover each of the 7 Ps (marketing mix), the focus will vary, depending upon yourorganization's specific strategies. A product-oriented company will focus its plans for the 7 Ps around each of itsproducts. A market or geographically oriented company will concentrate on each market or geographical area. Eachwill base its plans upon the detailed needs of its customers, and on the strategies chosen to satisfy these needs.Brochures and Websites are used effectively.

Marketing plan 14

Again, the most important element is, indeed, that of the detailed plans, which spell out exactly what programs andindividual activities will take place over the period of the plan (usually over the next year). Without these specified -and preferably quantified - activities the plan cannot be monitored, even in terms of success in meeting itsobjectives.It is these programs and activities which will then constitute the "marketing" of the organization over theperiod. As a result, these detailed marketing programs are the most important, practical outcome of the wholeplanning process. These plans must therefore be:• Clear - They should be an unambiguous statement of 'exactly' what is to be done.• Quantified - The predicted outcome of each activity should be, as far as possible, quantified, so that its

performance can be monitored.• Focused - The temptation to proliferate activities beyond the numbers which can be realistically controlled should

be avoided. The 80:20 Rule applies in this context too.• Realistic - They should be achievable.• Agreed - Those who are to implement them should be committed to them, and agree that they are achievable. The

resulting plans should become a working document which will guide the campaigns taking place throughout theorganization over the period of the plan. If the marketing plan is to work, every exception to it (throughout theyear) must be questioned; and the lessons learnt, to be incorporated in the next year's .

Content of the marketing planA marketing plan for a small business typically includes Small Business Administration Description of competitors,including the level of demand for the product or service and the strengths and weaknesses of competitors1. Description of the product or service, including special features2. Marketing budget, including the advertising and promotional plan3. Description of the business location, including advantages and disadvantages for marketing4. Pricing strategy5. Market Segmentation

Medium-sized and large organizationsThe main contents of a marketing plan are:[4]

1. Executive Summary2. Situational Analysis3. Opportunities / Issue Analysis - SWOT Analysis4. Objectives5. Strategy6. Action Program (the operational marketing plan itself for the period under review)7. Financial Forecast8. Controls

In detail, a complete marketing plan typically includes:[4]

1. Title page2. Executive Summary3. Current Situation - Macroenvironment

• economy• legal• government• technology• ecological

Marketing plan 15

• sociocultural• supply chain

4. Current Situation - Market Analysis• market definition• market size• market segmentation• industry structure and strategic groupings• Porter 5 forces analysis• competition and market share• competitors' strengths and weaknesses• market trends

5. Current Situation - Consumer Analysis [5]

• nature of the buying decision• participants• demographics• psychographics• buyer motivation and expectations• loyalty segments

6. Current Situation - Internal• company resources

• financial• people• time• skills

• objectives• mission statement and vision statement• corporate objectives• financial objective• marketing objectives• long term objectives• description of the basic business philosophy

• corporate culture7. Summary of Situation Analysis

• external threats• external opportunities• internal strengths• internal weaknesses• Critical success factors in the industry• our sustainable competitive advantage

8. Marketing research• information requirements• research methodology• research results

9. Marketing Strategy - Product• product mix• product strengths and weaknesses

Marketing plan 16

• perceptual mapping• product life cycle management and new product development• Brand name, brand image, and brand equity• the augmented product• product portfolio analysis

• B.C.G. Analysis• contribution margin analysis• G.E. Multi Factoral analysis• Quality Function Deployment

10. Marketing Strategy [6] - segmented marketing actions and market share objectives• by product,• by customer segment,• by geographical market,• by distribution channel.

11. Marketing Strategy - Price• pricing objectives• pricing method (e.g.: cost plus, demand based, or competitor indexing)• pricing strategy (e.g.: skimming, or penetration)• discounts and allowances• price elasticity and customer sensitivity• price zoning• break even analysis at various prices

12. Marketing Strategy - promotion• promotional goals• promotional mix• advertising reach, frequency, flights, theme, and media• sales force requirements, techniques, and management• sales promotion• publicity and public relations• electronic promotion (e.g.: Web, or telephone)• word of mouth marketing (buzz)• viral marketing

13. Marketing Strategy - Distribution• geographical coverage• distribution channels• physical distribution and logistics• electronic distribution

14. Implementation• personnel requirements

• assign responsibilities• give incentives• training on selling methods

• financial requirements• management information systems requirements• month-by-month agenda

• PERT or critical path analysis

Marketing plan 17

• monitoring results and benchmarks• adjustment mechanism• contingencies (What if's)

15. Financial Summary• assumptions• pro-forma monthly income statement• contribution margin analysis• breakeven analysis• Monte Carlo method• ISI: Internet Strategic Intelligence

16. Scenarios• Prediction of Future Scenarios• Plan of Action for each Scenario

17. Appendix• pictures and specifications of the new product• results from research already completed

Measurement of progressThe final stage of any marketing planning process is to establish targets (or standards) so that progress can bemonitored. Accordingly, it is important to put both quantities and timescales into the marketing objectives (forexample, to capture 20 percent by value of the market within two years) and into the corresponding strategies.Changes in the environment mean that the forecasts often have to be changed. Along with these, the related plansmay well also need to be changed. Continuous monitoring of performance, against predetermined targets, representsa most important aspect of this. However, perhaps even more important is the enforced discipline of a regular formalreview. Again, as with forecasts, in many cases the best (most realistic) planning cycle will revolve around aquarterly review. Best of all, at least in terms of the quantifiable aspects of the plans, if not the wealth of backingdetail, is probably a quarterly rolling review - planning one full year ahead each new quarter. Of course, this doesabsorb more planning resource; but it also ensures that the plans embody the latest information, and - with attentionfocused on them so regularly - forces both the plans and their implementation to be realistic.Plans only have validity if they are actually used to control the progress of a company: their success lies in theirimplementation, not in the writing'.

Performance analysisThe most important elements of marketing performance, which are normally tracked, are:

Sales analysisMost organizations track their sales results; or, in non-profit organizations for example, the number of clients. Themore sophisticated track them in terms of 'sales variance' - the deviation from the target figures - which allows amore immediate picture of deviations to become evident.`Micro-analysis', which is simply the normal management process of investigating detailed problems, theninvestigates the individual elements (individual products, sales territories, customers and so on) which are failing tomeet targets.

Marketing plan 18

Market share analysisFew organizations track market share though it is often an important metric. Though absolute sales might grow in anexpanding market, a firm's share of the market can decrease which bodes ill for future sales when the market starts todrop. Where such market share is tracked, there may be a number of aspects which will be followed:• overall market share• segment share - that in the specific, targeted segment• relative share -in relation to the market leaders• annual fluctuation rate of market share• also the specific market sharing of customers.

Expense analysisThe key ratio to watch in this area is usually the `marketing expense to sales ratio'; although this may be brokendown into other elements (advertising to sales, sales administration to sales, and so on).

Financial analysisThe "bottom line" of marketing activities should at least in theory, be the net profit (for all except non-profitorganizations, where the comparable emphasis may be on remaining within budgeted costs). There are a number ofseparate performance figures and key ratios which need to be tracked:• gross contribution<>net profit• gross profit<>return on investment• net contribution<>profit on salesThere can be considerable benefit in comparing these figures with those achieved by other organizations (especiallythose in the same industry); using, for instance, the figures which can be obtained (in the UK) from `The Centre forInterfirm Comparison'. The most sophisticated use of this approach, however, is typically by those making use ofPIMS (Profit Impact of Management Strategies), initiated by the General Electric Company and then developed byHarvard Business School, but now run by the Strategic Planning Institute.The above performance analyses concentrate on the quantitative measures which are directly related to short-termperformance. But there are a number of indirect measures, essentially tracking customer attitudes, which can alsoindicate the organization's performance in terms of its longer-term marketing strengths and may accordingly be evenmore important indicators. Some useful measures are:• market research - including customer panels (which are used to track changes over time)• lost business - the orders which were lost because, for example, the stock was not available or the product did not

meet the customer's exact requirements• customer complaints - how many customers complain about the products or services, or the organization itself,

and about what

Use of marketing plansA formal, written marketing plan is essential; in that it provides an unambiguous reference point for activitiesthroughout the planning period. However, perhaps the most important benefit of these plans is the planning processitself. This typically offers a unique opportunity, a forum, for information-rich and productively focused discussionsbetween the various managers involved. The plan, together with the associated discussions, then provides an agreedcontext for their subsequent management activities, even for those not described in the plan itself. Additionally,marketing plans are included in business plans, offering data showing investors how the company will grow andmost importantly, how they will get a return on investment.

Marketing plan 19

Budgets as managerial toolsThe classic quantification of a marketing plan appears in the form of budgets. Because these are so rigorouslyquantified, they are particularly important. They should, thus, represent an unequivocal projection of actions andexpected results. What is more, they should be capable of being monitored accurately; and, indeed, performanceagainst budget is the main (regular) management review process.The purpose of a marketing budget is, thus, to pull together all the revenues and costs involved in marketing into onecomprehensive document. It is a managerial tool that balances what is needed to be spent against what can beafforded, and helps make choices about priorities. It is then used in monitoring performance in practice.The marketing budget is usually the most powerful tool by which you think through the relationship between desiredresults and available means. Its starting point should be the marketing strategies and plans, which have already beenformulated in the marketing plan itself; although, in practice, the two will run in parallel and will interact. At thevery least, the rigorous, highly quantified, budgets may cause a rethink of some of the more optimistic elements ofthe plans.

References[1] Abell, "Defining the Business: The Starting Point of Strategic Planning"[2] "The Marketing Imagination"[3] J. B. Quinn, "Strategies for Change: Logical Incrementalism" (Richard D. Irwin, 1980)[4] Baker, Michael The Strategic Marketing Plan Audit 2008. ISBN 1902433998[5] Quick MBA Marketing plan based on consumer and competitor analyses (http:/ / www. quickmba. com/ marketing/ plan/ )[6] Marketing plan basics Table of marketing targets, actions, means and results (http:/ / perso. orange. fr/ pgreenfinch/ mkting/ mkting5. htm)

• H. A. Simon, Rational decision making in business organisations, 'American Economic Review'• J. Pfeffer and G. R. Salancik, 'The External Control of Organizations'• K. Paolo Sumagaysay, "The oversaturated world"

Promotion (marketing) 20

Promotion (marketing)

Marketing

Key concepts

Product • PricingDistribution • Service • Retail

Brand managementAccount-based marketing

Marketing ethicsMarketing effectiveness

Market researchMarket segmentationMarketing strategy

Marketing managementMarket dominance

Promotional content

Advertising • Branding • UnderwritingDirect marketing • Personal Sales

Product placement • PublicitySales promotion • Sex in advertising

Loyalty marketing • Premiums • Prizes

Promotional media

Printing • PublicationBroadcasting • Out-of-home

Internet marketing • Point of salePromotional merchandise

Digital marketing • In-gameIn-store demonstration

Word-of-mouth marketingBrand Ambassador • Drip Marketing

Promotion is one of the four elements of marketing mix (product, price, promotion, place). It is the communicationlink between sellers and buyers for the purpose of influencing, informing, or persuading a potential buyer'spurchasing decision.[1]

The following are two types of promotion:1. Above the line promotion: Promotion in mass media (e.g. TV, radio, newspapers, internet, mobile phones, and,

historically, illustrated songs) in which the advertiser pays an advertising agency to place the advertisement2. Below the line promotion: All other promotion. Much of this is intended to be subtle enough for the consumer to

be unaware that promotion is taking place. E.g. sponsorship, product placement, testimonials, sales promotion,merchandising, direct mail, personal selling, public relations, trade shows

The specification of five elements creates a promotional mix or promotional plan. These elements are personalselling, advertising, sales promotion, direct marketing, and publicity.[2] A promotional mix specifies how muchattention to pay to each of the five subcategories, and how much money to budget for each. A promotional plan canhave a wide range of objectives, including: sales increases, new product acceptance, creation of brand equity,positioning, competitive retaliations, or creation of a corporate image. Fundamentally, however there are three basicobjectives of promotion. These are:[3]

1. To present information to consumers as well as others2. To increase demand3. To differentiate a product.

Promotion (marketing) 21

There are different ways to promote a product in different areas of media. Promoters use internet advertisement,special events, endorsements, and newspapers to advertise their product. Many times with the purchase of a productthere is an incentive like discounts, free items, or a contest. This is to increase the sales of a given product.The term "promotion" is usually an "in" expression used internally by the marketing company, but not normally tothe public or the market - phrases like "special offer" are more common. An example of a fully integrated, long-term,large-scale promotion are My Coke Rewards and Pepsi Stuff. The UK version of My Coke Rewards is Coke Zone.

Notes[1] Kurtz, Dave. (2010). Contemporary Marketing Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.[2] Rajagopal. (2007) Marketing Dynamics: Theory and Practice. New Delhi, India: New Age International. Retrieved April 5, 2010, from NJIT

EBook Library: http:/ / www. njit. eblib. com. libdb. njit. edu:8888/ patron/ FullRecord. aspx?p=437711[3] Kurtz, Dave. (2010). Contemporary Marketing Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.

Brand 22

Brand

The Coca-Cola logo is an example of a widely-recognised trademarkrepresenting a global brand.

Marketing

Key concepts

Product • PricingDistribution • Service • Retail

Brand managementAccount-based marketing

Marketing ethicsMarketing effectiveness

Market researchMarket segmentationMarketing strategy

Marketing managementMarket dominance

Promotional content

Advertising • Branding • UnderwritingDirect marketing • Personal Sales

Product placement • PublicitySales promotion • Sex in advertising

Loyalty marketing • Premiums • Prizes

Promotional media

Printing • PublicationBroadcasting • Out-of-home

Internet marketing • Point of salePromotional merchandise

Digital marketing • In-gameIn-store demonstration

Word-of-mouth marketingBrand Ambassador • Drip Marketing

A brand is the identity of a specific product, service, or business.[1]

A brand can take many forms, including a name, sign, symbol, color combination or slogan. The word brandingbegan simply as a way to tell one person's cattle from another by means of a hot iron stamp. A legally protectedbrand name is called a trademark. The word brand has continued to evolve to encompass identity - it affects thepersonality of a product, company or service.A concept brand is a brand that is associated with an abstract concept, like breast cancer awareness orenvironmentalism, rather than a specific product, service, or business. A commodity brand is a brand associatedwith a commodity. Got milk? is an example of a commodity brand.In the automotive industry, brands were originally called marques, and marque is still often used as a synonym forbrand in reference to motor vehicles.[2]

Brand 23

The word "brand" is sometimes used as a metonym, referring to a company that is strongly identified with a brand.

ConceptsBrand is the personality that identifies a product, service or company (name, term, sign, symbol, or design, orcombination of them) and how it relates to key constituencies: customers, staff, partners, investors etc.Some people distinguish the psychological aspect, brand associations like thoughts, feelings, perceptions, images,experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and so on that become linked to the brand, of a brand from the experiential aspect.The experiential aspect consists of the sum of all points of contact with the brand and is known as the brandexperience. The psychological aspect, sometimes referred to as the brand image, is a symbolic construct createdwithin the minds of people, consisting of all the information and expectations associated with a product, service orthe company(ies) providing them.People engaged in branding seek to develop or align the expectations behind the brand experience, creating theimpression that a brand associated with a product or service has certain qualities or characteristics that make itspecial or unique. A brand is therefore one of the most valuable elements in an advertising theme, as it demonstrateswhat the brand owner is able to offer in the marketplace. The art of creating and maintaining a brand is called brandmanagement. Orientation of the whole organization towards its brand is called brand orientation.Careful brand management seeks to make the product or services relevant to the target audience. Brands should beseen as more than the difference between the actual cost of a product and its selling price - they represent the sum ofall valuable qualities of a product to the consumer.A brand which is widely known in the marketplace acquires brand recognition. When brand recognition builds upto a point where a brand enjoys a critical mass of positive sentiment in the marketplace, it is said to have achievedbrand franchise. One goal in brand recognition is the identification of a brand without the name of the companypresent. For example, Disney has been successful at branding with their particular script font (originally created forWalt Disney's "signature" logo), which it used in the logo for go.com.Consumers may look on branding as an important value added aspect of products or services, as it often serves todenote a certain attractive quality or characteristic (see also brand promise). From the perspective of brand owners,branded products or services also command higher prices. Where two products resemble each other, but one of theproducts has no associated branding (such as a generic, store-branded product), people may often select the moreexpensive branded product on the basis of the quality of the brand or the reputation of the brand owner.

Brand awarenessBrand awareness refers to customers' ability to recall and recognize the brand under different conditions and link tothe brand name, logo, jingles and so on to certain associations in memory. It helps the customers to understand towhich product or service category the particular brand belongs and what products and services are sold under thebrand name. It also ensures that customers know which of their needs are satisfied by the brand through its products(Keller). Brand awareness is of critical importance since customers will not consider your brand if they are not awareof it.[3]

'Brand love', or love of a brand, is an emerging term encompassing the perceived value of the brand image. Brandlove levels are measured through social media posts about a brand, or tweets on sites such as Twitter. Becoming aFacebook fan of a particular brand is also a measurement of the level of 'brand love'.

Brand 24

Brand promiseThe marketer and owner of the brand has a vision of what the brand must be and do for the consumers.[4]

Brand promise is what a particular brand stands for (and has stood for in the past). It has its roots from the identitythat it gains over a period of time. Usually, brand promise is an attribute common to ' Parent ' brands. Herein, thebrand may broadly stand for Quality, Performance, Trust, or False promises. However, the extensions, or the brandsunder the parent brand umbrella, may stand individually for a particular trait which it has delivered over the years,for example, 'the best sparkling teeth', or 'the trusted bank to bank with for centuries', et al.

Global brandA global brand is one which is perceived to reflect the same set of values around the world. Global brands transcendtheir origins and create strong enduring relationships with consumers across countries and cultures. They are brandssold in international markets. Examples of global brands include Facebook, Apple, Coca-Cola, McDonald's,Mastercard, Gap, Sony and Nike. These brands are used to sell the same product across multiple markets and couldbe considered successful to the extent that the associated products are easily recognizable by the diverse set ofconsumers.

Benefits of global brandingIn addition to taking advantage of the outstanding growth opportunities, the following drives the increasing interestin taking brands global:• Economies of scale (production and distribution)• Lower marketing costs• Laying the groundwork for future extensions worldwide• Maintaining consistent brand imagery• Quicker identification and integration of innovations (discovered worldwide)• Preempting international competitors from entering domestic markets or locking you out of other geographic

markets• Increasing international media reach (especially with the explosion of the Internet) is an enabler• Increases in international business and tourism are also enablers

Global brand variablesThe following elements may differ from country to country:• Corporate slogan• Products and services• Product names• Product features• Positionings• Marketing mixes (including pricing, distribution, media and advertising execution)These differences will depend upon:• Language differences• Different styles of communication• Other cultural differences• Differences in category and brand development• Different consumption patterns• Different competitive sets and marketplace conditions• Different legal and regulatory environments

Brand 25

• Different national approaches to marketing (media, pricing, distribution, etc.)

Local brandA brand that is sold and marketed (distributed and promoted) in a relatively small and restricted geographical area. Alocal brand is a brand that can be found in only one country or region. It may be called a regional brand if the areaencompasses more than one metropolitan market. It may also be a brand that is developed for a specific nationalmarket, however an interesting thing about local brand is that the local branding is more often done by consumersthan by the producers. Examples of local brands in Sweden are Stomatol, Skånemejerier, etc.[5] [6]

Ambient brandAn ambient brand is a movement, where the brand is organized around values and social needs instead of promotinga specific product. It is a virtual space, defined by values and occupied by a community of like minded people.Whereas a traditional brand is entirely dependent on products and their parent corporations, an ambient brand is anindependent social movement that companies can participate in. They are not selling products, they are allowingtheir company to participate in a social movement and allow their brand to be identified with this. It exists as ashared values space where consumers gather, converse and ultimately transact with organizations that appear to be inalignment with the values associated with that community. Corporations do not create ambient brands. They mustqualify for inclusion within them by demonstrating that they share the values and will service the interests of theirassociated communities. The brands develop organically as a result of emerging social and cultural codes and arematerialized through people's ability to organize around them through the use of mainly virtual communities on theweb. The term as it is defined here was coined by Sara Batterby, a brand strategist in San Francisco and was used inan interview [7] on the importance of successful destination branding with Bjørn Frode Moen

Brand name

Relationship between trade marks and brand

The brand name is quite often used interchangeably with "brand",although it is more correctly used to specifically denote written orspoken linguistic elements of any product. In this context a "brandname" constitutes a type of trademark, if the brand name exclusivelyidentifies the brand owner as the commercial source of products orservices. A brand owner may seek to protect proprietary rights inrelation to a brand name through trademark registration and suchtrademarks are called "Registered Trademarks". Advertisingspokespersons have also become part of some brands, for example: Mr.Whipple of Charmin toilet tissue and Tony the Tiger of Kellogg'sFrosted Flakes. Local branding is usually done by the consumers ratherthan the producers.

Types of brand names

Brand names come in many styles.[8] A few include: Acronym: A name made of initials such as UPS or IBM Descriptive: Names that describe a product benefit or function likeWhole Foods or Airbus Alliteration and rhyme: Names that are fun to say and stick in the mind like Reese's Pieces or Dunkin' Donuts Evocative: Names that evoke a relevant vivid image like Amazon or Crest

Brand 26

Neologisms: Completely made-up words like Wii or Kodak Foreign word: Adoption of a word from another language like Volvo or Samsung Founders' names: Using the names of real people,and founder's name like Hewlett-Packard or Disney Geography: Many brands are named for regions and landmarks like Cisco and Fuji Film Personification: Many brands take their names from myth like Nike or from the minds of ad execs like BettyCrockerThe act of associating a product or service with a brand has become part of pop culture. Most products have somekind of brand identity, from common table salt to designer jeans. A brandnomer is a brand name that has colloquiallybecome a generic term for a product or service, such as Band-Aid or Kleenex, which are often used to describe anybrand of adhesive bandage or any brand of facial tissue respectively.

Brand identityThe outward expression of a brand, including its name, trademark, communications, and visual appearance.[9]

Because the identity is assembled by the brand owner, it reflects how the owner wants the consumer to perceive thebrand - and by extension the branded company, organization, product or service. This is in contrast to the brandimage, which is a customer's mental picture of a brand.[9] The brand owner will seek to bridge the gap between thebrand image and the brand identity.Effective brand names build a connection between the brand personality as it is perceived by the target audience andthe actual product/service. The brand name should be conceptually on target with the product/service (what thecompany stands for). Furthermore, the brand name should be on target with the brand demographic.[10] Typically,sustainable brand names are easy to remember, transcend trends and have positive connotations. Brand identity isfundamental to consumer recognition and symbolizes the brand's differentiation from competitors.Brand identity is what the owner wants to communicate to its potential consumers. However, over time, a product'sbrand identity may acquire (evolve), gaining new attributes from consumer perspective but not necessarily from themarketing communications an owner percolates to targeted consumers. Therefore, brand associations become handyto check the consumer's perception of the brand.[11]

Brand identity needs to focus on authentic qualities - real characteristics of the value and brand promise beingprovided and sustained by organizational and/or production characteristics.[12] [13]

Brand 27

Visual brand identity

The visual brand identity manual for Mobil Oil (developed byChermayeff & Geismar), one of the first visual identities to integrate

logotype, icon, alphabet, color palette, and station architecture tocreate a comprehensive consumer brand experience.

The recognition and perception of a brand is highlyinfluenced by its visual presentation. A brand’s visualidentity is the overall look of its communications.Effective visual brand identity is achieved by theconsistent use of particular visual elements to createdistinction, such as specific fonts, colors, and graphicelements. At the core of every brand identity is a brandmark, or logo. In the United States, brand identity andlogo design naturally grew out of the Modernistmovement in the 1950s and greatly drew on theprinciples of that movement – simplicity (Mies van derRohe’s principle of "Less is more") and geometricabstraction. These principles can be observed in thework of the pioneers of the practice of visual brandidentity design, such as Paul Rand, Chermayeff &Geismar and Saul Bass.

Brand parity

Brand parity is the perception of the customers thatsome brands are equivalent.[14] This means thatshoppers will purchase within a group of acceptedbrands rather than choosing one specific brand. Whenbrand parity is present, quality is often not a majorconcern because consumers believe that only minorquality differences exist.

Expanding role of brand

When the technique of branding first started, it was meant to make identifying and differentiating a product easier.Over time, brands came to embrace a performance or benefit promise, for the product, certainly, but eventually alsofor the company behind the brand. Today, brand plays a much bigger role. Brands have been co-opted as powerfulsymbols in larger debates about economics, social issues, and politics. The power of brands to communicate acomplex message quickly and with emotional impact and the ability of brands to attract media attention, make themideal tools in the hands of activists.[15]

Branding approaches

Company nameOften, especially in the industrial sector, it is just the company's name which is promoted (leading to one of the mostpowerful statements of branding: saying just before the company's downgrading, "No one ever got fired for buyingIBM"). This approach has not worked as well for General Motors, which recently overhauled how its corporatebrand relates to the product brands.[16] Exactly how the company name relates to product and services names isknown as brand architecture. Decisions about company names and product names and their relationship depends onmore than a dozen strategic considerations.[17]

Brand 28

In this case a strong brand name (or company name) is made the vehicle for a range of products (for example,Mercedes-Benz or Black & Decker) or a range of subsidiary brands (such as Cadbury Dairy Milk, Cadbury Flake orCadbury Fingers in the United States).

Individual brandingEach brand has a separate name (such as Seven-Up, Kool-Aid or Nivea Sun (Beiersdorf)), which may competeagainst other brands from the same company (for example, Persil, Omo, Surf and Lynx are all owned by Unilever).

Attitude branding and iconic brandsAttitude branding is the choice to represent a larger feeling, which is not necessarily connected with the product orconsumption of the product at all. Marketing labeled as attitude branding include that of Nike, Starbucks, The BodyShop, Safeway, and Apple Inc.. In the 2000 book No Logo,[18] Naomi Klein describes attitude branding as a "fetishstrategy".

"A great brand raises the bar -- it adds a greater sense of purpose to the experience, whether it's thechallenge to do your best in sports and fitness, or the affirmation that the cup of coffee you're drinkingreally matters." - Howard Schultz (president, CEO, and chairman of Starbucks)

The color, letter font and style of the Coca-Cola and Diet Coca-Colalogos in English were copied into matching Hebrew logos to

maintain brand identity in Israel.

Iconic brands are defined as having aspects thatcontribute to consumer's self-expression and personalidentity. Brands whose value to consumers comesprimarily from having identity value are said to be"identity brands". Some of these brands have such astrong identity that they become more or less culturalicons which makes them "iconic brands". Examplesare: Apple, Nike and Harley Davidson. Many iconicbrands include almost ritual-like behaviour inpurchasing or consuming the products.

There are four key elements to creating iconic brands(Holt 2004):1. "Necessary conditions" - The performance of the

product must at least be acceptable, preferably witha reputation of having good quality.

2. "Myth-making" - A meaningful storytelling fabricated by cultural insiders. These must be seen as legitimate andrespected by consumers for stories to be accepted.

3. "Cultural contradictions" - Some kind of mismatch between prevailing ideology and emergent undercurrents insociety. In other words a difference with the way consumers are and how they wish they were.

4. "The cultural brand management process" - Actively engaging in the myth-making process in making sure thebrand maintains its position as an icon.

"No-brand" brandingRecently a number of companies have successfully pursued "no-brand" strategies by creating packaging that imitates generic brand simplicity. Examples include the Japanese company Muji, which means "No label" in English (from 無印良品 – "Mujirushi Ryohin" – literally, "No brand quality goods"), and the Florida company No-Ad Sunscreen. Although there is a distinct Muji brand, Muji products are not branded. This no-brand strategy means that little is spent on advertisement or classical marketing and Muji's success is attributed to the word-of-mouth, a simple shopping experience and the anti-brand movement.[19] [20] [21] "No brand" branding may be construed as a type of

Brand 29

branding as the product is made conspicuous through the absence of a brand name. "Tapa Amarilla" or "Yellow Cap"in Venezuela during the 80s is another good example of no-brand strategy. It was simply recognized by the color ofthe cap of this cleaning products company.

Derived brandsIn this case the supplier of a key component, used by a number of suppliers of the end-product, may wish toguarantee its own position by promoting that component as a brand in its own right. The most frequently quotedexample is Intel, which positions itself in the PC market with the slogan (and sticker) "Intel Inside".

Brand extension and brand dilutionThe existing strong brand name can be used as a vehicle for new or modified products; for example, many fashionand designer companies extended brands into fragrances, shoes and accessories, home textile, home decor, luggage,(sun-) glasses, furniture, hotels, etc.Mars extended its brand to ice cream, Caterpillar to shoes and watches, Michelin to a restaurant guide, Adidas andPuma to personal hygiene. Dunlop extended its brand from tires to other rubber products such as shoes, golf balls,tennis racquets and adhesives.There is a difference between brand extension and line extension. A line extension is when a current brand name isused to enter a new market segment in the existing product class, with new varieties or flavors or sizes. WhenCoca-Cola launched "Diet Coke" and "Cherry Coke" they stayed within the originating product category:non-alcoholic carbonated beverages. Procter & Gamble (P&G) did likewise extending its strong lines (such as FairySoap) into neighboring products (Fairy Liquid and Fairy Automatic) within the same category, dish washingdetergents.The risk of over-extension is brand dilution where the brand looses its brand associations with a market segment,product area, or quality, price or cachet.

Multi-brandsAlternatively, in a market that is fragmented amongst a number of brands a supplier can choose deliberately tolaunch totally new brands in apparent competition with its own existing strong brand (and often with identicalproduct characteristics); simply to soak up some of the share of the market which will in any case go to minorbrands. The rationale is that having 3 out of 12 brands in such a market will give a greater overall share than having1 out of 10 (even if much of the share of these new brands is taken from the existing one). In its most extrememanifestation, a supplier pioneering a new market which it believes will be particularly attractive may chooseimmediately to launch a second brand in competition with its first, in order to pre-empt others entering the market.Individual brand names naturally allow greater flexibility by permitting a variety of different products, of differingquality, to be sold without confusing the consumer's perception of what business the company is in or diluting higherquality products.Once again, Procter & Gamble is a leading exponent of this philosophy, running as many as ten detergent brands inthe US market. This also increases the total number of "facings" it receives on supermarket shelves. Sara Lee, on theother hand, uses it to keep the very different parts of the business separate — from Sara Lee cakes through Kiwipolishes to L'Eggs pantyhose. In the hotel business, Marriott uses the name Fairfield Inns for its budget chain (andRamada uses Rodeway for its own cheaper hotels).Cannibalization is a particular problem of a "multibrand" approach, in which the new brand takes business awayfrom an established one which the organization also owns. This may be acceptable (indeed to be expected) if there isa net gain overall. Alternatively, it may be the price the organization is willing to pay for shifting its position in themarket; the new product being one stage in this process.

Brand 30

Private labelsWith the emergence of strong retailers, private label brands, also called own brands, or store brands, also emerged asa major factor in the marketplace. Where the retailer has a particularly strong identity (such as Marks & Spencer inthe UK clothing sector) this "own brand" may be able to compete against even the strongest brand leaders, and mayoutperform those products that are not otherwise strongly branded.

Individual and organizational brandsThere are kinds of branding that treat individuals and organizations as the products to be branded. Personal brandingtreats persons and their careers as brands. The term is thought to have been first used in a 1997 article by TomPeters.[22] Faith branding treats religious figures and organizations as brands. Religious media expert Phil Cooke haswritten that faith branding handles the question of how to express faith in a media-dominated culture.[23] Nationbranding works with the perception and reputation of countries as brands.

Crowdsourcing BrandingThese are brands that are created by the people for the business, which is opposite to the traditional method wherethe business create a brand. This type of method minimizes the risk of brand failure, since the people that mightreject the brand in the traditional method are the ones who are participating in the branding process.

Nation Branding (Place Branding & Public diplomacy)Nation branding is a field of theory and practice which aims to measure, build and manage the reputation ofcountries (closely related to place branding). Some approaches applied, such as an increasing importance on thesymbolic value of products, have led countries to emphasise their distinctive characteristics. The branding and imageof a nation-state "and the successful transference of this image to its exports - is just as important as what theyactually produce and sell."[24]

HistoryThe word "brand" is derived from the Old Norse brandr meaning "to burn." It refers to the practice of producersburning their mark (or brand) onto their products.[25]

Although connected with the history of trademarks[26] and including earlier examples which could be deemed"protobrands" (such as the marketing puns of the "Vesuvinum" wine jars found at Pompeii),[27] brands in the field ofmass-marketing originated in the 19th century with the advent of packaged goods. Industrialization moved theproduction of many household items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized factories. When shippingtheir items, the factories would literally brand their logo or insignia on the barrels used, extending the meaning of"brand" to that of trademark.Bass & Company, the British brewery, claims their red triangle brand was the world's first trademark. Lyle’s GoldenSyrup makes a similar claim, having been named as Britain's oldest brand, with its green and gold packaging havingremained almost unchanged since 1885. Another example comes from Antiche Fornaci Giorgi in Italy, whose bricksare stamped or carved with the same proto-logo since 1731, as found in Saint Peter's Basilica in Vatican City.Cattle were branded long before this. The term "maverick," originally meaning an unbranded calf, comes from Texasrancher Samuel Augustus Maverick who, following the American Civil War, decided that since all other cattle werebranded, his would be identified by having no markings at all. Even the signatures on paintings of famous artists likeLeonardo Da Vinci can be viewed as an early branding tool.Factories established during the Industrial Revolution introduced mass-produced goods and needed to sell their products to a wider market, to customers previously familiar only with locally-produced goods. It quickly became apparent that a generic package of soap had difficulty competing with familiar, local products. The packaged goods

Brand 31

manufacturers needed to convince the market that the public could place just as much trust in the non-local product.Campbell soup, Coca-Cola, Juicy Fruit gum, Aunt Jemima, and Quaker Oats were among the first products to be'branded', in an effort to increase the consumer's familiarity with their products. Many brands of that era, such asUncle Ben's rice and Kellogg's breakfast cereal furnish illustrations of the problem.Around 1900, James Walter Thompson published a house ad explaining trademark advertising. This was an earlycommercial explanation of what we now know as branding. Companies soon adopted slogans, mascots, and jinglesthat began to appear on radio and early television. By the 1940s,[28] manufacturers began to recognize the way inwhich consumers were developing relationships with their brands in a social/psychological/anthropological sense.From there, manufacturers quickly learned to build their brand's identity and personality (see brand identity andbrand personality), such as youthfulness, fun or luxury. This began the practice we now know as "branding" today,where the consumers buy "the brand" instead of the product. This trend continued to the 1980s, and is nowquantified in concepts such as brand value and brand equity. Naomi Klein has described this development as"brand equity mania".[18] In 1988, for example, Philip Morris purchased Kraft for six times what the company wasworth on paper; it was felt that what they really purchased was its brand name.[29]

Marlboro Friday: April 2, 1993 - marked by some as the death of the brand[18] - the day Philip Morris declared thatthey were cutting the price of Marlboro cigarettes by 20% in order to compete with bargain cigarettes. Marlborocigarettes were noted at the time for their heavy advertising campaigns and well-nuanced brand image. In responseto the announcement Wall street stocks nose-dived[18] for a large number of branded companies: Heinz, Coca Cola,Quaker Oats, PepsiCo. Many thought the event signalled the beginning of a trend towards "brand blindness" (Klein13), questioning the power of "brand value."

References[1] David Aaker (1991), Managing Brand Equity.[2] "marque, n./2", Oxford English Dictionary online version (July 2010 ed.)[3] Tan, Donald (2010). "Success Factors In Establishing Your Brand" Franchising and Licensing Association. Retrieved from http:/ / www.

flasingapore. org/ info_branding. php[4] Kotler P., Keller K.L, Brady M., Goodman M., Hansen T. (2009). Marketing Management.ISBN 978-0-273-71856-7., pp.861[5] Marketingpower.com (http:/ / www. marketingpower. com/ _layouts/ Dictionary. aspx?dLetter=L)[6] A study to indicate the importance of brand Awareness in Brand Choice- A Cultural Perspective By Hanna Bornmark, Asa Goransson,

Christina Svensson. Department of Business Studies, Kristianstad University, Sweden[7] http:/ / www. innovationcircle. net/ importance-of-successful-destination-branding-interview-with-bjoern-frode-moen. 4867490-91226. html[8] MerriamAssociates.com (http:/ / merriamassociates. com/ 2009/ 02/ styles-and-types-of-company-and-product-names/ )[9] Neumeier, Marty (2004), The Dictionary of Brand. ISBN 1-884081-06-1, pp.20[10] What's in a Brand Name? (http:/ / www. brandpad. co. uk)[11] (http:/ / www. symbologo. org/ 2011/ 05/ brand-association-what-we-mean. html)[12] Diller S., Shedroff N., and Rhea D (2006) Making Meaning: How Successful Businesses Deliver Meaningful Customer Experiences. New

Riders, Berkeley, CA,[13] Kunde, J., (2002) Unique Now... or Never: the Brand Is the Company Driver in the New Value Economy, Financial Times/Prentice Hall.

London[14] Paul S. Richardson, Alan S. Dick and Arun K. Jain "Extrinsic and Intrinsic Cue Effects on Perceptions of Store Brand Quality", Journal of

Marketing October 1994 pp. 28-36[15] http:/ / merriamassociates. com/ 2010/ 12/ wikileaks-hacktivism-and-brands-as-political-symbols/[16] http:/ / merriamassociates. com/ 2010/ 11/ general-motors-a-reorganized-brand-architecture-for-a-reorganized-company/[17] http:/ / merriamassociates. com/ 2009/ 09/ brand-architecture-strategic-considerations/[18] Klein, Naomi (2000) No logo, Canada: Random House, ISBN 0-676-97282-9[19] Muji brand strategy, Muji branding, no name brand - VentureRepublic (http:/ / www. venturerepublic. com/ resources/

Muji_The_Japanese_No-Brand. asp)[20] Matt Heig, Brand Royalty: How the World's Top 100 Brands Thrive and Survive, pg.216[21] Trenmatter.com (http:/ / www. trendmatter. com/ 2007/ 05/ 24/ no-brand-brand/ )[22] Tom Peters (August 1997). "The brand Called You" (http:/ / www. fastcompany. com/ magazine/ 10/ brandyou. html). Fast Company

(Mansueto Ventures LLC.) (10): pp. 83. .[23] Cooke, Phil; Branding Faith: Why Some Churches and Nonprofits Impact Culture and Others Don't; Regal, 2008; ISBN 978-0830745630

Brand 32

[24] www.en.wikipedia/Nationbranding[25] MarketingMagazine.co.uk (http:/ / www. marketingmagazine. co. uk/ news/ 534969/

Mark-Ritson-branding-Norse-fire-smokes-bland-brands/ ?DCMP=ILC-SEARCH)[26] (U.S.) Trademark History Timeline (http:/ / www. lib. utexas. edu/ engin/ trademark/ timeline/ tmindex. html)[27] Jstor.org (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 3065004)[28] Mildred Pierce, Newmediagroup.co.uk (http:/ / newmediagroup. co. uk/ pphistory1. htm)[29] Brandpad.co.uk - Is the BRAND approach dead? (http:/ / www. brandpad. co. uk/ news-1/ isthebuyregularlyandnevereffectapproachdead)

Bibliography• Birkin, Michael (1994). "Assessing Brand Value," in Brand Power. ISBN 0-8147-7965-4• Gregory, James (2003). Best of Branding. ISBN 0-07-140329-9• Klein, Naomi (2000) No logo, Canada: Random House, ISBN 0-676-97282-9• Fan, Y. (2002) “The National Image of Global Brands”, Journal of Brand Management, 9:3, 180-192, available at

Brunel.ac.uk (http:/ / bura. brunel. ac. uk/ handle/ 2438/ 1289)• Kotler, Philip and Pfoertsch, Waldemar (2006). B2B Brand Management, ISBN 3-540-25360-2.• Miller & Muir (2004). The Business of Brands, ISBN 0-470-86259-9.• Olins, Wally (2003). On Brand, London: Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0-500-51145-4.• Schmidt, Klaus and Chris Ludlow (2002). Inclusive Branding: The Why and How of a Holistic approach to

Brands. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-98079-4• Wernick, Andrew (1991). Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (Theory, Culture

& Society S.), London: Sage Publications, ISBN 0-8039-8390-5• Holt, DB (2004). "How Brands Become Icons: The Principles of Cultural Branding" Harvard University Press,

Harvard MA• Philip Kotler (2004). "Marketing Management", ISBN 81-7808-654-9

Positioning (marketing) 33

Positioning (marketing)

Marketing

Key concepts

Product • PricingDistribution • Service • Retail

Brand managementAccount-based marketing

Marketing ethicsMarketing effectiveness

Market researchMarket segmentationMarketing strategy

Marketing managementMarket dominance

Promotional content

Advertising • Branding • UnderwritingDirect marketing • Personal Sales

Product placement • PublicitySales promotion • Sex in advertising

Loyalty marketing • Premiums • Prizes

Promotional media

Printing • PublicationBroadcasting • Out-of-home

Internet marketing • Point of salePromotional merchandise

Digital marketing • In-gameIn-store demonstration

Word-of-mouth marketingBrand Ambassador • Drip Marketing

In marketing, positioning has come to mean the process by which marketers try to create an image or identity in theminds of their target market for its product, brand, or organization.Re-positioning involves changing the identity of a product, relative to the identity of competing products, in thecollective minds of the target market.De-positioning involves attempting to change the identity of competing products, relative to the identity of your ownproduct, in the collective minds of the target market.The original work on Positioning was consumer marketing oriented, and was not as much focused on the questionrelative to competitive products as much as it was focused on cutting through the ambient "noise" and establishing amoment of real contact with the intended recipient. In the classic example of Avis claiming "No.2, We Try Harder",the point was to say something so shocking (it was by the standards of the day) that it cleared space in your brain andmade you forget all about who was #1, and not to make some philosophical point about being "hungry" for business.The growth of high-tech marketing may have had much to do with the shift in definition towards competitivepositioning. An important component of hi-tech marketing in the age of the world wide web is positioning in majorsearch engines such as Google, Yahoo and Bing, which can be accomplished through Search Engine Optimization ,also known as SEO. This is an especially important component when attempting to improve competitive positioningamong a younger demographic, which tends to be web oriented in their shopping and purchasing habits as a result ofbeing highly connected and involved in social media in general.

Positioning (marketing) 34

DefinitionsAlthough there are different definitions of Positioning, probably the most common is: identifying a market niche fora brand, product or service utilizing traditional marketing placement strategies (i.e. price, promotion, distribution,packaging, and competition).Also positioning is defined as the way by which the marketers creates impression in the customers mind.Positioning is a concept in marketing which was first introduced by Jack Trout ( "Industrial Marketing" Magazine-June/1969) and then popularized by Al Ries and Jack Trout in their bestseller book "Positioning - The Battle forYour Mind." (McGraw-Hill 1981)This differs slightly from the context in which the term was first published in 1969 by Jack Trout in the paper"Positioning" is a game people play in today’s me-too market place" in the publication Industrial Marketing, inwhich the case is made that the typical consumer is overwhelmed with unwanted advertising, and has a naturaltendency to discard all information that does not immediately find a comfortable (and empty) slot in the consumersmind. It was then expanded into their ground-breaking first book, "Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind," in whichthey define Positioning as "an organized system for finding a window in the mind. It is based on the concept thatcommunication can only take place at the right time and under the right circumstances" (p. 19 of 2001 paperbackedition).What most will agree on is that Positioning is something (perception) that happens in the minds of the target market.It is the aggregate perception the market has of a particular company, product or service in relation to theirperceptions of the competitors in the same category. It will happen whether or not a company's management isproactive, reactive or passive about the on-going process of evolving a position. But a company can positivelyinfluence the perceptions through enlightened strategic actions.

Product positioning processGenerally, the product positioning process involves:1. Defining the market in which the product or brand will compete (who the relevant buyers are)2. Identifying the attributes (also called dimensions) that define the product 'space'3. Collecting information from a sample of customers about their perceptions of each product on the relevant

attributes4. Determine each product's share of mind5. Determine each product's current location in the product space6. Determine the target market's preferred combination of attributes (referred to as an ideal vector)7. Examine the fit between:

• The position of your product• The position of the ideal vector

8. interest and started a conversation, you'll know you're on the right track.

Positioning (marketing) 35

Positioning conceptsMore generally, there are three types of positioning concepts:1. Functional positions

• Solve problems• Provide benefits to customers• Get favorable perception by investors (stock profile) and lenders

2. Symbolic positions• Self-image enhancement• Ego identification• Belongingness and social meaningfulness• Affective fulfillment

3. Experiential positions• Provide sensory stimulation• Provide cognitive stimulation

Measuring the positioningPositioning is facilitated by a graphical technique called perceptual mapping, various survey techniques, andstatistical techniques like multi dimensional scaling, factor analysis, conjoint analysis, and logit analysis.

Repositioning a companyIn volatile markets, it can be necessary - even urgent - to reposition an entire company, rather than just a product lineor brand. When Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley suddenly shifted from investment to commercial banks, forexample, the expectations of investors, employees, clients and regulators all needed to shift, and each companyneeded to influence how these perceptions changed. Doing so involves repositioning the entire firm.This is especially true of small and medium-sized firms, many of which often lack strong brands for individualproduct lines. In a prolonged recession, business approaches that were effective during healthy economies oftenbecome ineffective and it becomes necessary to change a firm's positioning. Upscale restaurants, for example, whichpreviously flourished on expense account dinners and corporate events, may for the first time need to stress value asa sale tool.Repositioning a company involves more than a marketing challenge. It involves making hard decisions about how amarket is shifting and how a firm's competitors will react. Often these decisions must be made without the benefit ofsufficient information, simply because the definition of "volatility" is that change becomes difficult or impossible topredict.

References• Trout, J., (1969) ""Positioning" is a game people play in today’s me-too market place", Industrial Marketing,

Vol.54, No.6, (June 1969), pp. 51–55.• Ries, A. and Trout,J. (1981) Positioning, The battle for your mind, Warner Books - McGraw-Hill Inc., New York,

1981, ISBN 0-446-34794-9• Trout, J. and Rivkin, S. (1996) The New Positioning : The latest on the worlds #1 business strategy, McGraw Hill,

New York, 1996, ISBN 0-07-065291-

The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing 36

The 22 Immutable Laws of MarketingThe 22 Immutable Laws of Branding (1993) is a book by Al Ries and Jack Trout.These are the chapter headings from The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing, by Ries & Trout, Harper Business.

1. THE LAW OF LEADERSHIP. It is better to be first than it is to be better.

2. THE LAW OF THE CATEGORY. If you can't be first in a category, set up a new category you can be first in.

3. THE LAW OF THE MIND. It is better to be first in the mind than to be first in the marketplace.

4. THE LAW OF PERCEPTION. Marketing is not a battle of products, it's a battle of perceptions.

5. THE LAW OF FOCUS. The most powerful concept in marketing is owning a word in the prospect's mind.

6. THE LAW OF EXCLUSIVITY. Two companies cannot own the same word in the prospect's mind.

7. THE LAW OF THE LADDER. The strategy to use depends on which rung you occupy on the ladder.

8. THE LAW OF DUALITY. In the long run, every market becomes a two horse race.

9. THE LAW OF THE OPPOSITE. If you are shooting for second place, your strategy is determined by the leader.

10. THE LAW OF DIVISION. Over time, a category will divide and become two or more categories.

11. THE LAW OF PERSPECTIVE. Marketing effects take place over an extended period of time.

12. THE LAW OF LINE EXTENSION. There is an irresistible pressure to extend the equity of the brand.

13. THE LAW OF SACRIFICE. You have to give up something to get something.

14. THE LAW OF ATTRIBUTES. For every attribute, there is an opposite, effective attribute.

15. THE LAW OF CANDOR. When you admit a negative, the prospect will give you a positive.

16. THE LAW OF SINGULARITY. In each situation, only one move will produce substantial results.

17. THE LAW OF UNPREDICTABILITY. Unless you write your competitor's plans, you can't predict the future.

18. THE LAW OF SUCCESS. Success often leads to arrogance, and arrogance to failure.

19. THE LAW OF FAILURE. Failure is to be expected and accepted.

20. THE LAW OF HYPE. The situation is often the opposite of the way it appears in the press.

21. THE LAW OF ACCELERATION. Successful programs are not built on fads, they're built on trends.

The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing 37

22. THE LAW OF RESOURCES. Without adequate funding, an idea won't get off the ground.

References• The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing (1993). Al Ries and Jack Trout.

Article Sources and Contributors 38

Article Sources and ContributorsManagement  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=432446662  Contributors: $nake420, 10metreh, 1exec1, 4twenty42o, 7195Prof, Abj1, Acerperi, Aedelcid, Aj.metcalf,AjaxSmack, Ajraddatz, Akanemoto, Alansohn, Alex Bakharev, Alex Rio Brazil, Alexf, Alliance09, Alnokta, Altenmann, Alybongo, Amartyabag, Amire80, AnakngAraw, Ancheta Wis, Andonic,AndriuZ, Andycjp, Aniu, Anna Lincoln, Anshuk, Antonrojo, Anuchit, Ap, Arthur Rubin, Arthuro, Astuishin, AuhsojSivart, B20180, Backslash Forwardslash, Bagatelle, Baiter, Barras, Bejinhan,Bentogoa, BioPupil, Blanchardb, Blathnaid, Blaxthos, Bluerasberry, Bolan.Mike, Bongwarrior, Boringmondays, Borisblue, Bped1985, Brianga, Brossow, Brougham96, Bsca, Btilm, Bubba hotep,Burkhard, Bvsr prasad, COMPFUNK2, CUBJONES83, CUSENZA Mario, Cacycle, Cagarland, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canterbury Tail, Captain-tucker,Caravaca, Carlamariek, Ceo, Cflm001, Chafidess, Champaign, Changchih228, ChangeManager, Chaos, Che y Marijuana, Cheapskate08, Cherry blossom tree, Chick Bowen, Chrislk02,ChristophMichel, Chuck Stubbart, Chuunen Baka, Ckatz, Clerks, Closedmouth, Closermac, Coaching Professional, Coder Dan, Codetiger, Coffee, Cometstyles, CommodiCast, Conversion script,Curps, Cybercobra, Czalex, D4nz, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DMacks, Da monster under your bed, DaCentaur, Daanj, Dan writerwiki, Daniel h2o house, Danis, Dark Mage, David.Mestel, Dcarafel,DeadlyAssassin, December21st2012Freak, Deeptrivia, Deli nk, Denisutku, DerHexer, Dhamil07, Dhollm, Discospinster, Dmcq, Doanmanhtung.sc, DocWatson42, DorisH, Dougiel,DouglasGreen, Doulos Christos, Dr Aaij, DrStrangeLove, Dragonjohann, Drbobr19, Dreadstar, Dreispt, Dtremenak, Dycedarg, E Wing, Edhubbard, Egent404, Ehheh, El C, Enchanter,Enviroboy, Epbr123, Erfa, Erkan Yilmaz, Eskimospy, Estudiarme, Exert, Falcon8765, Fbooth, FelixKaiser, FetteK, Finell, Finngall, Firien, FisherQueen, Floridian06, Fluri, FrankTobia,Frankenpuppy, Frecklefoot, Fredrik, Fvasconcellos, GB fan, GJeffery, Ganeshnarasimhaninfo, GardmanVS, Gary A. LaBranche, CAE, Gary King, Gbradt, Gettingtoit, Ghaag, Gionniz, Gr3cv,GraemeL, Grafen, Graveyardparty, Gregory S. Waddell, Grodanbollen, GrooveyHenrik, Gzkn, Haagrachel, Hadal, Haldirams, Halosean, Harukasora, Hdegier, Hede2000, Helixweb, Hemant 17,Henning Wiekhorst, Hide&Reason, Himanshuking, Hippo43, Hkrug4281, Hokelvin, Holbe6, Hoo man, Hughcharlesparker, Icseaturtles, Ideal gas equation, Ilmari Karonen, Impaciente, InsanityIncarnate, Ironwolf, Istartfires, Iterator12n, Iwillgoslow3126, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, J00tel, JAn Dudík, JForget, Jackofwiki, Jackspar15486, Jakohn, Jan1nad, Jaxl, Jayen466, Jbamb, Jebus989, JeffG., Jeffey1234, Jeffhoy, Jeffowner3, Jeffrey Mall, JesseW, Jimjoe, Jmkim dot com, John, John Maynard Friedman, JonHarder, Jose Icaza, Jose77, Jotomicron, Jurema Oliveira, Jurtquerp,Just4ayaz, KGasso, Kalanithe, Karavan-LP, Karimarie, Karthimuchlove, Katalaveno, Kateshortforbob, Kbh3rd, Kdau, Khalid, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kookyunii, Kozuch, Kraybilr, Ksargis, Kurieeto,Kurt Jansson, Kuru, Kvdveer, L Kensington, LT. Dunnigan, Lacrimosus, Lamro, Lbongaer, Leafyplant, LeaveSleaves, LedgendGamer, Leranedo, LesleyW, Leuko, Levineps, Liface, Life ofRiley, Lightmouse, Lights, Lillingen, Lindsay.Ward, Lord of the Puns, Lova Falk, Lradrama, LudovicaMottura, Luisdelafuente, Luna Santin, M3taphysical, MC MasterChef, MER-C, MacMed,Magnus Manske, Maj IIM, Majorly, Mamawrites, ManManager, Management Culture, Mani1, Marasmusine, Marilyn Haight, Mark Renier, Marketingman, MarsRover, Martinp23,Masterpiece2000, Materialscientist, Mathewstuart, Maurreen, Maxis ftw, Mb22hk, Mberteig, Mdd, Mentifisto, Mesdaghi, Mgillett, Michaelrayw2, Mild Bill Hiccup, Misteror, Mjpieters, Mkoval,Mkubica, Mlaffs, Modeha, Modernist, MonideepGupta, Moriori, MrOllie, Mrken30, Mudash, Multijohnthomas, Mydogategodshat, Mygerardromance, NAHID, NCS2004, NERIUM,NYCCommunity, Nakos2208, Nehrams2020, NellieBly, Neostarbuck, Neptune99, Netoholic, NewWikiMan, Nibuod, Nickypunk001, Nigholith, NighthawkY10K, Nikai, Nikoned, Niteowlneils,Nixdorf, Nnarayanann, No-Bullet, Noclevername, Notinasnaid, Noypi380, Nposs, Nsaa, NuclearWinner, Nurg, Ohnoitsjamie, Oleg Alexandrov, Omoc, OverlordQ, Overviewer, Oxymoron83,Oysterguitarist, P.lagiewka, P1cunnin, PGPirate, PL290, PM800, Pag, Page Up, Pak21, Pandaplodder, Paramountpublishing, Parhamr, Paxse, Pedant17, Pedro, Penbat, Pendraco, Penfold, Petrb,Phasedice, Phil Maslow, Philip Trueman, PhilipSmith, Philricci, Philwalker, Pigman, Pigsonthewing, Pilgaard, Pinethicket, Pixievamps, Pleckaitis, Popati ann, Pradyutroy, Preetam purbia,Privyet, Promd33, Pseudomonas, Psycho Kirby, Pundit, Puneetminda, Quaeler, Qwyrxian, R'n'B, RG2, RJHall, RJN, RTG, Radagast83, RadioKirk, Rajshekar.D.Rollakanti, Rastrelli F,Ravichandar84, Rawling, Rayhoughton, Rdsmith4, Reconsider the static, RedWolf, Redbeanpaste, RexNL, Rice Cakez, Rj, Rlopez1605, Rmpugliese, Robertson-Glasgow, Rootbeer, RotaryAce,Rounaq Singh, Rror, Ryan 4angelz, Ryan Lanham, SCEhardt, SGBailey, SSeanSSS, Saalstin, Sallym, Sanjaymca, Sanusi.husain, Scholzj, Seaphoto, Seraphim, Serw, Shafitvohra, Shanes,Shaunteale, Shearerbest, Sheep2000, Shomroni, Shoy, ShrekOC, Simoes, SimonP, Simple Bob, SineWave, SiobhanHansa, Skidude9950, Skomorokh, SkyWalker, Smaccatino, Snowolf, Somejerk on the Internet, Sommers, Sonal merchant, SpartanPhalanx, Spersily, Spitfire, Spliffy, SpyMagician, Squiddy, Staxoplax, Steamroller Assault, Stephenb, Steve2011, StopItTidyUp,Student317, SueHay, Suffusion of Yellow, Sugarmagnolia175, Sweet2, T@nn, Terrean, Tesakoff, The Anome, The Cunctator, The Font, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, TheTranshumanist (AWB), Thedjatclubrock, Themanagementpractice, Theraraavis, Thetruthfinder01, Thseamon, Tim Long, Tim1357, Timb001, Tkjainbkn, Tlesher, TomPhil, Tombomp, Tradnor,Traroth, Trey314159, Triwbe, Truongvoky012345, Tyw7, Ucanlookitup, Ulbrichdj, Uloggonitor, Ulric1313, Uptor, Uriyan, V-squared, Velella, Vinsfan368, Vrenator, Wasami007, Wertuose,Wes!, Wiki4des, WikiTome, Wikidea, Willking1979, Withluvurs, Wknight94, Wookipedian, Workmanager, Worldeconomist, WpZurp, Xagent86, Xelgen, Xyzzyplugh, Yamamoto Ichiro,Yasmeen.naseem, YeahIKnow, Yhkhoo, Yidisheryid, Yiptorp, Ykhwong, Yotwen, Zeev Grin, Zigger, ZimZalaBim, Zlerman, Zzuuzz, උපුල්, 1205 anonymous edits

Marketing strategy  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=433279542  Contributors: 1exec1, 65biscayne, Ahoerstemeier, Aksi great, Aleodor, Alexkin, Alro, AndrewCarey,AndrewHowse, Angela.hausman, Angieprk, Anna Lincoln, Auburn, Avnjay, Binary TSO, Blawrimore, Bobtrothphd, Bonadea, Cacycle, CaptainVindaloo, Carl.bunderson, Cdumas, Chrislk02,Christian75, Coastergeekperson04, CommodiCast, Craftyminion, Dancter, Darth Panda, Deli nk, DennyColt, Dreadstar, Edward, Ehheh, Ehoopman, Emitchell62000, EsheleD, Fairsing,Faradayplank, Fbooth, Felagund, Free Bear, Futureobservatory, GIBDO, Galoubet, Gazimoff, Gioto, GloriaReibin, Grochim, Herven, HyperSonic X, Intershark, Iridescent, It Is Me Here, JYi,Jackboogie, Jacotto, Jdkrishnan, Jdparm 99, Jules.lt, Karaoo, Kiousu, KnightRider, KrakatoaKatie, Kuru, L Kensington, LOL, Lancevortex, Lcarsdata, Leszek Jańczuk, Malcolmxl5, MatthewYeager, Maurreen, Meaghan, Meara, Meekywiki, Melaen, Mikevan9, Mixer, Monterey Bay, Mpostalova, MrOllie, Msprinciples, Mydogategodshat, Nate1481, Necronaut, Neilc, NurseryRhyme,Orange Suede Sofa, Patstuart, Pgreenfinch, Plinkit, Poeloq, Prodman121, Rasmus Faber, Res2216firestar, Rjcain, Robofish, Ronz, Rtcpenguin, Schalliol, Sexy monkey, ShaliniSamuel,Sigmundur, Signalhead, Simon Golong, Sionide, Sjhaines, Sleepyhead81, Snowolf, Speedoflight, Starkawa, StefanoIT, SueHay, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, Theopapada,Tide rolls, Tnxman307, Twas Now, VikingLAB79, Waggers, WikHead, Wikiklrsc, Wikipelli, X3christian1, Xezbeth, Yankees76, Yonatan, Z4ngetsu, Zero Gravity, 353 anonymous edits

Marketing plan  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427552127  Contributors: AVRS, AbsolutDan, Adamfinmo, Adamfreeland, Aitias, Alpdpedia, Amaresh rout, Andyjsmith,Andykole, Antandrus, Arpabr, Artoix, Atgnclk, Avillia, Avmomotiuk, Barticus88, Bernardosrulzon, Bgffrd, Blehfu, Bonadea, Brainiac606, Briangogan, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chris Roy,Chris the speller, Cometstyles, D prime, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DDerby, Dave.Dunford, Davidfrautschy, Dham.gune, Ehheh, Enigmaman, EphraimISstupid, Facarroll, Filceolaire, Funkyol, GaryD, Glane23, Grochim, Gscshoyru, Gst300, HalfShadow, Hetgni, Howardjp, J.delanoy, JeremyA, Joanne Khoo, John Reaves, John254, Johnpearce48, JonJosephA, Jrsnbarn, Kaptain Kangaroo,Karto, Kelson, Ketiltrout, Knuckles sonic8, Krhough, Kuru, LOL, Leuko, Liface, Little Mountain 5, Mansuetodigital, Marythig, Maurreen, Metasquares, Mikefzhu, Mosca, MrOllie, Mwanner,Mydogategodshat, Mygerardromance, Naddy, Netito777, Nikster666, No Guru, PJM, Pgreenfinch, Plasticup, Plinkit, Poorleno, Prodman121, Pscheimann, Reaper Eternal, Renelig, Rkitko, Ronz,Rwwww, Sarper, Shadowjams, Sharalds, Shimgray, Showtime07, Sir, Sjbarris, Softwareklinic, Ste, SteinbDJ, Stephenb, Steve simple, Strateotu, SueHay, Tanvir Ahmmed, TastyPoutine, Teles,The Thing That Should Not Be, TheIguana, Tom harrison, Tommy2010, Uncle G, UncleDouggie, Voyagerfan5761, WOSlinker, Welsh, Wgpkeyser, William S. Saturn, Wimt, Xcentaur, Zach425,ZamorakO o, Zip3, Zonelinks, Zundark, 366 anonymous edits

Promotion (marketing)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=433366028  Contributors: ABF, Aldo samulo, Alexius08, Alfredxz, Amontron, Ampersandexplainer, Ancheta Wis,AndrewHowse, Apokryltaros, Battamer, Bobo192, Bonadea, Briaboru, Cacycle, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cape cod naturalist, ChiragPatnaik, Ckatz, Contributor29wiki, Csus814,DMacks, DasBub, Decltype, Deor, Discospinster, DéRahier, Ersajid01, Fabiv, Fenice, Flowerparty, Fourohfour, Furrykef, Futureobservatory, Gec118, Glen, Glenn.isaac, GraemeL, Grochim,Hclim65, Husond, J.delanoy, JHunterJ, JLaTondre, Jeff G., Jjjchang, Jncraton, Johnleemk, Jusdafax, Kdweck-NJITWILL, Kelly, Kingpin13, Kuru, Kwlovell, Levineps, LilHelpa,Linkspamremover, Lommer, MagnusA, Mattisse, Maurreen, Michael Devore, Milanvi, Myataya, Nartaur, NawlinWiki, ONUnicorn, Occlasty, Oxymoron83, Pangweb, Patrick, Pelangiholiday,Petr Kopač, Phynicen, RHaworth, Rosehu, Rosenjon, Rossami, Salamurai, Sesu Prime, Spiritia, Sschickel, Stevertigo, Surridge89, Tide rolls, Tom, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Utcursch, Versageek,Wafulz, Wizzzzman, Woohookitty, Zzuuzz, 131 anonymous edits

Brand  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=431491615  Contributors: 10digits, 119, 130.94.122.xxx, 45strutt, AEF, AGToth, Aathira G Krishna Mallya, Accurizer, Achangeisasgoodasa, Adam.J.W.C., AdjustShift, Adraeus, Ae-a, Aeon1006, Ahoerstemeier, AjiNIMC, Alansohn, Alfpooh, Algarrobo, Allstar86, Altenmann, Ancheta Wis, Andre.Michael, Andrew c, AndrewHowse, Andrewpmk, Andychapel, Andyjsmith, Angela, Angelastic, Angie Y., Anilstrums, Anna Lincoln, Anna512, AnnaFrance, AnnalisaShanghai, Antara singhania, Anville, Apparition11, Arnoutf, Art10yoj, Arthena, Ask123, AssetInfo, Avjoska, Avoided, Ayavi, Azikate, Azim ul haq, BAKA4lyfe, BEmichael, Babrinton, Bella262, BillyPreset, Binadot, BioPupil, Bishonen, Bkwon, BlackTerror, Blanchardb, Blogtheristo, Bobfrombrockley, Boblenin, Bonadea, Boston, Bourkestephen, Brandface, Brandguru, BrandlandUSA, BrendelSignature, Brentes, Brian Crawford, Brianga, Bud08, Bunchofgrapes, BuzzWoof, Byronsharp, CTZMSC3, CWii, Calvin 1998, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, Cavrdg, Cbintern, Cds013, Cenarium, Ceyockey, Chalermson, Chamli Tennakoon, CharlotteWebb, Cheeseslope, Chris the speller, Christopher Mahan, Chuq, Cjs56, Ck lostsword, ClairSamoht, Clappingsimon, Clarel88, Closedmouth, Cobaltbluetony, Cochese8, Codetiger, Conversion script, Cookefilm, Cool3, Corsicanu, Crobzub, Curps, Curtisjayelectric, Cutler, CyborgTosser, D.brodale, DDerby, DS5000, DShantz, Damian Sim, Damian Yerrick, DancingPenguin, Daniel Olsen, Danlev, Dannyglix, Darren searson, Dasani, David Martland, Davidhowse, Daztaff, Delldot, Den fjättrade ankan, Dennis Bratland, Dersonlwd, Designanimal, Designforlogo, DeweyQ, Dezignr, Dionyziz, Dismas, Dmit, DocWatson42, DocendoDiscimus, Docu, Domm3000, Dorotheou, Dryusufkamal, Dublinblue, Ducheyn, Dufftech, Durgavdevi, Dwarf Kirlston, E-Kartoffel, ERcheck, EagleFan, EdwinHJ, Eeekster, Egyptianholiday, Ehheh, Eigenfrog, Eleven even, Elf, Elgraphio, Emodinol, Epbr123, Epischedda, Error -128, Esprit15d, Esrever, Ev, Ewlyahoocom, Excirial, Fabrictramp, Fairsing, Faithlessthewonderboy, Falcon8765, Fantadrink11, Faradayplank, Farside, Fbooth, Figaro, Finell, Focusfields, Forring, Fourmiz59, Franchise Consultant, Fratrep, Fredrik, Funandtrvl, Futureobservatory, G from B, GK, Gallantg, Gallantgifts, GeeJo, Geniac, Gert7, Getonyourfeet, Gilliam, Ginsengbomb, Gisle l, Gizzakk, Glidinpelican, Glutengirl, Gogo Dodo, GoingBatty, Gr1st, Gracefool, GraemeL, Greyfedora, Grstain, Grunt, Gyokomura, H Bruthzoo, Hadal, Hahnchen, HamburgerRadio, Hans Dunkelberg, Happy5214, Harami2000, Hardeak, Hardeak1, Harryboyles, Havanafreestone, Hdupont15, Hechung, Hemant bamoriya, Hetar, Hgastaldi, HiDrNick, Hiberniantears, Hillel, Himanshuking, Horrid Henry, Hotlorp, Hpfan1, Hu12, Hugh Mason, Hugh2414, Husond, Hyperbrand, IGod, IW.HG, Iain, Ievolution, Infoapex, Infrogmation, Interiot, Inwind, Iq., Iridescent, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JForget, JackPercival, Jamcib, Jameshfisher, Jbuckpitt, Jdtyler, Jeandré du Toit, Jeff3000, Jeffrey Scott Maxwell, Jennie.brass, Jeremiah Mountain, Jeronimo, Jevansen, Jimbo16454, Jkatzen, Jmcc150, Joblamma, Jodok, JoelLimberg, Jojit fb, Jokestress, Jossi, Jsmorse47, JzG, K ideas, KC Panchal, Kaeso Dio, Katieh5584, Kazzmedia, Kbh3rd, KingTT, Kingfish, Kipoc, Krusada, Kuru, Kusunose, L Kensington, LCD z, LDMerriam, Ldmerriam, Leafyplant, Lekoman, LepoRello, Lesleys, Liftarn, Lightmouse, Limpan, Linkerjpatrick, Linkspamremover, LittleDan, LizardWizard, Lo Ximiendo, Logomage, LordofPens, Lotje, Luckyluke, Lumbercutter, M.bay, MBisanz, MER-C, MFSchar, MStraw, Madhero88, Magikwilly83, Maley26, Marilyn Tong, Mark D Hardy, Mark83, MarkBuckles, Markonen, Martarius, Maryettacampbell, Matt Gies, Mattahl, MattieTK, Maurreen, Mav, Maven111, Maximus

Article Sources and Contributors 39

Rex, MayaSimFan, Meelar, Meisele, MeltBanana, Mephistophelian, Mets501, Mhockey, Miapoll, Michael Hardy, MichaelTinkler, Microtrace, Migulski, Mikael Häggström, Mike Cline,Mikevan, Mikevan9, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mishapetrik, Mjquinn id, Mlease, Mlinder, Mloehr, Mmxx, Mohsenkazempur, Moink, Moxfyre, MrOllie, Msmith32, Mstmaurice, Msundarraj, MusicalLinguist, Mydogategodshat, Mzajac, NERIUM, NaBUru38, Nakon, NawlinWiki, Ncmoulee, Neutrality, Newby7110, Newone, Nialldimex, Nick, Nihiltres, Nikay, Niteowlneils, NordhornerII,Nurg, Nyagulye, Nzgabriel, Oberst, Ocaasi, Oceanhahn, Octahedron80, Ohnoitsjamie, Oicumayberight, OlEnglish, Olegwiki, Onorem, Ontarioboy, Oreo Priest, Otsontek, Ouanda, Pablo323,Pamri, PanosLadas, Passing mouse, Patrick, Patstuart, Paul August, Pavel Vozenilek, Pdavis1, Pedant, Pedant17, Pengo, Perksplus, Peter Harriman, Petri Krohn, Pgk, Philip Trueman, Phutton,Piano non troppo, PierreToromanoff, Piklas, Pinethicket, PippinFudge, Pjrich, Plasticup, Pne, Poccil, Politepunk, PranksterTurtle, Prasunkundu, ProhibitOnions, QueenCake, Qwfp, R'n'B,RHaworth, RJFJR, RWardy, Ragoon, Rahulkr23, RaseaC, Rayc, Reinsarn, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Ricky81682, Rintrah, Rlanda, Rmhermen, RobMeyerson, Roberta F.,RoboAction, RockItNJ, Romeu, Ronz, Rwchindapol, Rxnd, Ryansales, S.K., SamBlob, Samavacorp, Sap123, Sarabatterby, SasiSasi, Sawblade5, Schappacher, Schmiteye, Sdisc, Semifinalist,Shanes, Shuialkx, Silverxxx, Simonwoo888, SiobhanHansa, Sir Edgar, Sitikchai, Sivaguru300, Skier Dude, Slgcat, Slj, Slon02, Snaxe920, Snoyes, Sole Soul, SolidVersed, Son, Sonikrana,Spencer, Spencerk, Spirelli, Spoonbranding, SpuriousQ, Srleffler, Srnelson, Stardotboy, Steamebec, Steel, SteinbDJ, Stephenw32768, Stepneh1, Steveb2010, Steven J. Anderson, Stevexwikix,Stombs, Studio1st, Sunainakhurana, Swingriver, SyreX, Syvanen, TV & films, Tabletop, Tapintida, Tarun04, Tchonch, Tcncv, Technopat, Texture, Thartdyke, The Anome, The Jack, The ThingThat Should Not Be, TheJoWo, Thebreaker, Thefourdotelipsis, Thegreenj, Theo10011, Theroyr, ThiefCorbin, Thingg, Thiseye, Three-quarter-ten, Timdew, Tmarek, TobiasK, Tom1211,Tothebarricades.tk, Tpbradbury, Tradcom2010, Tregoweth, Tris10469, Trusilver, Tumble, Tyheyn, Ukexpat, Ulric1313, UnkleFester, Utcursch, Vega.sims, Veinor, Venturemedia, Versageek,Versus22, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vilords, Vitaly, Vodu, Vreality, Vriullop, WLU, Wahoona, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, WeißNix, What no2000, WhatamIdoing, Wickey-nl, Wik, Wiki Raja, Wikialf, Wimt, Wizzzzman, Wmahan, WolfmanSF, Woohookitty, Wossi, Wuhwuzdat, Xxpunkcheese98xx, Yakushima, Yewtree1968, Yonatan, Yoninah, Zienalzien, Zoicon5, Zpb52, Zundark,Zzuuzz, Zzyzx11, Милан Јелисавчић, 970 ,ديسلا ىفطصم دمحأ anonymous edits

Positioning (marketing)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=422291128  Contributors: Adam.Wasserman, Adraeus, Aglobalbridge, Angela, Anonymous Cow, Bkasanoff, Bobet,Bonadea, CUBJONES83, Cacycle, Ceejayoz, Centerbrainer, Clappingsimon, Cretog8, DDerby, Da monster under your bed, Dddaye, Discospinster, Epbr123, Espoo, Excirial, Fæ, Gary D,Gfunk01, Graham87, Gurch, Gwernol, Hughgraham, JackyR, Jalayamini, Jlinjpn, JohnCD, Katasli, KatieBok, Khoj badami, Kkkishore, LilHelpa, Lindsay658, MER-C, MJelsema, Martpol,McGeddon, Michael Snow, Mydogategodshat, NavT, Nutcracker, Ohnoitsjamie, Patrick, Pgreenfinch, Pinar, Plinkit, Poor Yorick, Puppyfuzz, Qwfp, Rajeearul, Rgiesen, Ronz, Ruud Koot,Sesilbumfluff, Shribarni, Skarl the Drummer, Smooth O, Somno, The Anome, The manekin, Thegn, Theopapada, Tide rolls, Tobych, TwistOfCain, Typeform, UncleDouggie, Wavelength,Wegesrand, Wetman, Wildesusan, Xil, Zundark, 142 anonymous edits

The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=432615673  Contributors: Bishonen, Bunchofgrapes, CUBJONES83, Kgorman-ucb, Mattisse,Pegship, Philippe, Rich Farmbrough, Robofish, Ronz, Stefanomione, Victorianist, Zubairhumayun, 6 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 40

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Training meeting in a ecodesign stainless steel company in brazil.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Training_meeting_in_a_ecodesign_stainless_steel_company_in_brazil.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Alex Rio BrazilFile:Coca-Cola logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coca-Cola_logo.svg  License: Trademarked  Contributors: AVRS, Adambro, AnonMoos, Bryan, D2513850,Deerstop, Denniss, Editor182, Hautala, Herbythyme, Peachey88, Pmsyyz, Psantora, Rimshot, Starscream, SteveSims, 8 anonymous editsFile:Relationship between trade marks and brand.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Relationship_between_trade_marks_and_brand.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: LepoRelloFile:Mobil manuals.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mobil_manuals.png  License: Fair Use  Contributors: EigenfrogFile:English & Hebrew Coke labels.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:English_&_Hebrew_Coke_labels.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Yoninah

License 41

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/