Impulse Buying, Personality Traits, In-store Atmospherics, And Their Interaction

7/31/2019 Impulse Buying, Personality Traits, In-store Atmospherics, And Their Interaction

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IMPULSE BUYING, PERSONALITY TRAITS,IN-STORE ATMOSPHERICS, AND THEIR

INTERACTION

By

NIKHIL JALAN2006

SUPERVISOR: Mr. James Fitchett

This Dissertation is presented in part completion for the degreeof MA in Marketing


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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would first, like to express my gratitude to the Almighty who gifted me the

patience, intellect, determination and enthusiasm, which helped me complete this project.

I express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. James Fitchett, for being very

inspiring. His valuable directions, timely suggestion and constructive criticism, assisted

me at every level of my project.

I am thankful to all my respondents who spared their valuable time and provided

me with information relating to their shopping behaviours.

I am grateful to all the lecturers and staff members of business school for their

committed help and support.

Last but not the least; I will take this opportunity to thank my family and friends,

who have always stood beside me and supported me in all my endeavours. Without their

help and support it wouldnt have been possible for me complete this project.

Nikhil Jalan

Ma Marketing


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ABSTRACT

In todays Post-modern Era shopping is has become a social and leisure activity,

reducing the number of cognitively planned purchases made by consumers. Hedonic and

pleasure driven shopping endeavors have led to the rapid increase in impulse buying,

making it common place and socially acceptable. Even though, most impulse decisions

are made when consumers are inside the store, the effect of in-store stimuli on such

decisions has not been adequately explored. This has led to the purpose of this research,

which is to understand the interaction between consumers affective states and in-store

stimuli, with respect to impulse buying. In keeping with the exploratory nature of the

research, an interpretivist approach was employed to collect data on the garment

shopping behaviour of young females, through semi-structured, in-depth interviews. The

analysis of the information gathered highlights the importance of in-store stimuli on

impulse buying as well as illustrates its interaction with consumer specific variables and

affective states. Since, multiple interactions and associations are possible, the study

implies that retailers should seek to design the in-store environment in such a manner in

which it can have the greatest impact on its primary target segment.


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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...07-11

1.1 Overview 08

1.2 Research Purpose 09

1.3 Demarcations 10

1.4 Outline of Study 10

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW...12-40

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Evolution of the Definition of Impulse Buying 13

2.3 Rationality of Impulsive Behaviour 17

2.4 Myth of Impulse Items 18

2.5 Factors Affecting Impulse Buying 19

2.5.1 Internal Factors 20

2.5.1.1 Emotional States 21

2.5.1.2 Personality Traits 23

2.5.2 External Factors 26

2.5.2.1 Demographics 28

2.5.2.2 Socio-Economic 29

2.5.2.3 Marketer Controlled Environment 32

2.6 Research Problems and Relevance of Research 39

2.7 Chapter Summary 40


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CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY..41-53

3.1 Introduction 42

3.2 Review of Research Philosophy 42

3.3 Rationale for using Interpretivist Approach 44

3.4 Research Technique of In-depth Interviews 45

3.5 Interview Construction 46

3.6 The Sample 48

3.7 Conducting the Interview 49

3.8 Analysis 51

3.9 Future Considerations & limitations & how they were handled 51


CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION54-78

4.1 Introduction 55

4.2 Shopping a Social Thing 56

4.3 The Increase in Impulse Buying Behaviour 56

4.4 Factors Influencing In-store Buying Behaviours 57

4.4.1 Personality Traits 58

4.4.1.1 Self Control 58

4.4.1.2 Stress Reaction 60

4.4.1.3 Absorption 61

4.4.2 Retail Environment 63

4.4.2.1 Ambience Factors 64


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4.4.2.2 Design Factors 67

4.4.2.3 Social Factors 69

4.4.3 Other Factors 71

4.5 Interaction between Internal Factors and In-store Atmospherics 73


CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION79-87

5.1 Introduction 80

5.2 Key Findings 80

5.3 Limitations and Further Scope of the Research 83

5.4 Marketing Implications 85

APPENDICES.88-108

Appendix 1: Interview Protocol 88

Appendix 2: Sample Transcribed Interview 90

Appendix 3: CD of Interview Recordings 108

REFRENCES109-128


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Factors Affecting Impulse Buying.20

Figure 2: Internal Factors...21

Figure 3: External Factors..27

Figure 4: In-store Atmospherics35

Figure 5: Internal Factors, In-store Atmospherics, and Impulse Buying...76


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CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION


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CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW

Though, consumers have become very sophisticated these days, yet most of their

decisions are driven by an irresistible urge to belong to specific groups and be part of a

social system (Masi, 2005). In todays postmodern era consumption provides individuals

the opportunity to construct, maintain and communicate identity and social meanings. It

is a way of participating in social life and cementing social relationships (Elliot, 1997).

Marketing innovations such as credit cards, cash machines, instant credit, 24-hour

retailing, home shopping networks, and telemarketing (Rook, 1987), have made it easier

for consumers to shop and consume products not only for the material utilities (Hausman,

2000), but also for hedonic benefits (Han et al ., 1991; Puri, 1996; Kash and Green, 2004;

Laurens et al ., 2005). Consumption has been seen by Holbrook and Hirschman

(1982:135), as involving a steady flow of fantasies, feelings, and fun encompassed

byexperiential view. This has initiated a change in perspective in evaluating

consumer activities and decision making processes. For instance, consumers consider

shopping to be a hedonic or leisure activity rather than a monotonous routine activity, a

very famous saying in America states, When the going gets tough, the tough go

shopping ( anonymous ; see Gardner and Rook, 1988). Lewis (1993) stated that a store

becomes a profit power house when there is an increase in the extent to which it sells to

its customers something they did not intend to buy while making a planned purchase; and


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if [customers] went into stores only when [they] needed to buy something, andbought

only what [they] needed, the economy would collapse, boom (Underhill, 1999).

Miller (1998:68) defined shopping as primarily an act of spending, preferably

large amounts of money, almost without a care for consequences. The studies on

shopper behavior show that an increasing number of consumer purchases are being made

without advance planning (Stern, 1962; Kollat and Willet, 1967) and on an impulse

(Bellenger et al. , 1978; Weinberg and Gottwald, 1982; Cobb and Hoyer, 1986; Han et al .,

1991; Rook and Fisher, 1995). Almost 70 per cent of buying decisions are made in-store

(Berrell, 1995), 90 per cent of the consumers occasionally make purchases on impulse(Welles, 1986), and between 30 to 50 per cent of all purchases have been classified by the

buyers themselves as impulse purchases (Cobb and Hoyer, 1986).

1.2 RESEARCH PURPOSE

As highlighted in the above discussion a large number of purchase decisions are

made impulsively while the consumer is in the store. Considering the reality, that

decisions are not made in vacuum, and the decision making units are not immune to

external stimuli, there will arguably exit an interaction between the decision making units

i.e. the consumer and the external in-store stimuli. Although, experienced by almost

every consumer, the dynamics underlying the interaction and the resulting behaviour

remain largely unexplored.

When consumers make planned purchases, they know which product to buy, if

not the brand and exact specifications, restricting the influence of in-store stimuli to

influencing the choice between alternatives. However, when consumers decide upon


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buying something not considered before entering the store, the decision could perhaps be

influenced to a great extent by the atmosphere, the ambience, the design and the social

form of the store, over and above the product itself. Furthermore, the effect of these in-

store variables can be different for different consumers, making it the possible to observe

multiple associations and inter-relationships. It presents an interesting and fascinating

area for consumer research and this study will attempt to provide a deeper understanding

of the interaction between consumers affective states and in-store stimuli with respect to

impulse purchase decisions.

1.3 DEMARCATIONS

However, impulse purchase decisions are influenced not only by in-store

variables, but also by the age, nationality, income, and gender of consumers, and the

product being purchased. In order to eliminate variations arising due to some of these

variables, this research will only consider the apparel purchase decisions of young female

consumers. By focusing on this specific segment, the study seeks to meet its objective in

the given time and resource constraints.

1.4 OUTLINE OF STUDY

This research has been divided into five chapters, Introduction, Literature Review,

Methodology, Analysis and Discussion, and Conclusion. The introductory chapter

presents a background to the subject of this research, its purpose and demarcation. The

succeeding Chapter of literature review provides a critical review of the existing literature

on the central theme of impulse buying. It starts with tracing the evolution of the concept,


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identifies an appropriate definition for the behavior, discusses the age-old debate of

rationality and irrationality of the phenomenon, and then examines the several

psychological and physical variables that influence it. It elaborates not only the internal,

consumer specific factors that influence impulse buying, but also the external, marketer

controlled variables. Having discussed the relevant themes and constructs, the chapter

concludes by highlighting the objectives of the research.

Methodology, the third Chapter, of this study presents an overview of the

philosophical approach adopted in this study, and the technique of data collection used. It

also highlights the rationale behind the sampling and analysis strategy employed, closingwith the limitations of using the chosen research approach.

Chapter four offers a detailed, in-depth analysis and discussion of the data

collected with the objective of proving a sound understanding of the emerging themes. It

provides an insight into how different internal and in-store determinants affect the

impulsive behaviour of the respondents. It even draws attention towards the interaction

between the personality traits of the consumers and the in-store atmospherics.

The concluding Chapter provides a holistic overview of all the key findings, after

stating the limitations of the study and identifying areas of further research, the chapter

ends with the managerial implications of the findings from the research.


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CHAPTER: 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


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CHAPTER: 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter seeks to provide an in-depth critical review of the existing literature

on consumer impulse buying behaviour. After providing an understanding of the evolving

concept of impulse buying and the current perception of the same, it provides an insight

into the age old debate regarding the rationality or irrationality of the phenomenon. It

then examines the variables, both internal and external that affects and determines the

impulse buying tendency of consumers. The chapter concludes with a description of the

objectives of the current research that are derived from deficiencies in the existing

literature.

2.2 EVOLUTION OF THE DEFINITION

Impulse buying has been considered as a pervasive and distinctive phenomenon,

and has been receiving increasing attention from consumer researchers and theorists

(Youn and Faber, 2000). Recent marketing and retail researchers have classified impulse

behaviour as a very powerful and real influence in the consumer buying behaviour

process (Bayley and Nancarrow, 1998; Hausman, 2000; Crawford and Melewar, 2003). It

has become a widely recognized phenomenon in most countries, and it has been

suggested that purchases of new products result more from impulse purchasing than from

prior planning (Kacen and Lee, 2002), thereby highlighting its importance in marketing

activities (Rook, 1987). Thus, companies today have invested considerable resources in


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research to understand and maximize this buying behaviour in many retail environments

(Millner, 2002 a), such as, drugstores, supermarkets, department stores, variety and

specialty stores (Kollat & Willett, 1969).

For over fifty years, consumer researchers have strived to form a comprehensive

definition of impulse buying (Youn and Faber, 2000). Historically, paramount

importance was assigned to the definition of impulse buying on the basis of unplanned

purchases (Clover 1950; Applebaum 1951; West 1951; Stern, 1962; Cox 1964; Kollat

and Willett 1967). Unplanned buying was referred to as all purchases made unexpectedly

and without prior planning (Clover, 1950; West, 1951; Piron, 1993), and includedimpulse buying (Hausman, 2000) which was considered to be the difference between

actually concluded and previously planned or anticipated purchases (Weinberg and

Gottwald, 1982). This approach is too vague (Kollat and Willett, 1969) and limited by a

definitional myopia (Piron, 1993) as it does not account for the impulse involved in the

buying decisions (Rook, 1987), and the concept is much more complex than just

unanticipated purchases (Youn and Faber, 2002). Wolman (1973; see Rook, 1987) stated

that, an impulse is not consciously planned, but arises immediately upon confrontation

with certain stimulus.

Prior to 1982, definitions of impulse buying focused on the product rather than the

consumer as the motivator of impulse purchases (Hausman, 2000). It is the consumer

who experiences a sudden, often powerful and persistent urge to buy something

immediately (Rook, 1987). In an attempt to redefine the concept of impulse buying

Goldenson, (1984:37; see Rook, 1987), views such purchasing behavior as, a strong,

sometimes irresistible urge; a sudden inclination to act without deliberation. It can be


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conceptualized as thoughtless actions characterized by quick acting that are stimulated by

motivation and perception, the stimulation having to be strong enough to overcome

restraints (Weinberg and Gottwald, 1982). Whereas, unplanned buying is considered to

be an imperative desire to purchase with less positive feelings, excitement and

overwhelming urge as compared to impulse buying (Piron, 1993). Though several

researchers (Weinberg and Gottwald, 1982; Rook, 1987; Piron, 1993; Rook and Fisher,

1995) agree, that, measuring impulse buying as an unplanned purchase is not sufficient,

Wood (2005:274) disagrees and says, the purchase of a good or service for motives of

novelty, excitement, fashion, status, escape from routine, entertainment or other hedonicmotivations must count as one of the main and most important types of unplanned

purchase. Past literature has shown, not all unplanned purchases are impulse (Gardner

and Rook, 1988) and all impulse purchases are unplanned (Iyer, 1989). Lack of

planning is a necessity but not a sufficient characteristic to categorize a purchase as

impulse (Piron, 1991), so the question that needs to be answered is What portion of

unplanned buys is impulse (Wood, 2005). Kacen and Lee (2002:164) address this

concern by defining impulse buying as an unplanned purchase that is characterized by

relatively rapid decision-making and a subjective bias in favor of immediate

possession.

From this discussion it is evident that several authors and researchers have

defined the concept in different and contradictory ways, the lack of consensus about the

meaning of impulse purchasing has limited the usefulness of the concept (Kollat &

Willett, 1969), and if a definition can be selected that is conceptually sound and relatively


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easy to apply, then the concept can be used despite the lack of theoretical agreement

(Bellenger et al. , 1978).

In an attempt to do justice to the various concepts and elements involved in

impulse buying Weinberg and Gottwald (1982), defined it on the basis of affective (high

activation of customer), cognitive (little intellectual control of the buying decision), and

reactive (largely automatic behavior actuated by a special stimulus situation)

determinants of consumer behavior, (i.e. an unintended, unreflective and an immediate

action (Jones et al. , 2003)). Though this definition underlines a few very important

aspects of the concept, it neglects the issues of emotional conflict and disregard forconsequences. Rook (1987:191) comprehensively defines impulse buying as the

purchasing behavior that occurs when a consumer experiences a sudden, often powerful

and persistent urge to buy something immediately. The impulse to buy is hedonically

complex and may stimulate emotional conflict. Also, impulse buying is prone to occur

with diminished regard for its consequences. This definition brings forth the different

elements of the concept, it is characterized as sudden and spontaneous desire to act (an

urgency to buy), this sudden urge to buy on impulse might throw the consumer into a

state of psychological disequilibrium causing the consumer to be temporarily out-of-

control. The customer is pulled in two directions of pleasure and reality (Freud, 1956;

see Rook, 1987) giving rise to psychological conflict and struggle in their minds,

making impulse buying one of the most involved purchasing behaviors; at least for the

moment right after the impulse arises.


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2.3 RATIONALITY OF IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOUR

The gap between the fantasy world of consumption, day-dreams of perfect

pleasure and disappointments of reality results in limitless desire and a permanent state

of aggravation (Elliot, 1997:292). Impulse buying behavior is an enigma in the

marketing world, for here is a behavior which the literature and consumers both state is

normatively wrong, yet which accounts for a substantial volume of the goods sold every

year across a broad range of product categories (Hausman, 2000:403). In the past

researchers have characterized this behavior as negative, a sign of immaturity and lacking

behavioral control (Solnick et al. , 1980) or as an irrational, risky, and wasteful (Ainslie,

1975) activity. They also believe that, the self-indulgent behaviour is driven by an

unreasoned force (Bayley and Nancarrow, 1998), and given an opportunity, most

consumers would attempt to control and decrease (Rook, 1987) this behavior as they do

not want to be perceived as immature or irrational or being bad (Ainslie, 1975).

Other authors, however, have argued that an impulse purchase is not necessarily

irrational. Thompson et al . (1990) view the concept as an act of freedom occurring

within restricted situations, although, it appears to be a highly irrational behavior; it can

be seen as rational by the consumer (Malter, 1996). Rook and Fisher (1995:305) state,

impulse buying presumably depends both on the degree to which [consumers] possess

impulsive buying trait tendencies and on their normative judgments, and when a

generally impulsive consumer experiences an impulse buying stimulus, and subsequently

evaluates the prospective purchase as appropriate, both trait and normative influences are

harmonious, thereby making an impulsive purchase likely. Though, De Unamuno (1962;

see Elliot, 1997), Paulhus (1984), and Bayley and Nancarrow (1998), believe that, cool,


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rational, information processing choices are uncommon and rare, and most of the

decisions made are post-purchase rationalization or justification of irrational consumer

behavior; in majority of the cases impulse buying has become an efficient and sensible

way of buying goods (Stern, 1962). Contrary to Rooks (1987) claim Wood (2005)

suggests that, given a chance, a large number of consumers would increase rather than

decrease their impulse buying behavior and plan on being impulsive, because it is an

effective tactic for breaking out of an undesirable mood state and a source of immediate

self gratification (Bellenger and Korgaonkar, 1980).

2.4 THE MYTH OF IMPULSE ITEMS

It has been generally accepted that some items are more subject to impulse-sales

than other types (Clover, 1950). These products were labeled as impulse items and

characterized as, low-cost, frequently purchased goods, (like drink, crisps, chocolates,

nuts (West, 1951) and candies (Dwyer, 1993), consumed on the go ( Anonymous , 2005))

and demanding little cognitive effort from the consumer (Rook & Hoch, 1985).

Contradicting this, proposition more recent studies show impulse purchases can be

reported across a broad range of product offerings in a variety of price ranges (Cobb and

Hoyer, 1986), and it is virtually impossible to isolate and label certain products as

impulse products (Bellenger et al. , 1978). The individual purchasers motivations and

requirements, product information level, environmental variables, monetary and time

constrains vary from one individual to another, and there is really no such thing as a

group of impulse itemsbecause any item may be subject to this by some consumer at

any time (Shapiro, 1973; see Bellenger et al. , 1978:15). Thus, almost anything could be


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bought on an impulse (Stern, 1962; Kollat and Willett, 1969), an extra TV set, a VCR, a

larger microwave oven, an important piece of furniture, and a vacation cruise can all be

impulse purchases as can a package of potato chips or a candy bar (Rook, 1987).

2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING IMPULSE BUYING

According to Hausman (2000), most studies before 1987 focused on the

definitional issues of impulse purchasing, and ignored the understanding of why

consumers act impulsively on a frequent basis. In the recent past, several researchers

have highlighted various factors that can trigger the impulsive buying behavior of aconsumer. Pollay (1967:323) mentioned that such a behavior can be influenced by

anything that is going on at that time; both psychological and physical (Millner,

2002 b) or internal and external (Wansink, 1994). Though the words customer and

consumer are used interchangeably, they are not the same. A customer is the purchaser of

a product or a service and a consumer is the user of a product or a service, the buying

behavior of a customer is influenced by the needs and preferences of the consumer for

whom the products are purchased (Applebaum, 1951). In this case, when the consumer

and the customer are the same, the customer is internally motivated by his personal needs

and wants to purchase the product; but when the consumer and the customer are different,

the customer is externally influenced by needs and desires of the consumer to make a

purchase, (say a mother buying dress for herself and a candy for her child). There are a

number of other factors that internally and externally influence (see Figure1) the

customers impulsive decisions, and in order to study the shopping behavior of an

individual it is necessary to examine: individuals emotional states (Weinberg and


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Gottwald, 1982) and motivation behind the purchase, the socioeconomic context that the

shoppers bring with them, the shopping and retail environment (Woodruffe-Burton et al .,

2002), and demographic factors (Shapiro, 2001).

2.5.1 Internal Factors

The internal cues refer to consumers self-feelings, moods, emotional states

(Youn and Faber, 2000), and personality traits (Weinberg and Gottwald, 1982) (see

Figure2). Consumers emotions and personality traits have been regarded as important

components of internal triggers for impulse buying. It has been speculated that impulsive

FACTORSAFFECTING

IMPULSE BUYING

INTERNALFACTORS

EXTERNALFACTORS

Emotions

PersonalityTraits

Demographic

Socio-economic

MarketerControlled

Others

Figure 1: Factors Affecting Impulse Buying


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buyers are more likely to be responsive to their emotional conditions (Gardner and Rook,

1993) than non-impulsive buyers (Weinberg and Gottwald, 1982).

2.5.1.1 Emotional States

Emotions can be defined as, a mental state of readiness that arises from cognitive

appraisals of events or thoughts; has a phenomenological tone; is accompanied by

physiological processes; is often expressed physically; and may result in specific actions

to affirm or cope with the emotion, depending on its nature and meaning for the person

INTERNALFACTORS

EMOTIONS PERSONALITYTRAITS

Sudden

Exciting

Mesmerising

Emotional Conflict

Self-Control

Stress Reaction

Absorption

Figure 2: Internal Factors


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having it (Bagozzi et al ., 1999:184). Colin Shaw (Millner 2002 b:27), founding partner of

branding consultancy, Beyond Philosophy, said, Emotions account for more than half of

buying decisions and the marketers should ask themselves what is the emotion that

they are trying to evoke in consumers. An impulse buying episode begins with a

customers sensation of some external stimulus. As mentioned earlier that consumers

consume products not only for economic utilities and functional benefits (Hausman,

2000), but also for hedonic desires (Piron, 1991), thus, once the customer is mesmerized

by the external factors, there are a several emotional states (see Figure2) that he or she

undergoes (Rook, 1987).Since an impulse purchase is an unconscious event that occurs rapidly

(Rosendahl, 1983), the first emotional stage is of a sudden, spontaneous, intense and

immediate urge or desire to consume or buy the product (Rook and Hoch, 1985; Piron,

1993). The buyer is compelled to act instantly and quickly, showing the emotional

intensity and force involved in the process, for example, in consumers speech (Rook,

1987:193), I could only think of one thing, or Once I see it in my mind it wont

go away until I buy it.

Impulse buying has one of the highest levels of involvement with respect to

consumer buying behaviour, and is described by consumers as an exciting, stimulating,

thrilling and wild experience. It has been described as a tingling sensation, a warm

feeling, hot flashes, and a surge of energy, for example, in words of the consumers,

it suddenly strikes your head and gives you goose-bumps (Rook, 1987:194).

As Debord (1977; see Elliott, 1997) stated, The real consumer becomes a

consumer of illusions, mysterious forces traveling between the person and object,


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mesmerizes or hypnotizes the consumer into purchasing impulsively, for example, in

consumers speech, the candy bar was staring at me or the sweater was following

me it was pulling me back, (Rook, 1987:194).

The various forces give rise to an inner dialogue (Rook and Hoch, 1985) and

emotional conflict (Dittmar et al. , 1996) in the minds of the consumers. Though impulse

buying is being considered as and efficient way of buying products (Stern, 1962), it

results in few negative consequences, like in a consumers view as quoted by Wood

(2005:272), it screws up my budget when I give into the urge. This is where the

customer undertakes an internal analysis of pleasure and reality (Freud, 1956; see Rook,1987). Buying impulses are very powerful and cannot be easily ignored by rational

introspection (Rook and Hoch, 1985). Thus, most of the buyers state that, even after

analyzing and concluding not to purchase the product, they disregard the consequences

and end-up purchasing it (Rook, 1987), because they simply cannot resist and get out

of control (Woodruffe-Burton, 1998). As a result, not all impulse purchase are evaluated

as fair and, a few post purchase emotions end with guilt and shame (Piron, 1993),

developing a negative attitude towards pleasure, for example, in a consumers terms, as

quoted by Rook and Hoch (1985:26), I fear regretting the purchase later, and I think

about what would happen if others found out how much it cost.

2.5.1.2 Personality Traits

The strength or intensity (how exciting or inspiring the emotion was), direction or

symptom (whether the emotion was pleasant and amusing or not), and quality or content

(how much joy, guilt, or astonishment did the emotion elevate) of an emotion


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(Reykowski, 1973; see Weinberg and Gottwald, 1982), highly depend on the personality

traits of the customer (Weinberg and Gottwald, 1982; Rook and Fisher, 1995; Puri, 1996;

Kacen and Lee, 2002). Though Rook and Fisher (1995) developed a nine-item scale for

measuring the impulsive traits of a consumer, Youn and Faber (2000) highlighted the

three major personality dimensions (see Figure2), lack of self control , stress reaction , and

absorption , which affect the emotional behavior, impulsiveness and normative decisions

of a consumer.

Self Control here relates to the influence of the self over ones own emotions,

cognitions, motivations, and behaviors (Vohs and Faber, 2003:125), it makes thecustomer say I really shouldnt (Baumeister, 2002:670) and represents psychological

conflict between desire (primary process thinking) and willpower (secondary process

thinking) (Hilgard, 1962). Whyte (1943; see Rook, 1987) stated the failure to have an

effective control over impulses more prevalent among the lower classes. Controllers are

careful, cautious, and plan their activities (Waller et al ., 1991), where as impulsive

buyers, on the other hand, lack control over emotions, they make spontaneous and rapid

decisions and their emotional fluctuations are readily visible (Youn and Faber, 2000).

When the willpower is greater than the desire the customer stays in control, but when

desire dominates willpower, akrasia or weakness of willpower (Mischel et al ., 1988), the

customer looses self-control which leads to impulsive behavior (Hoch and Loewenstein,

1991). Generally when the secondary thought process generates willpower to evaluate the

rationality of the buying decision, the primary thought process overshadows this attempt

and pulls the human mind in the opposite direction, thereby resulting in impulsive

behavior (Rook and Fisher, 1995). Therefore, a generalized lack of control and lower self


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regulatory resources would likely be a contributor to impulse buying behaviors (Vohs and

Faber, 2003).

Stress reaction represents systematic individual differences in the frequency and

intensity of responding to situational cues with negative emotional states (i.e., anxiety,

anger, distress, and guilt) (Youn and Faber, 2000:180). These negative emotional states

are experienced by individuals under everyday conditions (Bar-Tal et al ., 1998) and lead

people to engage in behaviors that provide relief, such as impulse buying (Faber and

Christenson, 1996). Research has shown that consumers feel better after experiencing an

episode of impulse purchasing (Gardner and Rook, 1988), for highly stress-reactivepeople, it is hypothesized that short-term gratification accompanied by impulse would

enhance their positive self-feelings and mood states and can act as a good mood

management function (Youn and Faber, 2000). Under stress consumers capacity to

change and question the decisions they make is reduced, thereby decreasing control and

increasing their impulsiveness, this reduced capacity of self control is called ego

depletion (Baumeister, 2002). Therefore, stress reactive people act without delay (Faber

and Christenson, 1996) and with less control (Baumeister, 2002), thus it has been

speculated that stress reaction is positively associated with the probability of acting and

purchasing on impulse (Youn and Faber, 2000).

Youn and Faber (2000:180) stated, Absorption is a tendency to become

immersed in self-involving experiences triggered by engaging external and imaginal

stimuli. A highly absorptive person has an imaginative mind and thinks

unconventionally (Waller et al ., 1991). They are emotionally receptive to sights and

sound, easily mesmerized by tempting stimuli, think in images, and experience episodes


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of expanded awareness and altered states (Youn and Faber, 2000), like, the candy bar

was staring at me (Rook, 1987:194). Absorption plays an important role in how

customers react to environmental and sensory cues that influence the purchase and

consumption of products (Youn and Faber, 2000). Marketers exploit this personality trait

of the consumers and create an environment where the rate at which highly absorptive

people act on impulse is increased (Eroglu and Machleit 1993; Mitchell 1994). Such

people are highly responsive and lack the skills of monitoring and keeping track of the

relevant behavior (Baumeister, 2002) and have less control over self (Polivy, 1986), for

example, alcoholics and dieters (Carver and Scheier, 1982). Thus, people with highabsorption levels have a greater probability of being influenced by external sensory

stimulation, and are more likely to engage in impulse buying (Youn and Faber, 2000).

Consumers do operate out of unconscious feelings and motivations (Masi, 2005),

but to have an impulse, does not necessarily mean to act on it, various factors may

intervene between the impetus and the action. Even highly impulsive buyers do not easily

give into very spontaneous buying demand (Bettman 1979; see Rook and Fisher, 1995),

variety of external factors, may enforce on customers the immediate need for the product,

and constantly interrupt the decision processes to complete the transition from

impulsive feeling to impulsive action (Bloch and Richins, 1983).

2.5.2 External Factors

Though emotional states and personality traits are important ingredients for

impulsive purchase, these factors in most circumstances are activated or triggered by the

external cues (Youn and Faber, 2000). The impulsive behavior is viewed to be directly


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controlled by stimulus (Wolman, 1973; see Rook, 1987), and though a large part of

individuals reaction depends on his or her personality traits (Weinberg and Gottwald,

1982), a major role is played by the external factors as the initiator of impulse (Beatty

and Ferrell, 1998). Having discussed the internal factors (emotional states and personality

traits) that influence the impulsiveness of a buyer, it is now important to understand the

affect of various external factors, that are not in control of the consumer, on customer

impulsivity, to fully answer the why of impulse buying.

Several researchers and authors have highlighted different and many external cues

that contribute to the consumers acting on impulses. These can be broadly grouped under

(see Figure3) the socioeconomic context that the shoppers bring with them, the shopping

EXTERNAL

FACTORS

SOCIO-ECONOMIC

DEMOGRAPHICS IN-STOTREENVIRONMENT

Gender

Age

Culture

Income

Lifestyle

Ambience

Design

Social

OthersFigure 3: External Factors


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and retail environment (Woodruffe-Burton et al ., 2002) or atmosphere (Eroglu and

Machleit, 1993), and demographic factors (Shapiro, 2001).

2.5.2.1 Demographics

Several researchers and authors have concluded that demographics play a very

important role in the purchasing and consumption decisions of consumers (Crask and

Reynolds, 1978; Zeithaml, 1985; Fox et al ., 2004; Carpenter and Moore, 2006). Variables

(see Figure3) like gender (Dittmar et al ., 1996), age (Bellenger et al ., 1978), and

education level (Mogelonsky, 1994) make a significant difference to consumerimpulsiveness and in the number of impulse purchase transactions completed (Shapiro,

2001).

As mentioned earlier, consumers consume products not only for its functional

benefits, but also for the symbolic meanings associated with it (Holbrook and Hirschman,

1982). Women and men relate differently to the symbolic meanings they seek in products

purchased (Dittmar et al ., 1995). Women value their possessions for emotional and

relationship-oriented (i.e. social) identity reasons; whereas men value their possessions

for functional and instrumental (i.e. personal or independent) identity reasons (Dittmar,

1989). This states that products purchased and the reasons for purchases are different

between genders, and thus the impulse buying pattern of men and women, differ

instrumentally and emotionally. For example, women are more likely to act impulsively

with clothes, jewellery, cosmetics etc. (Solomon and Schopler, 1982), whereas men have

a higher probability of buying electronics and sports equipments on an impulse (Dittmar

et al ., 1995). Mitchell and Walsh (2004) found that, gender has an affect on the impulse


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buying decisions of a consumer, and because of confusion due to excess information

about the products, decisions made by women are more impulsive than men, and thus,

impulse purchases made by women are higher than men.

Wood (1998) stated an inverse relationship between age and impulse buying, i.e.

the younger the consumer the higher would be the impulsiveness and the older the

consumer the lower would be the impulsivity. Bellenger et al . (1978) also say that

shoppers under the age of 35 years are more prone to impulse buying compared to those

over 35 years of age. Research on trait impulsiveness shows that younger individuals

score higher on impulsivity compared to older people (Eysenck et al ., 1985; Helmers et al ., 1995) as they demonstrate less self-control than adults (Logue and Chavarro, 1992).

Impulsiveness is linked to emotional stimulation; and older individuals display greater

command over emotional expression than the younger adults (Lawton et al ., 1992). The

younger consumers are more experimental and flexible, and lack experience to help them

guide and edit their decision making processes. They try everything because they do not

understand what they really want (Millner, 2002 a). Over time people become more

aware of and more in line with their wants, likings and desires. The older adults generally

have an idea about what works for them and what dose not (Kacen and Lee, 2002). Thus,

findings suggest that age is an important variable of impulsivity and with age the

consumers become less impulsive.

2.5.2.2 Socio-Economic

In the past impulse buying behaviour had been considered socially wrong

(Solnick et al. , 1980) and economically superfluous (Rook, 1987), and people tried to


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suppress their natural impulse instinct in accordance with social norms (Hausman, 2000).

With time the consumption pattern has changed and people now consume conspicuously

to express a sense of self-identity (Dittmar et al., 1996) and make an impression in the

social world (Crawford and Melewar, 2003), making shopping a leisure and lifestyle

activity (Wood, 2005). This has changed the perception about the phenomenon of

impulse buying, which is now categorized as an intelligent way to shop (Shapiro, 2001).

It is strongly believed that culture (Maheswaran and Shavitt, (2000); Kacen and Lee,

(2002)), consumers lifestyle (Tao et al ., 2004), and income or monetary status

(Mogelonsky, 1994), have a significant influence on the consumers impulsive buyingbehaviour.

Antonides et al ., (1998) defined culture as, societal knowledge, norms and values.

Though, culture helps shape consumer behaviour, very little research has been done to

find its influence on consumer behaviour (Maheswaran and Shavitt, 2000). Culture

influences an individuals emotional reactions by determining their feelings (McConatha

et al ., 1994). It induces how individuals interpret an environment, which emotions they

express and how they express them (Ekman, 1972). Individualistic and collectivistic

dimensions (i.e. the relationship one perceives between self and the group one belongs to

(Hawkins et al ., 2001)) have been identified as one of the major aspects of consumer

culture (Hofstede, 1980) and lifestyle (Tao et al ., 2004) influencing purchase decisions.

People in individualistic cultures tend to prefer independent emotional relationships from

other collectives, and prioritise their personal goals to those of their in-groups (Hofstede,

1980). They often ignore the potential negative consequences of their impulsive buying

behaviour and focus on the positive consequences of the behaviour on their personal


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feelings and goals (Kacen and Lee, 2002). Individuals in collectivist societies on the

other hand, see themselves as integral part of one or more collectives and in-groups and

are emotionally connected to them (Triandis, 1994). They focus on the negative

consequences of their behaviour and how would it affect the people or collectives they

are emotionally attached to (Triandis, 1995). Kacen and Lee (2002) concluded that

individuals with more independent self-concept will have a stronger impulse buying trait

than those that are interdependent, i.e., impulsivity will be higher for people belonging to

individualistic cultures than for those from collectivist cultures. Though impulsive traits

are in equal measures for both collectivists and individualists, the collectivists suppressthese traits in order to act within their cultural norms (Kacen and Lee, 2002). Thus, it can

be said the consumers culture and lifestyle does moderate consumer impulse buying

behaviour.

It is all true that people react impulsively and do get stimulated by several factors

to buy a product (Woodruffe-Burton et al ., 2001; Crawford and Melewar, 2003), but one

of the most important intermediaries for converting an impulse to a purchase is money

availability (Beatty and Ferrell, 1998). If a person does not have the money then no

matter how strong the impulse is, the chances are higher for it not to result in a purchase

(Hoch and Loewenstein, 1991). In the past few years, the consumers themselves have

rated phenomenon of impulse buying as an act of freedom and fun (Thompson et al .,

1990), but the act is fun only if they have the freedom of spending money (Wood, 2005).

Mogelonsky (1994:14) said, Impulse buying may be reserved only for those who can

afford it. He also says that the poorer shoppers are smarter than the richer ones, as they

carefully and extensively evaluate their decisions before making a purchase. Consumers,


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who are rich and have excess money to spend, are considerably less careful about their

expenses and have a higher probability of purchasing on an impulse (Mogelonsky, 1994).

Thus, it can be concluded that consumers with a higher income or monetary status have a

greater probability of completing the transaction of impulse buying with respect to those

people with considerably less amount of money to spare.

2.5.2.3 Retailers and Marketers Controlled Environment

The 90s were taken as the era of retailing and merchandising (Miler, 1990).

There are various variables that influence the consumers impulse buying urge, and manyof these are controlled by the retailers and the marketers (Betty and Ferrell, 1998). Lewis

(1993) states, the success of a retail store depends on, the percentage of impulse

purchases that store generates, and several Special Management Periodicals advise

managers to structure shopping environments so as to increase impulse buying (Wood,

2005). With the shift to experience economy (Pine and Gilmore, 1998), it has become

necessary for the marketers and retailers to concentrate on not only the wants but also the

needs of the customer (Kash and Green, 2004) and provide an experience by controlling

the retail environment (Adelaar et al., 2003) which can be used for setting a stage that

sells related products and/or services (Pine and Gilmore, 1999; Kenny and Marshall,

2000).

The term retail environments or retail atmospherics, refers to, all the physical

and nonphysical elements of a store that can be controlled in order to influence the

behaviours of its customers and employees (Eroglu and Machleit, 1993). Acting with the

consumers personality traits it can influence the consumers emotional responses such as


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pleasure (happy or sad), dominance (ability to control self or be submissive) and arousal

(to be motivated or de-motivated to act) (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). Many retailers

and researchers have acknowledged the importance of in-store environment as an

important tool for market differentiation and competitive advantage (Iyer, 1989; Levy

and Weitz, 1995). It may increase the consumers interest in differentiated aspects of the

environment and thus capture their attention (Peck and Childers, 2006). The shoppers

who like the retail environment may surprisingly spend more because of the positive

mood generated by the atmosphere. Even if individuals are in a negative emotional state

at the time of entering, the stores atmosphere might create positive feelings and uplift theconsumers emotionally, and thus may influence the consumers to spend more money than

they intended to (Sherman et al ., 1997). This sensory stimulus can also reduce self

control and resistance power, and give way to instant gratification (Adelaar et al., 2003).

Retail places have evolved towards bringing a wide assortment of attractively

displayed goods closer to consumers and enhancing the attractiveness and amenities of

the shopping environmentBrowsing, exploring and dreaming of potential ownership

among sumptuous and abundant displays of goods [have] became an experience open not

just to an exclusive few but to the public as a whole (Lancaster, 1995:17). Bloch et al .

(1989) defined in-store browsing as the in-store examination of a retailers merchandise

for leisure and/or information. When individuals browse longer, they will tend to

encounter more stimuli, which would tend to increase the probability of experiencing

impulse buying urges (Jarboe and McDaniel, 1987). In other words, the more time an

individual spends browsing inside the store or shop, the more impulsive the individual

would be (Beatty and Ferrell, 1998). Retailers need to constantly work at creating


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positive shopping environments (Bloch and Richins, 1983) where consumers can be

relieved of their negative perceptions of impulse (Donovan and Rossiter, 1982). When

the consumers recognize that products are more than commodities and they are buying to

fulfill both, their hedonistic as well as physical desires, they would be more comfortable

with their impulsive buying behaviour (Hausman, 2000). Thus, the marketers and

retailers can make the environment more complex and create exciting atmospherics,

which may be useful to increase impulse buying decisions.

In-store stimuli are promotional techniques employed to increase unplanned and

impulse purchases of products (Abratt and Goodey, 1990). With the growing number of in-store decisions made by the consumers (Berrell, 1995), the marketers are deploying

more and more resources within the store to stimulate impulse purchases (Millner.

2002 b). As mentioned earlier, in-store atmospherics consists of several physical and non-

physical factors (Eroglu and Machleit, 1993). Baker (1986) further divided these in-store

variables (see Figure4) into ambient (the background characteristics of a store, such as,

temperature, ambient scent, lighting, noise, and music), design (stimuli that exist at the

forefront, such as, architecture, colour, layout and materials) and social factors (social

conditions, like, number, type, and behaviour of employees and customers) (Bitner,

1992).


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Ambient Factors

Music is capable of evoking complex affective and behavioural responses in

consumers (Mattila and Wirtz, 2001) in retail environments (Milliman, 1982; Yalch and

Spangenberg, 1990). A musical composition is composed of three dimensions, physical

dimension, emotional tone and preferential dimension (Bruner, 1990). The consumer is

likely to stay longer in an environment where the music is being played to his preference,

compared to, the environment where the music is not up to his/her taste (Milliman, 1982;

Yalch and Spangenberg, 1990). Music also helps the consumer to relieve tension and

generate a positive affect (Lam, 2001).

IN-STORE

ENVIRONMENT

AMBIENCE DESIGN SOCIAL OTHERS

Music

Scent

Lighting

Display

Layout

Colour

Employees

Crowd

Price

SalesPromotions

Figure 4: In-store Factors


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Scent has been divided along three different (not necessarily independent)

dimensions, the affective quality of the scent, its arousing nature, and its intensity

(Spangenberg et al ., 1996). Ambient scent is different from non-ambient scent, as it does

not originate from any particular object but is present in the environment (Mattila and

Wirtz, 2001). It affects individuals perception about the store and the products (Gulas

and Bloch, 1995). In the past, researches have shown that consumers respond more

positively in a scented rather than an unscented environment (Mattila and Wirtz, 2001).

Gulas and Bloch (1995) concluded that ambient scent influences emotional responses and

the shopping behaviours of individuals. When an inoffensive scent is present in theenvironment the consumers tend to spend more time in the store and evaluate the store

and its merchandise more positively than when an offensive scent is present in the

environment (Mitchell et al ., 1995; Spangenberg et al ., 1996).

In-store lighting is an extremely important determinant of the environment, and its

affect on consumer behaviour can be evaluated with the level of arousal it can create

among the consumers (Mehrabian, 1976). In a highly arousing environment the

consumers would be stimulated to purchase, whereas, in a non-arousing environment the

consumers would feel sluggish and sleepy (Gifford, 1988). Stores that are brightly lit are

more arousing and stimulating than the ones that are dimly lit, and generate a higher

probability for a consumer to make impulsive decisions (Birren, 1969). The retailers can

influence the amount of time customers spend shopping and consumers affective state

via their-selection of in-store lighting levels (Areni and Kim, 1994).

The longer consumers stay in a store and the more positive the affect, the greater

would be the chances for them to react impulsively (Sherman et al ., 1997). Thus, the


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ambient factors, music, ambient scent, and lighting, influence the in-store buying

decisions of a consumer.

Design factors

Colour can produce certain autonomic biological reactions, create certain

emotional responses and obtain attention (Bellizzi et al ., 1983). Bellizzi et al . (1983:22)

defined approach orientation of colour as the power of stimulus colour to encourage

attention during and after exposure to this stimulus. Retailer have used colour to put

consumers in the buying mood. The use of warm colours like, red or yellow, onpackaging, and the use of cool colours, like blue or violet, on the background and walls,

draws customer attention (Bellizzi and Hite, 1992). In previous researches it was found

that overall warm colour help attract consumers and cool colours help generate consumer

responses favorable to the retailers (Lam, 2001), thereby, influencing the consumer

behaviour in the store.

The store layout represents the task environment (Iyer, 1989:42). The

characteristics of the in-store situation (Bloch and Richins, 1983) may increase interest in

differentiated aspects of the environment and thus capture the consumers attention

(Underhill, 1999). The various store design layout variables like, product locations, shelf

locations, and types of displays (Kollat and Willett, 1969). Underhill (1999) states that

most of the unplanned purchases are results of touching, and the retailers and marketers

should create such an environment in order to encourage the customers to touch the

product (Peck and Childers, 2006). The various store design variables encourage the

consumers to touch and thereby increase the probability of impulse purchases. Cox


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(1964) found that impulse purchases also depend on the amount of shelf spaces awarded

to a particular product range, the more the shelf space the greater would be the impulse

purchase of that item. It is very important to display the products appropriately in the

store, the better the display the better would be the chances for a consumer to purchase on

an impulse (Abratt and Goodey, 1990).

Social Factors

The density and behaviour of consumers and employees in a retail environment

has a major impact on consumers decision making processes. With an increase in thenumber of consumers and employees in an environment the atmosphere gets crowded and

reduces pleasure for consumers (Eroglu and Machleit, 1990). In a crowded surrounding

individuals will have less control over the environment and the satisfaction would be less

(Hui and Bateson, 1991). The leisure activity of shopping of the consumer would be

interrupted in a crowded setting and the consumers impulse buying decisions will

reduce. On the other hand, pleasant behaviour of the other customers and the employees

may act as a positive motivator and increase the chances of impulse reactions (Baker et

al ., 1992; Lam, 2001).

Other Factors

A few other factors like price and in-store sales promotions, act as major initiators

of impulse purchases. Goff (1995:124) proposed that prices can make even the smartest

of the executives to buy a product at an impulse and it even makes it easier for the

children to buy the small toys (pick-up items) at the billing counters just because it cheap


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(Kellachan, 2002). Boorstin (1973:113) describes the basic principle upon which

Woolworths built a successful business: If an attractive item was offered at a low

enough price, the customer would buy it if he needed itbut if the price was low enough

and in convenient coin, perhaps the customer would buy it anyway on the spur of the

moment, whether or not he needed it. Special offers and promotional schemes generate

a positive desire in the minds of the consumer (Millner, 2002 a), the consumer evaluates

the impulse purchase as a benefit on the whole and makes a purchase, and such an act

may even deliver a positive post-purchase response (Adelaar et al ., 2003). Thus, price

and in-store promotions have an impact on the buying decision of the consumer, a lowpriced product and a favorable promotional offer may generate an impulsive response.

The multiplicity of factors creating impulse urges, and thereby impulse purchase

highlights the complexity and intricacy of the phenomenon. It also demonstrates the

inadequacy of existing quantitative scales for measuring impulse buying tendency as they

focus on only some of the variables determining the behaviour.

2.6 RESEARCH PROBLEMS

The above discussion reveals the different factors and determinants that motivate

or influence an individuals impulse buying behaviour. Though a large number of

individual variables, such as, personality traits, affective states, demographics, socio-

economic, and in-store atmospherics have been identified and explored in isolation from

one another in the existing literature, only stray suggestions regarding the association

among the constructs have been provided. However, the suggestions highlight an

opportunity for expanding the current knowledge base with respect to impulse buying by


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considering one or more of the interactions among the above mentioned determinants.

Rook and Hoch (1985), Lam (2001) and Jones et al . (2003) have uncovered the need to

investigate the role of atmospherics and situational variables with regards to consumers

personality traits and affective states, and evaluate their responses with respect to impulse

purchasing behaviour. Thus, this study will explore:

The influence of personality traits and the in-store atmospherics on the

consumer impulsive behaviour.

The direct impact of store environment and the mediating role of

psychological states in the relationship between store environment andimpulse buying.

2.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY

The chapter explores the evolution of impulse buying, and critically evaluates the

changing perceptions about the concept. It discusses the rationality and irrationality of the

phenomenon and uncovers the myth of impulse items. After discussing the various

internal and external factors affecting consumer in-store behaviour and impulse buying

decisions, the chapter ends by highlighting the research problems and the relevance of

current research.


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CHAPTER: 3

METHODOLOGY


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CHAPTER: 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter will present the two main contrasting research traditions in social

science research and provide a rationale for selecting and employing the interpretive

research paradigm. It will then highlight the appropriateness of using the chosen research

technique and sampling strategy. There after it will provide a description of the

procedures followed during the data collection process, and the strategies used to analyse

it. It will conclude by highlighting the limitations of the research methodology and how

they were handled.

3.2 REVIEW OF RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

Philosophers have debated the relationship between data and theory in social

sciences for many centuries (Easterby-Smith et al ., 2003). The debate arises due to a

difference in their philosophical stance with respect to the nature of reality (ontology) and

assumptions about the best ways of inquiring into it (Epistemology) (Travers, 2001),

which largely determines the methods and research design used to derive theory from

data (Easterby-Smith et al ., 2003; Deshpande, 1983). The two contrasting views are that

of positivism and interpretivism. The positivists believe that the social world exits

externally and should be measured using objective methods (Easterby-Smith et al ., 2003),

and social science should aim at the prediction and control of behaviour (Kvale, 1996).

Until recently, there has been a strong preference for preserving scientific integrity


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through the application of quantitative methods using the positivist paradigm (Bonoma,

1985). However, the positivist assumptions have been challenged by interpretivists, who

believe that reality is not exterior and objective, but is socially constructed and given

meaning to by people (Easterby-Smith et al ., 2003). They maintain that, the mind is the

source and creator of all knowledge (Deshpande, 1983:102), and question the logic and

method of science with respect to understanding human behaviour. This philosophical

position acknowledges the social, complex, and unpredictable nature of individuals, as

well as the irrationality of consumer behaviour (Goulding, 1999; Easterby-Smith et al .,

2003). Thus, social science should not focus on assembling facts and quantitativelymeasuring patterns, but on understanding the diverse meanings that people place upon

their experience (Easterby-Smith et al ., 2003).

An understanding of the strengths and weakness of each tradition from a neutral

perspective can help identifying the appropriateness of using a particular paradigm in a

given situation. Research conducted using the positivist approach can cover a wide range

of situations and can be fast and economical (Easterby-Smith et al ., 2003). Scientific

techniques can be used to verify how closely the measures correspond to reality

(validity), whether the measures will yield the same results on other occasions

(reliability) and the extent to which the patterns observed in the sample will be seen in the

population (generalizability) (Easterby-Smith et al ., 2003; Mason, 2002; Hoepfl, 1997).

However, the methods adopted are rather inflexible and artificial, and are ineffective in

understanding processes or the importance that people attach to their actions (Easterby-

Smith et al ., 2003). Though, the interpretivist paradigm can help increase understanding

of a particular situation by incorporating the complexity of the whole situation and


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diverse perspectives (Easterby-Smith et al ., 2003), according to Silverman (2000) it is in

the danger of being dismissed as undisciplined journalism since there are few measures to

safeguard the quality of the research. However, as qualitative methods become more

popular, several techniques and principles such as triangulation (Denscombe, 2002),

refutability, constant comparison, comprehensive data treatment (Silverman, 2000), and

transparency have been developed to improve the quality of research.

Thus, according to Reichardt and Cook (1979; see Deshpande, 1983:17)

quantitative methods have been developed most directly for the task of verifying or

conforming theoriesand qualitative methods were purposely developed for the task of discovering or generating theories. Although, this distinction appears to be clear at the

philosophical level, as Burrell and Morgan (1979) argue, when it comes to the choice of

specific methods, and to the issues of research design, the distinction breaks down. Some

researchers such as Fielding and Fielding (1986) propose that both qualitative and

quantitative methods should be used as it provides more perspectives on the phenomenon

being investigated.

3.3 RATIONALE FOR USING THE INTERPRETIVIST APPROACH

According to the interpretivist tradition, the attribute distinguishing human action

from the movement of physical goods is the inherent meaning of the former. Thus, in

order to understand a particular social action, the researcher must seek to understand the

deeper meanings, which constitute the action (Schwandt, 2003). This study aims to

provide a deeper understanding of the interaction between an individuals affective states

and personality with the in-store environment and atmosphere that may conclude in an


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impulse purchase of items on display. It desires to understand this phenomenon from the

point of view of the impulse buyer or respondent through descriptions of their cognitive

and symbolic actions. According to Miles and Huberman (1994:10), Qualitative data,

with their emphasis on peoples lived experience, [are] fundamentally well suited for

locating the meanings people place on the events, processes and structures of their lives:

their perceptions, assumptions, prejudgments, presuppositions; and for connecting these

meanings to the social world around them. The emphasis on lived experiences will

help provide a deeper understanding into the aspect of consumer behaviour studied in this

research. A careful review of the existing literature reveals that adequate measures havenot been developed to quantify the effect of the several in-store factors and elements

considered, thereby limiting the application of scientific methods. Moreover, consumer

behaviorists have not adequately explained the interaction between buyers mood and

affective states with these in-store factors in the realm of impulse buying (Rook and

Hoch, 1985). Thus, in keeping with Reichardt and Cooks (1979; see Deshpande, 1983)

advice an interpretivist approach using qualitative techniques will be adopted in this

study to generate and discover associations and relationships between the constructs.

3.4 RESEARCH TECHNIQUE OF IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS

According to Deshpande (1983), if a social science researcher accepts a set of

linked assumptions about the world and reality, then the researcher to a large extent also

accepts the tools, methodologies and instruments appropriate for investigating the social

world. The interpretivist paradigm relies on holistic analysis and detailed description of


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qualitative data collected using techniques such as in-depth open-ended interviews, and

personal observation (Patton, 1978).

For the purpose of this study, in-depth open-ended interviews were considered to

be the appropriate research technique as it is well suited to delve into the thoughts,

feelings and behaviour of informants, and discover new ways of understanding human

behaviour and interactions (May, 2000). Interviews usually involve some form of

conversation with a purpose (Burgess 1984:102 see May, 2000). According to Kvale

(1996:5) the purpose of in-depth interviewing is to obtain descriptions of the life-world

of the interviewee and to interpret the meaning of the described phenomenon. Due to itspopularity among interpretivist researchers it is commonly taken as the gold standard of

qualitative research (Silverman, 2000:291 see May, 2000).

3.5 INTERVIEW CONSTRUCTION

Interview styles vary in terms of their position on a continuum of control

(Bernard, 1998) and for this study semi-structured, open-ended interview style was

considered appropriate as it allows the freedom to explore new ideas (Saunders and

Thornhill, 2003) as well as address the need for comparable responses, in the sense that

each interviewee will face similar questions (Wisker, 2001). Semi-structured interviews

require substantial forethought an advance planning (Gerson and Horowitz) which

includes the development of a theoretically informed interview guide (see Appendix 1),

consisting of questions and issues that need to be raised in the interview to meet the

research objectives. Miles and Huberman (1994) emphasise the importance of such pre-

structured research when working with areas where some understanding has already


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been achieved but more theory building is required before theory testing can be done (as

is the case with the current study). The interview guide was used for each interview

conducted and is presented in Appendix 1. In addition to checking the progress of the

interview, it also demonstrates to the respondents that the researcher was prepared and

competent in conducting the interview (Bernard, 1988).

The key research objective of evaluating the interaction between buyer affective

states and in-store environment with respect to impulse buying was the prime focus in

developing the questions (Wengraf, 2001), for example, how does the in-store music

affect your mood state . The themes and issues arising from the review of existingliterature were used to generate specific questions using a technique simpler to the tree

and branch method suggested by Rudmin and Rudmin (1995). Attention was given to

formulating probe questions that distinguish among various aspects of the lived

experience, including the actual event, persons behavioural response, feelings and

perception before, during and immediately after the impulse purchase (May, 2002), like,

could you please explain your recent shopping experience . However, these perceptions

were uncovered by questioning respondents after their shopping activity using a post

only design strategy as suggested by Bayley and Nancarrow (1998). This serves as a

better technique for understanding impulse buying as opposed to the conventional pre-

post design that questions shoppers before and after the purchase. In the pre-post

design, shoppers generally try to shorten the before interview by reporting the shopping

list only partially, thereby resulting in a larger number of unplanned purchases at the

exit interview (Bayley and Nancarrow, 1998; Sherman et al ., 1997).


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3.6 THE SAMPLE

With respect to Qualitative research, Miles and Huberman (1994:27) argue that,

as much as you might want to, you cannot study everyone everywhere doing

everything. A theoretically focused study should choose a carefully selected target

sample that can illuminate the issues central to the research (May, 2002). Moreover,

unlike quantitative research, qualitative research usually includes small samples of

people, nested in their context and studied in-depth (Miles and Huberman, 1994; May,

2002). Thus, in such research sampling is purposive (Kuzel, 1992), implying that it is

necessary to decide in advance which portion of potentially infinite reality are crucial

and can resolve relevant theoretical debates (May, 2002).

From the range of purposive sampling strategies suggested by Patton (1990),

critical case sampling has been considered appropriate for this study. Since a critical

case proves or exemplifies the main issues of the research, it is well suited for

exploring interaction between constructs that have not received significant research

attention (Miles and Huberman, 1994), such as the interaction between buyers affective

states and in-store environment in the domain of impulse buying. However, as the

discussion in the previous chapter highlights, there are several factors such as age

(Mitchell and Walsh, 2004), gender (Bellenger et al ., 1978), product categories (Abratt

and Goodey, 1990), culture (Maheshwaran and Shavitt, 2000) and lifestyle (Tao et al .,

2004) that affect impulse buying, in addition to the buyers personality traits (Youn and

Faber, 2000) and in-store environment (Lam, 2001). Thus, to explore the interaction

between the last two variables only, it is necessary to control the effect of the rest. This

was achieved in the present study; by selecting twelve female respondents as prior


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research shows that they are more likely to act impulsively (Mitchell and Walsh, 2004);

moreover since individuals below the age of 35 are relatively more impulsive than older

ones (Bellenger et al., 1978), females below this age were considered in the study.

However, even if female respondents below the age of 35 are considered, there can be

considerable inconsistency in findings if the product categories vary across respondents.

Thus, exploration was limited to fashion oriented, clothing and apparel purchases as they

are considered to be material symbols of personal and social identity (Dittmar et al .,

1995) and hence more likely to be bought on impulse (Bayley and Nancarrow, 1998). In

a nutshell, the sample for the current study includes twelve females below the age of 35,who were questioned on their shopping behaviours with respect to fashion and apparel

oriented products.

3.7 CONDUCTING THE INTERVIEW

Since unpacking an experience and gaining access to deeper levels of meaning

is not straightforward, conscious attempts were made to create a comfortable

environment and earn the confidence of individual respondents (Polkinghorne, 2005). To

this end, interviews were conducted according to the convenience of the respondents

(Patton, 1990). Moreover, before the interview began, interviewees were assured that the

contents of the interview would be confidential and their responses would we presented

in the report under a pseudonym (Perry, 1998). Such a measure was considered important

for ensuring the respondents willingness to provide detailed descriptions and insight into

their impulse purchase decisions, which may have evoked negative post-purchase

emotions (Hausman, 2000). In addition, it concurs with ethical issues of the academy


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that, respondents should not be identified in print and they should not suffer harm or

embarrassment as a consequence of the research (Punch, 1994:92).

As suggested by Patton (1990), the overall purpose of the research and the

interview were explained to the respondents in the introductory briefing. The interview

was initiated with a grand tour question (Spradley, 1979) to give time to the interviewer

and interviewee to relax and develop a rapport (Cassell and Symon, 2004; Smith, 1972).

During the course of the interview, specific incidents and experiences of the respondent

were touched upon and explored using mini tour questions (Spradley, 1979). To

develop important issues directly related to the research, but not sufficiently wellexplained, the playback technique suggested by Smith (1972) was used. It involves

repeating phrases said by the respondent with a rising inflexion in the voice of the

interviewer, for example, you said you are an impulsive buyer, what makes you think

that . Attempt was made to maintain the flow of the interview by avoiding intervention

and introduction of new subjects by the interviewer. However, structural and contrasting

questions were employed to uncover specific meanings of the respondents phraseology,

to obtain reason for what has been said, and to introduce a new subject not yet covered by

the respondent (Berent, 1996).

The interviews were recorded using a Dictaphone (see Appendix 3), after

acquiring the respondents permission to avoid loss of information and overcome any

recall bias (Polkinghorne, 2005). Imposition of a strict time scale was considered

unrealistic and constraining in this study, and interviews were continued to the point at

which it was felt that further questioning would cover aspects already mentioned and

discussed.


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3.8 ANALYSIS

The challenge of qualitative analysis lies in making sense of massive amounts of

descriptive data collected. In order to treat evidence fairly and to produce compelling

analytical conclusions, the pattern coding analytical strategy suggested by Miles and

Huberman (1994) was used. This approach involves grouping of data into smaller sets,

themes or constructs to reduce large amounts of data into analytical units so that a

cognitive map or schema for understanding the phenomenon can be developed.

This analytical strategy was implemented in the current research by first

transcribing the interview recordings (See Appendix 2 for the transcription of a randomly

selected interview). As suggested by Cresswell (1998:51) it helps the researcher to think

about what the interviewees were saying and how they were saying it. Moreover, it

allows to-and-fro reading, increases familiarity with the data, and thereby facilitates the

grouping and coding into broad categories (Polkinghorne, 2005). But, since important

aspects of the oral information such as the pacing, intonation, and emphasis are lost in the

transformation (Polkinghorne, 2005), the recordings were also heard several times. The

analysis of the interviews was done simultaneously with the collection process so that

new and potentially viable issues raised in the interviews already conducted could be

incorporated in subsequent interviews.

3.9 FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS/ LIMITATIONS AND HOW THEY WERE

HANDLED

For most purposes in research there is an assumption that objectivity is needed to

ensure the credibility of findings (Denscombe, 2002), however such objectivity is


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difficult to establish in qualitative research as the researcher itself acts as a human

instrument of data collection and analysis (Hoepfl, 1997). Subjectivity guides everything

from the choice of research topic, to formulating research questions, to selecting

methodologies, and interpreting data (Ratner, 2002). It is argued that subjectivity can

create biases and challenge the validity and reliability of the findings.

But the biases arising out of subjectivity are not inevitable. Scholars have

suggested that researcher reflexivity, i.e. an awareness of the personal concerns and

values and how they shape the research, can keep a check on such biases (Denscombe,

2002). With respect to the current study it can it can be observed that the author who ismale and does not indulge in impulse buying personally, may experience the

phenomenon in question differently to the respondents who are females and inherently

impulsive in their purchase decisions. However, attempt has been made to be receptive to

different perspectives and opinions to provide a balanced and transparent account of the

findings. Through the use of comprehensive accounts of sampling decisions made, the

data collection procedure and analytical strategies used, the current research meets at

least the minimum requirements for methodological transparency suggested by Miles and

Huberman (1994) to ensure reliability and validity of findings.

However, since the quality of qualitative research depends not only on the

techniques used to collect and analyze data, but also the skills, judgment and creativity of

the individual researcher (Patton, 1990; Miles and Huberman, 1994)), the reliability and

validity of research can only be inferred and not proven by reference to objective criteria

(Mason, 2002).


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3.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY

The chapter begins by discussing the two research forms, and then provides a

rationale for adapting an interpretivist approach to achieve the research objectives. In-

depth interview method was used to collect data, the chapter elaborates on the interview

construction and the sampling criteria. In order to reduce the influence of factors other

than personality traits and in-store atmosphere, twelve females under the age of 35 years

where interviewed regarding their shopping behaviours with respect to fashion and

apparel products. After discussing the major issues of analyzing the data collected the

chapter ends with a few limitations of the approach and the way they were handled.


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CHAPTER: 4

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION


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CHAPTER: 4

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The interviews conducted provided a great deal of narrative data, gave insights

into consumers various shopping behaviours, and was informative regarding issues like

personality traits, emotions or mood state and in-store shopping environment. Shopping

as the central issue of discussion was of interest to the respondents, who showed

enthusiasm in actively participating in it, and willingly shared ideas, during the

conversation.

This chapter will seek to consolidate and analyze the data gathered from the

interviews, on the basis of the themes and

Impulse Buying, Personality Traits, In-store Atmospherics, And Their Interaction

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