10/27/2017 1 How To Argue: The Art of Argumentation This is not how to argue! Arguing is all about Critical Thinking and Logic…
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How To Argue:
The Art of Argumentation
This is not how to argue!
Arguing is all about Critical
Thinking and Logic…
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…which is why little sisters
are horrible at arguing!
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Arguing is about making a case in support of a claim in everyday affairs.
For Example:
- Science (The Scientific Method)
- Courtrooms (Debate)
- Politics (also Debate)
Aristotle, the famous dead white guy of
Argumentation, divided arguments into
three kinds:
- Forensic
- Epideictic
- Deliberative
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In simple words,
Forensic = Fact (simple)
Epideictic = Judgment (sorta
simple)
Deliberative = Policy (complex)
These arguments move from
simple to complex.
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In school, you’ve been taught that an
argument begins with a claim which is a
thesis statement or conclusion…
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In reality, all good arguments
begin with looking at the data
that is likely to become the
evidence in an argument.
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It’s the difference between
Deductive and Inductive
Reasoning.
Good arguments use INDUCTIVE REASONING!
For Example…
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Inductive Reasoning
Definition:
Where you take the facts
presented and you make a generalization or conclusion from them.
From Specific to General
Example:
““““Every time we’ve been close to a flame, we’ve
noticed heat. Therefore,
we conclude that all
flames are hot.””””
Deductive Reasoning
Definition:
Where you make a
generalization and then apply reliable evidence to the claim.
From General to Specific
Example:
““““All oranges are fruits.
All fruits grow on trees.
Therefore, oranges grow
on trees.””””
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Example:
Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning
We must always make critical choices in our
thinking.
And, before we argue, we must
think!
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Seven ElementsThere are seven elements to an effective
critical thinking process:
1. Observations (we are always making
observations)
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Observation Observation
Seven ElementsFrom observations, we can establish: Facts.
2. Facts (evidence): Facts can be
concrete, observable information;
personal testimony; written documents;
and material objects and their condition
or appearance.
Facts & Theories
Facts:
• There is a dead body.
• There is a knife in the body.
• There is blood.
• There are footprints going toward the door.
• There is a cell phone.
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Seven ElementsFrom facts, or from an absence of facts, we
make: Inferences (predictions).
3. Inferences: an inference is a step of
mind; an intellectual conclusion. They
can be accurate or inaccurate, logical or
illogical, justified or unjustified.
Inferences
Inferences:
• Something bad
happened here.
Seven ElementsFrom testing the validity of our inferences, we
can make: Assumptions.
4. Assumptions: an assumption is
something we take for granted or
presuppose. Usually it is something we
previously learned and do not question.
Assumptions
Assumptions:
• If something bad
happened here, someone may have
caused it.
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Seven ElementsFrom our assumptions, we form our: Opinions.
5. Opinions: are an honest attempt to
draw a reasonable conclusion from
factual evidence. An opinion is
potentially changeable--depending on
how the evidence is interpreted. By
themselves, opinions have little power
to convince.
Opinions
Opinions:
• It’s my opinion that this
possibly is a homicide scene.
Seven ElementsFrom our opinions, we use evidence and the
principles of logic to develop: Arguments.
6. Argument: is about making a case in support of a claim.
…and when we want to test our arguments and to challenge the arguments of others, we employ: Critical Analysis.
Seven Elements7. Critical Analysis: this is
where we want to challenge our own and
other people’s
-observations,
-facts,
-inferences,
-assumptions,
-opinions
-argument
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Arguments
Argument (Claim):• A Ninja Frog killed this
man!
Arguments
TEST & CHALLENGE THE ARGUMENT!
Suspicious Ninja
footprints
Arguments
TEST & CHALLENGE THE ARGUMENT!
Suspicious green
thumb print
Arguments
TEST & CHALLENGE THE ARGUMENT!
Suspicious
website for
buying
cultured house
flies
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The Critical Thinking
Process is not linear.
Instead, we often have to go back and revise the
elements as we come to know more, see
more, and understand more.
We’re looking for a shift in understanding and a
movement away from bias and erroneous
premises.
Critical Thinking Checklist
Critical Thinking skills include:
• Separating relevant from irrelevantinformation
• Distinguishing between verifiable facts and
value claims
• Determining the credibility of a source
• Recognizing inconsistencies in a line of reasoning
• Determining the strength of an argument or a claim
The Process of Argument
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Draw This…
So, lets begin to build
the argument.
First, we have evidence
or data.
Also called Grounds.
DATA(GROUNDS)
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Evidence or Grounds is made up of hard
facts plus the reasoning behind the claim.
Credit: laughingsquid.com
Homework!
Evidence must be relevant and
verifiable to be useful.
Credit: laughingsquid.com
Homework!
Grounds is the ‘truth’ on which
the claim is made.
Credit: laughingsquid.com
Homework!
Second, from evidence,
we make a claim, or
argument.
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Remember the Claims…There are four (4)
reasons that you would want to persuade.
We call these reasons ““““claims.””””
Types of Claims
1. A Claim of Fact or Definition
This claim argues what the
definition of something is or
whether something is a settled
fact.
Types of Claims
2. A Claim of Cause and Effect
This claim argues that one person,
thing, or event caused another
thing or event to occur.
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Types of Claims
3. A Claim about Value
This is a claim about what
something is worth; how we would
rate something.
Types of Claims
4. A Claim about Solutions or
Policies.
This claim argues for or against a
certain solution to a problem.
CLAIM DATA(GROUNDS)
Now, for the Hard Part!
The evidence and
claim balance on the
warrant!
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CLAIM
Warrant
DATA(GROUNDS)
Simply put, a warrant is a
common sense rule that people
generally accept as being true.
It explains why the data proves
or links the claim.
For example: Everyone has a fingerprint that
is unique to them.
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Important!
Warrants may be based on
LOGOS, ETHOS, or
PATHOS, or VALUES that
are assumed to be shared with the listener.
Big Warning!
Since Warrants are
often unstated,
different people may perceive them
differently.
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Lastly, there is backing. CLAIM
Warrant
BACKING
DATA(GROUNDS)
Backing is the support for the
warrant.
For example: There is much scientific
research on the analysis of fingerprints
There are three (3) types of Backing:
1. Expert Opinion: a statement made by an individual who is recognized as an expert in his or her field.
2. Research Results: data collected through methodical investigation or through scientific experiments.
3. Factual Information: information that has evidential support and is generally acknowledged to be proven or true.
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Backing:Information that is designed to “back up”
the warrant when it is not convincing enough to the reader or listener.
Knowing your audience is Key for backing.
What evidence or reasons can you give to make your audience believe you both have something in common?
Arguments are always things of
probability.
Arguments are never absolutely
true or absolutely false.
Because arguments deal with
probabilities, they must be
qualified.
By the way, that’s why we call
claims…claims, because we
are claiming they are true.
A Qualifier is a word
that shows the level of
certainty.
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CLAIM
Warrant
BACKING
QUALIFIER
DATA(GROUNDS)
QualifiersWords like:“some, most, many, in general, usually,
typically”These little words have great value!
Without qualifiers, the claim could be
interpreted as an absolute.
An appropriately qualified claim is much
easier to defend.
Example:Qualified Claim:““““Many books by Charles Dickens are fun
to read.””””Unqualified Claim:““““Books by Charles Dickens are fun to
read.””””How to Spot the Parts of
an Argument
(Signal Words)
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Signal Words for:
CLAIMDescribing Words such as:
awful, amazing, beautiful, disgusting,
miserable, favorite, etc.
Modal Verbs such as:
should, ought to, must, etc.
Superlative Words such as:
best, worst, most, smartest, etc.
Signal Words for:
WARRANTCause & Effect Words such as:
because, as a result, due to, since, for
that reason, etc.
Temporal Transition Words such as:
first, next, finally, etc.
Signal Words for:
BACKINGIllustrating Words such as:
for example, for instance, to explain, to
elaborate, specifically, in particular, such
as, according to, as reported in, as found
by, etc.
Signal Words:
BACKINGWords of Expert Opinion such as:
according to, as [so-and-so] stated, in
keeping with, expert, endorsed, believed,
recommended, accomplished, foremost,
leading, master, pre-eminent, etc.
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Signal Words:
BACKINGWords of Research Results such as: as
reported in, studies show, according to,
data, findings, found, percent, percentile,
average number of, reports, statistics, participants, etc.
Signal Words:
BACKINGWords of Factual Information such as:
true, certain, absolute, objective, proven,
unquestionable, infallible, etc.
And for of the Verb “to be” such as:
is, was, are, and were.
Signal Words for:
QUALIFIERSConcession Words such as:
even if, despite the fact, albeit, admitting,
granting, although, at any rate, at least,
still, even though, granted that, while it
may be true, in spite of, of course, just
because…doesn’t mean, necessarily,
whereas, some, most, many, in general,
usually, typically, etc.
The final consideration:
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Who’s Your Audience?
Credit: gnews.com
Whom are you aiming the
argument to?
Writing Changes
When The
Audience Changes!
Let’s Put the Process of
Argument into Practice!
Credit: thedetectivechannel.com
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Slip or Trip?
The following exercise was taken from:
Crime and Puzzlement 2, by Lawrence Treat and Illustrated by Kathleen Borowik
&
Inspired from the work of George Hillock, Jr and his book, Teaching Argument Writing, Grades 6-12: Supporting Claims with Relevant Evidence and Clear
Reasoning.
Investigation:Your group is an investigative team that must determine what
may have happened. You can either agree or disagree with
Queenie’s version.
1. Do you think Queenie is telling the truth?
2. Find all the evidence you can that indicates whether or not
Queenie is telling the truth. Make a list of all the evidence.
Evidence includes concrete, observable information; personal
testimony; written documents; and material objects and their condition or appearance.
3. Next, explain how each piece of evidence supports your claim
that Queenie is or is not telling the truth. Each explanation
will be a generally accepted rule, which may begin with a
phrase such as, “As a rule…” If other members of your team
disagree with you, find evidence that will convince them.
4. Be prepared to explain why your evidence supports your
case. Eventually you will write a report to convince the others
in the class that your analysis makes the most sense.
It’s Time to Talk!
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Think like a cop…
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What More Do You Need?
Writing A ReportIn-Class Assignment:
Write out a report that illustrates your full
argument. BUT, WAIT!!!.......
Individually, write out the evidence (grounds)
and the rules (warrants) that allowed you to
interpret the evidence.
Include five (5) pieces of evidence ONLY,
each with an appropriate warrant and any
necessary explanation.
Three (3) paragraphs, ONLY
Question?
Who
are
you
writing
to?
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Writing A ReportBig, Massive Hint
Here’s a good way to structure your report:
�1st: Describe what was found at the scene and the autopsy report (what was observed).
�2nd: State your claim and incorporate your five pieces of evidence……along with the evidence, provide the rules or warrants that explain why that evidence is important.
�3rd: Make a recommendation about what should happen next or what more evidence is needed.
Even Bigger, Massive Hint:
Write this down:
I was called to the Volupides
residence a little after 1:10 in the morning. Upon entering, I discovered…