8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/hungarian-academy-presentation-tatic-kasim 1/114 Modern mainstream economics: science or ideology? Hungarian Academy of Science 27. November 2006 Prof.Kasim Tati, Ph.D. School of Economics and Business Sarajevo Institute for Advanced Studies on Science, Technology and Society, Graz [email protected]
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8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
IdeologyIdeology is a shared belief system that mayis a shared belief system that mayserve at once to motivate and toserve at once to motivate and to justify justify..
It generally asserts normative values andIt generally asserts normative values andincludes causative beliefs. How do thingsincludes causative beliefs. How do thingshappen? What does it all mean?happen? What does it all mean?
An ideology may be utopian and progressive An ideology may be utopian and progressiveor or protective of the status quoprotective of the status quo..
It offers a way in which to order the world,It offers a way in which to order the world,defining enemies and allies, dangers anddefining enemies and allies, dangers andopportunities, us and them.opportunities, us and them.
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
Ideologies are formal, structured, and involveIdeologies are formal, structured, and involvetheir own particular logic, often appearingtheir own particular logic, often appearing
in the guise of sciencein the guise of science or or
objective knowledgeobjective knowledge..
Ideology is implicated in collective action, asIdeology is implicated in collective action, as
criticism, explanation, or promise.criticism, explanation, or promise. It is represented in symbols and beliefs heldIt is represented in symbols and beliefs held
by a community and is publicly expressed.by a community and is publicly expressed.
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
Neoclassical economics, as theNeoclassical economics, as theChicago School of thought is nowChicago School of thought is now
called, has become an international elitecalled, has become an international eliteconsensus, one that provides theconsensus, one that provides thefoundation for the entire global politicalfoundation for the entire global politicaleconomy.economy.
In the United States, young members of In the United States, young members of the middle and upper the middle and upper--middle class firstmiddle class firstlearn its precepts in the academy.learn its precepts in the academy.
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
Polls routinely show that economistsPolls routinely show that economistsand the general public have widelyand the general public have widely
divergent views on the economy, butdivergent views on the economy, butamong the wellamong the well--educated that gap is far educated that gap is far narrower.narrower.
A 2001 study ... showed that those with A 2001 study ... showed that those with
college degrees are more likely tocollege degrees are more likely tosubscribe to the views of neoclassicalsubscribe to the views of neoclassicaleconomists than the general public...economists than the general public...
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
According to mainstream economists i According to mainstream economists ittis notoriously difficult to measureis notoriously difficult to measure
fairness; it is notoriously inefficient to tryfairness; it is notoriously inefficient to tryand that is whyand that is why the mainstreamthe mainstreameconomistseconomists efficiently pass it along toefficiently pass it along tothose to whom the opportunity cost of those to whom the opportunity cost of
arguing is zero: the philosophers.arguing is zero: the philosophers.
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
"Efficiency' can really only apply to machines or machine"Efficiency' can really only apply to machines or machine--likelikeactions. That is, one can tinker with a machine to make it goactions. That is, one can tinker with a machine to make it gofaster, (car engines), or do more maneuvers etc; That can befaster, (car engines), or do more maneuvers etc; That can be
measured.measured.
But markets are not machines, they're fictional or abstractBut markets are not machines, they're fictional or abstractcreations, (in the same sense money is), that allowcreations, (in the same sense money is), that allowtransactions between humans. Because they're fictional or transactions between humans. Because they're fictional or abstract, they can be created any number of ways.abstract, they can be created any number of ways.
There are no "marketsThere are no "markets--inin--themselves" to use a Kantian terminology.themselves" to use a Kantian terminology.
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MMarkets can be created to reflect certain social/arkets can be created to reflect certain social/philosophical/ religious values that can bephilosophical/ religious values that can be"measured" in a sense."measured" in a sense.
The presentThe present--day market reflects the values thatday market reflects the values thatsociety now holds. Those values are, (as far as Isociety now holds. Those values are, (as far as Isee), the accumulation of material wealth and thesee), the accumulation of material wealth and theexpansion of means to create more wealth.expansion of means to create more wealth.
They are not values that hold the needs of futureThey are not values that hold the needs of futuregenerations in view, nor the environment, nor thegenerations in view, nor the environment, nor thespread of economic and social equality to as many asspread of economic and social equality to as many aspossible.possible.
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
This tendency is most pronounced in discussions of This tendency is most pronounced in discussions of economic growth, and how the benefits of that growtheconomic growth, and how the benefits of that growthshould be distributed.should be distributed.
Nobel Laureate Bob Lucas, saNobel Laureate Bob Lucas, saidid thatthat
³once you start to think about the benefits of high³once you start to think about the benefits of highgrowth, it¶s hard to think about anything else.´growth, it¶s hard to think about anything else.´
In other words, first worry about how best to grow theIn other words, first worry about how best to grow thepie, then how to slice it up. Let efficiency trumppie, then how to slice it up. Let efficiency trumpequity, create wealth, and then you can use the extraequity, create wealth, and then you can use the extrawealth you¶ve created to alleviate inequality.wealth you¶ve created to alleviate inequality.
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In 2003 the top 1 percent of householdsIn 2003 the top 1 percent of households
owned 57.5 percent of corporate wealth,owned 57.5 percent of corporate wealth,
up from 53.4 percent the year before,up from 53.4 percent the year before,according to a Congressional Budgetaccording to a Congressional Budget
Office analysis of the latest income taxOffice analysis of the latest income tax
data.data.
The top group's share of corporate wealthThe top group's share of corporate wealthhas grown by half since 1991, when it washas grown by half since 1991, when it was
38.7 percent.38.7 percent.
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From 2003 to 2004, the average incomesFrom 2003 to 2004, the average incomesof the bottom 99 percent of householdsof the bottom 99 percent of households
grew by less than 3 percent, after grew by less than 3 percent, after adjusting for inflation.adjusting for inflation.
In contrast, the average incomes of theIn contrast, the average incomes of thetop one percent of householdstop one percent of householdsexperienced a jump of almost 17 percent,experienced a jump of almost 17 percent,after adjusting for inflation. (Census dataafter adjusting for inflation. (Census datashow that real median income fell betweenshow that real median income fell between2003 and 2004.2003 and 2004.
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Existing model of economic growth represent anExisting model of economic growth represent aninefficient use of human resources.inefficient use of human resources.
The hidden model that lies at the heart of neoThe hidden model that lies at the heart of neo--classical economics as it exists in practice isclassical economics as it exists in practice isSocial Darwinism, the belief that biology andSocial Darwinism, the belief that biology andscience support the existence of a particular science support the existence of a particular social order, the social order which, by happysocial order, the social order which, by happycircumstance and the virtue of our history,circumstance and the virtue of our history,happens to be the one in place at this time.happens to be the one in place at this time.
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Gl obal ization onGl obal ization on all all l evel s l eads toward l evel s l eads toward continuous requests for increased continuous requests for increased
competitivenesscompetitiveness. . Our goal is to highl ight the rol e and Our goal is to highl ight the rol e and
significance of the environment and significance of the environment and natural resources in the process of natural resources in the process of creation of competitive advantages increation of competitive advantages in
a g l obaly connected wor l d .a g l obaly connected wor l d .
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Competitiveness can be thought of asCompetitiveness can be thought of asthe ability of a company (or industry, or the ability of a company (or industry, or
country) to constantly increase itscountry) to constantly increase itsproductivity in creating differntiatedproductivity in creating differntiatedgoods that respond to market demand,goods that respond to market demand,and to bring those goods to marketsand to bring those goods to markets
efficiently, while at the same timeefficiently, while at the same timefostering an increasingly discriminatingfostering an increasingly discriminatingcustomer base. (Porter)customer base. (Porter)
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growth of economies outweighsgrowth of economies outweighsresource productivity improvementsresource productivity improvements
waste generation is 1:1 coupled towaste generation is 1:1 coupled toeconomic growtheconomic growth
emissions of selected pollutants isemissions of selected pollutants is
decreasing but aggregated pressuresdecreasing but aggregated pressurescontinue to increase: territorialcontinue to increase: territorialdegradation, urban sprawl, etc.degradation, urban sprawl, etc.
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The termThe term decouplingdecoupling refers to breaking therefers to breaking thelink between ³environmental bads´ andlink between ³environmental bads´ and³economic goods.´³economic goods.´
Absol ute decoupl ing Absol ute decoupl ing is said to occur when theis said to occur when theenvironmentally relevant variable is stable or environmentally relevant variable is stable or decreasing while the economic driving forcedecreasing while the economic driving forceis growing.is growing.
Decoupling is said to beDecoupling is said to be rel ativerel ative when thewhen thegrowth rate of the environmentally relevantgrowth rate of the environmentally relevantvariable is positive, but less than the growthvariable is positive, but less than the growthrate of the economic variable.rate of the economic variable.
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
Decoupling can be measured byDecoupling can be measured by decouplingdecouplingindicatorsindicators that have an environmental pressurethat have an environmental pressurevariable for numerator and an economic variable asvariable for numerator and an economic variable as
denominator. Sometimes, the denominator or drivingdenominator. Sometimes, the denominator or drivingforce may be population growth or some other force may be population growth or some other variable.variable.
The evidence presented in the OECD ReportThe evidence presented in the OECD Report³Indicators to Measure Decoupling of Environmental³Indicators to Measure Decoupling of Environmental
Pressure from Economic Growth´ shows that relativePressure from Economic Growth´ shows that relativedecoupling is widespread in OECD Member decoupling is widespread in OECD Member countries.countries.
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However, graphs of synthetic decouplingHowever, graphs of synthetic decoupling
indicators often conveyindicators often convey mixed, or double,mixed, or double,
messagesmessages. In a growing economy, relative. In a growing economy, relativedecoupling will imply that environmentaldecoupling will imply that environmental
pressures are still rising.pressures are still rising.
Equally, if economic activity is falling, relativeEqually, if economic activity is falling, relative
or even absolute decoupling may not imply aor even absolute decoupling may not imply apositive development for society as a whole.positive development for society as a whole.
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DDecoupling concept has no automatic link toecoupling concept has no automatic link tothe environment¶s capacity to sustain, absorbthe environment¶s capacity to sustain, absorbor resist pressures of various kindsor resist pressures of various kinds
(deposition, discharges). In the case of (deposition, discharges). In the case of renewable natural resources, a meaningfulrenewable natural resources, a meaningfulinterpretation of the relationship of interpretation of the relationship of environmental pressure to economic drivingenvironmental pressure to economic drivingforces will require information about theforces will require information about the
intensity of use of the resource in question,intensity of use of the resource in question,i.e. of harvesting rate compared to renewali.e. of harvesting rate compared to renewalrate.rate.
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consumption According to Joke Waller According to Joke Waller--Hunter, former Director of Hunter, former Director of
the Environment Directorate of OECD, despite ecothe Environment Directorate of OECD, despite eco--efficiency improvements, overall environmentalefficiency improvements, overall environmental
degradation has persisted in most cases. OECDdegradation has persisted in most cases. OECDcountries reduced thecountries reduced the energy intensityenergy intensity of their of their economies by 31% in the period 1973economies by 31% in the period 1973--1996, but they1996, but theyincreasedincreased total energy consumptiontotal energy consumption by 23% over by 23% over the same period. Their total energy use is expectedthe same period. Their total energy use is expected
to grow by a further 30to grow by a further 30--50% to 2020. (Waller 50% to 2020. (Waller--Hunter Hunter 2000).2000).
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The similar situation is withThe similar situation is with greenhouse gasgreenhouse gas
emissionsemissions. While the output of GHG . While the output of GHG
emissions relative to GDP has fallen for emissions relative to GDP has fallen for OECD countries in recent years, totalOECD countries in recent years, total
absolute emissions have risen. Under currentabsolute emissions have risen. Under current
policies, OECD countries could increasepolicies, OECD countries could increase
GHG emissions by a further 30% to 2010, far GHG emissions by a further 30% to 2010, far from the overall Kyoto Protocol target of a 5%from the overall Kyoto Protocol target of a 5%
reduction from 1990 levels to 2008reduction from 1990 levels to 2008--2012.2012.
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
consumption ³³EnergyEnergy is a key resource for our economy. Overallis a key resource for our economy. Overall
demand is predicted to grow substantially over thedemand is predicted to grow substantially over thecoming decades, by 30% for the OECD countries andcoming decades, by 30% for the OECD countries and
by 70% for the world as a whole in the next 30 years.by 70% for the world as a whole in the next 30 years.For the EU, these increases are smaller than theFor the EU, these increases are smaller than thetargeted doubling of the economy over the sametargeted doubling of the economy over the sameperiod; if efforts are maintained, the decoupling of period; if efforts are maintained, the decoupling of energy use from economic growth will continue.energy use from economic growth will continue.
However, energy consumption will still increase inHowever, energy consumption will still increase inabsolute terms (European Commission 2003,).absolute terms (European Commission 2003,).
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An annual economic growth of 3% l eads An annual economic growth of 3% l eads
to a doubl ing of the economy in 25 to a doubl ing of the economy in 25
y earsy ears .. ( ( An annual growth of 3% leads An annual growth of 3% leadsto a cumulated growth in 25 years withto a cumulated growth in 25 years with
a factor of (1.03)25 = 2. Hundred yearsa factor of (1.03)25 = 2. Hundred years
of growth gives rise to a cumulatedof growth gives rise to a cumulatedgrowth of (1.03)100 = 20growth of (1.03)100 = 20))..
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I f this growth is real ized within theI f this growth is real ized within the
production and consumption patterns of production and consumption patterns of
today, inc l uding the use of current ly today, inc l uding the use of current ly avai l abl e technol ogies, the resource useavai l abl e technol ogies, the resource use
wi ll grow with a factor 2 as well . I n thiswi ll grow with a factor 2 as well . I n this
case there is a 1:1 coupl ing of economic case there is a 1:1 coupl ing of economic growth and resource use. growth and resource use.
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F ortunately, this scenario wi ll F ortunately, this scenario wi ll not not happen.happen.
T he economic growth is not simply real ized T he economic growth is not simply real ized by doing more of the same. by doing more of the same. II n the coming n the coming decades a considerabl e amount of val ue wi ll decades a considerabl e amount of val ue wi ll be created , which material and energ y be created , which material and energ y intensit y is l ess than today¶ s products and intensit y is l ess than today¶ s products and services. services. Reasons:Reasons: T he growing contributionT he growing contributionof services to the economy of services to the economy and and T he ongoing T he ongoing improvement of technol ogies is another one.improvement of technol ogies is another one.
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
N everthel ess, the increase of energ y and material N everthel ess, the increase of energ y and material use wi ll be considerabl e, e.g . the energ y use inuse wi ll be considerabl e, e.g . the energ y use inOECD countries is expected to grow in the next 20 OECD countries is expected to grow in the next 20
y ears by 35% and by 51% wor l dwide (OECD 2001). y ears by 35% and by 51% wor l dwide (OECD 2001). T his means that economic growth and resource useT his means that economic growth and resource useare decoupl ed to some extent . are decoupl ed to some extent .
R Rresource use is growing , but l ess steep than theresource use is growing , but l ess steep than thegrowth of the economy . T his phenomenon is call ed growth of the economy . T his phenomenon is call ed
rel ative decoupl ing . Absol ute decoupl ing woul d takerel ative decoupl ing . Absol ute decoupl ing woul d take pl ace if the growth of the resource use woul d be pl ace if the growth of the resource use woul d benegative´ negative´ (European Commission 2002,(European Commission 2002,))
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If the resource use increases it may beIf the resource use increases it may beassumed that various environmentalassumed that various environmentalpressures, associated with resource use, alsopressures, associated with resource use, alsogrow. Environmental statistics show that thisgrow. Environmental statistics show that thisis indeed the case, although the growth of is indeed the case, although the growth of various environmentally relevant variables isvarious environmentally relevant variables isconsiderable less than the economic growthconsiderable less than the economic growth
and less than the growth of the resource useand less than the growth of the resource useas well. Thus the phenomenon of decouplingas well. Thus the phenomenon of decouplingis also visible if environmental pressures areis also visible if environmental pressures arerelated to economic growth.related to economic growth.
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
For example, the growth rate of For example, the growth rate of
emissions of sulphur dioxide is less thanemissions of sulphur dioxide is less than
the growth rate of GDP. However, sincethe growth rate of GDP. However, sincemany environmental pressures are stillmany environmental pressures are still
increasing decoupling is onlyincreasing decoupling is only relativerelative
for these emissions.for these emissions.
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In drafting this figure it is assumed that theIn drafting this figure it is assumed that thegrowth of the environmental pressure is lessgrowth of the environmental pressure is lessthan thethan the
growth of resource use, both in case of growth of resource use, both in case of relative decoupling and absolute decoupling.relative decoupling and absolute decoupling.
The reason is obvious: if the input of The reason is obvious: if the input of resources per unit of GDP resources per unit of GDP can be reduced,can be reduced,thethe environmental pressure per unit of GDP environmental pressure per unit of GDP will also decrease.will also decrease.
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
The environmental problems thatThe environmental problems that
caused the greatest concern in the pastcaused the greatest concern in the past
were related to pointwere related to point-- source pollution,source pollution,which could be tackled by a "cherrywhich could be tackled by a "cherry--
picking" method: the easiest issuespicking" method: the easiest issues
were largely dealt with, leavingwere largely dealt with, leavingbehind the more difficult questions tobehind the more difficult questions to
be faced in the future.be faced in the future.
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Moreover, most problems were tackled byMoreover, most problems were tackled by
good house keeping attitudes and using endgood house keeping attitudes and using end
of pipeof pipe technologies. In order to make a next step,technologies. In order to make a next step,
inherently benign technologies have to beinherently benign technologies have to be
developed and applied, which will requiredeveloped and applied, which will require
institutional changes on international levelinstitutional changes on international level(such as getting the prices right). The present(such as getting the prices right). The present
situation may be visualized as follows:situation may be visualized as follows:
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The dashed (The dashed (blueblue) line represents the) line represents theincrease of resource productivity betweenincrease of resource productivity between1800 and 2000.1800 and 2000.
For example, advances in steam engineFor example, advances in steam enginetechnology since 1750 have reduced coaltechnology since 1750 have reduced coalconsumption per unit of power 25 fold. Thisconsumption per unit of power 25 fold. Thisimprovement is by far not a linear process:improvement is by far not a linear process:
between 1800 and 1900 the improvementbetween 1800 and 1900 the improvementwas approximately a factor of 10, leaving awas approximately a factor of 10, leaving afactor of 2.5 for the period between 1900 andfactor of 2.5 for the period between 1900 andtoday.today.
8/9/2019 Hungarian Academy Presentation Tatic Kasim
Decoupling thus requires an ecoDecoupling thus requires an eco--efficiencyefficiency
revolution, similar to the resource productivityrevolution, similar to the resource productivity
revolution in the 19th and 20th century. Thus:revolution in the 19th and 20th century. Thus: -- mining and agriculture should exploitmining and agriculture should exploit
-- emissions from industry and householdsemissions from industry and householdsshould be reduced or should become nonshould be reduced or should become non--
destructive for ecodestructive for eco--systems (e.g.systems (e.g.
biodegradable).biodegradable).
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Bringezu and Schutz argue that in order Bringezu and Schutz argue that in order
to reduce global resource extraction byto reduce global resource extraction by
half, ³industrial countries shouldhalf, ³industrial countries shouldincrease the efficiency of overall primaryincrease the efficiency of overall primary
resource requirements of energy andresource requirements of energy and
materials in the next 30 to 50 years by 4materials in the next 30 to 50 years by 4to 10 times´.to 10 times´.
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± ± Participation in Internatinal Colaborative EffortsParticipation in Internatinal Colaborative Efforts ± ± Greenhouse Gas EmissionsGreenhouse Gas Emissions
As of natural resources, the orthodox As of natural resources, the orthodox
economic thought has been used whicheconomic thought has been used which
treats the natural resources simply as atreats the natural resources simply as agiven, or as a supposition which will ingiven, or as a supposition which will in
one way or the other, somewhere and inone way or the other, somewhere and in
some form would always be available tosome form would always be available toentrepreneurs, and their technologyentrepreneurs, and their technology
used in the production processes.used in the production processes.
G
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Professor Michael Porter, as the main author Professor Michael Porter, as the main author
of the methodlogical framework and theof the methodlogical framework and the
theoretical background of the Report, basedtheoretical background of the Report, basedhis approach to competitivenes on thehis approach to competitivenes on the
premises of the neoclasical economypremises of the neoclasical economy
underestimating the role of natural resourcesunderestimating the role of natural resources
and neglecting practically the concept andand neglecting practically the concept andideas of environmentaly sustainableideas of environmentaly sustainable
development.development.
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In the Report (p. 21) Porter said: ÄCompaniesIn the Report (p. 21) Porter said: ÄCompaniesin a nation must upgrade their ways of in a nation must upgrade their ways of competition if successful economiccompetition if successful economicdevelopment is to occur. Broadly, companiesdevelopment is to occur. Broadly, companiesmust shift from competing on inherentmust shift from competing on inherentendowments (comparative advantages suchendowments (comparative advantages suchas lowas low--cost labor or natural resources) tocost labor or natural resources) to
competing on competitive advantages arisingcompeting on competitive advantages arisingform efficient and distinctive products andform efficient and distinctive products andprocess³.process³.
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And further (p. 23): ³National endowments And further (p. 23): ³National endowmentssuch as natural resources play a decliningsuch as natural resources play a decliningrole in competitiveness as the resourcerole in competitiveness as the resource
intensity of the economy fails and asintensity of the economy fails and astechnology substitutes for resources of openstechnology substitutes for resources of opensup new resource locations. ... It is theup new resource locations. ... It is theproductivity with which natural resources canproductivity with which natural resources can
be utilized, not the resources themselves, thatbe utilized, not the resources themselves, thatnormally have the strongest influence onnormally have the strongest influence onprosperity.prosperity.
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Finally, Porter concludes (p. 44): ÄCountries withFinally, Porter concludes (p. 44): ÄCountries withlower levels of productivity are more dependent onlower levels of productivity are more dependent onnatural resources export³.natural resources export³.
This way, Porter, clearly recognizes and admits theThis way, Porter, clearly recognizes and admits therole that natural resources have as a mean of role that natural resources have as a mean of competitive battle on the world market.competitive battle on the world market.
It is entirely different matter how we see them inIt is entirely different matter how we see them inthat rolethat role ± ± as more or less valuable, as efficient or as more or less valuable, as efficient or inefficient, as desirable or less desirable.inefficient, as desirable or less desirable.
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It is more than obvious, that naturalIt is more than obvious, that natural
resources have been and still are,resources have been and still are,for the large number of countries,for the large number of countries,predominant meanpredominant mean
in the competitive battlein the competitive battle
on the world marketon the world market,,
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dominant mean by which they realize their dominant mean by which they realize their economic growtheconomic growth,,
but probably notbut probably not economic developmenteconomic development,,and surelyand surely notnot sustainable developmentsustainable development,,envisaged as a complex goal realizedenvisaged as a complex goal realizedthrough athrough a balanced developmentbalanced development
simultaneously onsimultaneously on thethe four fields: economic,four fields: economic,environmental, social and cultural.environmental, social and cultural.
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It is another proof supporting the statementIt is another proof supporting the statement
that not only low developed countries usedthat not only low developed countries used
natural resources as a basis of their natural resources as a basis of their competitiveness but also the most developedcompetitiveness but also the most developed
countries.countries.
They use their higher productivity simply toThey use their higher productivity simply to
achieve larger production and easier achieve larger production and easier distribution of their products all over thedistribution of their products all over the
world.world.
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I I f we combine, with proper weights, f we combine, with proper weights,
ES I and GC I into our proposed new ES I and GC I into our proposed new
sy nthetic index designated assy nthetic index designated asS ustainable Development S ustainable Development Competitiveness Index ( SDCI),Competitiveness Index ( SDCI),
we woul d get compl etelly different and we woul d get compl etelly different and more real istic picture and ranking of more real istic picture and ranking of particul ar countries. particul ar countries.
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On the contrary, our opinion is thatOn the contrary, our opinion is that absoluteabsolute
decoupling is what is realy needed if thedecoupling is what is realy needed if the
mentioned problems are to be resolved in thementioned problems are to be resolved in the
long run. The emphasis is on the long run.long run. The emphasis is on the long run.
Since absolute decoupling has been verySince absolute decoupling has been very
rearly accomplished, emphasis of rearly accomplished, emphasis of
achievement of only relative decoupling isachievement of only relative decoupling iscounterproductive and even dangerous.counterproductive and even dangerous.
WHY?WHY?
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Saying that the relative decoupling isSaying that the relative decoupling is
the final solution to environmental andthe final solution to environmental andnatural resources problems leeds to thenatural resources problems leeds to the
situtation in which incentives for further situtation in which incentives for further
efforts aiming at absolute decrease of efforts aiming at absolute decrease of quatity of limited resources used do notquatity of limited resources used do not
exist or are discouraged.exist or are discouraged.
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To achieve absolute decouplingTo achieve absolute decoupling
between environmental impacts andbetween environmental impacts and
economic growth, aneconomic growth, an overall reductionoverall reductionin resource use will be requiredin resource use will be required, and ..., and ...
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...... significant changes are requested insignificant changes are requested in
the field of the field of consumptionconsumption andand
distributiondistribution of incomeof income, not only in the, not only in thefield of extraction and manufacturing.field of extraction and manufacturing.