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J. Bamboo and Rattan, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 1 2 (2005) VSP
2005.
Foreword
Dear Reader, This issue is already the rst of our fourth volume.
We managed to complete three volumes, each of them with 400 pages
or more, with many interesting articles. While reecting about this
Foreword, I browsed the pages of some past issues and really I am
satised by the scientic level. Our authors did a good job! The same
goes for the members of our Editorial Board, whose names appear on
the inside front cover. Fortunately we also have the support of
many external reviewers. In 2004 the people listed below have been
so kind to act as such: J. van Acker, B. Baker, V. Brias, K.
Cheung, J. Dawson, Y. Fracheboud, D. Goh, Y. Inagaki, P. Jaehrlich,
W. de Jong, A. Jorissen, S. Kawai, A. Kempthorne, W. Killmann, Hoi
Why Kong, M. T. Lim, J. Loferski, A. Loo, P. Mathew, C. Miles, T.
Okamoto, A. A. OtengAmoako (twice), S. Pagiola, D. Pearce, N. K.
Rao, T. Sunderland, H. Thoemen, L. Wgberg and L. Weisner.
Overlooking this long list I remember very well the huge support
which has been given by all these people, resulting in a high
quality of the articles published. I would like to express my
sincere gratitude for their time and effort. They do their
reviewing in their own time as volunteers, without any reward. The
aim of our Journal is to provide a platform for scientic
publications on bamboo and rattan, but in fact our aim is to
alleviate poverty in developing countries where bamboo and rattan
are indigenous. On some occasions in my life I have been in a
position to assist in housing projects in direct contact with the
local population. Still I have a good feeling about such
activities; I will never forget the progress in happiness for the
families and the improvement in childrens diseases. Are such things
valid for our Journal? Not in the short term, but in the long term
I am convinced our scientic articles will support improvements for
poor families. Scientic research is a must for the future of any
activity. For this reason I am happy to have the honour to act as
Editor-in-Chief.
2
Foreword
I do hope this rst issue of our fourth volume is the next step
towards a promising future. Together we will manage to continue on
our way. Only one thing I would like to see: letters to the editor!
In other journal these make the journal more lively. Reactions by
readers and answers by authors would be quite an improvement.
Please think about this? I do hope you will enjoy this volume even
more as the previous ones. JULES JANSSEN Eindhoven, November 23,
2004
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J. Bamboo and Rattan, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 3 11 (2005) VSP
2005.
Optimum conditions for testing germination of bamboo seedsM. M.
S. RAWATSeed Laboratory, Silviculture Division, Arid Forest
Research Institute, New Pali Road, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
Editorial note: Unfortunately the author of this article passed
away before he could use the recommendations by the reviewers for
his revised article. To pay respect to this scientist and in view
of the importance of the information in this article, it is
published with editing only. On the next page you will nd an
Obituary, followed by the article. JULES JANSSEN
Dr. Man Mohan Singh Rawat
4
M. M. S. RAWAT
Obituary Dr. Man Mohan Singh Rawat (31 December 19561 March
2004) It is with a deep sense of grief to learn of the sudden
passing away of Dr. M. M. S. Rawat after coronary artery heart
by-pass surgery at the young age of 47 years. This came as a great
shock. Born in 1956 at Dehra Dun (Uttaranchal), India, he joined
the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun in 1977 as Research
Assistant after his MSc in botany in 1976 from H. N. B. Garhwal
University. He was awarded the DPh degree in Forestry Seeds in 2001
from FRI Deemed University, Dehra Dun. In 1996 he was appointed as
Research Ofcer at Forestry Seeds Laboratory, Forest Research
Institute, Dehra Dun. He had very good and vast research experience
in forestry seeds research. He was appointed as Scientist-B and
joined the Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur (Rajasthan) on
13 June 2002. He has about 30 research papers published in various
national and international repute journals to his name. He was
working on the seeds quality and their improvement for arid zone
forestry in India from June 2002 and felt ill in the last week of
November 2003 after diagnosis of coronary artery heart disease. In
December 2003 he went to New Delhi for bypass surgery. While
recovering his health at Dehra Dun he passed away on 1 March 2004
after sudden heart failure. Dr. M. M. S. Rawat was a person of
quiet disposition, hard working, amiable and helpful for staff,
colleagues and friends. His wife, Mrs. Neelam Rawat, a teacher at
St. Thomas College, Dehra Dun, was a source of great strength to
him. His wife Mrs. Neelam Rawat and only daughter, Miss Vanushri
Rawat, who is doing her study for a bachelor degree in engineering
at Dehra Dun, survive him. Dr. M. M. S. Rawat will be a great loss
to the science community as a whole and especially in forestry
seeds in India. He will be also greatly missed by his relatives,
friends and colleagues. May his soul rest in peace.
Optimum conditions for testing germination of bamboo seeds
5
AbstractStudies were conducted on seeds of three bamboo species,
viz., Dendrocalamus membranaceus, D. strictus and Bambusa nutans,
to determine a combination of conditions ensuring the most regular,
rapid and complete germination under laboratory conditions. The
seeds were sown at different combinations of incubation
temperatures (20, 25, 30, 35, 40 C and 2030 C) and sowing media
(top of paper, between paper and sand). Seeds were also sown in the
presence and absence of light at 30 C on top of paper. The ideal
conditions for testing seeds of all the three species were found to
be 30 C, top of paper and preferably presence of light. Key words:
Dendrocalamus membranaceus; D. strictus; Bambusa nutans; seed;
germination.
INTRODUCTION
It is indispensable to follow a standard pattern for testing
seeds for germination in order to ensure uniformity and
reproducibility of results. Testing under eld conditions is
normally unsatisfactory and, therefore, laboratory methods have
been developed in which the external conditions are controlled to
obtain most regular, rapid and complete germination of seeds [1].
The most important factors affecting germination under laboratory
conditions are temperature, media and light, which need
standardisation for each species. Temperature is one of the most
critical factors and there is usually an optimal temperature below
and above which germination is delayed or prevented. Soil is rarely
used as a substrate for germination tests because each sample will
vary greatly in physical, chemical and biological properties. Thus,
the lack of reproducibility and difculty in comparing tests of
different seed lots renders it unsuitable. Articial media are much
more easily standardized and, hence, the International Seed Testing
Association (ISTA) [2] recognized three germination media: top of
paper (TP), between two layers of paper (BP) and sand. The effect
of light on germination has been known to vary considerably with
the seeds of different species. Some seeds germinate after being
given a brief illumination while some are indifferent to the
presence or absence of light during germination. Such
standardizations have been lacking for bamboo species probably due
to rare availability of seeds. ISTA rules [1], though providing
guidelines for testing few tropical tree species, do not mention
bamboo species. The seeds of most bamboos have been reported to
lose viability rapidly under ordinary storage conditions [3] and,
therefore, require testing before sowing in nursery. The present
paper reports optimum germination conditions for the seeds of three
bamboo species, viz., Dendrocalamus membranaceus, D. strictus and
Bambusa nutans, to obtain full germination potential of a seed
lot.
6
M. M. S. RAWAT
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Seed The seeds of D. membranaceus and D. strictus were collected
from the campus of Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun
(Uttranchal, India) during 1992 and 1994, respectively, while the
seeds of B. nutans were procured from Tropical Forest Research
Institute, Jabalpur, MP. The seeds were collected during April from
Sarguja area of MP where it owered gregariously during 1994. The
seeds stored at 5 C with around 5% moisture content were used for
the following study, except in second experiment where seeds of D.
strictus stored at 15 C were used. Germination test Constant
temperatures of 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 C and alternating 2030 C (16 h
at 20 C and 8 h at 30 C) were used in combination with germination
media TP, BP and sand. All the tests were carried out in four
replications of 100 seeds each. Glass petridishes of 15 cm diameter
lined with moist towel germination paper were used as TP. For BP,
seeds were spread on moistened germination paper and rolled.
Sterilized quartz sand as prescribed in ISTA rules, lled in
enamelled trays, 4530 cm in size, was used as a medium in which
seeds were sown 1 cm deep. All the media were kept just moist
throughout the test period using tap water. All the seeds sown as
above were incubated in seed germinators set at specied
temperatures with around 95% humidity. Light was provided for 8 h
daily during the test period by cool uorescent lights. Germination
was recorded daily and a seed was counted as germinated when
radicle and plumule attained at least 1 cm length and were free
from visual fungal infection or deformation. In sand, a seed was
considered as germinated when plumule attained at least 1 cm height
above the sand surface. The test was terminated when there was no
further germination. In the second experiment, the effect of light
on germination was observed at 30 C on TP following the results of
the above experiment. The germinators set at 30 C with and without
light were used to investigate the effect of light. Care was taken
to avoid light during recording of germination. The mean
germination time (MGT) was calculated as described by Bonner [4].
Treatments effect and interaction was analysed by ANOVA techniques
after arc sin transformation of germination percentages.
RESULTS
The seeds of all the three species were found to be non-dormant
and germinated readily within few days. The germination, in terms
of percent as well as MGT was, however, signicantly (P < 0.01)
affected by incubation temperature, sowing media and their
interaction as detailed below.
Optimum conditions for testing germination of bamboo seeds
7
Effect of temperature on germination per cent In D. membranaceus
(Table 1), signicant difference was observed in mean germination
per cent at all the temperatures tested (P < 0.05), except
between 35 C and 2030 C, with 41.0 and 37.7%, respectively. The
maximum mean germination of 46.2% was obtained at 30 C, while the
minimum was recorded at 20 C (9.8%). In D. strictus (Table 2), the
mean germination per cent at 30 and 25 C was maximum (84.3 and
82.6%, respectively) and signicantly higher as compared to other
temperatures (P < 0.05). This was closely followed by 35, 40 and
2030 C with 78.3, 77.3 and 76.9% mean germination, respectively,
and remained at par with one another. At 20 C the mean germination
was reduced to 58.7%. In B. nutans (Table 3), at 30 and 35 C the
mean germination was 54.6 and 57.6%, respectively, and was
signicantly higher (P < 0.05) than the rest of the temperatures.
At 25, 2030 and 40 C the mean germination ranged betweenTable 1.
Effect of temperature and media on percent germination of D.
membranaceus seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030 Mean Media
TP 15.5 (23.2) 50.0 (45.0) 59.5 (50.5) 57.0 (49.0) 34.0 (35.6) 50.3
(45.2) 44.4 (41.4) BP 14.0 (22.0) 49.0 (44.4) 60.0 (50.8) 50.0
(45.0) 30.0 (33.2) 41.8 (40.3) 40.8 (39.3) Sand 0.0 (00.0) 10.0
(18.4) 19.0 (25.9) 16.0 (16.4) 12.3 (20.5) 21.0 (27.3) 13.0 (19.3)
9.8 (15.0) 36.3 (36.0) 46.2 (42.4) 41.0 (39.2) 25.4 (29.8) 37.7
(37.6) Mean
Values in parentheses are arcsin transformed. temperaturemedia
2.70.
CD at 5%: temperature 1.56; media 1.10;
Table 2. Effect of temperature and media on percent germination
of D. strictus seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030 Mean
Media TP 69.5 (56.5) 87.5 (69.9) 87.5 (69.4) 85.5 (67.7) 86.5
(68.5) 82.3 (65.2) 83.1 (66.2) BP 71.5 (57.8) 83.0 (66.0) 86.5
(68.7) 86.0 (68.1) 84.5 (67.1) 78.3 (62.3) 81.6 (65.0) Sand 35.0
(36.3) 77.3 (61.5) 78.8 (62.8) 63.5 (52.9) 61.0 (51.4) 70.3 (57.0)
64.3 (53.7) 58.7 (50.2) 82.6 (65.8) 84.3 (66.0) 78.3 (62.9) 77.3
(62.3) 76.9 (61.5) Mean
Values in parentheses are arcsin transformed. temperaturemedia
4.45.
CD at 5%: temperature 2.57; media 1.82;
8
M. M. S. RAWAT
Table 3. Effect of temperature and media on percent germination
of B. nutans seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030 Mean Media
TP 33.5 (35.4) 54.5 (47.6) 60.5 (51.1) 61.0 (51.4) 53.5 (47.3) 52.8
(46.6) 51.0 (45.6) BP 39.0 (38.6) 52.0 (46.2) 57.5 (49.3) 61.0
(51.4) 55.0 (47.9) 47.8 (43.7) 52.0 (46.2) Sand 8.5 (16.9) 31.0
(33.8) 45.8 (42.6) 50.8 (45.5) 31.8 (34.3) 29.5 (32.9) 32.9 (34.3)
27.0 (30.3) 45.8 (42.5) 54.6 (47.7) 57.6 (49.4) 43.4 (41.2) 43.3
(41.1) Mean
Values in parentheses are arcsin transformed. temperaturemedia
3.15.
CD at 5%: temperature 1.82; media 1.29;
45.8 and 43.3%, and remained at par with one another, while the
minimum mean germination was recorded at 20 C (27.0%). Effect of
media on percent germination In D. membranaceus (Table 1), TP gave
maximum mean germination of 44.4% and was signicantly different
from other media (P < 0.05). BP followed this with 40.8% and the
minimum 13.0% was recorded in sand. In D. strictus (Table 2), the
mean germination of 83.1 and 81.6% was recorded on TP and in BP,
respectively, and remained at par with each other. In sand, the
mean germination was signicantly reduced to 64.3%. Similarly, B.
nutans (Table 3) showed signicantly higher mean germination on TP
(51%) and BP (52%) as compared to sand (32.9%). Effect of
temperature on mean germination time In D. membranaceus (Table 4),
the mean MGT was signicantly different at all the temperatures (P
< 0.05). The minimum was recorded at 30 C (15.32), while the
maximum of 21.61 was recorded at 20 C. In D. strictus (Table 5), at
30 and 35 C the mean MGT was minimum (9.82 and 9.65, respectively)
and at par with each other but signicantly different from other
temperatures (P < 0.05). The mean MGT was highest at 20 C
(18.63). In B. nutans (Table 6), all the temperatures showed
signicant difference (P < 0.05) in mean MGT, except at 25 and
2030 C, which were at par with each other with 16.60 and 16.80,
respectively. At 35 C the mean MGT was lowest (13.27) followed by
30 C (14.16), while the maximum was obtained at 20 C (20.76).
Effect of media on mean germination time In D. membranaceus (Table
4), signicantly lowest mean MGT (16.27) was obtained in TP (P <
0.05), closely followed by BP (17.48) while maximum of
Optimum conditions for testing germination of bamboo seeds Table
4. Effect of temperature and media on mean germination time (MGT)
of D. membranaceus seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030 Mean
Media TP 21.38 16.52 13.02 13.32 17.53 15.87 16.27 BP 21.45 17.07
13.22 16.10 19.57 17.48 17.48 Sand 22.00 21.61 20.33 20.55 21.05
20.50 21.00
9
Mean
21.61 18.40 15.52 16.66 19.38 17.95
CD at 5%: temperature 0.32; media 0.22; temperaturemedia 0.55.
Table 5. Effect of temperature and media on mean germination time
(MGT) of D. strictus seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030
Mean Media TP 17.14 9.82 7.44 7.48 8.01 9.87 9.96 BP 18.08 8.93
7.74 7.50 8.04 9.63 9.99 Sand 20.69 14.52 13.79 14.47 14.12 14.87
15.41 18.63 11.09 9.65 9.82 10.05 11.46 Mean
CD at 5%: temperature 0.44; media 0.31; temperaturemedia
0.75.
21.00 in sand. In D. strictus (Table 5), the lowest mean MGT,
i.e., 9.96 and 9.99, was obtained at TP and BP, respectively, which
remained at par, while the maximum was obtained in sand (15.41). A
similar trend was observed in B. nutans (Table 6), where TP and BP
showed minimum MGT of 14.80 and 14.69, respectively, as compared to
sand (19.09). Effect of light/dark on percent germination and MGT
In all the three species there was insignicant difference (P >
0.05) in percent germination of seeds sown under light and dark
(data not shown). The germination was 57.0 and 56.0% in D.
membranaceus, 61.5 and 64.0% in D. strictus and 55.0 and 54.5% in
B. nutans in light and dark, respectively. Similarly, MGT was not
signicantly affected by the presence or absence of light in all the
three species. The MGT was 10.97 and 11.18 in D. membranaceus, 9.15
and 9.00 in D. strictus and 10.17 and 10.30 in B. nutans in light
and dark, respectively.
10
M. M. S. RAWAT
Table 6. Effect of temperature and media on mean germination
time (MGT) of B. nutans seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030
Mean Media TP 20.09 14.69 12.24 11.85 15.28 14.68 14.80 BP 20.53
14.58 12.73 11.85 13.33 15.13 14.69 Sand 21.66 20.55 17.53 16.12
18.14 20.59 19.09 20.76 16.60 14.16 13.27 15.58 16.80 Mean
CD at 5%: temperature 0.39; media 0.27; temperaturemedia
0.67.
DISCUSSION
The germination characteristics of seeds of bamboo species seem
to be specic to a particular kind. All the three species under
investigation exhibited more or less similar response with respect
to incubation temperature, sowing media and presence or absence of
light. Temperature is one of the most critical factors in the
laboratory germination of seeds. This became evident in all the
three species of bamboos, which showed 30 C as the ideal
temperature for germination, though seeds of D. strictus and B.
nutans germinated equally well at 25 and 35 C, respectively. As
expected, it took minimum days to complete germination at 30 C as
the MGT was minimum at this temperature, except B. nutans, which
showed minimum at 35 C. At temperatures below or above 30 C, the
germination was not only drastically delayed but also reduced in
percentage with little exceptions. A critical temperature of 30 C
has been shown to be ideal for several indigenous tropical tree
species [5, 6]. Maximum germination at 30 C has also been reported
in D. strictus [7] and B. tulda [8]. With respect to germination
media, all three species of bamboos germinated equally well on TP
and BP, except D. strictus, which performed best at TP. TP,
however, was found to be the best as on this media seedlings could
be evaluated more easily for abnormalities. Seedlings in BP
remained somewhat whitish yellow due to lack of sufcient light,
making it difcult to distinguish albino seedlings, which seems to
be a characteristic of bamboo species. TP has been reported as a
best media for germination of B. tulda seeds [8]. ISTA [2] also
prescribed TP as the best media for germination of small seeds. In
sand the germination was not only drastically slow but also reduced
signicantly. The seeds of all the three species germinated equally
well in dark and light. There was no signicant difference in
germination percent, as well as MGT in seeds sown in total darkness
and in light (P > 0.05). However, a cycle of 8 h daily light
seems to be essential for proper evaluation of seedlings for
abnormality. Seedlings in dark remained whitish yellow making it
again difcult to distinguish albino seedlings.
Optimum conditions for testing germination of bamboo seeds
11
ISTA [2] also mentioned that seedlings grown in complete dark
are etiolated and become more sensitive to attack by
micro-organisms and it becomes difcult to detect chlorophyll
deciency. Thus, the ideal conditions that could be used for
determining germination capacity of a seed lot are 30 C, TP and
preferably presence of light. Although the above study is based on
a single seed lot of each species, it provides a base regarding
testing conditions of bamboo seeds. The availability of different
seed lots of a species of bamboo is a major constraint mainly due
to long owering intervals of several years.
REFERENCES1. ISTA, International Rules for Seed Testing, Seed
Science and Technology 24 (Suppl.) (1996). 2. ISTA, International
Rules for Seed testing. Rules and annexes. International Seed
Testing Association, Seed Science and Technology 4, 3117 (1976). 3.
M. M. S. Rawat and R. C. Thapliyal, Storage behaviour of bamboo
(Dendrocalamus membranaceus) seeds, Seed Science and Technology 31
(2), 397403 (2003). 4. F. T. Bonner, Germination responses of
loblolly pine to temperature differentials on a two way
thermogradient plate, Journal of Seed Technology 8 (1), 614 (1983).
5. B. N. Gupta, P. G. Pattanath, A. Kumar, R. C. Thapliyal and A.
S. Raturi, Rules for germination test of tree seeds for
certication, Indian Forestry 101 (6), 320327 (1975). 6. B. N. Gupta
and P. G. Pattanath, Germination responses of some forest tree
seeds under controlled conditions, Indian Forestry 102 (5), 264272
(1976). 7. B. N. Gupta and A. Kumar, Interrelated effects of
temperature and moisture on seed germination of Dendrocalamus
strictus Nees, Indian Forestry 103 (3), 212219 (1977). 8. R. C.
Thapliyal, O. P. Sood and M. M. S. Rawat, Effect of moisture
content and storage temperature on the viability of Bambusa tulda
seed, International Tree and Crops Journal 7, 6795 (1991).
Also available online - www.vsppub.com
J. Bamboo and Rattan, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 13 31 (2005) VSP
2005.
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan
region, India. Part II: fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoots
salesB. P. BHATT , L. B. SINGHA, M. S. SACHAN and K.
SINGHAgroforestry Division, ICAR Research Complex for North Eastern
Himalayan Region, Umroi Road, Umiam, Meghalaya 793 103, India
AbstractThe sales of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoots
in the market places of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Nagaland and Sikkim, of the North-Eastern Himalayan (NEH) region,
India have been reported. The results are based on the survey of
118 markets covering 1200 primary and secondary vendors from 51
districts of NEH region. The consumption of fermented, roasted and
boiled shoots was estimated to be ca. 680 tonnes; the highest
occurs in Arunachal Pradesh (481 tonnes/year) and the lowest in
Nagaland (19.5 tonnes/year). The bamboo shoots are consumed in the
form of fermented-slice, crushed-fermented moist, crushed-fermented
dry, fermented whole shoot, roasted whole shoot and boiled whole
shoot in different states of the region. Costreturn analysis for
sales of these bamboo products revealed a net income of 23 million
rupees per annum (US$ 502 950) from the entire region with the
highest (17.5 million rupees/year or US$ 38 270) in Arunachal
Pradesh and the lowest in Sikkim (0.47 million rupees/year or US$
10 280). Employment opportunities have also been worked out and ca.
1260 persons/year could earn their subsistence through selling of
bamboo shoot products. Key words: Bamboo shoots; North-East
Himalaya (NEH) region; India; consumption; costreturn analysis.
INTRODUCTION
Over 1500 bamboo species belonging to 75 genera occur worldwide
in natural forests, semi-exploited stands and intensive plantations
[1], of which India has contributed about 130 species belonging to
23 genera [2, 3]. As many as 78 bamboo species (both indigenous and
exotic) belonging to 19 genera are being reported from the
North-East region of India [4]. To
whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
[email protected]
14
B. P. Bhatt et al.
The range of application of bamboo for mankind is remarkable,
with an annual use of 12 kg bamboo biomass per capita in Asia [5,
6]. Besides the use of different bamboo parts as fuel, fodder,
medicine, pulping material, construction and household as well as
farms, the edible nature of tender shoots of some species enhanced
the importance of bamboo in the global scenario. Data on worldwide
production of bamboo products are extremely unreliable, as they do
not appear in the major commodity databases. Worldwide, more than 2
million tonnes of bamboo shoots are consumed annually [7] with
approximately 1.3 million tonnes produced in China [8]. In
metropolitan Tokyo, more than 8000 tonnes of young shoots are
consumed annually [9]. In India, bamboo shoots in fresh, fermented,
roasted and pickle form are consumed, especially in the North-East
region. Around 1000 tonnes of fresh bamboo shoots are reported to
be obtained only through market places of three tribal states of
this region, where an annual gross income of ca. US$ 111 000 could
be generated [10]. In spite of the consumption of fresh bamboo
shoots in the North-East region, a considerable quantity of bamboo
shoots is also consumed in the form of fermented products, roasted
and pickles after processing through conventional methods. Almost
all the ethnic groups of the region use bamboo shoot products in
preparing major or minor food items. They are also applied in small
quantities as food additives to improve delicacy of vegetarian or
non-vegetarian dishes. Among the processed bamboo shoots, fermented
products and pickles fetch higher income due to the ability of
their long-term preservation with higher market price and their
consumption throughout the year. In part I of this series, entitled
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan
(NEH) region, India: Young shoot sales [11], the main emphasis was
on investigation and documentation the diversity of commercial
edible bamboo species available in the NEH region, the annual
consumption pattern of fresh tender shoots through market places
and their costreturn analysis, including physical efforts made in
merchandizing fresh bamboo shoots. Most of the Governmental and
Non-Governmental Organisations are giving full emphasis to utilize
the available bamboo resources in the region through scientic
implications for the sustainable development of the NEH region, and
India as well. Although, no such efforts are being made on edible
nature of bamboo shoots and their allied products with commercial
importance in the NEH region or elsewhere in other parts of India.
In continuation to the previous study on edible bamboo species in
the NEH region [11], the present study gives special emphasis to
investigate and to document the annual consumption rate of
processed bamboo shoot products through market places, their
commercial values, the costreturn analysis, the indigenous
technical knowledge (ITK) on bamboo shoot processing, etc. An
attempt has also been made to understand the revenue generation
through traditionally processed bamboo shoots and its potential to
provide employment opportunities in the NEH region of India.
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan,
Part II
15
STUDY SITE
The study was carried out in the North-Eastern Himalayan region
(NEH) of India, covering 7 states, namely Arunachal Pradesh,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura (Fig. 1).
The region lies between 2130 N latitude and 8598 E longitude, and
occupies an area of 18.4 million ha. The region has a difcult
terrain with hilly topography, characterized by steep slopes,
gorges and plateaus with less than 15% valleys. The elevation
ranges from 100 m to 5600 m above sea level (asl), tropical to
alpine agro-climatic condition with ca. 100 to 6000 mm annual
rainfall. This peculiar agro-climatic condition of the NEH region
has supported very rich and diverse ora and fauna including bamboo
species for which the region could account a position among the 25
hot spots of the world. Based on the State of Forest Report [12]
and Basic Statistics [13], the total land area and human population
of the 7 states of the NEH region are shown in Fig. 2, in which the
highest population density was reported in Tripura (304 persons/km2
) and the lowest in Arunachal Pradesh (13 persons/km2 ). The range
of total human population in the 7 states is very large and varies
from 0.89 to 3.19 million. More
Figure 1. Location map of the study sites in the NEH region,
India.
16
B. P. Bhatt et al.
Figure 2. Total human population (1) and geographical area (!)
of 7 states in the NEH region, India.
than 70% of the total population of the region belongs to the
rural sectors and they exploit tender bamboo shoots from natural
forests, plantation forests and home gardens for their income
generation and livelihood.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A survey of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products
in market places of 7 selected states in the NEH region was carried
out from March 2003 to March 2004 at four months interval. More
than 40% of the available market places of the entire districts of
the 7 states were randomly surveyed. Out of 297 market places a
total of 118 market places belonging to 51 districts of the NEH
region was surveyed. Vendors of bamboo shoot products were
categorized as primary (those who process bamboo shoots for
different products and sell) and secondary (those who purchase
processed products at wholesale rate and sell in retail rates).
Baseline information was gathered from 1200 primary and secondary
vendors through suitable preprepared questionnaires. This
information includes the number of primary and secondary vendors
available in the market places, market days per week, quantity of
fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoots sold per day, their
availability period and costs (per kg), the number of persons
involved including gender and age group, the physical efforts and
nancial investments made in merchandizing (fermented, roasted and
boiled bamboo shoots), etc. Information on indigenous technical
knowledge for the processing of bamboo shoots and recipes of
different
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan,
Part II
17
tribal communities/ethnic groups were also accumulated from the
nearby villages of the respective market places. All the data were
statistically analysed and presented in this paper.
RESULTS
Product preparations and description In addition to the bamboo
shoot pickles, 5 more bamboo shoot products, such as fermented
slice, crushed-fermented moist, crushed-fermented dry, fermented
whole shoot and roasted whole shoot, were recorded from the NEH
region of India. All the 5 fermented and roasted bamboo shoot
products were sold in the market places of Arunachal Pradesh (Figs
35) and Nagaland (Fig. 6), and were consumed by almost all the
ethnic groups and tribal communities in the two states, except
Monpas (Tibetans) of West Kameng and Tawang districts of Arunachal
Pradesh. In Manipur fermented slice bamboo shoots and fermented
whole shoots were observed in the market places, whereas only
crushed-fermented (moist) was sold in Meghalaya. A unique boiled
bamboo shoot product of two bamboo species was observed being sold
in the market places of Sikkim. The consumption and
commercialisation of processed bamboo shoots in Mizoram and Tripura
were negligible. Only few ethnic groups in Mizoram consume
fermented slice bamboo shoots, which in fact was met from their own
processing and not through market places (Fig. 7).
Figure 3. Fermented whole shoot sold at Ganga market, Itanagar,
Arunachal Pradesh.
18
B. P. Bhatt et al.
Figure 4. Roasted and crushed-fermented moist bamboo shoots sold
at Seppa, East Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh.
Figure 5. Fermented crushed bamboo shoots sold at Pasighat, East
Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh.
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan,
Part II
19
Figure 6. Sliced-bamboo shoots packed in polythene for
fermentation process, Dimapur Ditrict, Nagaland.
Figure 7. Sliced-fermented bamboo shoot sold by secondary
vendors at Khwairamband Bazar, Imphal West District, Manipur.
The principle of bamboo shoot fermentation in different states
in the NEH region was similar although the indigenous technology
for the processing of fermented bamboo shoot products is different
among the 7 states, and even from one ethnic
20
B. P. Bhatt et al.
group to another. Generalized conventional methods used for the
processing of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products
employed in NEH region are highlighted below. Fermented-slice.
Freshly harvested bamboo shoots are cleaned and washed with water.
They are thinly sliced and immediately packed with polythene
sheets, and wrapped with cloth/synthetic sack. They are kept under
pressure using heavy weights (boulders or concrete slabs etc.) for
36 months for fermentation. The fermented bamboo shoot slices can
be preserved for several months after the completion of the
fermentation process. Crushed-fermented moist. Fresh bamboo shoots
are simply crushed using wooden mortar and pestle after removing
the hairy sheaths, and packed in polythene bags or lled into
plastic/glass bottles. After 23 months fermentation in anaerobic
condition, it becomes ready to consume. Crushed-fermented dry.
Fresh bamboo shoots are cleaned, washed and crushed into small
pieces. They are allowed to get semi-fermented for 37 days in
airtight pitcher or other containers, and then sun dried. After
proper drying, they are packed in polythene bags and sold in the
market places or are preserved in dry form for future use.
Fermented whole shoot. Freshly harvested bamboo shoots are cleaned
and washed with water. They are fermented as usual in anaerobic
condition using heavy weights, as in the case of fermented slice
bamboo shoots. Generally, it requires more time for complete
fermentation than the other fermented products. Roasted whole
shoot. Fresh bamboo shoots are re roasted together with the culm
sheath/swathe. After proper roasting, the culm sheath is removed
carefully. It may be consumed as usual, or consumed along with
rice, bread etc. In the market places, it is sold after wrapping
with banana leaf, turmeric leaf, etc. It can be preserved only for
23 days. Boiled whole shoot. Freshly harvested bamboo shoots are
simply boiled in water in a large container until they are cooked
properly. After draining off the water, they are ready for
consumption. This bamboo shoot product is also sold as roasted
whole shoot in the market places, wrapping with banana leaf, but it
cannot be preserved for more than 23 days. In addition to the above
bamboo shoot products, fermented bamboo shoots squash, a by-product
of bamboo shoot fermentation, was observed to be consumed on a
commercial scale in Nagaland state. During the preparation of
crushed fermented bamboo shoot products, bamboo shoot juices were
decant and allowed to ferment in air tight containers for six to
ten days till it becomes ready for consumption.
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan,
Part II
21
Figure 8. A customer purchasing bamboo shoot squash at Wokha
market, Nagaland.
Liquid remnants of fermented-slice or crushed bamboo shoots
after their complete fermentation were consumed as usual in little
quantity as food additives. The annual consumption of bamboo shoot
squash in Nagaland was recorded as ca. 71 630 litres per year (Fig.
8). Table 1 gives the traditional dishes prepared from fermented,
roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products in NEH region. The
consumption pattern of different bamboo shoot products are
different among the different ethnic groups, although, all the
fermented products are consumed as food additives by applying in
little quantity to increase the delicacy of different dishes. In
the Wokha district of Nagaland, consumption of the basal part of
tender culm sheath after fermentation is also a unique bamboo shoot
product of the region. It is known as Rhuyem by the Lotha tribe and
especially used for the preparation of duck-meat curries. In
Manipur, Soibum (slice fermented) and Soidon (whole shoot
fermented) are the two highly esteemed fermented bamboo shoot
products which are consumed as major dishes, as well as used as
additives in vegetable and non-vegetable dishes. In Mizoram,
Tripura and Sikkim, there were no fermented bamboo shoot products
sold in the market places, whereas, in Sikkim, bamboo shoots in
boiled form was observed to be sold on a commercial scale. The
period of availability of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo
shoot products in the market place of the NEH region and the
quantity sold (per day and per year) are presented in Table 2. The
six different processed bamboo shoot products sold
22
Table 1. Traditional dishes prepared from fermented, roasted and
boiled bamboo shoot products in NEH region, India Description of
dishes
State
Bamboo shoot products
Local name/dialect
Arunachal Pradesh
Roasted bamboo shoots
Eva/Nyishing
Fermented
Slice, Hikhu/Apatani Crushed, Ekung/Nishies Crushed dry,
Eup/Nishies Whole shoot, Hitak/Nishies
This is a pre-cooked/re roasted fresh bamboo shoot. It can be
consumed as usual or is consumed by applying it in other
vegetable/meat curries. All the fermented products like crushed
fermented, dry, sliced or whole shoot fermented are applied in
small amounts to other curries (vegetable/non-vegetable) to
increase their delicacy.
B. P. Bhatt et al.
Manipur
Fermented
Slice, Soibum/Manipuri
Whole shoot, Soidon/ Manipuri
Slice fermented shoots are boiled/fried with potato, mixed with
chilli, salt, Haotonia cordata, etc. It is also cooked along with
sh/meat, etc. Slice-fermented shoots are boiled with potato, arum
stem and are mixed with chilli, coriander, seeds of Eurayl ferox,
salt and dry sh. Small pieces of fermented whole shoots are chopped
and boiled/fried with potato, salt, chilli, or with sh/meat etc.
Little quantity of crushed-fermented product is applied to
pork/beef curry to increase the delicacy. All type of fermented
bamboo shoot products are applied in small quantities according to
the taste preferred to all type of curries including boil curries,
vegetable and non-vegetable dishes.
Meghalaya
Fermented
Crushed, Syrwa/Khasi
Nagaland
Fermented
Slice, Zusem/Ao Crushed, Zutsuk/Ao Crushed dry, Yisu/Ao Whole
shoot, Sethu/Ao Squash, Zitzu/Ao
Sikkim
Boiled bamboo shoot
Whole shoot, Mesu/Nepali
It is pre-cooked/boiled bamboo shoots. It may be consumed as
such along with bread/biscuits etc. and are applied generally to
vegetables and non-vegetable curries.
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan,
Part II
23
in the market places can be categorized as fermented, roasted
and boiled forms. Fermented products had the longest availability
period with larger quantity sold in the market places than roasted
and boiled forms. The availability of fermented slice and fermented
whole shoot in Manipur state had longer period compared to that of
Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. A comparatively large quantity of
fermented slice compared with the other bamboo shoot products was
sold in Manipur and Nagaland with ca. 105 and 6 tonnes/year,
respectively. Crushedfermented moist was observed in Arunachal
Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland, whereas crushed fermented dry was
observed to be sold only in Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. Both
crushed fermented moist and dry bamboo shoot products were sold in
larger quantity in Arunachal Pradesh compared to other states in
the NEH region. Fermented whole shoot was observed in Arunachal
Pradesh, Manipur and Nagaland, whereas largest quantity was sold in
Arunachal Pradesh with ca. 102 tonnes/year. Roasted bamboo shoot
was recorded only in the market places of Arunachal Pradesh with an
annual sale of ca. 52 tonnes, whereas ca. 27 tonnes of boiled
bamboo shoots was observed to sell in Sikkim. During the year
20032004, the total quantity of annual bamboo shoot products sold
in the market places of the NEH region was recorded to be ca. 680
tonnes. Arunachal Pradesh has contributed highest with ca. 481
tonnes/year followed by Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim and Nagaland
with ca. 114, 39, 27 and 19 tonnes/year, respectively. Table 3
shows the costreturn analysis of fermented, roasted and boiled
bamboo shoot products sold in the market places of NEH region. The
retail price (per kg) of all the 5 bamboo shoot products sold in
Arunachal Pradesh was higher than those sold in other states of the
NEH region. Among the six bamboo shoot products, the cost of
crushed-fermented dry bamboo shoot available in Arunachal Pradesh
and Nagaland was comparatively high whereas, boiled shoots of large
bamboo species in Sikkim state were sold at cheaper rate. The gross
income per day as well as per annum from the bamboo shoot products
(fermented, roasted and boiled) was highest in Arunachal Pradesh
with ca. 195 000 Rs/day (US$ 4264) and 32.61 million rupees per
annum (US$ 713 099). It was followed by Manipur, Meghalaya,
Nagaland and Sikkim with ca. 5.2 (US$ 113 711), 1.2 (US$ 26 240),
0.8 (US$ 17 494) and 0.6 million rupees (US$ 13 120) per annum.
Financial investment and physical efforts made for merchandizing
bamboo shoot products in the NEH region was also recorded to be
highest in Arunachal Pradesh with ca. 15 million rupees per annum
(US$ 328 013), followed by Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Sikkim
with ca. 1.4 (US$ 30 614), 0.6 (US$ 13 120), 0.3 (US$ 6560) and 0.1
million (US$ 2186) rupees per annum, respectively. The highest net
income from bamboo shoot products after deduction of both nancial
investment and physical efforts was observed in Arunachal Pradesh
with 17.5 million rupees per annum (US$ 382 681) followed by
Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Sikkim with ca. 3.8 (US$ 83 093),
0.6 (US$ 13 120), 0.6 (US$ 13 120) and 0.5 million rupees (US$ 10
933) per annum, respectively. The total gross income from the
fermented,
24
Table 2. Fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products
sold in the market places of the NEH region, India (mean SD)
Availability of products in the market places (days/year) 180 5 180
5 180 5 180 3 90 6 192 19 190 3 70 5 78 4 90 7 78 11 67 9 70 5 70 5
548 14 48 4 596 18 560 80 82 23 62 41 100 13 20 4 46 9 258 52 162
20 1604 105 53 22 567 65 576 78 2962 290 Products sold (kg/day)
Products sold (tonnes/year)
State
Bamboo shoot product
Arunachal Pradesh
Fermented slice Crushed-fermented moist Crushed-fermented dry
Fermented whole shoot Roasted whole shoot Total
29.2 3.6 288.7 18.9 9.5 1.0 102.1 11.7 51.8 7.0 481.3 42.2 105.2
2.7 9.1 0.8 114.3 3.5 39.2 5.6 6.4 1.8 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.1 6.7 0.9 1.4
0.3 3.2 0.6 18.5 3.9
B. P. Bhatt et al.
Manipur
Fermented slice Fermented whole shoot Total
Meghalaya
Crushed-fermented moist
Nagaland
Fermented slice Crushed-fermented dry (outer portion/culm
sheath)a Crushed-fermented dry (inner portion/rhizome)b
Crushed-fermented moist Crushed-fermented dry (mixture of different
bamboo species) Fermented whole shoot Total
Table 2. (Continued) Availability of products in the market
places (days/year) 15 8 48 6 Products sold (kg/day) Products sold
(tonnes/year)
State
Bamboo shoot product
Sikkim
Whole shoot boil of narrow bamboo speciesc Whole shoot boil of
large bamboo speciesd Total Grand total
246 33 477 52 723 85 5099 525
3.7 0.5 22.9 2.5 26.6 3.0 679.9 58.2
a Basal
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan,
Part II
b Crushed
part of tender culm sheath of fresh bamboo shoot in dried form.
fermented tender rhizomes in dried form. c Narrow bamboo species
consist of C. hookeriana. d Large bamboo species consist of D.
hamiltonii and D. giganteus.
25
26
Table 3. Costreturn analysis of fermented, roasted and boiled
bamboo shoot products in the NEH region, India (mean SD) Retail
price (Rs/kg) Gross income (Rs/day) Gross income (million Rs/year)
Financial investment and wages for mandays (million Rs/year) 3.87
0.29 5.86 0.66 1.69 0.58 2.76 0.21 0.95 0.05 15.13 1.79 1.32 0.03
0.08 0.02 1.40 0.05 0.59 0.02 0.26 0.07 0.14 0.05 0.07 0.02 0.13
0.02 0.17 0.03 0.06 0.01 0.83 0.20 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.01
0.05 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.26 0.09 Net income (million
Rs/year)
States
Bamboo shoot product
Arunachal Pradesh
Fermented slice Crushed-fermented moist Crushed-fermented dry
Fermented whole shoot Roasted whole shoot Total 45 5 50 5 30 5 41 3
262 12 237 11 19 2 120 12 19 4 1572 524 948 237 1900 247 2400 480
874 171 11 056 2602 3362 943 16 800 2400 24 660 630 2400 200 27 060
830 4.73 0.12 0.46 0.04 5.19 0.16 1.18 0.17
320 30 43 10 322 50 52 15 48 5
51 840 6400 68 972 4515 17 066 7084 29 484 3380 27 648 3744 195
010 25 123
9.33 1.15 12.41 0.81 3.07 1.28 5.31 0.61 2.49 0.34 32.61
4.19
5.46 0.86 6.55 0.15 1.38 0.70 2.55 0.40 1.54 0.29 17.48 2.40
3.41 0.09 0.38 0.02 3.79 0.11 0.59 0.15 0.24 0.06 0.10 0.03 0.04
0.01 0.08 0.01 0.08 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.57 0.14
B. P. Bhatt et al.
Manipur
Fermented-slice Fermented whole shoot Total
Meghalaya
Crushed-fermented moist
Nagaland
Fermented-slice Crushed-fermented dry (outer portion/culm
sheath)a Crushed-fermented dry (inner portion/rhizome)b
Crushed-fermented moist Crushed-fermented dry (mixture of dry
bamboo species) Fermented whole shoot Total
Table 3. (Continued) Gross income (Rs/day) Gross income (million
Rs/year) Financial investment and wages for mandays (million
Rs/year) 0.03 0.00 0.07 0.02 0.10 0.02 17.48 1.97 883 010 382 244
Net income (million Rs/year)
States
Bamboo shoot product
Retail price (Rs/kg)
Sikkim 6642 891 8109 884 14 751 1775 264 677 32 730 5788 0.39
0.04 0.57 0.06 40.38 4.78 0.18 0.02
27 6
0.15 0.02 0.32 0.02 0.47 0.04 22.90 2.84 500 766
Whole shoot boil of narrow bamboo speciesc Whole shoot boil of
large bamboo speciesd Total
17 2
Grand total (Rs.)
Grand total
(US$)e
a Basal
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan,
Part II
b Crushed
part of tender culm sheath of fresh bamboo shoot in dried form.
fermented tender rhizomes in dried form. c Narrow bamboo species
consist of C. hookeriana. d Large bamboo species consist of D.
hamiltonii and D. giganteus. e 1 US$ = Rs. 45.73 in Indian currency
(January 2004).
27
28
B. P. Bhatt et al.
Figure 9. Net income [after deduction of nancial investment (1)]
and employment opportunity (!) in the NEH region, India.
roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products in NEH region, India
was computed as ca. 40 million rupees per annum (US$ 874 700), with
a net income of ca. 23 million rupees per annum (US$ 502 953),
where a total of ca. 17 million rupee per annum (US$ 371 748)
nancial investment and physical efforts as mandays were made for
merchandizing them. Figure 9 depicts the monetary return, annual
income generated (after the deduction of nancial investment made)
from the merchandizing of bamboo shoot products and employment
opportunity in the NEH region of India. During the study period,
the highest income per manday was recorded in Arunachal Pradesh
with Rs. 80 per day (US$ 1.75) and lowest in Manipur with Rs.
60/day (US$ 1.31), whereas in Meghalaya, Nagaland and Sikkim this
was recorded to be Rs. 65 per day (US$ 1.42). The net income (after
deduction of nancial investment) from selling of bamboo shoot
products in Arunachal Pradesh could employ most persons (945
persons at Rs. 80 per day (US$ 1.75) throughout the year), whereas
in Sikkim state it could generate the least with 22 persons at Rs.
65 per day (US$ 1.42). In Manipur, 220 persons could be engaged in
merchandizing bamboo shoot products throughout the year at Rs. 60
per day (US$ 1.31), whereas in Meghalaya and Nagaland it could
generate employment for 40 and 31 persons, respectively, at Rs. 65
per day (US$ 1.42). Thus, a total of 1258 persons could be engaged
fully or partly for their livelihood through the merchandizing of
fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products in 5 states of
the NEH region of India.
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan,
Part II
29
DISCUSSION
The present investigation could provide an idea on the available
fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products consumed as
well as sold in the market places of 5 states in the NEH region of
India. The highest variety of bamboo shoot products observed in
Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh was due to the higher diversity of
ethnic groups in these two states. Different ethnic groups have
different indigenous technical knowledge for the processing of
bamboo shoot products, although the principle remains same.
Arunachal Pradesh has a moderate population with 1.09 million.
Largest sale of bamboo shoot products with highest commercial value
in Arunachal Pradesh was due to the moderate population with rich
bamboo resource in which ca. 80% of the total population belongs to
the rural sector who access the resource. Another reason is the
long term availability of fermented products with their high
demand. Among the bamboo shoot products, the highest sale of
crushedfermented moist bamboo products observed in Arunachal
Pradesh was due to its low cost with consumability by almost all
tribal communities of the state, except the Monpa tribe. The
shorter availability period of roasted whole shoot and whole shoot
boil in the market places of the NEH region was due to the short
bamboo shoot availability period in the forests/homegardens during
the rainy season (MayJuly) and limited market days per week. The
largest quantity of fermented-slice bamboo shoot in the NEH region,
which was recorded in Manipur, was due to its longest availability
period in the market places with higher sale. In spite of the
consumption of crushed fermented dry bamboo shoots by almost all
the tribal communities in Arunachal Pradesh there was a lower sale
which was due to a very high market price. As limited ethnic groups
of Nagaland consume crushed fermented bamboo shoot products, there
was a low sale of this product in few market places of particular
localities of Nagaland. Almost all the ethnic groups of Manipur
consume fermented slice bamboo shoots as major food item and as
food additives in different dishes, whereas, fermented whole shoot
was consumed by three communities. In addition, fermented slice
bamboo shoots processed in Manipur are also exported to the
neighbouring states of NEH region, like Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland
and Assam. Most of the fermented slice bamboo shoots sold in the
market places of Arunachal Pradesh was dealt by secondary vendors
who purchased and transported it from Manipur due to its better
quality and delicacy, which resulted in a higher market price. In
Meghalaya, only crushed fermented moist bamboo shoot was observed
to be sold by the major three tribal communities, i.e., Khasi,
Jaintia and Garo in less quantity compared to the other states of
the NEH region, except Nagaland. It may be due to the higher
availability of other food/vegetable crops with low price which can
substitute costly bamboo shoot products. The unique fermented dry
basal portion of tender culm sheath recorded in Nagaland was
restricted to the market places of Wokha, Mokokchung and
Tuensang
30
B. P. Bhatt et al.
districts. It was used by only 5 tribal communities of the three
districts of the state in preparing particular dishes like duck
meat, rabbit meat curries, etc. In Nagaland, fermented bamboo shoot
products are consumed in large quantities but not through the
market places, rather they were processed in household level and
preserved for their use throughout the year. In Sikkim, market
price of boiled bamboo shoots of narrow bamboo species
(Chimonobambusa hookeriana) was higher than that of large species
(Dendrocalamus hamiltonii and D. giganteus) due to its more
delicacy with sweet taste and its less availability in the natural
forests as well as home gardens. A higher number of bamboo shoot
products available in the market places of Arunachal Pradesh with
larger quantity sold for longer periods, at higher market price,
fetched higher annual gross income in this state. Though, the
market price of few fermented bamboo shoot products sold in
Nagaland was very high, but due to its negligible quantity sold in
the market places with limited availability period throughout the
year, annual gross income was low. Physical efforts as mandays
required for merchandizing of all bamboo shoot products in all
states of NEH region were more than that of nancial investments
made for purchasing fresh shoots, fuelwood cost, transportation
charge and purchasing cost of processed bamboo shoot products in
case of secondary vendors. Higher net income generated from
processed bamboo shoot products in Arunachal Pradesh was due to the
higher gross income with comparatively less nancial investment as
well as physical efforts made for their commercialisation. Lowest
net income generated from this resource in Sikkim was due to its
lowest gross income resulted by low market price and availability
for a very short period with higher nancial investment and physical
efforts made for commercialisation. Due to the large income
generated from bamboo shoot products, Arunachal Pradesh alone could
employ ca. 945 persons/year, whereas Manipur could employ ca. 220
persons throughout the year. Overall, fermented, roasted and boiled
bamboo shoot products consumed through the market places in the 5
states of NEH region could support ca. 1258 persons throughout the
year on a sustainable basis.CONCLUSIONS
Through this study, it can be understood that, in addition to
the consumption of fresh bamboo shoots, there is a very high
commercial value of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot
products which can be used as a tool for the income generation and
creating employment opportunities in the states of NEH region of
India. Further, proper planning and implementation of small and
large scale industries for bamboo shoot processing units in this
region may reduce the unemployment problems and improve the
socio-economic conditions of the region. Acknowledgements The
authors acknowledge the help and support of tribal communities of
all the NEH states, including Sikkim, state for generously
providing information during
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan,
Part II
31
the survey work. Thanks are also due to Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi for providing nancial
assistance and Director of the Institute for providing facilities
to conduct the work.
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Biomass estimation of Bambusa tulda grown at Eastern Terai,
NepalB. N. OLI Department of Forest Research and Survey, PO Box
3339, Kathmandu, Nepal
AbstractWith a view to prepare biomass tables of Bambusa tulda
grown at Belbari, Morang district of Eastern Nepal, a total of 153
culms was selected from 59 clumps. Measurements of diameter at 15
cm of the base (D15 ), vertical height of the culm, green weight of
the culm, branches and foliage were taken in the eld. The samples
were oven dried in laboratory at Kathmandu. To estimate the
biomass, a regression model was developed on the basis of oven dry
and green weight. The model used was W = a + b (D 2 L). Based on
the oven dry weight, the R 2 values were obtained for culm, branch
and foliage components, which were 92, 81 and 83%, respectively.
Similarly, R 2 values for culm and foliage components on the basis
of green weight were 92 and 82%, respectively. The R 2 values
obtained for branch and foliage components were slightly lower as
compared to the culm. This equation could be useful in estimating
bamboo biomass of managed natural stands or plantations in similar
site conditions. Key words: Biomass; bamboo; Bambusa tulda;
Nepal.
INTRODUCTION
Bamboos are the most widely used products, as they are used
every day by about 2.5 billion people in the world [1]. In Nepal,
they are one of the most common plant species grown on farmland
[2]. People perceive this species as an alternate to timber tree
species. Moreover, it is also considered as an important component
of livelihood strategies of the rural households [2]. With its
varied uses such as construction materials, woven products,
agricultural implements, fodder, vegetables and scaffolding and in
stabilizing slip-prone slopes, bamboos are in great demand by the
rural households in Nepal. Occurrence of bamboo is more common in
the eastern half of the country from Dhaulagiri to the Sikkim
border, as high as 4000 m [3]. In Nepal, so far 12 genera and more
than 50 species of bamboo have been recorded [4]. Out of the 75
districts of Nepal, 73 are known to have one E-mail:
[email protected]
34
B. N. Oli
or more species of bamboo. It has been estimated that the total
growing stock of bamboo in Nepal is around 15 million m3 with an
approximate biomass value of 1060 million tons [5]. Bambusa tulda
is occasionally found in the Terai region of Nepal, especially
around the Chitwan district of the Central region. It has strong
upright culms, but some are very short crooked, with swollen nodes
and with heavy branches. Such culms reach a maximum diameter of 7
cm and a length of 15 m, although they are often smaller. As they
are very thick-walled, they are used for construction purposes.
Leaves can be used for fodder and the shoots are not edible [3].
Despite the multiple benets obtained from bamboos, limited
documentation has been published on the biomass production
potential. On the basis of oven dry and green weight, a biomass
table of B. nutans subspecies nutans has been prepared [6].
Previous studies focused more on distribution, growth performance
and culm production aspects. At 4.5 years age, the average
diameter, height and survival of plants at Belbari of Morang
district were 4.2 cm, 8.7 m and 67%, respectively [7]. As there is
a growing demand of bamboo products in the country, information on
the estimation of biomass would be benecial for managing the bamboo
resources. This paper records information on biomass of B. tulda,
useful to forestry professionals, private growers and other
interested parties.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The Department of Forest Research and Survey conducted a trial
on establishment and management of bamboo at Belbari, Morang
district of eastern Nepal in 1991. B. nutans subspecies nutans
(Taru Bans), B. nutans subspecies cupulata (Mal Bans), B. tulda
(Japhta Bans), B. balcooa (Dhanu Bans) and Dendrocalamus giganteus
(Rakshasi Bans) were planted at Belbari [7]. Of the 5 bamboo
species planted, B. tulda was selected for the study. The reason
for selecting this species for biomass estimation was its varied
use and wide occurrence in Nepal and lack of comprehensive
documentation on biomass estimation of the species. The site is
located at an altitude of 155 m above sea level (asl) and the soil
is loamy to silt loam in nature. There was Sal (Shorea robusta)
forest 3 to 4 years before the establishment of the trial. The
average annual rainfall is 1737 mm and average maximum and minimum
temperature are 30 C and 18.2 C, respectively [8]. The plants
produced from single node culm cuttings taken from Sunsari district
of eastern Nepal were the source of materials for planting. The
cuttings were propagated in the Tarahara nursery located at Sunsari
district, before they were taken for planting site at Belbari. Soil
heaping was carried out in each clump in 1993 and the oldest culms
were cut and removed in the winter of 1996 [7]. The age of the
culms was estimated with the help of watchers who have been working
at the research plot since its establishment. The age of all the
clumps is 12 years, since it was established in 1991. Fiftynine
clumps comprising culms of varying age (from 1 to 12 years) and
diameter
Biomass estimation of Bambusa tulda
35
classes (D15 from 4 to 12 cm) were chosen. The total number of
culms from each clump was counted. From each clump, at least 2
culms of various age and diameter classes totalling 153 were cut 15
cm from the ground for the study. Measurements of diameter at 15 cm
of the base (D15 ), vertical height of the culm, green weight of
the culm, branches and foliage were taken in the eld. Seventeen
representative culms were selected for sub-samples of culm, branch
and foliage. These sub-samples were brought into the laboratory in
Kathmandu and oven-dried at 105 C until a constant weight was
attained. To convert the fresh weight of culm, branch and foliage
components into oven dry weight, sub-samples percentage dry matter
values were used. We used the formula dry matter value = ((oven dry
weight/fresh weight) 100) to obtain a conversion factor of 0.480,
0.531 and 0.359 for converting fresh weight to oven dry weight of
culm, branch and foliage, respectively. Out of 153 datasets, 135
datasets were used to develop the regression equation and the
remaining 18 datasets representative of all diameter classes were
used for validation purposes. To estimate the biomass, a regression
model was developed on the basis of oven dry weight. Biomass tables
for culm and foliage were also prepared on the basis of green
weight. Of the various models tested with the use of 135 datasets,
the model developed was W = a + b (D 2 L), where W is the weight in
kg, D is the diameter at 15 cm, L is the vertical length of the
culm, and a and b are the regression constants. A prediction error
for oven-dried weight of culms, branch and foliage was calculated
to measure the validity of the model [10]. Similarly, a prediction
error was calculated for green weight of the culm, as follows:
prediction error = ((sum of actual weight sum of predicted
weight/sum of actual weight) 100).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Dry matter content A total of 53.1% dry matter content was found
in the branch of B. tulda. The dry matter content values of culm
and foliage are 48 and 35.9%. The dry matter content of culm,
branch and foliage components of B. nutans subspecies nutans grown
at the same site were 47.3, 41.1 and 38.2%, respectively [6]. The
gures of dry matter content of culms and foliage of both the
species were close, except for the branches where there is a big
difference. Biomass estimation on the basis of oven dry weight
Using the regression model of W = a + b (D 2 L), the biomass of all
the components (culm, branch and foliage) was calculated. Based on
the oven-dried weight, the R 2 values obtained for culm, branch and
foliage components were 92,
36
B. N. Oli
Table 1. Biomass for culm on the basis of oven dry weight (in
kg) D15 Height (m) (cm) 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2.52 2.97 2.68
3.22 3.88 2.84 3.47 4.24 5.15
8 3.72 4.60 5.64 6.84
9 3.97 4.96 6.13 7.48 9.01
10 5.32 6.62 8.12 9.82 11.72
11 7.11 8.76 10.63 12.72 15.03
12 7.60 9.40 11.44 13.72 16.24 19.00
13 10.04 12.25 14.72 17.45 20.44
14 10.68 13.06 15.72 18.66 21.88
15 13.87 16.72 19.87 23.32
16 17.72 21.08 24.76
17 18.72 22.29 26.20
18 19.72 23.50 27.64
All tables provide information on the estimated biomass of the
culms, branches and foliage prepared on the basis of oven dry or
green weight. The R 2 value of more than 90% shows the good
estimation of culm biomass; less than 90% is a less reliable
estimation. a = 1.72, b = 0.01, standard error = 1.46, R 2 = 92%.
Table 2. Biomass table for branch on the basis of oven dry weight
(in kg) D15 (cm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Height (m) 5 0.73 0.84 6 0.77
0.89 1.04 7 0.81 0.95 1.13 1.34 8 1.01 1.21 1.45 1.73 9 1.07 1.29
1.56 1.87 2.22 10 1.38 1.68 2.02 2.41 2.85 11 1.79 2.17 2.60 3.08
3.61 12 1.90 2.31 2.78 3.31 3.89 4.52 13 2.46 2.97 3.54 4.17 4.85
14 2.61 3.16 3.77 4.44 5.18 15 3.34 4.00 4.72 5.52 16 4.23 5.00
5.85 17 4.46 5.28 6.18 18 4.69 5.56 6.51
a = 0.548, b = 0.0023, standard error = 0.61, R 2 = 81%.
81 and 82.5% respectively (Tables 13). The R 2 values for branch
and foliage were slightly lower as compared to the culm. The
prediction error calculated for oven-dried weight of culms, branch
and foliage components were 4, 22 and 19%, respectively. It has
been reported that prediction error of less than 15% validates the
models [10]. While estimating culm biomass on the basis of oven dry
weight, the prediction error is only 4%, which veries the validity
of the model. However, it would be better to test the model for
estimating biomass in different site conditions. Due to the large
variation in branching pattern in similar sized culms of this
species, the prediction error became higher (22%) than for the culm
and foliage component. The prediction error for foliage was found
to be 19%. It is argued that the prediction of leaf yield from
biomass equations is less accurate and more site-
Biomass estimation of Bambusa tulda Table 3. Biomass table for
foliage on the basis of oven dry weight (in kg) D15 (cm) 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 Height (m) 5 0.03 0.07 6 0.05 0.09 0.14 7 0.06 0.11 0.17
0.24 8 0.13 0.20 0.28 0.38 9 0.15 0.23 0.32 0.43 0.55 10 0.26 0.36
0.48 0.62 0.77 11 0.40 0.53 0.68 0.85 1.03 12 0.44 0.58 0.75 0.93
1.13 1.35 13 0.63 0.81 1.01 1.23 1.47 14 0.69 0.88 1.09 1.32 1.58
15 0.94 1.17 1.42 1.70 16 1.25 1.52 1.81 17 1.33 1.61 1.93
37
18 1.41 1.71 2.04
a = 0.031, b = 0.0008, standard error = 0.198, R 2 = 82.5%.
Table 4. Biomass table for culm on the basis of green weight (in
kg) D15 Height (m) (cm) 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 5.06 5.89 5.36
6.36 7.58 5.65 6.82 8.24 9.93
8 7.28 8.91 10.83 13.05
9 7.74 9.57 11.74 14.24 17.07
10 10.24 12.65 15.42 18.57 22.08
11 13.55 16.60 20.06 23.93 28.20
12 14.46 17.79 21.56 25.78 30.44 35.55
13 18.97 23.06 27.63 32.68 38.21
14 20.16 24.56 29.48 34.92 40.88
15 26.06 31.33 37.16 43.54
16 33.18 39.40 46.20
17 35.03 41.63 48.87
18 36.88 43.87 51.53
a = 3.58, b = 0.0185, standard error = 3.04, R 2 = 92%.
specic than for the components of stem, branch and total tree
weight [9]. Biomass tables for culm, branch and foliage components
based on oven-dried weight are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3,
respectively. Biomass estimation on the basis of oven dry weight
Biomass equations are normally prepared on an oven dry weight basis
to facilitate comparison with other sites, species and seasons
[10]. However, bamboo culms are sold on a fresh weight basis in
both the rural and urban areas of Nepal. Therefore, a biomass table
for culm based on green weight was also prepared (Table 4). Bamboo
leaves are used as fodder in some areas where there is fodder
decit. Leaves of B. tulda can be used as fodder [3]. Hence, a
biomass table for foliage was also prepared on the basis of green
weight (Table 5). Based on the green weight, the R 2 values
obtained for culm and foliage components were 92 and 82%,
respectively.
38
B. N. Oli
Table 5. Biomass table for foliage on the basis of green weight
(in kg) D15 (cm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Height (m) 5 0.08 0.17 6 0.11
0.22 0.35 7 0.14 0.27 0.42 0.60 8 0.32 0.49 0.70 0.94 9 0.37 0.56
0.80 1.07 1.37 10 0.64 0.90 1.20 1.54 1.92 11 0.99 1.32 1.70 2.12
2.58 12 1.09 1.45 1.86 2.32 2.82 3.37 13 1.58 2.02 2.52 3.06 3.66
14 1.71 2.18 2.72 3.30 3.95 15 2.35 2.92 3.55 4.24 16 3.12 3.79
4.52 17 3.32 4.03 4.81 18 3.52 4.27 5.10
a = 0.085, b = 0.002, standard error = 0.55, R 2 = 82%.
The prediction error is only 7% while estimating culm biomass on
the basis of green weight. Biomass tables based on green weight for
culm and foliage are given in Tables 4 and 5, respectively. It was
reported from India that total biomass of planted B. arundinacea
(retz.) wild of 3 years age was 8528 kg/ha [11]. The total above
ground biomass of D. strictus in India was 422 tons/ha [12]. On the
other hand, for B. bambos in India the gure ranges from 122287
tons/ha [13].
APPLICABILITY OF THE TABLES
Considering the wide use of bamboos these days, the biomass
tables may provide useful information on above ground biomass to
forestry professionals, bamboo growers, forest user groups and
other interested parties. Although the biomass estimation is conned
to the site condition of Belbari of Morang district, it can be
applied to other similar site conditions as well. While estimating
culm biomass on the basis of oven dry weight, the R 2 of more than
90% and prediction error of only 4% veries the validity of the
model. Similarly, the prediction error of 7% for the biomass
estimation of culm on the basis of green weight also veries the
validity of the model. This equation could be useful in estimating
bamboo biomass of managed natural stands or plantations in similar
site conditions. On the other hand, the biomass estimation on the
basis of oven dry weight of branch and foliage components gave a
higher prediction error than a normal range of within 15%.
Therefore, it would be better to test the model for estimating
biomass in different site conditions.
Biomass estimation of Bambusa tulda
39
REFERENCES1. J. M. Scurlock, D. C. Dayton and B. Hames, Bamboo:
An Overlooked Biomass Resource? ORNL/TM-1999/264, 34 pp. Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN (2000). 2. A. N. Das and B. N.
Oli, Tree growing practices on farmland: an option for sustaining
rural livelihoods, Banko Janakari 11 (2), 812 (2001). 3. C. M. A.
Stapleton, Bamboo of Nepal: An Illustrated Guide. Royal Botanical
Gardens, Kew (1994). 4. A. N. Das, Manual of Bamboos in Nepal. A
draft report submitted to tree improvement and silviculture
component (TISC). TISC, Kathmandu (2002). 5. M. B. Karki and J. B.
S. Karki, National Bamboo and Rattan Information Database, Nepal.
Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara (1995). 6. B.
N. Oli, Biomass estimation of Bambusa nutans subspecies nutans
grown at Eastern Terai, Nepal, Banko Janakari 13 (1), 4346 (2003).
7. H. B. Thapa, A. N. Das and B. N. Oli, Growth performance and
culm production of bamboo at the Eastern Terai, Nepal, Banko
Janakari 8 (1), 1318 (1998). 8. HMG/N, Climatological Records of
Nepal 19911994. Department of Hydrology and Meteorology. Kathmandu
(1997). 9. T. Satoo and H. Madgwick, Forest Biomass, 150 pp.
Martinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk, Den Haag (1982). 10. T. Hawkins,
Biomass and volume tables for Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Dalbergia
sissoo, Acacia auriculiformis and Cassia siamea in the Central
Bhabar-Terai of Nepal. O. F. I. Occasional Papers No. 33. Oxford
Forestry Institute, Oxford (1987). 11. N. S. Rao and C. Nagarajaih,
Evaluation of Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.). Wild for growth and
biomass production in dryland ecosystem, MYFOREST 27 (1), 7074
(1991). 12. S. K. Tripathi and K. P. Singh, Productivity and
nutrient cycling in recently harvested and mature bamboo savannas
in the dry tropics, Journal of Applied Ecology 31 (1), 109124
(1994). 13. P. Shanmughavel and K. Francis, Biomass and nutrient
cycling in bamboo (Bambusa bambos) plantations of tropical areas,
Biology and Fertility of Soils 23 (4), 431434 (1996).
Also available online - www.vsppub.com
J. Bamboo and Rattan, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 41 54 (2005) VSP
2005.
Foliage decomposition and nutrient release dynamics of Bambusa
balcooa and Bambusa pallida in a 9-year-old jhum fallowK.
ARUNACHALAM , K. UPADHYAYA and A. ARUNACHALAMDepartment of
Forestry, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and
Technology, Nirjuli 791109, Arunachal Pradesh, India
AbstractLitter decay and nutrient release rates of leaf and leaf
sheath litters of Bambusa balcooa Roxb. and B. pallida Munro were
determined using the litter-bag technique in a 9-year-old jhum
fallow in the humid tropics of north east India. C concentration
was highest in leaf and leaf sheath litters of B. pallida, while N
and lignin concentrations were greater in B. balcooa litter. Both
leaf and scale leaf litters of B. balcooa and B. pallida showed
similar decomposition patterns. The daily decay constants did not
differ signicantly between the two litter types and among bamboo
species studied. Nonetheless, mass-loss rates during decomposition
of the leaf and leaf sheath litters of both the species showed
positive correlations with incubation period (the time after
burying the samples in the soil). In general, until 120 days of
incubation, there was N immobilization and later during the study
period rapid release occurred. The release of N from B. pallida is
greater than B. balcooa as per KN values. P was initially being
immobilized followed by a gradual release after 120 days of litter
decomposition in B. balcooa. In B. pallida, no denite pattern was
observed. The rate of weight loss and N release showed signicant
positive relationships with lignin and N concentrations and
lignin/N, C/P and N/P ratios, and negative relationships with C and
P concentrations and C/N ratio. However, release rates of P did not
show signicant correlations with most chemical compositions of the
litter except with initial P concentration, C/P ratio and lignin/N.
Key words: Bamboo; decomposition; humid tropics; litter; nitrogen;
phosphorus.
INTRODUCTION
Bamboo constitutes one of the dominant secondary successional
vegetation types in the majority of the northeast Indian forests.
Out of 18 genera and 128 species of bamboos of India [1], Arunachal
Pradesh alone harbours 16 genera and 63 species [2]. Abandoned jhum
(shifting agriculture) lands and forest clearings To
whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
[email protected]
42
K. Arunachalam et al.
form favourable habitats for bamboos to invade, colonize and
establish faster when compared to broadleaved native species [3],
resulting in pure and/or mixed bamboo forests. Due to its abundance
and faster re-growth, these bamboo species meet a variety of
socio-economic and ethno-botanic human needs in the region.
Nevertheless, the role of bamboos in soil nutrient cycling in
degraded sites has been less studied [4 7], unlike other
broadleaved forest tree species [8 10]. Recycled nutrients from
decomposing plant litter are one of the main nutrient sources for
maintaining growth of forest vegetation [11]. Bamboos in this part
of the world are mainly distributed in nutrient poor soils. Hence,
the nutrient release from litter decomposition may play an
important role in re-establishing the nutrient cycling in nutrient
poor soils, particularly when the ecosystem is undergoing recovery
following disturbance [12]. The objective of the present study was
to determine the rates of decomposition and nutrient release
through the leaf and leaf sheath litters of two lower altitude (100
to 600 m above sea level (asl)) bamboos, Bambusa balcooa Roxb. and
B. pallida Munro, growing in a 9-year-old jhum fallow in the humid
tropics of Arunachal Pradesh, north-eastern India.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study site The study was conducted in a bamboo forest (9 years
old) developed on a fallow agricultural land (1.74 ha) located at
an altitude of 132 m above sea level in humid tropics of Arunachal
Pradesh (26 28 29 30 N latitude; 91 30 97 30 E longitude),
northeastern India. The average annual rainfall of the place was
about 1800 mm with mean maximum and minimum air temperatures 33 and
18 C, respectively. At the time of sampling (FebruaryMarch) the
average soil temperature recorded was 23 C. The climate was
monsoonal with three seasons: winter (OctoberFebruary),
spring/summer (MarchMay), monsoon (JuneSeptember). Almost 80% of
the total annual rainfall occurs during MaySeptember. The study
site was dominated by two fast growing and clump forming bamboo
species having average height of 15 to 20 m and a mean culm
diameter of 69 cm (Table 1).Table 1. Characteristics of bamboo
species in the study site Species No. of clumps per ha 89 7 137 11
No. of culms per clump 23 6 37 7 Height (m) Average diameter (cm)
Clump 470 28 415 23 Culm 92 61
Bambusa balcooa Bambusa pallida
19.6 1.2 15.6 0.8
Values are means SE (n = 5).
Foliage decomposition and nutrient release dynamics of B.
balcooa and B. pallida
43
Soil sampling and analytical procedures Topsoil (010 cm) under
the canopy of B. balcooa and B. pallida was collected in bulk
during FebruaryMarch, 1999. The soils were sieved through a 2-mm
mesh and the initial pH, moisture content (gravimetric method), and
concentration of ammonium-N (indophenol blue method) and nitrate-N
(phenol disulphonic acid method) were determined within 24 h after
sampling. The remaining soil samples were air-dried and analyzed
for texture, water holding capacity (WHC), soil organic carbon
(SOC), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) and available-P according to
standard procedures [13, 14]. The soil was loamy sand and acidic
(pH 5.96.5). Water holding capacity and clay content of soils were
relatively greater in B. balcooa soil (64% and 9.5%, respectively).
On the other hand, soil organic C, total Kjeldahl N and available P
were higher in B. pallida soil (1.9%, 0.46%, 10.69 g g1 ). Litter
sampling and analytical procedures Freshly fallen foliage litter
samples of the two bamboo species were collected from ve randomly
selected clumps of each species during FebruaryMarch 1999. The
litter was sorted into leaves and leaf sheath and air-dried. Sub
samples of litters were oven-dried at 105 C for 24 h in order to
determine their dry weights and for moisture correction. Ash
content of litter was determined by igniting ground samples in a
Mufe furnace at 550 C for 6 h. C content was calculated taking 50%
of ash-free weight [14]. Total Kjeldahl N was determined using the
semi-micro Kjeldahl procedure and total P was estimated using the
molybdenum blue method. Lignin, cellulose and bre contents were
also determined [15]. The data given in Table 2 are the mean values
of the ve replicated clumps for each species and litter type in the
study site. The sorted foliage litter samples from ve clumps of
each species were then bulked together to form four categories of
samples (2 species 2 litter type) for further study. Air-dried
litter samples equivalent to 10 g of oven-dry weight was placed in
a nylon litter-bag (1 mm mesh; 15 cm 15 cm). Sixty bags were
prepared for each litter fraction of a given species. The bags were
equally distributed in ve clusters in the site. In order to avoid
disturbances from grazing animals, the bags were buried in the top
05 cm soil layer below the canopy of respective species during
March 1999. Five bags per litter type were retrieved at 60 days
interval. Each time, the sample from each bag was cleaned of
adhering plant parts and soil particles, oven-dried at 105 C for 24
h and weighed. The dried samples were ground and analyzed for N and
P using the standard procedures given in Anderson and Ingram [15].
Computation and statistics Organic matter decay constants for the
leaf and leaf sheath litters were computed using negative
exponential decay model of Olson [16]: X/X0 = exp(kt),
44
K. Arunachalam et al.
Table 2. Initial chemical composition of bamboo litter B.
balcooa C (%) N (%) P (%) Lignin (%) Cellulose (%) Fibre (%) C/N
Lignin/N N/P C/P Lignin/P Leaf 44.56a (0.138) 1.15a (0.063) 0.031a
(0.001) 31.2a (0.339) 28.26a (0.500) 52.08a (0.563) 38.75a 26.96a
37.10a 1437.42a 1006.45a Leaf sheath 46.71b (0.367) 0.34b (0.031)
0.032a (0.003) 25.1b (0.473) 29.63a (0.438) 35.41b (0.491) 137.38b
73.53b 26.25b 1459.69a 784.38b B. pallida Leaf 47.82a (0.129) 0.84a
(0.049) 0.023a (0.001) 29.3a (0.375) 30.34a (0.469) 49.01a (0.518)
56.93a 34.52a 14.78a 2079.13b 1273.91c Leaf sheath 48.92b (0.326)
0.34b (0.040) 0.063b (0.002) 20.4b (0.491) 31.05a (0.388) 34.31b
(0.339) 143.88b 58.82b 5.40b 776.51c 323.81d
n = 5; Values in parentheses denote SE. In each species, the
values with similar letters across leaf and leaf sheath categories
are not signicantly different at P < 0.05.
where X is weight remaining at time t, X0 is initial weight and
k is the decay rate coefcient. The times required for 50% (t50 )
and 99% (t99 ) decay were calculated as t50 = 0.693/k and t99 =
5/k. The effect of initial litter chemistry and rainfall (data
obtained from Doimukh Meteorological Station, which is within 1 km
radius of the study site) on the decay rate was tested using the
linear regression function, Y = a + bX [17]. Polynomial equations
were used to characterize the observed decay pattern [18].
RESULTS
Initial litter chemistry C concentration was about 23% higher in
the two litter types of B. pallida, while N concentrations were
greater in B. balcooa leaf litter by about 0.3% (Table 2). N
concentrations were found to be same in leaf sheath litters of both
species. Concentration of P of both the litter types of B. balcooa
was similar while it was signicantly different in the litter types
of B. pallida showing higher P concentrations in leaf sheath by a
difference of 0.040%. Among the species, B. balcooa leaf had a
higher P concentration (0.008%), whereas the opposite trend was
recorded in case of leaf sheath litter (higher by 0.029%). Lignin
concentration was larger in B. balcooa litters, while the C/N ratio
was higher in the other species.
Foliage decomposition and nutrient release dynamics of B.
balcooa and B. pallida Table 3. Annual dry matter decay constants
of leaf and leaf sheath of two bamboo species Decay parameter %
mass loss day1 k (year1 ) t50 (days) t99 (days) B. balcooa leaf
0.40 8.03 31.50 227.27 leaf sheath 0.39 5.84 43.31 312.50 B.
pallida leaf 0.40 8.03 31.50 227.27
45
leaf sheath 0.40 8.03 31.50 227.27
In general, the leaf sheath had greater C/N and lignin/N ratios.
N/P ratio was comparatively higher in leaf samples than in the leaf
sheath in both species. Among species, B. balcooa registered
greater N/P ratios. Litter decay Both leaf and leaf sheath litter
materials of B. balcooa and B. pallida showed similar decay
patterns (Fig. 1). However, decomposition rate exhibited a
signicant variation in the two species of bamboo, at least up to
180 days of incubation. In B. balcooa, during the initial 120 days
of incubation, the rate of decomposition was slow both in leaf
(0.14% weight loss day1 ) and leaf sheath (0.15% weight lossday1 )
litter, and then the decay rate continued to increase until the end
of the study period. However, in B. pallida the decomposition rate
increased rapidly during initial 60 days (0.28% weight loss day1 ),
which continued up to 120 days (0.230.33% weight loss day1 ) and
then a signicant decrease (0.200.47% weight loss day1 ) was noticed
between 120 and 180 days of incubation, afterward both species
showed almost similar pattern of decomposition. Nevertheless, the
net weight loss rate was almost similar in the two litter types of
both the species. The undecomposed litter at the end of the study
remained highest in the leaf sheath of B. pallida (7%) and in all
other cases, only 3% of the initial mass was remaining at the end
of the study. The mean weight loss per day was similar in leaves
and leaf sheath of B. balcooa and B. pallida (Table 3). The decay
constants (k) did not differ much between the two litter types and
among bamboo species studied (Table 3). Nutrient (N and P) dynamics
The concentration of N uctuated in the decomposing B. balcooa
leaves during the study period. However, in the rest of the samples
it increased with time (Fig. 2a). Nevertheless, the N
immobilization and release rates were different through time. In
general, until 120 days of incubation, there was a tendency of N
immobilization and then rapid release occurred, which continued
throughout the study period (Fig. 3a). In general, P concentration
increased up to 180 days and then decreased rapidly in both species
(Fig. 2b). Initially P was immobilized followed by a gradual
release
46
K. Arunachalam et al.
Figure 1. Foliage litter decay pattern in two bamboo
species.
after 120 days of litter decomposition in B. balcooa and B.
pallida. P release patterns of leaf litter and leaf sheath were
different (Fig. 3b).
Effect of litter quality on decomposition and nutrient release
rates Weight loss and nutrient release rates of different
components were correlated with lignin, C, N and P concentrations
and ratios of lignin/N and C/P and N/P. We found strong positive
correlation of lignin and N concentrations with weight loss and N
release rates. However, only P concentration exhibited a signicant
positive correlation with P release rate (Table 4). The other
litter chemical quality variables like lignin/N, C/N, C/P and N/P
either exhibited positive or negative correlation with weight loss
and nutrient release.
Foliage decomposition and nutrient release dynamics of B.
balcooa and B. pallida
47
(a)
(b)Figure 2. N (a) and P (b) concentration (%) during litter
decomposition of B. balcooa ((F) leaf, (2) leaf sheath) and B.
pallida ((Q) leaf, (E) leaf sheath).
DISCUSSION
Decomposition dynamics Overall, the amount of litter remaining
at the end of the study period was 37%. Nevertheless, the pattern
of litter decomposition varied between litter types and species. In
B. balcooa, the rate of decomposition was slow up to 120 days of
incubation. This may be attributed to the time taken by
microorganisms to colonize and establish on the litter materials as
these litter samples had greater lignin and cellulose contents when
compared to B. pallida [19, 20]. During monsoon, i.e., after 60120
days of incubation, the decay rate rose due to greater microbial
activity. In this context, several authors have reported faster
rate of decomposition during rainy season in the tropics [21].
Relatively higher temperature and moisture conditions during
monsoon favoured decomposition of bamboo leaf litter in China
48
K. Arunachalam et al.
(a)
(b)Figure 3. N (a) and P (b) remaining (% of initial) in B.
balcooa ((F) leaf, (2) leaf sheath) and B. pallida ((Q) leaf, (")
leaf sheath).
[6] and southern Western Ghats of India [7]. Coincidently, we
obtained a signicant relationship between mass loss and rainfall (r
= 0.451, df = 19, P < 0.05). The C/N ratio of plant litter has
frequently been negatively correlated with the decomposition rates
[22, 23]. We also observed such a relationship in this study. Among
other litter quality parameters, initial N and lignin
concentrations inuenced the litter decay pattern [24 26]. For
instance, the faster rate of decay in leaf litter compared to
leaf