History 247-20th Century Africa

History 247-20th Century History 247-20th Century AfricaAfrica

“ History will one day have its say, but it will not be the history that Brussels, Paris, Washington or the United Nations will teach, but that which they will teach in the countries emancipated from colonialism and puppets. Africa will write its own history, and it will be, to the north and to the south of the Sahara, a history of glory and dignity”Lumumba’s Last Letter, written to his wife just before his death.

The Belgian Congo 1950sThe Belgian Congo 1950s

The Congo is aterritory larger thanWestern Europe,bordered by ninecountries (formercolonies).

Colonial DevelopmentColonial Development

How well developed was the Congo?- Human Resources, underdeveloped:

-no African army officers-3 African managers in civil service-30 University Graduates

-first Congolese permitted in Belgian universities in 1950s-First universities in Congo in 1954 (Catholic), 1956 (lay), graduating 16 by the time of independence

Colonial Development (cont.)Colonial Development (cont.)

Mineral resources: well developed- copper, gold, tin, cobalt, diamonds, manganese, zinc - massive investments from West

Economy dominated by mining: - 70% controlled by Belgian Societe Generale (who also controlled river and rail transport)

Colonial Development (cont.)Colonial Development (cont.)

-Union Miniere Haut Katanga:- 70% world’s copper production (1953)- 80% cobalt, 5% zinc

- 1950-9, net profits 620 million $$, overall production increased 149%- labour force 100,000 - twice as large as elsewhere- attracted post-war immigration

Copper in KatangaCopper in Katanga

[ Ali Mazrui, The Africans, London 1986: 163]

Colonial Development (cont.)Colonial Development (cont.)

Cash crops almost as much product of Western investment as mining:- 35%-40% commercial agriculture in hands of Huileries du Congo Belges (subsidiary Anglo-Dutch Unilever Co., same one active in West Africa)- dominated palm-oil production - plantations covered hundreds of thousands of acres-labour: poorly paid wage to forced

Colonial Development (cont.)Colonial Development (cont.)

Urban Growth: dramatic - mostly workers, many migrants- growth urban associations, usually ethnically based- African newspapers

1957 municipal elections: Africans voted (largest cities like Stanleyville, Leopoldville, Elisabethville)

Colonial Development (cont.)Colonial Development (cont.)

Colonial Society: settler-based - settlers did not demand autonomy of neighbouring colonies-Large number:

white officialspara-military forces, agricultural officers enforcing compulsory cultivation

-

Colonial Development (cont.)Colonial Development (cont.)

Belgian aim:- to create Middle Class who would eventually attain full citizenship in Belgo-Congolese community

“Cartes de merite civile”: -Held out as ‘carrot’- so rarely given out, became source of grievance

Colonial Development (cont.)Colonial Development (cont.)

Education: -primary education in hands of Christian Missionaries-Evangelism very successful: 600 Congolese priests, 500 ministers c.1956-Of 16 million Congolese, 3 ½ million Catholics; 1 ¾ Protestants- 1950s move towards more secular education had missionaries rallying converts in support of church

Colonial Development (cont.)Colonial Development (cont.)

1957 paper announced need for ‘independence plan’ in 30 years - hailed in Catholic journal, Conscience Africaine- followed by educated Congolese, including young postal worker, Patrice Lumumba- responded by requesting Congolese elite be consulted - first Congolese University graduates emerged 1957/58, engaged with idea

Patrice Lumumba Patrice Lumumba

[fromhttp://www.un.int/drcongo/history.htm]

Decolonisation?Decolonisation?

Process of ‘decolonisation’ did not exist in Belgian Congo.- 1957 Belgian academic proclaimed independence would have to be prepared for – in 30 years- 1959 saw riots spread throughout colony- announcement made by Belgian king that independence would be granted in18 months h- and it was.

Political Situation in CongoPolitical Situation in Congo Politics organized around 3 ‘nodes’:Leopoldville: - evolues in city surrounding area, Kongolese “Association des BaKongos” (ABAKO), leader J Kassavubu- similar to mass parties of West Africa but with strong ethnic focus- desire to restore ancient ‘Kongo’ (taking pieces from French Equatorial Africa, Portuguese Angola- originally cultural association founded 1950 drawing on memories Simon Kimbangu ‘Prophet’ leading colonial resistance-Kassavubu thought to be guided by his spirit

Political Situation in CongoPolitical Situation in Congo

-originally cultural association founded 1950

- drew on memories Simon Kimbangu ‘Prophet’ who led colonial resistance

- Kassavubu thought to be guided by his spirit

Joseph KassabuvuJoseph Kassabuvu

[http://www.un.int/drcongo/history.htm]

Political Situation in Congo Political Situation in Congo (cont.)(cont.)

Elisabethville: -Confederation des Associations Tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT)- drew on fears local peoples against Luba migrant workers- large Belgian settler population (more than 100,000 post-war immigration)- enormous wealth, began talking secession

Political Situation in Congo Political Situation in Congo (cont.)(cont.)

Leader Moise Tshombe:- well-off businessman - lost considerably in late 1950s economic slowdown)- closely associated with foreign financial interests- supported from beginning by UMHK

Political Situation in Congo Political Situation in Congo (cont.)(cont.)

Stanleyville:-heterogeneous population, “hodge-podge” political interests- less clearly-defined ethnic interests than other major cities-Movement National Congolese- leader Patrice Lumumba- favoured national unity rather than federation- comparable to Nkrumah’s CPP in Ghana

Political Situation in Congo Political Situation in Congo (cont.)(cont.)

Kwame Nkrumah:“The situation which faced the Congo on the eve of independence did not differ profoundly from that which threatened Ghana’s independence at the period of the ascendancy of the NLM of Ashanti, the Togoland Congress, the Anlo Youth Assoc., the Northern People’s Party and the Muslim Assoc., all of which were designed to destroy the CPP movement. As in Ghana, I was convinced that the Congo needed a strong unitary form of government. Events in the Congo since independence have only strengthened this conviction”.[Cited in Mazrui & Tidy, African Political Parties, p.96]

1959 Riots1959 Riots

-began in Leopoldville, spread to other cities, rural areas- reflecting economic situation: post war boom, hit by depression 1955/6, fall in world copper prices 1957- overall slowdown, massive unemployment, especially acute in Leopoldville-exacerbated ethnic cleavages incited by work migrants; cultural associations- NOT reflection history or ‘tribes’ as presented by Belgians

The Riots of 1959 (cont.)The Riots of 1959 (cont.)

-immediate cause: banning of ABAKO meeting in Leopoldville; riots spread to townships -no Europeans killed, < 50 Africans dead -impact rural areas unexpected: facilitated by movement migrants, cultivated locally- response rooted in years forced labour, plantations, infrastructure projects, compulsory crop growing schemes etc- so successful: local administrators turned to Congolese party leaders for assistance

Belgian view of Belgian view of ‘independence’‘independence’

“WHY” did Belgium suddenly move to independence for richest (and only) colony?

- Belgian politicians did not believe in ‘independence’: Congo with proliferation ‘last minute’ political parties would continue to be vulnerable to Belgian influence

- both business and church (each for own reasons) saw time had come to extricate themselves from business of colonial rule

Independence: ‘the’ speechIndependence: ‘the’ speech

Independence Day, June 30 1960:- Belgian King, Premier present- former delivered speech referring to courage, civilizing role Leopold II- praised colonial policies-warned Congolese not to jettison Belgian institutions, policies until they could improve on them

Independence: ‘the’ speechIndependence: ‘the’ speech

- Kassabuvu read out prepared, obsequious response- Lumumba replied with unscheduled speech- denounced colonialism as ‘humiliating slavery imposed on us by force’!

[see ‘Lumumba’s speech’, Additional Readings]

Independence DayIndependence Day

Lumumba arrives Palaisde la Nation, Leopoldvillefor Independence Ceremony,30 June 1960.[Ludo de Witte, The Assassinationof Lumumba, London 2001:96&ff.]

Lumumba and Gaston Eyskens (Belgian PrimeMinister) sign Declarationof Congolese Independence.[Ludo de Witte, The Assassinationof Lumumba, London 2001:96&ff.]

Lumumba’s First GovernmentLumumba’s First Government

Patrice Lumumba (centre) forms his first government asPrime Minister. Joseph Mobutu (far right) ‘waits in the wings’.

[Ludo de Witte, The Assassination of Lumumba, 96&ff]

““The Speech” (cont.)The Speech” (cont.)

-Belgian king insulted: concluded Lumumba ‘madman’ to be eliminated-Tshombe (and CONAKAT) worried about implications for investment in their region-‘West’ in general (US in particular) worried about unpredictability of prime minister

“Key” moment: Lumumba announced that he was not to be controlled by any existing party or interest – domestic or foreign

Domestic Concerns: KatangaDomestic Concerns: Katanga

-Katanga: center wealth, foreign investment-leader Moise Tshombe: related to royal Lunda family, mission educated, attended Brussels Congo Conference 1960- pressing for Katanga to be independent state- worked closely with Belgian business - following independence: refused cooperation, maintained large mercenary army (paid for by taxes from UMHK)- Belgian officers in charge

Foreign ConcernsForeign Concerns

- Post-war Soviet Union: influence rural areas, none in cities - independence and Lumumba as possible ‘openings’ - US (lesser extent Britain, France, South Africa) saw investments threatened-role American State Department, CIA actively stepped up- included interference with media

The Mutiny… and afterwardsThe Mutiny… and afterwards

Within days Independence, Army mutinied:- remained in hands Belgian officers- provoked by Commander Jansson, infamous for writing/stating:“Avant l’Independence = Apres l’Independence”-uncontrolled attacks on Belgians:theft, rapes, beating, deaths-white exodus civil servants, technicians, army personnel- Belgium demanded order.

The Mutiny… and afterwards The Mutiny… and afterwards (cont.)(cont.)

Mutiny:- then formal secession Katanga, Kisai.- civil conflict continued, Belgium sent paratroops – against wishes Lumumba- social chaos, foreign troops back in congo, state disintegrating, Lumumba turned to:

- United Nations- United States- African Allies- Soviet Union

UN InterventionUN Intervention

Lumumba with UN Secreatry General Dag Hammarskjold, after their conference at UN Headquarters in New York on the critical situation in the Congo, 24 July 1960.

[Ludo de Witte, The Assissination of Lumumba, 96&ff]

Congo as Theatre of Cold WarCongo as Theatre of Cold War

‘Power Vacuum’: sucked in foreign powers-Congo was strategic: - wealth (mineral)- physical position: whoever controlled Congo (especially Katanga) could influence Central and Southern Africa- in the 1960s, this meant South Africa, Rhodesia, Mozambique, Angola among others

Congo as Theatre of Cold War Congo as Theatre of Cold War (cont.)(cont.)

US, Soviet Union ‘cold war’: - Africa new arena, Congo flashpoint -any African leader preaching non-alignment opening the door to Communism -Lumumba labeled ‘communist’:by US, Belgim, South Africa (last had vested interest)-UN attempted to neutralize situation but would not intervene where American interests were strongest - Katanga

Congo as Theatre of Cold War Congo as Theatre of Cold War (cont.)(cont.)

- US chose Joseph Mobutu, former aide to Lumumba, Colonel in army, as ‘their man’- Lumumba arrested (assent of Kassabuvu)- Mobutu took control- UN provided ‘protection’ for Lumumba- escaped; UN refused protection- recaptured by Mobutu’s army- taken to Katanga: he, two others murdered with Tshombe’s knowledge, consent

Mobutu, 15 September 1960Mobutu, 15 September 1960

Joseph Mobutu in Leopoldville on 15 September 1960, having just announced that the Congolese army would betaking over the running of the country.

Ludo de Witte, The Assassination of Lumumba, 96&ff.]

Lumumba’s Last ArrestLumumba’s Last Arrest

Lumumba and his aids in a truck at Leopoldville airport, on the day after their arrest by Mobutu’s army, 2 December1960.

[Ludo de Witte, The Assassination of Lumumba, 96&ff.]

Escape.. But not for Long!Escape.. But not for Long!

Officials nest to the Ford sedan car alleged to have been usedby Lumumba and his aides to escape prison, 11 February 1961.(From left: commissioner for Katanga police, unknown police commissioner, Belgian agent of Kantanga Intelligence service,captain in charge of Prison Guards.)[Ludo de Witte, The Assassination of Lumumba, 96&ff]

Mobuto and KennedyMobuto and Kennedy

Mobutu and Kennedy: a young president and an army chief reach ‘an understanding’ during the Cold War years. (n.d.)Michela Wrong, In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz, London, 2001: 132&ff]

Murder of LumumbaMurder of Lumumba

Kwame Nkrumah:“The assassination of Lumumba is the first time in history that the legal ruler of a country has been done to death by the open connivance of a world organization [UN] in whom that rule put his trust.”

- argument that this was purely ‘domestic’ murder proven recently to be inaccurate: Belgium, US, UN all implicated

Murder of Lumumba (cont.)Murder of Lumumba (cont.)

Lumumba’s murder:

- protest crowds at UN (New York)- support by Black Americans, Pan-Africanism- Peace Corps (Kennedy’s ‘New Frontier’) advance into ‘uncharted African territory’- Congo Crisis (known world-wide) made Africa a Cold War Battlefield

World Wide ProtestWorld Wide Protest

Protestoers in London’s Picadilly on their way to theBelgian Embassy, 19 February, 1961.

[Ludo de Witte, The Assassination of Lumumba, 96&ff.]

After Lumumba…After Lumumba…

Aftermath:-3year battle to re-integrate Katanga, Kasai -arrest Tshombe (then exiled)- return as premier: recognized Katanga as part of CongoMedium term: fatigue of Congolese people - received ‘second independence - Mobutu took over with American backingLong term: Mobutu’s rule of Congo like Leopold II’s- personal fief - “King Leopold’s Ghost”

Battle to Reintegrate KatangaBattle to Reintegrate Katanga

Tshombe’s troops recapture a North Katanga town and American Weaponry, February 1962.

Bill Freund, The Making of Contemporary Africa, facing 177]

Mobutu ‘Sese Seko’Mobutu ‘Sese Seko’

After Lumumba: contemporary After Lumumba: contemporary viewsviews

See reviews of French 2000 film “Lumumba” http://www.frenchculture.org/cinema/releases/peck-lumumba.html Several ‘youtube’ clips, more in French than eEnglish but worth looking atSee Books:Ludo de Witte, The Assasination of LumumbaMichela Wrong, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz [on video]http:www.theglobalsite.ac.uk/review/111waddell.htmAdam Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghosthttp://www.complete-review.com/reviews/hochscha/kingleo.htm

Contemporary Views (cont.)Contemporary Views (cont.) BBC Documentaries:“Who Killed Lumumba?” http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/correspondent/974745.stm

“Review (of above)”: http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jan2001/lum-j10.shtml“This man died for your sins”: http://www.diacritica.com/sobaka/2002/lumumba.html

Contemporary ViewsContemporary Views on recent constructions in the arts of Lumumba and his role in creating a contemporary ‘collective memory’, “A Congo Chronicle: Patrice Lumumba in Urban Art”, curator Bogumil Jewsiewicki (African Historian, Laval)http://thegalleriesatmoore.org/presscongo.shtml

“What is most striking about this history [the exhibit] is how artists molded the figure of Patrice Lumumba, the first elected prime minister of the Congo, into a metonym for Congolese history itself. Lumumba’s dramatic rise to power and meteoric fall from grace became the foundation for an art of pain, an art of suffering, and an art of catharsis. Lumumba is canonized on canvas: he is the prophet rendered in paint.” (from review no longer on web)