Historical - IIHR€¦  · Web viewThe word Mississippi stems from the Ojibwa word Messipi which means ‘Big River’. Abraham wrote a letter in 1863 describing the river as “the

Introduction

The Various Indian tribes, including Illinois, Kickapoo, Ojibway, and Santee,

gave the Mississippi River its name. The word Mississippi stems from the Ojibwa word

Messipi which means ‘Big River’. Abraham wrote a letter in 1863 describing the river as

“the Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea.” (American Heritage Dictionary)

The Parana River name means “Mother of the Sea” and Iguazu Falls means “big water”.

The similarities of the two rivers go beyond their names. In study of hydrology,

geology, morphology, culture, history, economics, and environmental status the two

rivers are compared.

The Parana

Hydrology

The Parana River is divided into three main parts. The Upper Parana starts at the

confluence with the Iguazu River. It has high river banks and after the confluence with

the Paraguay River, the landscape becomes flat. The Middle of the Parana has a high left

bank. The right bank is lower so flooding occurs and the limits of the river become

unclear. Lower Parana is the complete opposite of the Middle the left bank is low and

experiences frequent flooding and the right bank is high. (Bonetto 1975)

Table 1.1 Rivers totaling the Rio de la Plata Drainage Basin

Rivers Area(km2) Length Discharge(m3/sec)

Parana 1,510,000 4000 13,500

Paraguay 1,095,000 2,500 4,500

Uruguay 365,000 1,600 5,000

Rio de la Plata 130,000 200

3,100,000 8,300 23,000

Source. Hydrologic Regime or the Parana River and Its Influence on Ecosystems

The river narrows as the valley widens. For example, at Corrientes city the width

is 5000 meter, decreases to 3000 m at Bella Vista, 2,300 m at Santa Fe, and 2000 m at

Rosario (Bonetto 1975).

The alluvial valley of the Parana is mostly characterized as a flood plain.

Trademark signs of measurement of this composite are the sandbar plains, hindered

drainage plains and meander scroll plains. Sandbar plains are unique because of the

vegetation sandbars and large ponds, of differing orientations and depths. Hindered

drainage plains are made because of oxbow ponds and a sequence of levees.

As the river enters the ocean a delta is formed. The lower Parana has a

substantially large delta of 300 km long and covers an area of more than 15,000 km2

(Bonetto 1975).

Chemical and Physical Traits of the Parana River Water

The water in the Middle Parana is of the type with low electrolyte content, of the

subdivision “bicarbonate sodium”. It has relatively high silica and iron concentrations.

2

The buffer ability is moderate, when high carbon dioxide concentrations are present. The

pH is approaching neutral or heading toward the acid end of the range. The small

concentration of sulfates and potassium is another key factor for this type of water.

Of the Middle Parana, the Upper Parana gives 75% of the total discharge. The

waters maintain a cycle of flooding during the summer and low waters in the winter and

spring. It has low electrolytes and is classified by the bicarbonate-calcium/magnesium

type. This type indicates suspended solid concentration.

The Paraguay River contributes a high discharge of the total Middle Parana with

the remaining 25% of the Middle Parana. The waters from the Paraguay are in the

bicarbonate-chloride/sodium type. After the Bermejo River, the chemical composition is

modified. The suspended solids are increased drastically and carbonates first enter the

equation. This introduction of a new substance has an affect on the optical climate of the

waters. The turbidity values range between 7 and 205 APHA turbidity units. The

leading inorganic solid are clays. Illite is the most present, followed by montmorillonite,

kaolinite, chlorite and traces of gibbsite.

Since there is such a high presence of solids in the water there is a high rate of

physical erosion in the basin. The average is about 25 m3/km3/yr. The erosion rate is

similar to that of the Mississippi River. (Climatology and Hydrology of the La Plata

basin)

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Table 1.2 Parana River Water Chemical Composition

Mean

Value

Min Max

Turbidity (APHA) 65 7 205

Color (APHA) 99 38 223

pH 7.1 6.38 8.55

COD 3.90 2.40 7.50

Dissolved solids 90 46 125

CO2 12 0 45

Cl 14.3 5.0 30.5

NO3 1.27 .6 2.94

PO4 .21 .04 .59

Ca 5.4 2.3 11.4

Mg 3.4 1.5 5.2

Fe .71 .12q 1.46

Total hardness 27 14 51

Alkalinity .57 .40 1.50

Conductivity 88 40 140

Source. Coupling of Land and Water Systems

Morphologic

The Parana main channel is typically braided. There are segments of wide

branches woven together, containing lateral erosion and sedimentation activity forming

unstable island and sand bars. There are short portions that are single channel but they

are planimetrically stable and have not shifted or moved in the last 80 years. The wider

portions of the channel have the dimensions of 20 to 30 km long and 4 to 8 km wide.

4

The ordinary oscillation between the segments is between 5 and 10 meters. The total

surface area of the main channel is 1803 km2. (Iriondo 1988)

The modern sand bar and meandering plain is made of fine sand inside the main

channel along the whole flood plain. The plain has been permanently changed by erosion

and sedimentation. The total area is about 4150 km2 and width is 2 to 7 km. Along the

right-hand side of the flood plain there is developing meander plains in several areas. At

Santa Fe, there is the largest which is 60 km long and 6-8 km wide, on the surface it is

made of fine silty sand. (Iriondo 1988)

The evolved bar and meander deposits unit is the most recent development in

hydrological time. This unit is not changed by channel dynamics and looks like a

discontinuous belt. On the surface layer, there are signs that it was an incipient flood

morphology superimposed on the inherited pattern. The original shapes of the sand bars

are less visible. There are small active belts across the channel, forming meandering belts

with extremely high curvature radius/channel width ratios. (Iriondo 1988)

Ancient deposits are flat surfaces, which have extremely low relief. They are

hardly visible in the field. The only detectable areas are scarce swamps that are 100-300

m in diameter and irregular shape. Ancient deposits are present in Confluencia. In the

northern sector they are sunken and the southern sector they are raised. The difference in

both cases is more than 4 meters. Ancient sediments were drier that the present ones.

The deposits are thought to have been in the middle to upper Holocene period, dated from

3000 BP to 1000 BP. (Iriondo 1988)

5

1.4 Parana Flood Plain

Geomorphological unit Area (km2)

Channel 1803

Modern sand bar and meander plain 7067

Evolved bar and meaner 1117

Ancient deposits 3253

Flood Deposits 6048

Total 19288

Source. A Comparison between the Amazon and Parana River Systems

Environmental Impacts

The Parana River has experienced many environmental changes that have molded

the river and the area surrounding the river. Deforestation, fish impacts, and sustainable

development are all major issues surrounding the current environmental situation. The

impacts are not necessarily the complete result of human interaction but they do play a

part in the whole picture.

When changes of land-cover occur, there is feedback from the vegetation,

hydrology, climate and management. The most convincing piece of evidence that there

has been a change is that the flow increased by 28% since 1970. The area has suffered

large deforestation and/or land-use change before this increase. Intensified agriculture

and industrial practices pushed for the change from coffee to soybeans and sugarcane in

the area of the Upper Parana Basin. Forests were cleared for the need of crops and

pastures. Forest area in eastern Paraguay was originally 45% and in the early 1990 it is

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15%. The Parana Basin has also felt the changes in the deforestation from 90% in 1952

to 17% in 1985 reported Tucci and Clarke (1998). The changes in the basin have had an

impact water resource in the river. (Climatology and Hydrology of the La Plata basin)

On the Parana are two major dams; Yacreta and Itaipu. These dams have created

man made lakes which and alter the natural flow of the river. Fish that live in this area

migrate to the rivers to spawn, unlike most fish of the world, who seek to evolve in great

lakes. This is a major concern for the hydraulic engineers working on this river. The

most important species of the Parana River Ecosystem is the sabalo (Prochilodus

lineatus). The fish is a scavenger of organic matter so it is a pivotal part of the food

chain. Fish ladders, channels and elevators have been developed on dams to help with

fish passage. (Oldani 1994)

Sustainable development is construction with the needs of the future generations

in mind. This is being aware of the natural resources that we are consuming so as to not

exceed limits of that resource being replaced. This is a major concern of this area as they

consider constructing more dams and hydro-structures on the Parana.

Geology

The Paraná basin consists of many geological regions which contribute to the

characteristics of the Paraná River. In the northeastern corner of the basin is the Brazilian

shield, comprising 7.4% of the total basin area. Precambrian metamorphic rocks such as

Gneisses can be found in the belt shaped region. This area is covered with lateritic soil

and is a source of quartz and kaolinite (Iriondo, 1988).

The far western section of the basin, the Andes cordillera, is made of the Sierras

Subandinas and the Atacama highplain. Many rock types can be found here, the most

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predominant being lutites, phyllites, and fine-grained sedimentaries. The region

contributes fine sediments such as silt and illite to the Paraná (Iriondo, 1988).

The second largest region, the Jurassic-Cretaceous area, covers 28.7% of the

basin. This area consists of tholeiitic basalts and siliceous sandstones. Lateritic soils can

be found on the surface. Quartz and kaolinite from the area are present in the basin’s

rivers (Iriondo, 1988).

The Carboniferous area near the upper Paraná is characterized by glacial and

periglacial rocks, mostly tillites, sandstone, and siltstones. This region is formed of two

belts bordering the Jurassic-Cretaceous area (Iriondo, 1988).

The Chaco-Pampa plain is the largest region of the Paraná basin covering 29.8%.

Quaternary sediments containing soluble salts such as fine sand, silt, and illites are

predominant in this area. Dissolved salts are the main contribution to the Paraná through

small rivers and groundwater seepage (Iriondo, 1988).

The Eastern Plains are formed by two areas to the left of the Paraná and Paraguay

Rivers. The northern section is called the Mato Grosso Pantanal and is composed of

alluvial cones. The southern area, Mesopotamia, is in northeastern Argentina. The

sediments of both regions are quaternary while montmorillite clays and quartz sand are at

the upper levels of the geological column (Iriondo, 1988).

Paleozoic sediments form most of the miscellaneous rocks and sediments of the

remaining 10% of the Paraná River Basin (Iriondo, 1988).

Geological region Area(km2) %

Brazilian shield 163 000 7.4

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Andes cordillera 168 000 7.4

Jurassic-Cretaceous 660 000 28.7

Carboniferous 129 000 5.6

Chaco-Pampa 685 000 29.8

Eastern plains 250 000 10.9

Other 231 000 10.0

Total 2 296 000 99.8

Source Comparison between the Amazon and Parana River Systems

Culture

The area surrounding the Parana River is rich with culture, from the Jesuit

mission ruins to a modern wonder of the world. The ruins of many Jesuit missions built

during the 17th and 18th centuries lie along the Parana River. Of these are the impressive

remains of San Ignacio built in the land of the Guarani. These communities assumed

almost complete independence, as if they were individual nations. The missions reached

their peak at the beginning of the 1700’s, with 30 missions and 100,000 to 300,000 Indios

converted to Catholocism (Ramerini, 1998).

The damming of a river impacts not only the environment but also the local

culture and economy of the area. The Parana River and its tributaries have been dammed

over 50 times, including Itaipu dam, the largest hydroelectric power plant in the world.

Itaipu construction began in 1975 and the first unit began generating power in 1984.

Before inundation, archaeological remains were removed from about 300 sites but

the sites themselves, local history, and the natural landscape were lost. Thousands of

animals were caught and released in nature reserves on the banks of the reservoir where

9

20 million trees were planted in an effort to recreate the natural habitat (Keen, 1997).

Many people including the Ava-Guarani and the Mestisos were displaced due to the

creation of the power plant.

Economic

Itaipu dam, despite its negative effect on nature and culture, has helped Brazil and

Paraguay economically. Producing 12.6 million kW, Itaipu supplies 91% of electric

power in Paraguay and 25% in Brazil. The power from the dam which Paraguay does not

use is sold to Brazil.

source: www.itaipu.gov.br

More positive effects of the hydroelectric project include an increase of tourism

and recreation. The reservoir provides artificial beaches attracting many vacationers.

The dam itself, celebrated as one of the seven modern wonders of the world, has been

visited by more than 11 and a half million from 165 countries since it opened to visitors

in 1977 (Itaipu Binacional, 2001). The tourism, creation of jobs, and the production of

power have benefited the economic situation of the area

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An additional source of wealth due to the Parana River’s tourist appeal is the

beautiful falls of Iguazu, 12 miles south of Itaipu dam. Many people from all over the

world travel to Iguazu Falls, one of the seven natural wonders of the world. The water of

the Iguazu River tumbles over a 2.5 mile long crescent-shaped cliff, creating about 275

individual cascades, some as high as 265 feet (Keen, 1997).

Historic

The middle and lower Parana Rivers flow through large and wide valleys, which

enclose many water bodies and a considerable amount of flatlands. These areas are

strongly affected by the seasonal fluctuations of water levels characteristic of the upper

Parana River. During the spring and summer discharge values increase causing flooding

of wetlands and shallow basins.

On April 28, 2003 a major flood of the Parana River began, lasting until May 10.

Twenty four people died and 161,500 were displaced as a result of the excessive rain and

flooding. The damage reached 1.5 billion dollars and affected roughly 202,800 square

kilometers. The peak discharge of the flooded Parana was at 3800 m3/s, an event for

which the populous was not prepared (“Flood Archive”, 2003). The city of Santa Fe was

mostly underwater, as well as 7.5 million acres of farmland, making it the worst flood in

the history of the city.

Other major floods of the Parana River had significantly lower discharges than

this year’s flood. In 1973 there was a flood with a 2600 m3/s discharge which caused a

11

lot of damage. The flood of 1998 had a discharge of 2700 m3/s, but flood-control

structures helped lessen the destruction.

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The Mississippi

The Mississippi River is a continental river, connecting the North America’s

northern end and southern end. It is the largest river in North America and has a length of

3,705 kilometers.1 The drainage basin is the third

largest in the world consisting of 1,245,000 square

miles.2 The Mississippi River is divided into

three parts, the headwaters, the upper and the

lower. The Mississippi River headwater begins at

Lake Itasca, Minnesota and ends at St. Anthony

Falls, Minnesota. This stretch is mostly used for

recreation and flood control. There are 11 dams,

Fig. 1: Upper Mississippi River’s dams

however none of them contain a navigation lock.

The Upper Mississippi River covers the area north

of the Ohio River at Cairo, IL to St. Anthony

Falls, Minnesota. This basin covers an area of

189,000 square miles. The Upper Mississippi

River extends 1,370 km (850 mi).2 In this section

there are 29 locks and dams to channelize the

river. The Lower Mississippi River is the

remaining stretch that lies south of the Ohio River Fig. 2: Upper Mississippi River’s dams

13

at Cairo, IL. There are no dams in this section, however the river has been greatly

modified. Levees have been installed to control flooding, and revetments and cutoffs are

in place to channelize the river.1

Fig. 3: Mississippi River’s Basin Fig. 4: The Mississippi River

Hydrologic

The water budget for the Mississippi River consists of a flow of about 130 billion gallons

per day that is received and then discharged. 127 billion gallons per day come from

precipitation and 2.4 billion gallons per day arrive from the surface-water inflow. 50

billion gallons per day are discharged through the surface water and 79 billion gallons per

day are evaporated through evaportranspiration.3

Geologic

The Mississippi River’s width at its narrow stretch is 20 to 30 ft wide. Behind the dams

and in Lake Onalaska the River width is 4 miles. The shallow parts of the River are less

then 3 ft deep. The deepest stretch is 200 ft between Governor Nicholls Wharf and

Algiers Point in New Orleans. The Mississippi River carries about 159 million tons of

sediment in one year. This is also sediment from the tributaries entering the Mississippi

River.4 The vegetation in the basin area of the Mississippi River consists of forested

14

ecosystems, grasslands, and agricultural land. The land is becoming more and more

agricultural. This changes the ecosystem and leads to more soil erosion. The soil type

beneath the flood plains and the Mississippi River is an alluvial aquifer. This consists of

less- permeable silts, coarse sand and gravel of the Mississippi River alluvium.5

Morphologic

In 1850, the widespread damage of flooding encouraged the nation to develop and control

the river.1 Cutoffs were installed to shorten the river. Revetments were installed to control

the meandering of the river. In the following table one can see a comparison with each

river segment’s total floodplain acreage and the percentage of floodplain that has been

isolated from the main river channel.6

Presently there are 40 dams on the Mississippi River and they helped direct the flow. A

routine dredging helps realign the channel depth. This allows ocean vessels to travel on

the Mississippi as far north as Baton Rouge, Louisiana. All of these helped stabilize and

protect the riverbanks and allowed for easier navigation through the river.

15

Environmental

The water quality and ecosystem in the Mississippi River is a reflection of the climate,

environment, urbanization, industrialization, and agricultural activities from the

surrounding area. The Mississippi River’s ecosystem is a multiple – use resource for

humans. As these resources are utilized more and more, the inputs of sediment, nutrients

and chemicals have increased. Over sedimentation and excess nutrients causes

eutrophication and buries benthic species. Also the man made structures such as the

levees and dams interact with the ecosystem. The environmental characteristics of the

river have been modified to allow for of the adaptation of the Mississippi River.

Historical

In order to get a full historical view of the Mississippi River we must travel back

in time to the most resent ice age. The Wisconsin glaciation started about 75,000 years

ago. The earth’s climate started to warm up about 12,000 years ago, this warming

resulted in huge glacial melts. As the mile to two-mile thick ice melted huge flows ran

through the central portion of North America. The large flows dug banks that were 250

feet deeper than the banks of today.

Fig. A Paddlefish

During the beginning of this era of frozen glaciers the fish that lived in the water

moved south to the warmer water. When the northern ice started to melt the fish moved

back up the river. Some of these fish that made the multi millennium migration are still

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in the river today include, long-nosed and short-nosed gar, sturgeon and paddlefish.

(Nissen, 1996)

Cultural

The Mississippi River used by millions of people every day, if it weren’t for this

fresh water connection of the Golf of Mexico and Minnesota life in the mid west would

be very different. Each year more than 90 tons of cargo are moved from Saint Paul to

Saint Louis. The cargo includes grain, petroleum and building products. (American

Rivers, 2003). Other uses of the river include recreation, industrial, water sanitation and

energy plant cooling. Whether you are a farmer and your crop is sent world wide via the

Mississippi or you enjoy fishing and boating the river or you use the power produced

from a plant that is cooled by the Mississippi waters, if you live in the Midwest you most

likely are effected by the Mississippi River.

Economic

Many of the listed social aspects of the Mississippi River have large contributions

to the economic value of the river. Recreational use and tourism accounts for 10 billion

dollars each year. Recreation only plays a small roll in the total budget of the

Mississippi. It is hard to put a value on the water that is used for cooling in industrial

uses.

17

Fig. Barge Traffic through a lock.

The major economic factor of the Mississippi River is its value for transportation of

goods, upstream and downstream as the beginning and ending of world trade. Every year

around 100 billion dollars of commerce flows down the river. (Tara, 2003)

The river also supplies jobs of all forms, boat engineers, park rangers, lobbyist for

river protection, and lobbyist for river water use in industry. All of these jobs increase

the financial value of the Mississippi River.

Comparison of Mississippi and Parana and Conclusion

3.3 Average concentration and transport of Carbon DOC

River site Discharge

(km3

/year

Area Runoff

(mm/year)

Concentration

range (mg/l)

d.w.

mean

Flux

(106

t/year)

t/km2/year source

18

Parana 480 2800 171 -20 6.1 2.8 1 Depetris

and

Paolini

Mississippi 439 3267 154 8 3.5 1.1 Leenheer

1982

Source. Scope 42 Biogeochemistry of Major World Rivers

1.1 Drainage area, total discharge volume and carbon fluxes comparing the Mississippi

and Parana

River/Station Area Volume

(km3/year)

TDS x

106

t/year

TSS x

106

t/year

DOC x

106

t/year

POC x

106

t/year

TOC x

106

t/year

DIC x

106

t/year

Mississippi/ Bel

Chase

3.22 410 142.0k 296.0k 3.54 .84 3.64 11.6 4

Parana/ Sta. Fe 2.8 470 38.55 80.05 5.95 1.35 7.25 3.05

Source. Scope 42 Biogeochemistry of Major World Rivers

The comparison between the Mississippi and the Parana can reveal starch

similarities. The two rivers have comparable lengths, volume, discharge, and area. From

physical standpoint they are very similar, but on the morphologic standpoint differences

occur. The Mississippi has had more interference from hydrologic structures and has

transformed into a sequence of man made lakes. The Mississippi is controlled mainly by

man’s intervention. The Parana, on the other hand, has not had so much influence by

man. The river has minimal structures on it at this point but there are research and

projects looking into the development of more dams for hydropower. The Mississippi

19

can provide some clues into the future of the Parana if more dams are to be built.

Through the study of many aspects of the Mississippi and Parana River we have been

able to arrive at conclusions about the geology, morphology, environmental status,

culture, history, economic, and hydrologic.

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Work Cited

Bonetto, Argentino A. “Hydrologic Regime of the Parana River and Its Influence

on Ecosystems.” New York 1975: 175-196

“Climatology and Hydrology of the La Plata basin”

www.atmos.umd.edu/~berbery/laplata/ retrieved on 4 June 2003.

Depetris, Pedro. “Biogeochemical Aspects of South American Rivers: The

Parana and the Orinoco” www.icsu-scope.org/downloadpubs/scope42/shapter05.html

retrieved on 3 June 2003.

Iriondo, M.H. “A Comparison Between the Amazon and Parana”. Parana,

Argentina 1988:77-92

Oldani, Robeto. “Environmental and Social Dimensions of Reservoir

Development and Management in the La Plata River Basin” Nagoya Japan 1994:59-65.

Ramerini, M. (1998). The Jesuit Missions in South America. Retrieved June 4, 2003,

from http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Styx/6497/jesuits.html

Where the water flows: Parana River watershed. (n.d.). Retrieved June 4, 2003, from

http://www.col-ed.org/echo2002/Watershed%20Issues%20Webguide/linkslessplan/

index_watershed.html

Active Archive of Large Flood Events. (2003). Retrieved June 5, 2003, from Dartmouth

Flood Observatory Web site: http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/index.html

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Human Impacts on the Pantanal. (n.d.). Retrieved June 5, 2003, from University of

Vermont Web site: http://www.uvm.edu/~awakefie/snr260/humanimpact.html

Keen, C. (1997). Greatest places physical geography: Iguazu falls. Retrieved June 5,

2003, from http://www.greatestplaces.org/notes/iguazu.htm

Itaipu Binacional: 93.4 billion kWh. (2001). Social Communication Council

“Mississippi” 2000. www.bartleby.com/61/35/m0343500.html American Heritage

Dictionary fourth edition. Retrieved on 4 June 2003.

Tara, (2003). Mississippi River. Retrieved June 5, 2003, from

http://www.tarawildlife.com/river.shtml

American Rivers, (2003). The Mississippi River Retrieved June 6, 2003, from

http://www.americanrivers.org/mississippiriver/misscommerce1.htm

Nissen Ruth, (1996) Glaciers Left Their Mark on the Mississippi River, Retrieved June 6,

2003 from http://www.greatriver.com/Ice_Age/glacier.htm

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