1 HISTORY OF COSTUME REFERENCE BOOK PAGE OF CONTENTS Mesopotamia 1 Egypt 11 Crete, Mycenae & Greece 21 Etruria & Rome 31 Byzantine Empire 41 Barbaric, Carolingian & Romanesque 51 Early and High Gothic 61 Middle Gothic 71 Late Gothic & Early Italian Renaissance 81 High Renaissance 91 Early Mannerist Renaissance 101 Elizabethan-Jacobean 111 Early Baroque 121 Bibliography 131
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1
HISTORY OF COSTUME REFERENCE BOOK
PAGE OF CONTENTS
Mesopotamia 1
Egypt 11
Crete, Mycenae & Greece 21
Etruria & Rome 31
Byzantine Empire 41
Barbaric, Carolingian & Romanesque 51
Early and High Gothic 61
Middle Gothic 71
Late Gothic & Early Italian Renaissance 81
High Renaissance 91
Early Mannerist Renaissance 101
Elizabethan-Jacobean 111
Early Baroque 121
Bibliography 131
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Mesopotamia - Cradle of Civilisation
The earliest records of human civilizations were found in Mesopotamia, a large
region centered between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, located in modern-day
Iraq. There were a few civilizations which developed during that time, mainly the
biblical civilizations such as Sumerians (3000–2000 BC), the Akkadians (2350–
2218 BC), the Babylonians (1894–1595 BC), the Assyrians (1380–612 BC), and
the Persians (550–330 BC).
Sumerians created the earliest civilization in Mesopotamia
around. They created large city-states developed near the
Euphrates River and were agriculture-based. Akkadians
were a different ethnic group staying in the same area as
the Sumerians. By 1849 BC, the Babylonians rose to power.
Under the rule of the king Hammurabi of Babylon (1792–
1750 BC.), a code of laws (known as the Code of
Hammurabi) was developed and written down.
The warring Assyrians started their dominance in
Mesopotamia, conquering many regions. It was a male-dominated culture and
women had little say in the society. However, their harsh rule over the regions
were not welcomed by many cultures, they were eventually overthrown.
After the Assyrians were conquered, the Persians
(present day Iranians) became the dominant
culture in the region. The Persian Empire also
conquered a vast area of land; however, they
were just and benevolent in treating their new subjects, hence the
empire was relatively stable during their reign. The empire
eventually went to war with the Greek states, and was defeated by Alexander the
Great in 333BC.
Relief, Persian Empire
(358–338 B.C.)
Sumerian Statue
Akkadian Seal
Assyrians
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Silhouette
The people living in Mesopotamia prefer simple silhouettes, as shaped by their
garment cloth material.
Types of Costumes & Accessories
Sumerians
• Interest in rounded, cylindrical lines
• Fringed edges & Embroidery
• Kaunakes (tiered skirts)
• Ornamental rolled collars and Gold jewellery for the rich
Babylonians
• Fringed edges
• Tunic and skirts
• Left arm covered
Assyrians
• Similar to Sumerians and Babylonians
• Female have shawl over tunic.
• Prefer geometric patterns
• Jewellery such as bracelets, armlets, rings
• Opened toe shoes
Persian
• Candys: low flowing gown with wide sleeves
• Domed hat
Fabric
Wool (especially in fringe), linen, leather
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Mesopotamia: Comparison 1 – Historical
Mesopotamian layered clothing with fringed details. Figures on the wall carvings
feature tiered beards and wore flat open toed shoes.
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Mesopotamia: Comparison 1 – Modern
Fringed, layered skirt
Balenciaga, Fall 2007, Vogue US September 2007.
Model is seen with a layered dress with fringe details.
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Similarities
• Both outfits made use of fringe materials to decorate the plain fabrics of
the dress tunic/skirt
• Silhouette: Both fringed garments give a tiered, layered look on the
wearer’s lower torso.
Differences
• Uses: Fringe garment was a mainstay in Mesopotamian fashion. It was
often used as ornamentation of garments. The fringe details may also be
spiral shaped, much like the modern example, resembling that of the
Tower of Babel. In this historical example, the protruding fringe details
(leaf-shaped) were seen on the external wrapped garment worn above the
tunic, next to the bordered patterns found on the fabric. In the modern
example, the fringe details were attached to the ends of the spiral-layered
skirt. Such layering can be found quite commonly in modern times to give
a more layered effect on plain fabrics.
• Making of Garment: Fringe is probably sewn onto the garment in the
Mesopotamian picture.
• Colour & Material: The Mesopotamian fringe is probably made of fleece,
while the modern white fringe is made from fine threads, either sewn on,
or the threads were protruding wefts from the fabric.
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Mesopotamia: Comparison 2 – Historical
Kaunake
Sumerian statue of a woman in plain tiered and tufted wrap skirt.
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Mesopotamia: Comparison 1 – Modern
Tiered Dress
Dior Fall 2007, W Magazine September 2007
Orange dress with tiered, conical details on the lower (skirt) portion.
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Similarities
• Both types of garment are worn by women
• Tiered skirts with a cone shaped silhouette with a bodice that shows the
neckline
Differences
• Uses: Tiered skirts are worn by both men and women in Sumerian times,
whereas in modern time, skirts are mostly worn by women.
• In the historical costume, the layered look achieved by tying the tufts
around during weaving or by rows of fringe fabric to the skirt cloth. In
comparison, the tiered portion was achieved by overlapping layers of cloth.
• It is hard to tell which colour or fabric is used in the old picture, but it could
be either fleece or linen. In the Dior dress, a stiff form of satin is used, with
a bright orange hue.
• The Mesopotamian cultures preferred a more cylindrical shape for their
garments, probably because they were restricted in the type of materials
they could use. In modern cultures, clothes are more tight-fitting, and in
this case, it accentuates the difference in waist to hip proportion
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Ancient Egypt
The history of ancient Egypt is broken into several periods or eras: the Old
Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. The Old Kingdom saw the
construction of the majestic stone pyramids at Giza on the west bank of the Nile
near the current Egyptian capital of Cairo. During the Old Kingdom
Egyptians developed an accurate solar calendar and made huge achievements
in art and culture. The Middle Kingdom period lasted from about 2000 BC till
1500 BC, and is known for its literature and the expansion of trade routes to
other cultures such as Middle East. The New Kingdom period lasted from about
1500 to 750 BC During this time Egypt conquered its neighbors to the south and
expanded its control into parts of Africa. The Empire displayed its wealth in lavish
temples and more highly decorated clothes. Egyptian society began to break
down after reaching its peak in prosperity and was eventually conquered by
Macedonian leader Alexander the Great in 332 BC. From that point on the stable
and distinctive culture of ancient Egypt slowly disappeared.
The Egyptians were known for their majestic pyramids and tomb chambers,
which were supposed to prepare their Pharaohs and the royalty for the afterlife, a
concept they started believing in the Middle Kingdom. Much of their normal day
activities are entwined with religion and superstition.
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Costume Style and Influence
The Egyptians were influence by their religion and hieroglyphic language. Due to
their extensive trade routes they were able to get many materials and inspirations
for their clothing.
Silhouette
Egyptians emphasize a lot on their lower torso. They also appear to wear a lot of
sheer garment. Early Egyptian men often go topless. Later periods saw a rise in
the popularity of
Types of Costumes & Accessories
• Headdresses for royalty
Men
• Loin cloth → Schenti
• Shendot
• Gala Skirt
Women
• Kalasirisis (tight gown worn under shawl)
• Sheer garment
• Pleated garments
Fabric
White is the preferred colour. Although red, blue, yellow and blue green dyes
were available. Linen was used for most garments, while leather was used as a
supplement.
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Egypt: Comparison 1 – Historical
Gala Skirt
Egyptian man with a gala skirt, gathers convene on the right.
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Egypt: Comparison 1 – Modern
Dress with folds
Dior Fall 2007, Vogue US September 2007
Mustard dress with belt. Folds on skirt gathered towards the left, with stone
ornamentation.
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Similarities
• Both garments make use of pleats/gathers to form an asymmetrical fold
pattern of the skirt, with the folds convening on one side of the hip
Differences
• Uses: the gala skirt (wrap skirt) was worn by high-ranking men mainly in
the Old Kingdom, usually worn alone with no tops. These skirts are often
seen on high ranking workmen of granaries. The Dior dress is considered
common amongst modern women, and is usually worn for night or formal
occasions. The folds on garment is not commonly found on men
• Making of Garment: Gala skirt is achieved by wrapping the cloth at least
one and half times round the lower body, with the pleated section with the
rounded hemline ending on the right. In the modern picture, the dress
folds are made by sewing the top parts of the fold to the skirt with a
brooch-like cover sewn over the convening point.
• Colour & Material: In drawings and statues, the gala skirt Is shown to have
a gold sheen, probably caused by adding gold threads woven into the
white linen skirt cloth. In the modern comparison, the colour of the
seamless dress is in mustard yellow, probably consists of manufactured
fibre textiles to give a smooth surface texture.
• Silhouette: The fabric of the gala skirt flows and clings on to the outline of
the body, whereas the Dior dress skirt is slightly stiffer and does not cling
as much.
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Egypt: Comparison 2 – Historical
Beaded Collar
Sheer pleated garment with beaded collar. Egyptian lady in the picture also
wearing wrist bracelet bands and a vulture headdress
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Egypt: Comparison 2 – Modern
Beaded/Sequin Collar
Temperly London, Fall/Winter 2007 from style.com
Long orange dress with prominent beaded collar.
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Similarities
• A banded collar was worn by both females, over a long body clinging
garment dress.
• Semi-circular lines
• Both are gold and brown in colour, and made of beads.
• Both are used as ornamental pieces for the rich, or for special occasions.
Differences
• Uses: This type of Egyptian collar is worn by rich women during the New
Empire. In modern times, such jewellery pieces are used mainly for
special events and parties.
• Egyptian collar is made of semiprecious stones, faience or glass beads
and usually extended from shoulder to shoulder, and is balanced at the
back with a weight. In the modern example, the collar appears to be
double sided, and is made of sequins, beads, and gold plated strips. The
modern beaded collar also has more allowance at the neck (wider scope).
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Crete, Mycenae & Greece
The Minoan civilization was at its height between 1750
and 1580 B.C. (middle period). During this time, the
palace at Knossos was built and the most exciting
development at Minoan costume was seen. Women
wore tiered skirts that fell straight from the hips and then
filled out to a wide hem. Above the skirt, they wore a
tight-fitting short sleeved bodice. In most cases (as
shown in frescoes), the breasts were entirely exposed
with the bodice laced up below
the bust.
The civilization was overtaken by
the Mycenaean civilization
eventually. The Mycenaean culture began to flourish on
mainland Greece and invaded Crete. Natural
catastrophes caused the Mycenaean culture to flounder,
and Mycenaeans dispersed to other areas. As the Mycenaeans left Greece, the
Dorians, ancient Greeks, conquered the land. This period was also known as the
Dark Ages. By about 800 BC, Greek culture began to flourish again with
increasing population, the development of trade colonies, and the rediscovery of
the skill of writing.
The period from 500 to 336 B.C.E. is considered the Classical Period of Greek
history. During this time Athens dominated Greek culture and politics. The ideas
about art, architecture, philosophy, business, culture, and politics and literature
that developed during this period
laid the foundation of modern
Western civilization.
19
Costume Style and Influence
Silhouette
Minoans, early inhabitants of present day Greece
preferred artificial silhouettes and snake-like hair, while
Mycenaeans preferred a rougher, present-day ‘biker
look’ with leather and metallic accessories. Classical
Greeks love soft draping to create natural folds over
the human body.
Types of Costumes & Accessories
Minoan/Mycenaean
• Tight sleeved cylindrical skirts
• Perizoma
Archaic Greece
• Petasos (hat)
• Chiton, kolobus
• Exomis
• Chlamys
• Greaves (shin guard)
• Fibula (Brooch)
Classical Greece
• Chiton (Ionic & Doric)
• Peplos
• Himation, diplax
• Cuirass
• Sakko, Stephane, Phrygian, Sphendore
Fabric
Linen and Wool
Ionic capital, Temple of Artemis at Sardis, 4th century B.C.
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Greece: Comparison 1 – Historical
Doric Chiton
Greek woman wearing a white Doric chiton attached on both shoulders.
Embroidery or print by the edges.
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Greece: Comparison 1 – Modern
Greek-inspired Sleeveless Satin Dress
Chanel perfume ad, FashionSpot.com
Satin dress inspired by the Doric chiton.
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Similarities
• The silhouettes of both garments are very similar, with soft fabrics draping
over the body, forming natural folds. The fabrics are attached on both
shoulders, and there are huge allowances for the arms (huge arm holes)
Differences
• Uses: The Doric chiton in classical Greece was worn by most females in
everyday lives, be it for outdoor or indoor usage. The style has remained
popular in modern times, but probably is used more often for gowns and
formal blouses.
• Making of Garment: The Classical Greek Doric chiton is worn by attaching
folding the upper edge of the fabric down to reach just below the chest,
and the garment is secured by attaching the fabric on both shoulders with
brooches or fibulas. For the modern variation of this style, the dress is
sewn on the sides, with holes cut at the arms and neck to achieve this
look.
• Colour & Material: In the Greek picture the woman is seen to be wearing a
white chiton made of lightweight material, with an apolytgma (over fold)
that has a border print. In the modern version, the velvet red dress is
made of soft satin.
• Silhouette: Slight variation in the silhouette due to the presence of over
fold in the classical Doric chiton, which drapes down by the side. The
Chanel dress has a simpler clean cut.
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Greece: Comparison 2 – Historical
Man wears a chlamys pinned with a fibula on the right shoulder with clavi (purple
stripes), underneath which is a chiton or kolobus.
24
Greece: Comparison 2 – Modern
Cape
Giambattista Valli Fall 2007, style.com
25
Similarities
• Both are over garments that are essentially a piece of cloth draped over
the shoulder, and secured by pinning/knotting at the neck
Differences
• Uses: Chlamys was one of the few items of ancient Greek clothing worn
exclusively by men. It was a multipurpose cape that active people wore or
carried around for the outdoors. The modern cape is not often used,
particularly in urbanized cities. In this case, the cape is purely decorative.
• Making of Garment: Chlamys is essentially a piece of cloth tied or pinned
at the right shoulder (with a fibula), or tied at the chest. In the modern
picture, the cape is tied in a huge knot at the front.
• Colour & Material: The modern cape is brightly coloured in striking yellow,
and made of stiff synthetic fabric, whereas the chlamys is made of a fabric
with high drape. The chlamys is also decorated with clavi, purple border
designs.
• Silhouette: The modern cape-like over garment tied at the front, with the
ends of the cape tucked to the bottom of the dress, giving a rounded
overall appearance at the ends of the cape. On the other hand, the
chlamys drapes naturally over the man in the figure.
26
Etruria & Rome
In the ancient times many city-states developed in the Italian peninsula. The
most powerful of these city-states was inhabited by the Etruscans, who
dominated most of Italy from about 800 BC until they were defeated by the
Romans in 250 BC. At the height of its power, the Roman Empire stretched from
Spain in the west to present-day Syria in the east, and from Egypt in the south to
Britain in the north.
The Romans borrowed many costume trends from the Etruscans. During the
years of the Roman Republic (509–27 B.C.E.), they built a vast system of
roadways and waterways that connected Europe and parts of the Middle East.
They created a system of republican government, and established trade routes
that stretched throughout the world, including a thriving trade with China and the
Far East. Yet with great wealth came the slow
corruption of the empire. The once sparing
and simple Romans became lovers of luxury.
Roman senators made sumptuary laws to
limit the ways people could dress and entertain
themselves. The first Roman sumptuary law was
called the Lex Appia. It declared that no woman could possess more than a half
ounce of gold, wear a stola, or dress, of different colors, or ride in a carriage in
any city unless for a public ceremony. Many people resented these sumptuary
laws. The rulers abused their power and indulged in luxuries and slowly lost the
support of the civilians.
Conflict between the rulers of different cities, each with their own armies, soon
began to tear the empire apart in a long civil war. The emperor Diocletian (c.
245–c. 316) reorganized the empire in 293 AD., creating a Western Roman
Empire centered in Rome and an Eastern Roman Empire centered in modern-
day Turkey.
27
Costume Style and Influence
Greeks inherited a lot of fashion styles from the Greeks
and other Mediterranean cultures
Silhouette
Well draped lines, with more decoration and
ornamentation
Types of Costumes & Accessories
• Toga: Romans were often called gens togata, or people of the toga.
• Palla
• Stola (Slip Dress)
• Tunica
• Paenula (rain coat)
• Colubium
• Solea (sandals)
• Crepida (covered shoes)
• Callgula (boots)
• Dalmaticas
• Flammeum (veil)
• Lorica (brass protection)
• Strophinum (bikini-like)
The Roman emperor Nero
wearing feminalia
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Rome: Comparison 1 – Historical
Solea
Roman man wearing solea (sandals)
29
Rome : Comparison 1 – Modern
Cork Sandals
Phillip Lim Spring Summer 2008, style.com
30
Similarities
• Both pictures show the people wearing red, flat, open sandals that are
strapped/with strap patterns.
• Both sandals are secured by knots at the ankle
• The general shape of the sandal is similar, with cross strap patterns.
Differences
• Uses: Roman men wore the solea both indoors and outdoors. Sandals in the
modern days are mostly worn on casual occasions, and for outdoors usage.
• Making of Garment: The solea has a characteristic long strap in the middle,
with straps ‘branching out’ to hold the sole and feet together. The middle strap
divides the big toe from the rest of the toes. In the modern comparison, the
sandal laces are laced through hoops secured onto the sole; laced straps
crisscross above the feet.
• Colour & Material: Both sandals are laced but probably made of different
materials. Sole of the solea may be made of wood, while that of the modern
sandal is made of cork/compressed wood. The laces used on the modern
sandal looked similar to shoe laces (cotton)
31
Rome: Comparison 2 – Historical
Strophinum
Women wearing strophinum playing some ball game.
32
Rome : Comparison 2 – Modern
Sports Bras
Brazilian beach volley-ballers wearing sports bras, bikinis and shorts.
33
Similarities
• Both pictures show women wearing 2-piece garments that resembles the
present day lingerie/bikini
• Both garments seemed to be worn during sports to enable greater
flexibility, and are worn by women for modesty reasons.
Differences
• Making of Garment: The fabric that makes up upper torso garment of the
strophinum is probably stitched or pinned together. While the lower torso is
made by wrapping. The modern version is made by using stretchable
materials and sewn on the sides.
• Colour & Material: Present day bikinis/sports bra uses lycra and other elastic
materials and are usually tightly fitted to the body. The strophinum appears to
be made of linen or some natural fibre that has little elastic stretch. Colour of
the strophinum looks one toned (brownish, as depicted by fresco), while that
of the sports bra is brightly coloured
• Silhouette: The silhouette of the modern sports bikini is well fitting, whereas
the strophinum looks rather skimpy and likely to fall apart when one engages
in vigorous sports.
34
The Church of Hagia Sophia
still stands in Istanbul, Turkey
Byzantine Empire
Following the death of the Roman emperor Theodosius (347–395 AD.), the great
Roman Empire was divided into two, with the Eastern Roman Empire having the
city of Constantinople, once known as Byzantium, as its capital. The Western
Roman Empire came under attacks from barbarian (people from foreign lands)
tribes, leading to the downfall of eventual fall of Rome in 476, when Emperor
Romulus was killed. Only the Eastern Roman Empire, known today as the
Byzantine Empire, survived.
The center of Byzantine culture was the Christian church, and it was headed by
the emperor. But Byzantines and later Italians, who were Roman Catholic, fought
over who held the highest authority: with Italians favoring the pope in Rome and
the Byzantines preferring the bishop of Constantinople. In 1054 the two parts of
the church would split, into the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman
Catholic Church, in what is known as the Great Schism.
Beginning in the eleventh century C.E.
Christian armies from western Europe began to
travel through the Byzantine Empire to reclaim
“holy lands” from Turks and Arabs in the
Middle East. These armies, known as
crusaders, sparked a series of wars with Turks
and Arabs that brought great conflict to the
empire. Byzantines argued with the crusaders,
and both sides fought against their non-Christian enemies. These conflicts,
extended over a period of hundreds of years, exhausted the size and strength of
the empire. In 1453 a Turkish army led by Mehmed II (1432–1481) captured the
city of Constantinople and ended the Byzantine Empire.