Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians and …northeastparc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Final-NE-HMG.pdf · habitat management guidelines for amphibians and reptiles of the

H A B I TAT M A N A G E M E N T G U I D E L I N E SF O R A M P H I B I A N S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H EN O RT H E A S T E R N U N I T E D S TAT E STechnical Publication HMG-3

PARTNERS IN AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILE CONSERVATION

This publication was made possible by the support of the following agencies and organizations.

The authors are pleased to acknowledge the generous support of the USDA Natural Resources ConservationService, and USDA Forest Service (Eastern Region). Through the contributions of the NRCS, as well as the FSHerpetofauna Conservation Initiative, funds were used to develop this and the other regional guides. We alsothank the USDI Fish and Wildlife Service (Northeast Region), State Wildlife Agencies, and all other contributors,both for their generous support to PARC, and their commitment to amphibian and reptile conservation.

Front cover photos by James Gibbs (background) and Lynda Richardson (Spotted Salamander), Mark Baileycreated the front cover illustration.

Back cover by Joe Mitchell

PURPOSE AND INTENDED USE OF THIS DOCUMENT

The Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibiansand Reptiles series (hereafter Guidelines) is intendedto provide private landowners, state and federal landagencies, and other interested stakeholders withregional information on the habitat associations andrequirements of amphibians and reptiles, possiblethreats to these habitats, and recommendations formanaging lands in ways compatible with or beneficialto amphibians and reptiles. The general informationand specific management guidelines presented arebased on best available science, peer-reviewedexpert opinion, and published literature. The “Maxi-mizing Compatibility” and “Ideal” management guide-lines are recommendations made and reviewed bygroups of professionally trained herpetologists andwildlife biologists from private, state, and federalorganizations. Because of the taxonomic and ecologi-cal diversity of amphibians and reptiles, some recom-mendations may not apply to every species in everysituation. The authors and editors of the Guidelinessuggest consulting a local herpetologist before signifi-cant land-use changes are implemented. TheseGuidelines are not legally binding, regulatory, or inany way an attempt to limit landowner rights. Theycan be regarded simply as recommendations from thePARC community for landowners and managers toconsider the needs of amphibians and reptiles in thecourse of their land management activities.

Amphibian and reptile populations are declining in theUnited States and will continue to do so as long ashuman populations and associated developmentsexpand. When applied on the ground as general man-agement principles, these Guidelines will promoteconservation of amphibians and reptiles by:

• keeping common species common,• stemming the decline of imperiled species,• guiding the restoration of amphibian and reptile

habitats while benefiting many other wildlifespecies, and

• reducing the likelihood that additional specieswill be added to endangered species lists.

ISBN 0-9667402-3-8©2006 Partners in Amphibian and Reptile ConservationPrinted in the United States of America

Suggested citation: Mitchell, J.C., A.R. Breisch, andK.A. Buhlmann. 2006. Habitat Management Guide-lines for Amphibians and Reptiles of the NortheasternUnited States. Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Con-servation, Technical Publication HMG-3, Montgomery,Alabama. 108 pp.

Additional copies may be obtained through PARC.Visit www.parcplace.org for more information aboutplacing orders. Donations to PARC help defray thecosts of development, printing, postage, and han-dling, and can be made by check, credit card, ormoney order.

HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHEASTERN U.S. i

H A B I TAT M A N A G E M E N T G U I D E L I N E SF O R A M P H I B I A N S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H EN O RT H E A S T E R N U N I T E D S TAT E STechnical Publication HMG-3

The Box Turtle is a well-known species to most people in the North-east. They live for several decades and occur in hardwood forests,grasslands, and agricultural areas.

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Permanent Wetlands...............................................39

Small Streams, Springs, and Seepages .................45

Rivers ......................................................................49

Estuarine and Coastal.............................................54

Hardwood Forests ...................................................60

Spruce and Fir Forests............................................65

Xeric Upland and Pine Forests ...............................69

Grasslands and Old Fields......................................73

Rock Outcrops and Talus ........................................77

Caves and Karst......................................................81

Agricultural Lands....................................................84

Urban and Residential Systems..............................88

Appendix A: Amphibians and Reptiles of the Northeast ......................................................94

Appendix B: Conservation Options ......................100

Appendix C: References ......................................102

Acknowledgments ................................................105

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface......................................................................iii

Introduction ...............................................................1

Amphibians and Reptiles of the Northeast ..............2

Ecoregions of the Northeast ....................................4

Habitats Important to Amphibians andReptiles in the Northeast ..........................................4

How to Use These Guidelines .................................5

Developing a Management Plan ..............................6

Conservation Challenges ..........................................8

The Basics: Management Guidelines for All Habitat Types ....................................................18

Management Guidelines by Habitat Type ..............25

Seasonal Isolated Wetlands....................................26

Wet Meadows, Bogs, and Fens ..............................33

American Toads are the amphibiancomics. Males arrive first at breedingponds in early spring and call forfemales. Once there, females are oftenmobbed by males seeking a mating posi-tion, a phenomenon called a toad orgy.Kurt Weiskotten

Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians andReptiles of the Northeastern United States is a pro-duction of Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conser-vation (PARC). PARC’s mission is “to conserveamphibians, reptiles, and their habitats as integralparts of our ecosystem and culture through proactiveand coordinated public/private partnerships.” Theemphasis is on partnerships, as we are seeking towork with everyone to find solutions to commonissues. PARC is not a funding or government agency.It does not create or dictate policy. Rather, it providesrecommendations and guidelines based on sound sci-ence. It is intended to increase communication andcooperation with many diverse groups who have acommon interest in amphibians, reptiles, and theirhabitats. Through documents such as this, PARC willgive individuals a better idea of how they or their agen-cies, companies, or organizations can contribute tothe conservation and management of habitats on thelandscape. The diversity of partners makes PARC themost comprehensive conservation effort ever under-taken for these two groups of wildlife. At the core ofPARC is the philosophy that we all must work togeth-er. There is no “us versus them.” It is all “us.” This pub-lication is the product of extensive efforts of many peo-ple and contains the contributions of many individualsfrom academic, private, government, and industrialbackgrounds.

Development of the PARC Habitat ManagementGuidelines began shortly following the organization ofPARC in 1999. The initial PARC Habitat ManagementTechnical Working Group consisted of Kurt Buhlmann,

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Spotted Salamanders have become well-recognized by Northeast resi-dents because of their association with woodland vernal pools. Spot-ted Salamanders live most of their lives in hardwood forests, but mustmake annual migrations, usually in late winter, to woodland vernalpools where they lay eggs and the aquatic larvae develop.

HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHEASTERN U.S. iii

Erin Clark, Robert Fisher, Whit Gibbons, Randy Gray,John Jensen, Bruce Kingsbury, Laura Mazanti, JoeMitchell, Earl Possardt, Klaus Richter, and MonicaSchwalbach. This group conceptualized the need forHabitat Management Guidelines as a PARC productand agreed that at least five regional documentswould be needed for the United States, including theMidwest, Southeast, Northeast, Southwest, andNorthwest. Kurt Buhlmann, Joe Mitchell, and WhitGibbons drafted a model document using the Savan-nah River Site in South Carolina as “the region.” TheTechnical Working Group, chaired by Monica Schwal-bach, organized a workshop in Chicago that was heldin February 2001. At that meeting, 85 individuals rep-resenting the five regions worked for three days onconcepts, habitats, and early drafts of the documentsfor each region. Subsequently, the Midwest documentwas the first to be completed, followed by the South-east document in 2006. Habitat Management Guide-lines for the Northeast is the third in the series.

Lead writers for this book were Joseph C. Mitchell, AlvinR. Breisch, and Kurt A. Buhlmann. Mitchell is founder ofMitchell Ecological Research, LLC, Chair of the PARCHabitat Management Working Group, and ResearchBiologist with the University of Richmond. Breisch is thestate herpetologist for New York within the Department

PREFACE

The Wood Turtle is a large semi-aquatic species of rivers and flood-plains in the Northeast. It is declining in many areas due to habitatloss and fragmentation, and road mortality. Wood Turtles, like Box Turtles, are long-lived, reaching 50+ years.

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of Environmental Conservation and was co-chair ofNEPARC. Buhlmann was Coordinator for Turtle Con-servation Programs with Conservation International’sCenter for Applied Biodiversity Science, is a ResearchScientist at the University of Georgia’s Savannah RiverEcology Laboratory, and is the founder of BuhlmannEcological Research and Consulting, LLC. Mark Baileyand Jeff Holmes supplied additional writing. The North-east PARC working group provided valuable guidanceand insights on this publication.

The Acknowledgments section at the back of thisbooklet lists those who have helped with text, photos,and production of these guidelines. Contributors retaincopyright ownership of their photographs. Copyingand distribution of this document is encouraged, butplease provide credit to the original sources of infor-mation.

To learn more about PARC, please visit our web siteat: http://www.parcplace.org.

PREFACE

Joseph C. Mitchell

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HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHEASTERN U.S. 1

To address observed declines in our native amphibianand reptile fauna (herpetofauna), the ManagementWorking Group of Partners in Amphibian and ReptileConservation (PARC) has developed this booklet con-taining collaboratively derived, scientifically basedHabitat Management Guidelines for the 155 (see list inAppendix) species of amphibians and reptiles in theNortheast region (Connecticut, Delaware, District ofColumbia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, NewHampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania,Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia). Notethat amphibians and reptiles do not adhere to stateboundaries, thus, land managers in surroundingstates and southern Canada may also find theseguidelines applicable to their needs. PARC’s goal wasto use the best science available to produce habitatmanagement and conservation guidelines that areeasily understood and practical to include with othermanagement objectives on the landscape.

The habitat management guidelines included in thisdocument have been derived from an extensive body ofpublished information on amphibians and reptiles of thenortheastern United States, as well as on the extensiveexperiences of concerned biologists/scientists. Theseguidelines are meant to be general enough that applica-tions can be adapted for the location or habitat of inter-est. We do not describe the needs of every species ofamphibian and reptile in this document. Instead, weprovide guidelines for managing habitats in each regionin ways that have general positive benefits for the asso-ciated amphibians and reptiles.

Amphibian and reptile populations are declining in theUnited States and will continue to do so as humanpopulations and associated development continue toexpand. These guidelines are not regulations, nor arethey in any way an attempt to limit landowner rights.They can be regarded simply as recommendationsfrom the PARC community for landowners and man-agers to consider the needs of amphibians and rep-tiles in the course of their land management activities.

Conservation needs for North American amphibiansand reptiles were the focus of the first PARC meetingheld in Atlanta, Georgia, in June 1999. The PARCpartners recognized that Habitat Management Guide-lines for amphibians and reptiles could be compiledfrom the available scientific literature and scientists’experiences/expertise, and summarized for landown-ers and land managers. The goal is to create severalcolorful, photo-filled publications, each specific to one

INTRODUCTION

Catching amphibians and reptiles usually requires use of trappingtechniques like this turtle trap. We encourage land owners and man-agers to work with herpetologists to develop plans for their properties.

An appreciation and love of nature most often begins in childhood andmay generate an interest in amphibians and reptiles.

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Exploring wetlands with a dip net and a keen curiosity connects one tonature and helps to develop a feeling of responsibility for the environ-ment.

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of five geographic regions of the United States. Eachidentifies the important habitats used by amphibiansand reptiles. Each also provides landowners and landmanagers with options for incorporating specific con-servation efforts towards managing, improving, and/orprotecting known amphibian and reptile habitat withintheir management program. Therefore, this book isprimarily intended for northeastern landowners andpublic/private managers interested in includingamphibian and reptile habitat conservation in theirland management strategies.

Implementing some of these guidelines should dimin-ish the likelihood of additional species being added toendangered species lists. Landowners and land man-agers will benefit from these guidelines because theirimplementation will provide ecological benefits beyondamphibian and reptile conservation. Habitat conserva-tion is preventative maintenance. Thus, if many land-owners and land managers each implement some ofthese guidelines, the cumulative effect will be positive.

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THENORTHEAST

The Northeast region of the United States supports atleast 88 species of amphibians and 67 species of rep-tiles. A complete list of species by scientific name andcommon name, along with their occurrence by state,primary habitats, and rarity status, is presented inAppendix A. Common names vary regionally, so usersmay wish to consult with regional and state guides forother names applied to these species.

With the exception of lizards, which are more abun-dant in the West, each of the other groups of NorthAmerican reptiles (snakes, turtles) and amphibians(salamanders, frogs,) are well represented in theNortheast region of the United States. Salamanderdiversity in the Appalachian Mountains is the highestin the world. Despite their abundance and diversity,

amphibians and reptiles have only recently receivedconsideration in many wildlife management programs.Their ecological importance has become more recog-nized as management objectives have begun to focuson non-game species, biodiversity conservation, land-scape-level ecology, and the role of all plants and ani-mals in ecosystems.

NATURAL HISTORY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

The 31 frog species, 57 salamanders, 25 turtles, 9lizards, and 33 snakes native to the Northeast illus-trate a range of life histories and adaptations to vari-ous habitats in the region. Understanding their basicnatural history is essential to effective management oftheir habitats and populations. Sources of informationon amphibians and reptiles in the Northeast areincluded in the list of resources at the end of thisguide.

Amphibians and reptiles (often called “herps” and“herpetofauna” from the branch of science called her-petology) are vertebrates like birds and mammals, butthey are fundamentally different in one very importantway. Herps are “cold blooded,” whereas birds andmammals are “warm blooded.” This means that thesource of body heat is external for herps and internalfor the other two groups. Why is this important? Beingwarm blooded (= endothermy) requires birds andmammals to eat regularly to fuel the biochemicalmechanisms that produce body heat. Most are there-fore active year-round or nearly so.

Not so with herps. Because body heat is derived fromexternal sources (= ectothermy), these animals do notneed to feed regularly and can be inactive for extend-ed periods of time. Some large snakes, for example,need only one large meal per year. Terrestrial sala-manders feed primarily during several warm, wetnights within their active season. Given a few excep-tions, herps are inactive during cold periods and dryenvironmental conditions. They do not have protectivecovers of feathers or fur to protect them from cold ordryness. Thus, the combined conditions of tempera-ture and moisture regulate when and where amphib-ians and reptiles are active. This, in turn, greatlyaffects when and where we see them actively movingabout or basking. Spadefoot toads, for example, maystay buried in the ground for several years before theyappear during or following heavy rainfall.

Most amphibians require both an aquatic and terrestri-al habitat during their annual cycle. Most use manyhabitats during the course of a single year andthroughout their lives. Many frogs and some salaman-

INTRODUCTION

The large basking turtle one seeson logs in portions of the North-east may be the Red-bellied Cooter,one of the few herbivorous turtles.

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Frogs, such as this Spring Peep-er, are widespread in the North-east and their presence orabsence may be indicative ofenvironmental and landscapechanges. They require ephemeralpools for breeding.

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NATURAL HISTORY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

ders in the Northeast breed for only a few weeks tomonths in ponds or vernal pools but otherwise spendthe rest of the year in the terrestrial environment, usu-ally in association with hardwood forests. Many fresh-water turtles live in ponds and lakes but lay eggs onland and often spend long periods buried in theground. Movement between habitats like ponds andforests may occur over distances of several hundredmeters or more. During movements across the land-scape herps may encounter roads or other human-made structures, which can be barriers or death traps.Millions of herps are killed on roads annually. Suchadverse features on the landscape should be kept inmind when managing habitats for these animals.

Amphibians are considered sensitive environmentalindicators because they produce unshelled eggs thatmust be in water or kept moist and they have moistskin across which chemicals can enter their bodies.Because most amphibians have an aquatic larval

stage (frog tadpole, salamander larva) before trans-forming into an adult, each individual may encounterchemicals and other pollutants in water, on land, andin the air throughout its lifetime. Habitats that haveharmful substances at any developmental stage maynot support amphibian populations no matter howhealthy the habitat appears otherwise. The prey theyeat serve as sources of energy for growth and repro-duction and sometimes as harmful chemicals that canbe passed on to offspring or to other predators.

Reptiles lay shelled eggs or produce offspring via livebirth, and have scales that serve as a protective barri-er to moisture loss and chemicals. Thus, they are ableto exist in drier habitats that exclude many amphib-ians; however, no reptile can withstand long periodswithout water. Indeed, most are active when condi-tions are moist (e.g., during rainfall or high humidity)and stay concealed when they are dry.

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Shelled eggs, such as this one from which the baby Mud Turtleemerged, must be laid on land. Therefore, managing for aquatic turtlesincludes considering aquatic and terrestrial habitats.

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Tadpoles are the juvenile stage of frogs. These Cope’s Gray Treefrogtadpoles will metamorphose, emerge from the wetland, and seek sur-rounding hardwood forest habitat.

The smaller of the two American Bullfrogs has not yet completedmetamorphosis as evidenced by the remaining tail that has yet to bere-absorbed. The larger frog has completed metamorphosis and isdemonstrating its defensive posture.

Open canopy areas, such as blow-downs within the forest, fields,abandoned gravel pits, and powerline ROWs represent areas whereaquatic turtles may dig a nest to deposit their eggs. Warmed by theheat of the sun, most turtle eggs will hatch in 60-90 days.

Understanding key biological characteristics ofamphibians and reptiles is important if management isto have the desired beneficial effect. Longevity hasimportant management implications. Most turtles andmany salamanders take years to reach maturity andlive much longer than most game species. Thus, long-lived, late-maturing species require different manage-ment strategies. Sustainable harvest of amphibianand reptile populations is often not a realistic option.

ECOREGIONS OF THE NORTHEAST

The thirteen northeastern states and District of Colum-bia span 13 ecoregions, as defined by The NatureConservancy. An ecoregion is a portion of the countrythat is characterized by one or more plant communitytypes, major soil types and underlying geology, and asuite of environmental variables (e.g., temperature,rainfall patterns). Ecoregions are presented to helpidentify where various habitats are located on thelandscape. Some habitat types occur in multipleecoregions. For example, pine forests of one kind oranother occur in virtually every ecoregion, but cavesare most prevalent in the Cumberland Plateau andSouthern Ridge and Valley. Isolated seasonal wet-

lands such as vernal pools and sinkhole ponds occurin all of the ecoregions of the Northeast. Spruce-firforests are found in the Northern Appalachian-BorealForest in the northern portion of the region. The flatCoastal Plain is separated from the geologically olderPiedmont and western mountainous regions by theFall Line. This geological feature with abrupt falls androcky zones has influenced the distributions of manyspecies.

HABITATS IMPORTANT TO AMPHIBIANSAND REPTILES

The Northeastern Working Group at the 2001 Workshopidentified six aquatic and eight terrestrial habitats in theNortheast that are intuitively recognizable from eachother and can be associated with certain assemblagesof amphibians and reptiles that characterize these habi-tats. Very few species of either group occur exclusivelyin any one habitat type, however. Many species occupyseveral of these habitat types. Some of these habitatsare relatively small (e.g., seeps, seasonal wetlands,caves) and are often embedded within larger habitats(e.g., mesic hardwood forests, pine forests). Each ofthese habitats is described in detail in the Management

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INTRODUCTION

Ecoregions of the Northeast

Guidelines by Habitat Type section.

Aquatic habitat types includeA. Seasonal Isolated WetlandsB. Wet Meadows, Bogs, and FensC. Permanent WetlandsD. Small Streams, Springs, and SeepagesE. RiversF. Estuarine and Coastal

Terrestrial habitat types includeG. Hardwood ForestsH. Spruce and Fir forestsI. Xeric Upland and Pine ForestsJ. Grasslands and Old FieldsK. Rock Outcrops and Talus


HOW TO USE THESE GUIDELINES

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Eastern Box Turtles reach adulthood in their teens, lay 1-9 eggs inmost years, and in the absence of human hazards, may live as long asa century. However, they are killed in large numbers on roads in springand summer, especially after rains.

Herpetologists at local universities and government organizations maybe able to lend assistance to help determine the species present onyour property. A commonly-used method to catch terrestrial amphib-ians and reptiles is the drift fence with pitfall traps. This techniqueallows researchers to catch herps as they move across the forest substrate.

L. Caves and KarstM. Agricultural LandsN. Urban and Residential

HOW TO USE THESE GUIDELINES

We recognize that landowners and land managershave multiple goals and objectives for managing theirland. PARC also recognizes that, depending on yourland management objective(s), not all of our recom-mendations will be feasible. Nevertheless, we hope tofoster an appreciation and understanding of amphib-ians and reptiles and their needs. If each landownerand land manager can implement some of these rec-ommendations, then the net benefit to amphibians andreptiles across the Northeast landscape will be signif-icant and positive.

Thus, each of the habitat sections contains two sets ofguidelines: 1) Maximizing Compatibility and 2) Ideal.

“Maximizing Compatibility” guidelines are forlandowners and land managers who wish to con-tribute to the conservation of these animals whileprimarily managing their land for other uses, suchas timber production, hunting, recreation, grazing,development, agriculture, and others.

“Ideal” guidelines are for landowners and landmanagers desiring to make amphibian and reptileconservation a primary objective, as might bedesired on nature preserves, wildlife refuges, andprivate lands whose owners wish to optimize her-petofaunal diversity and abundance.

What we have provided in this book are recommenda-tions. Not every land manager or landowner can beexpected to implement all of the guidelines.

Using the information in this handbook, you will beable to:1. Identify the habitats on which you wish to focus. 2. Gain an understanding of which species are likely

to occur and live in those habitats.3. Establish your management goal for each habitat:

a. Review the recommended guidelines for thathabitat and determine if they will work on yourland.

b. Work with regional experts to implement theguidelines you have selected.

Once you have implemented the guidelines that arefeasible for your land, you may wish to conduct follow-up evaluations to determine if the guidelines are work-ing. Depending on your resources, these could range

from the most general field observations (“I’m seeingmore box turtles than I used to”) to implementing vig-orous monitoring projects. If the guidelines succeed,then continue to use this approach. If they do not, thenreevaluate the guidelines to determine where theproblem is located. Successful land management is amix of land-use history, art, and science.

DEVELOPING A MANAGEMENT PLAN

An important first step in managing habitats foramphibians and reptiles, no matter what the designat-ed land-use, is development of the management plan.

1. Know what you have. Conduct an inventory of theamphibian and reptile populations on your property.At the same time conduct an inventory of habitattypes and map their relative locations and sizes.Once such information is organized, it will be easi-er to identify features of habitats that need alter-ation, restoration, or other management actions tobenefit amphibians and reptiles. Identify current

habitat conditions before initiating changes. If otherland-uses are your primary focus, then you canidentify ways to maximize compatibility betweenyour land-use goals and habitat suitability foramphibians and reptiles.

2. Use maps and aerial photos. One of the mostimportant first steps for landowners is to obtainavailable maps and imagery of their lands. Mapsand imagery may be available at the NaturalResources Conservation Service (NRCS), the U.S.Geological Survey, the Forest Service, and on theInternet. Topographic maps are very informative, asroads, streams, outcrops, and other unique featuresof the land are apparent. Comparison of currentaerial photos with older images provides a valuablehistorical perspective (i.e., what the habitats lookedlike). Aerial photographs are available for someparts of the Northeast dating back to the 1930s. Agood map allows the landowner to visualize thearrangement of certain habitats, such as water-holes, wetlands, and forests, and can help thelandowner locate the important amphibian and rep-tile habitats. Management needs may includebuffers along waterways, construction of artificialwetlands, corridors between disconnected habitats,and reintroduction of natural fire regimes. Withsome forethought, private landowners can achieveall of their land-use goals while simultaneously ben-efiting amphibians, reptiles, and other wildlife.

3. Find compatibility with other wildlife and landmanagement goals. Incorporation of habitat man-agement guidelines for amphibians and reptiles intocurrent management plans can provide significantbenefits to other native species of animals andplants. Both private and agency landowners canincorporate many of these habitat managementguidelines easily and at little cost.

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INTRODUCTION

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The Northern Dusky Salamander is commonly found in seepages andsprings, but is easily eliminated by pollution and siltation.

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The Northern Cricket Frog lives in the grassy margins of permanentwetlands. A once common northeastern species, it has been decliningin recent years.

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Large scale urban sprawl is a major cause of habitat loss for amphib-ians and reptiles. Opportunities for animals and plants to move acrossthis inhospitable landscape are limited.


DEVELOPING A MANAGEMENT PLAN

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Examples of amphibians and reptiles that occur in the northeastern United States: top L: Painted Turtle, top R: Blue-spotted Salamander, middle LUpland Chorus Frog, middle R: Eastern Milk Snake, lower L: Rough Green Snake, lower R: Marbled Salamander.

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4. Collaborate with experts. Landowners and man-agers may benefit from the insights of an experi-enced local or regional biologist who understandsthe ecology, natural history, and behavior ofamphibians and reptiles. Ecologists and land man-agers who know the local ecosystems and habitatsmay also be valuable sources of information andinsights.

5. Measure your success. Management plans shouldbe dynamic instruments. They allow you to visualizewhat the impacts of a project might be and how onecan make beneficial changes. Periodic monitoring ofamphibian and reptile populations and habitat quali-ty will gauge whether or not your managementactions have achieved the desired effect. If so, con-tinue doing what you were doing. If not, adjust yourmanagement plan accordingly and try again.

The Northeast United States is a resource-rich regionwhere a variety of land-uses are needed to sustaineconomic and social prosperity. Some of these land-uses are more challenging to herpetofaunal conserva-tion than others. Although it is obvious that roads,development, and other challenges are facts of life inthe Northeast, by recognizing the impacts of theseland-uses on amphibians and reptiles, we hope to giveland managers realistic options that can minimizeadverse effects and maximize conservation potential.

Amphibians and reptiles in the Northeast are threat-ened by a host of factors, most of which are human-caused. Most species have experienced populationextirpations and declines since European colonizationnearly 400 years ago. This mini-review provides thebackdrop for land owners and managers to under-stand why biologists, naturalists, and herpetologistsare concerned about these animals.

In developing guidelines for the 14 habitat types cov-ered in this book, several common challenges aroserepeatedly. These are discussed in some detail here,and will be presented briefly in subsequent sectionswhere appropriate.

• Habitat Alteration, Fragmentation, and Loss• Impacts of Roads and Trails• Exploitation• Fire Suppression• Use of Herbicides, Insecticides, and Fertilizers• Invasive Exotic Species• Subsidized Predators

HABITAT ALTERATION, FRAGMENTATION,AND LOSS

Habitat alteration changes the suitability of anarea for herpetofauna. Amphibian and reptilespecies often respond differently to habitat alter-ation (i.e., abundance of some species mayincrease while others may decline). Species asso-ciated with habitats that take long periods of timeto develop may be particularly sensitive to habitatalteration.

Habitat fragmentation results in the isolation ofplaces where amphibians and reptiles live. Conse-quently, species may be forced to move acrossareas of unsuitable habitat to reach other patchesof suitable habitat that are required to completeseasonal movements, e.g. overwintering habitatto breeding habitat. Immigration, necessary forgenetic diversity, may be impeded.

When habitat is severely altered and fragmented,as with urban and suburban development, her-petofaunal populations may decline to the point ofextirpation.

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CONSERVATION CHALLENGES

Purple Loosestrife was introduced into the United States and estab-lished in estuaries by the early 1800s; it is Eurasian in origin. Itinvades wetlands and changes the habitat by forming monotypic tan-gles that exclude native species. It is particularly detrimental in wetmeadows and bogs where it shades out tussock sedges and skunkcabbage, thus changing habitat suitability for amphibians and reptiles,including rare Bog Turtles. An introduced beetle has been used withvarying success to control loosestrife. Chuck Landrey

Widespread development and urbanization of the landscape is evidentin this satellite view of the United States at night. Urban sprawlreduces habitat availability for amphibian and reptiles. The Northeasthas obviously lost large amounts of habitat formerly used by wildlife.

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Naturalists, scientists, and land managers agree thatlocal habitat alteration is a major cause of reptileand amphibian declines in the Northeast. Any land-use management activities such as agriculture, indus-trial complexes, urbanization, some forms of recre-ation (e.g., ski slopes, golf course construction), roadbuilding, stream channelization, filling and drainingwetlands and the creation of impoundments can con-tribute to habitat loss and fragmentation. As a result,there are many opportunities to modify land manage-ment practices in order to improve compatibility withthese animals.

The size of habitat patches suitable for species ofinterest, distances to other such patches containingpopulations, and barriers to dispersal in zonesbetween patches all affect whether an amphibian orreptile population remains viable. Inbreeding andother genetic problems may occur in small popula-tions. Amphibians and reptiles are more vulnerable tosingle catastrophic events such as extreme weather ordisease outbreaks. Simply finding one another formating and reproduction is a challenge without disper-sal and migration corridors across expanses of inhos-pitable habitats. Small, isolated habitat patches sel-dom support viable populations in the long-term.


LANDSCAPE SCALE AND CONNECTIVITY

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Habitat fragmentation is a difficult concept to grasp from ground level.In this aerial photograph, the disarticulation of sinkhole ponds andforested habitat from each other as a result of land clearing is evident.

A large clearcut in Maine creates a completely different environmentfrom the original, and likely impacts species needing the structure,canopy, moisture, and humidity of a forest. Considering the needs andlimitations of amphibians and reptiles on a landscape scale will helpmanage the needs of humans and biodiversity.

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LANDSCAPE SCALE AND CONNECTIVITY

The Landscape is the geographic scale of themanagement area in question and includes all theinteractive habitats in that area. This can be anentire watershed defined by natural boundaries orthe area under management. Landscape matrixrefers to the complex of different habitat types,including the altered or unsuitable land, betweenintact habitat fragments. Viewed from the animal’sperspective, the matrix includes all the barriersand sources of mortality in the landscape throughwhich they must move in order to reach essentialhabitats.

Think landscape scale and landscape matrix. Inte-grating a landscape perspective into your Manage-ment Plan will greatly enhance the long-term persist-ence of amphibians and reptiles. These animals useuplands and wetlands in complex ways and moveextensively among them. They have specific seasonalactivity patterns that are tied to their use of these twoprimary habitat types. Understanding the natural histo-ry of these animals, their seasonal movementsbetween habitats, and the natural dynamics of thehabitats themselves is crucial for management at thelandscape level. For example, the traditional conceptof “buffering” streams with narrow forested strips maycontribute to maintaining water quality but may notmeet the needs of associated amphibians and reptiles.

Most amphibians and reptiles need two or more habi-tats during their lifetimes. Habitat requirementschange seasonally due to reproductive and foragingbehavior, and may change annually as individuals shiftareas that they use over time. Integrate the conceptsof multiple habitat use, their juxtaposition to oneanother, and the types of corridors between them into


your vision of how to manage your land. Think aboutwhat amphibians and reptiles face on your land. Envi-sion their world.

The core habitat, the “buffer zone” around a habitatfragment, and the gradient between the two are criti-cal to the survival of reptile and amphibian popula-tions. So think about the “matrix” on a “landscape

scale,” and consider all possible habitats when creat-ing management plans. For example, how muchupland habitat is needed for non-breeding activities byspecies that breed in wetlands, ponds, or streams? Ifa patch of land has insufficient habitats required by atarget species, then consider cooperating with adja-cent landowners with properties that contain the miss-ing pieces.

Think connectivity. What habitats would amphibiansand reptiles have to move through when migratingfrom one area to another? Patches of suitable habitatwill enhance survival during migration and are essen-tial for the conservation of many species, and corri-dors of habitat linking these patches are probablyimportant.

10 WWW.PARCPLACE.ORG

Railroad tracks often act as barriers to movements of turtles. Box Tur-tles enter the tracks at road crossings and get trapped between therails. They die from overheating or dehydration.

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Linking habitats at the landscape level with corridors for dispersal andimmigration help animal populations maintain connectivity and geneflow.

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Human habitat alterations, such as construction of interstate high-ways, divide landscapes into two or more fragments. Amphibians andreptiles and many other animals are therefore unable to move suc-cessfully between fragments, and long-term population persistence isjeopardized.

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Logging activities can compact the soil and eliminate terrestrial sala-manders. Logged forests may require long periods of time for popula-tions of amphibians to return to original levels. Logging practices thatallow population remnants to persist on the site are preferable to theexpectation that populations will become reestablished from adjacentsites.

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Think impacts. How do various human activitiesimpact each habitat type on your land? Knowing howsuch activities may impact these habitats and what ittakes to manage them in a natural state will providevaluable insights into how to manage your landscape.Such an approach, some of it intuitive, will help toensure that amphibian and reptile populations on yourland will remain healthy. A well thought out Manage-ment Plan with all these considerations will greatlyenhance success.

IMPACTS OF ROADS AND TRAILS

Some ideas to consider …• Roads contribute pollutants to adjacent streams and

wetlands.

• Roads may provide corridors for invasive plantspecies.

• Consider the impacts of roads on a landscape orwatershed level. “Managing the National ForestTransportation System,” Misc. Rep. FS-643, explainsthe process. This is a U.S. Forest Service roadsanalysis handbook available in PDF fromwww.fs.fed.us. Using the concepts illustrated in thehandbook can enable you to develop a transporta-tion management plan that incorporates reptile andamphibian conservation measures.

• New permanent road construction should be mini-mized or avoided where possible.

• Road placement should take into account the loca-tions of sensitive habitats and migration routes.Avoid these sensitive areas by rerouting road corri-dors.

• Planting native grasses, mulching, liming and fertiliz-ing on closed trails and dirt roads can minimize soilerosion. Restricting access by gating or permanent-ly closing nonessential roads can be very effectiveand is easily accomplished on some public and pri-vate lands.

• Seasonal road closures using gates can help protectspecies and habitats. Gates may be opened selec-tively to maintain traditional uses such as huntingand fishing.

• Reducing speed limits, installing speed bumps, andadding cautionary signage may encourage motorists toavoid hitting migrating amphibians and reptiles, espe-cially where migration routes have been identified.

• A combination of fencing, overpasses, and under-


IMPACTS OF ROADS AND TRAILS

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Many roads in the Northeast have high volumes of traffic. Such roadseffectively prevent the movement of animals on the landscape. Popula-tions become isolated which does not bode well for species health inthe long-term.

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Mortality of Spotted Salamanders is usually high during spring migra-tions when roads separate their upland forested retreats from vernalpool breeding sites.

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Many Eastern Box Turtles arekilled on roads by vehicles everyyear. Driver’s apparent inabilityto see them and the turtles’relatively slow rate of movementhinder their ability to cross safely.

Curbing in many suburban areas isoften too tall to allow smallamphibians and reptiles to get offof the pavement. In addition, waterdrainage gates trap animals insideand do not allow for their escape.


passes can be used in some cases to funnel wildlifesafely from one side of a roadway to the other.

• The number and width of roads that amphibians andreptiles must cross in the landscape under manage-ment should be minimized.

• Consider installation of ecopassages in areas of highmortality.

• Use no curb or sloping “Cape Cod style curbing”where possible and especially along known migra-tion routes and movement corridors.

EXPLOITATION

Exploitation is the removal of individual amphib-ians and reptiles from their native habitats forcommercial, recreational, or aesthetic benefit toindividual humans.

Commercial trade in live amphibians and reptiles andtheir skins is a multimillion-dollar business. Althoughmost states in the Northeast have laws regulatingcommercial take of these animals, many are illegallyremoved from their natural populations. Laws protect-ing amphibians and reptiles vary from state to stateand enforcement is often lax where adequate lawsexist. Eastern Box Turtles, Wood Turtles, somesnakes, and some frogs and salamanders are stillbeing collected and sold legally or illegally. Thedemand for turtle meat in Asian food markets anddwindling turtle populations in Asia is causingincreased collection of freshwater turtles in the North-

east and elsewhere in the United States to supplythese markets. Snakes and other herpetofauna arekilled as a result of fear, hatred, and ignorance. Peo-ple still remove animals, especially turtles, from stateand national parks and recreation areas.

The Challenges

• People still kill snakes and other amphibians andreptiles due to fear, hatred, and ignorance. (Ophidi-phobia: an excessive and irrational fear of snakes).

• Removal of adults from populations will likely causepopulation declines. Amphibians and reptiles cannotwithstand harvest like short-lived deer or turkey.

Laws

• Laws protecting amphibians and reptiles vary fromstate to state. Check with your local state and feder-al wildlife conservation agencies. (see Appendix C)

• Where adequate laws exist, enforcement may beinadequate due to lack of identification expertise onthe part of some enforcement officers and becausecourts often do not place high priority on herp-relat-ed legal cases.

Awareness

• Hunters, fishermen, hikers, loggers, farmers, andothers who interact regularly with the outdoors areseldom provided with amphibian- and reptile-relatededucational materials.


This large Snapping Turtle was killed as it was trying to walk to a near-by pond in Virginia. The unique defensive body armor that has protect-ed turtles for millions of years is no match against automobiles.

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Spotted Turtles are colorful and interesting animals that have awak-ened an interest in natural history and ecology in many biologists andnaturalists. Unfortunately, that interest has often fueled commercialcollection leading to declines in wild populations.

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COMMERCIAL TRADE IN AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILES

What Can Land Managers Do?

• Incorporate protective measures, such as limitingaccess, to prevent recreational visitors and commer-cial collectors from harming amphibians and reptilesand their habitats.

• Educate recreational visitors about the problems

An often hidden and rarely discussed commercialindustry exists in the northeastern United States inwild-caught reptiles and amphibians. This includescollecting animals for the pet trade, for human con-sumption, and for body parts and skins. Collecting,both legal and illegal, at the market level canhave tremendous negative effects on localand regional populations of targeted species.The life histories of many of these species(e.g., delayed sexual maturity, low fecundity),particularly in reptiles, cannot sustain long-term and continual removal of breeding-ageadults without resultant population declines.Snapping Turtles and Diamond-backed Ter-rapins are two prime examples of specieslegally harvested for food in some northeast-ern states. However, population monitoring is oftenlacking to determine if this is sustainable, thoughsome states have recently banned commercial har-vest due to these concerns. Snakes, particularlyvenomous species, are also collected for food andskins (e.g., novelty belts), not to mention persecu-tion in the form of rattlesnake roundups that stilloccur in Pennsylvania. Certain frog species are col-lected for food and increasingly the pet trade, asare lizards and salamanders.

As land owners and managers, whether public or pri-vate, you may be approached by citizens for permis-sion to collect or trap reptiles and amphibians onlands under your care. These collectors may be localchildren or their parents interested in a few animalsas educational pets for the home; they may be uni-versity researchers; or they may be professionalcommercial collectors interested in harvesting largenumbers of animals for the food or pet trade. Thereis great educational value of allowing the removal ofa few animals for use as pets where collecting islegal. Of equal or greater educational value is legiti-mate herpetological research by students and facul-ty. Collecting of relatively few animals for these pur-poses generally does not pose a threat to their

populations, particularly when the more commonspecies are involved. Conversely, if you areapproached by anyone asking for permission to col-lect on your property, it would be wise to requirebackground information on them and determine their

motivations. If they are commercial collectors, theywill likely want to take large numbers of animals forthe food and or pet trade. Check your state’s lawsand regulations before giving anyone permission. Besure they have a permit, as most require them. Also,be on the lookout for illegal collecting on your lands.This can be evidenced by use of various animal cap-ture techniques, such as aquatic hoop traps, fykenets, and baited funnel traps for turtles; cover boards(large pieces of plywood or tin) and passive funneltraps for snakes, lizards and salamanders; andseines for frogs and turtles. Be aware that the pres-ence of seemingly innocuous “garbage” on yourlands, such as boards and tin, may actually be thework of unscrupulous collectors, who regularly “flip”this debris looking for animals to capture and sell.Legitimate citizens will always ask for permission.Contact your local natural resource police or gamewardens if you think illegal activities are occurring onyour lands. You are the best and often last line ofdefense these creatures have.

— Scott Smith, MD DNR

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Distributing cover objects, such as wood boards and tin sheets,can benefit local snake populations by providing shelter andsources of prey. However, they also provide an easy window forunscrupulous collectors. Therefore, land managers should concealthe locations of these micro-habitat improvements.

COMMERCIAL TRADE IN AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILES

with taking amphibians and reptiles, and altering ordamaging habitats.

• Provide recreational visitors with herpetofauna-spe-cific educational opportunities and materials.

• Encourage enforcement agencies to patrol your landfor possible violators of state and federal laws andlocal ordinances.

ern habitat management uses prescribed or controlledfires to eliminate undesirable plants, help stimulategrowth of desirable plant species, and enhancewildlife habitat.


• Determine the natural historic fire frequency in yourregion by consulting fire ecologists or forest man-agers in your area.

• Determine if prescribed fire is possible on your landgiven state and local fire ordinances.

• Work with forest and wildlife biologists and qualifiedfire ecologists to determine when fires would causethe least mortality on local wildlife, including amphib-ians and reptiles.

CAUTION! Excessive or poorly planned fire cando more harm than good. Even where burning isused, there is often a dependence on dormant-season fire over growing-season fire. Before youstrike a match, consult a qualified prescribed firespecialist. Your local state forestry agency or alocal NRCS, USFS, or Nature Conservancy officecan provide information on when, where, and howto burn, as well as when, where, and how NOT toburn. Some state forestry agencies will not onlybuild fire lines on your property for an extremelyreasonable fee, but may actually conduct the burnfor you. This may be conducted in a NRCS orUSFWS or other cost-share program (See Appen-dix B).

FIRE SUPPRESSION

Prescribed fire is a tool used by land managersto alter forest or grassland habitats in such a wayas to restore or maintain desired forest standstructure, remove undesirable or introduced vege-tation, stimulate natural growth of the nativeunderstory plants, and to maintain a naturalecosystem.

Fire was a natural part of some Northeastern forestslong before European settlement and fire suppressionpolicies. Depending on regional drought cycles, light-ning-sparked fires would burn for weeks or months.When American Indians set fires to clear undergrowthand stimulate herbaceous growth, rivers, largestreams, and some wetlands served as natural fire-breaks. As a result, many reptiles and amphibians,their habitats, and their prey are tolerant of or evendependent on fire and its effects on habitats. Forexample, amphibians and reptiles in parts of the Cum-berland and Southern Ridge and Valley, SouthernBlue Ridge, Piedmont, Central Appalachian Forest,High Allegheny Plateau, and Lower New England/Northern Piedmont ecoregions are adapted to openwoodlands interspersed with grasslands and balds.

Modern habitat management uses prescribed or con-trolled fires to eliminate undesirable plants and to helpstimulate growth of desirable plant species. Such firesalso reduce fuel supplies for unplanned wildfires thatcan cause extensive property damage and loss of life.

Most of our terrestrial ecosystems have burned occa-sionally throughout history. Some habitats, like theNew Jersey Pine Barrens and the Albany Pine Bush,require fire for forest health. Even wetlands andswamps burn during times of extreme drought. The“ideal” frequency, intensity, and seasonality of pre-scribed fire is highly variable depending on climate,slope, aspect, elevation, soil characteristics, and themoisture retention capacity of native vegetation.

“Restore natural fire regimes” frequently appears inthe following management sections. Determining nat-ural historic fire frequencies can be a challenge, andrequires input from fire ecologists in your area.Although long recognized as part of pine forest ecolo-gy, fire also plays a role in the maintenance of certainhardwood-dominated habitats. Wildlife of much of theRidge and Valley, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain ecore-gions were adapted to more open woodland andsavanna conditions than exist today. Recent fire sup-pression has contributed to the declines, rarity, andextirpation of many species, such as Northern PineSnakes, even on publicly managed forestlands. Mod-



In Shenandoah National Park, a prescribed burnwas effective in reducing invasive species like ori-ental bittersweet, Japanese honeysuckle, and treeof heaven. Although the fire did reduce fuel load-ing, these invasives returned even after two pre-scribed burns. Fewer Red-backed Salamanderswere found in this area after the burns than beforethe burns.

— Robin Jung-Brown

Late winter prescribed burns have been used in aPutnam County, New York wetland to removedead standing stems of purple loosestrife andphragmites to subsequently increase basking andnesting opportunities for turtles. When used alone,fire must be repeated every 2 to 5 years. It wouldbe more effective if used in conjunction with live-stock grazing or herbicides.

— Al Breisch

USE OF HERBICIDES, INSECTICIDES, AND FERTILIZERS

Chemicals such as herbicides, insecticides,and fertilizers are useful for achieving manyhabitat management objectives. For example,herbicides can be used to control invasivespecies, create snags, and diminish oakencroachment in pine habitats. Herbicides can beespecially effective for meeting some objectives(e.g., diminishing oak encroachment) when com-bined with prescribed fire. All chemicals should beused cautiously and in consultation with trainedexperts.

Although fire is the preferred vegetation managementtool where amphibians and reptiles may be con-cerned, burning may not be permitted or feasibleunder some circumstances. Use of herbicides maythus be warranted in some cases. Controlling oakencroachment, for example, may require a combina-tion of fire and herbicides.

When chemicals are used:

• FOLLOW INSTRUCTIONS ON THE CONTAINERLABELS.

• Consult a trained forester, extension agent, orlicensed pesticide applicator for determining the cor-rect chemical and application rate for your situation.

• When used improperly, chemicals may be directlytoxic to amphibians and reptiles (aquatic species inparticular), and may alter habitats and food suppliesin unintended ways.

• Insecticides may reduce the abundance of valuableinvertebrate prey species eaten by amphibians andreptiles, as well as birds, bats, and other wildlife.Healthy populations of these insectivores mayreduce the need for insecticides.

• Herbicides should be used selectively in order toretain as much wildlife food as possible while stilleliminating unwanted plants.

• Fertilizers may cause excessive algal blooms andalter dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide levels ifimproperly applied near aquatic systems. Carefullyadhere to regional and state Best ManagementPractices (BMPs) to minimize this possibility.

• Know the biological effects of the herbicides andpesticides used on your land.

• When feasible, give preference to native plants thatrequire minimal chemicals. Seek ways to implementbio-control measures and use non-chemical meth-ods to manage undesirable growth after manage-ment activities.

• In summary, be careful with chemicals.

INVASIVE EXOTIC SPECIES

Introduced (non-native, exotic) species, once theybecome established, typically have no predators orother organisms that limit their numbers. Thus, theirpopulations reach dramatically high numbers thatoverwhelm native populations and species and maycompete with them for resources. The most success-ful (and threatening) exotics are highly adaptable, rap-idly-reproducing habitat generalists that can quickly


INVASIVE EXOTIC SPECIES

Chemicals are introduced into ponds and streams when people care-lessly dump household and industrial waste. Some forms of water pol-lution cause death and deformities in amphibian larvae.

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Phragmites is a non-native, invasive plant that destroys natural wet-land habitat structure. Originally an invader of brackish marshes, ithas expanded its range into freshwater systems. Clonal stems of thisplant can reach densities of 200 per square meter. Amphibians andreptiles are unable to live in places choked with this difficult-to-removeplant.

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SUBSIDIZED PREDATORS

Subsidized predators are native species whosepopulations have increased in parts of their rangedue to resources provided directly or indirectly byhumans. Their population sizes are likely higherthan they would be in natural conditions withouthuman subsidies and reduced natural predators.

Subsidized predators include raccoons, opossum,foxes, crows, ravens, skunks, and now coyotes.These animals, especially the raccoon, are well-known predators of adult turtles, hatchlings, and theireggs in nests. Studies have documented 100% mor-tality of eggs in all nests in some Painted Turtle popu-lations by raccoons. Crows and foxes eat eggs as theyare deposited into nest holes by female turtles. Suchpredators also kill and eat frogs, small snakes, andlizards. Populations of subsidized predators are usual-ly uncontrolled in urban areas and flourish in state and


overwhelm, displace, and even extirpate nativespecies and communities, and hence are known as“invasive” species. Purple loosestrife, a plant intro-duced from Europe, has choked wetlands andreduced habitat for reptiles such as the endangeredBog Turtle. The chestnut blight that wiped out an entiredominant hardwood tree (the American Chestnut) inthe Appalachians almost certainly affected woodlandsalamanders by the elimination of a prime source ofwoody debris and hibernacula in stump holes. Domes-tic free-ranging and feral cats, first introduced in the1600s, kill many thousands if not millions of amphib-ians and reptiles annually. Feral hogs are destroyingmany coastal habitats. Coyotes are rapidly becomingserious predators of amphibians and reptiles in theNortheast.

DON’T TURN IT LOOSE!For PARC’s policy on release of captive herps(often from unknown places of origin), includingthose used as teaching aids, refer to the Don’tTurn it Loose brochure available online throughthe PARC website (www.parcplace.org). This pub-lication contains information on how to properlydispose of unwanted classroom or laboratoryspecimens. This is a useful resource for land man-agers who may be unaware of the problems with“releasing animals into the ecosystem.”


• Use native browse for wildlife food plots.

• Use native plants (grasses, flowers, shrubs, trees,etc.) for commercial and residential landscaping anderosion control.

• Find alternatives to the introduction of non-nativewildlife species on game ranches.

• Avoid establishment of plant species beyond theirnative range.

• Spay or neuter cats and dogs, and keep themindoors. Uncontrolled pets kill amphibians, reptiles,songbirds and other wildlife.

• Learn to identify the most common and aggressiveintroduced plants in your area.

• Where invasive exotic plant species are alreadyestablished, consult a qualified invasive species spe-cialist (i.e., your state forestry agency or local NRCSor USFS office) for the safest, most effective meansof eradication or control.

Conflicting natural resource management objectives oftenarise. A seasonal sinkhole pond and its emergent vegetationwas “drowned” when a nearby stream was dammed and thelandscape flooded by beaver. Removal of the beaver and intro-duced fish may allow for restoration of the sinkhole pond andits ecology, including Spotted Turtles and Tiger Salamanders.(2004)

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The same sinkhole pond as it originally appearedbefore being “drowned” by beaver. (1988)

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by humane means.

• Recognize that subsidized predators occur at unnat-urally high population levels in most areas. Thus,evaluations of their behavior, effects, populationsizes, and sources of subsidy could help identifyways to curb their impact on native amphibians andreptiles.

• Discourage direct or indirect feeding of subsidizedwildlife.

national parks. In many parts of the Northeast,furbearing predators such as opossum, raccoon, andfox are at higher numbers due to the decline of trap-ping in recent decades.


• Reduce the availability of food sources associatedwith humans.

• Consider removing subsidized predators by humanemeans.

• Control subsidized predator populations by reducingthe subsidies (refuges, food sources), controllingtheir reproductive output, or by removal of individuals


SUBSIDIZED PREDATORS

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Finding Eastern Box Turtles emerging from their nests is highlyunusual and almost never seen under natural conditions. Hatchlingsand juveniles are vulnerable to native and subsidized predators. Theirsurvival is crucial to population persistence.

Raccoons have adapted all too well to humans and are often subsi-dized by our garbage. With large predators, namely wolves andcougars, no longer present to control their numbers and a decline inthe fur trade, raccoons exert heavy predation pressure on amphibianand reptile populations, most notably the destruction of turtle nests.

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A turtle nest that was destroyed by a raccoon. In many areas, turtlepopulations are likely unable to produce enough offspring to maintainstable populations because of nest predation.

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An adult male Spotted Salamander that was likely killed and partiallyeaten by a raccoon in a vernal pool in Maryland.

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• Restore natural fire frequency, intensity, and sea-sonality to the extent possible. Where possible,favor fire as a vegetation management tool,especially in drier upland ecosystems. The vege-tation in which many reptile and, amphibians forage,nest, and shelter is often fire-dependent or fire-adapted. Without fire, canopies tend to close andshade out herbaceous groundcover, which is oftenthe critical first link in many food webs.

• Where herbicides, pesticides, or fertilizers areused:

• Use the minimum amount required to achievemanagement objectives.

• Follow label instructions carefully and precisely. • Use only chemicals approved for the habitats to

be treated. • Make sure that sensitive habitats, especially

aquatic systems, are adequately buffered to min-imize impacts of chemicals beyond the targetedarea.

• Give preference to individual stem treatment or

The guidelines in this section are pertinent to amphib-ian and reptile conservation in all or most habitat types.

MAXIMIZING COMPATIBILITY: Timberlands,Hunt Clubs, Farmlands, Recreation Lands, andother Integrated Land-usesWhen benefiting amphibians and reptiles is sec-ondary to other management objectives:

• Fence livestock out of rivers, streams, wetlands,and other water bodies. Consider alternativewatering sources or concentrate livestock water-ing and shading needs in a small area, leavingthe majority of habitat intact. Livestock can grazeand trample native plants, depriving amphibians,reptiles and their prey of vital habitat. Hoof prints candisturb and compact soil, increasing erosion andsediment. Excessive concentrations of nutrients(manure) in aquatic systems may cause unnaturalalgal blooms, altering dissolved oxygen and CO2 lev-els, possibly harming aquatic amphibians, reptiles,fish, and invertebrates.


THE BASICS: MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR ALL HABITAT TYPES

Sarah Schute

spot application. Banded herbicide application,rather than broadcasting, can be used whenappropriate, to reduce the amount of herbicideused and the area treated.

• Identify and protect embedded, adjacent, andsensitive habitat features such as seasonal wet-lands, seeps, coves, and rock outcroppings. Forexample, leave forested buffers around amphib-ian breeding sites. These habitats are often criticalto these sensitive species, particularly salamanders.Many forest-related species require these habitatsfor part of their life history and seasonal migrationpatterns. Both the embedded habitat and the sur-rounding matrix must be present for them to survive.Consult a qualified ecologist or herpetologist to helpidentify special habitat features and determine whichmanagement practices will best benefit your localamphibians and reptiles.

• Minimize soil disturbance (e.g., tire ruts, soilcompaction) when using heavy equipment. Uselow-pressure tires and limit equipment use todrier seasons or when ground is frozen. Heavyequipment can disturb and compact soil, increaseerosion and sediment, disrupt vegetative succes-sion, and provide distribution corridors for invasiveexotic plants. Although some amphibian speciesmay be able to breed successfully in tire ruts on low-traffic roads, the detrimental effects of excessivesoil compaction and disturbances may outweigh thebenefits.

• Minimize or exclude agricultural, residential and

industrial waste near aquatic habitats. Pollutioncan introduce toxins that adversely affect aquaticplants and animals, and may contribute to poor waterquality or groundwater contamination.

• Meet or exceed state recommended Best Man-agement Practices (BMPs) including recommen-dations for and Streamside Management Zones(SMZs). Where appropriate, consider establish-ing wide SMZs. In some cases, SMZs are ade-quate to protect aquatic-related amphibians andreptiles; however, in other cases, these practicesmay need to be modified, especially for species thatmigrate or disperse in and out of adjacent uplandhabitats. For links to each state’s BMPs, visitwww.forestrybmp.net.

• Allow dead trees and woody debris to decom-pose naturally. After timber harvests, leavestumps, blowovers, logs, dead standing snags,and other woody debris. Many amphibians andreptiles nest, forage, or seek shelter inside or under-neath rotten logs. Wind blown trees and stump holesare critical hibernation habitats for some pine-adapt-ed amphibians and reptiles (New Jersey and south-eastern Virginia). Dead standing snags provideimportant habitat for some snake and lizard species.

• During timber stand establishment, plan for afuture prescribed fire program. Planted or diskedfirebreaks are less disruptive than freshly plowedlines.

• Formulate forest regeneration plans before har-


MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES

Open areas, such as old abandoned borrow pits, are often used asnesting areas by freshwater turtles. Maintaining suitable conditionsmay be as simple as cutting back invading vegetation, such as thewhite pine trees that are colonizing the slope in this photograph.

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Besides being unsightly, piles of trash likely leak contaminants suchas household cleaners, oils, and paints into habitats used by amphib-ian and reptiles.

THE BASICS

vesting activities start. Diverse vegetation meansdiverse wildlife. Consult your state forestry agency ora forest ecologist to determine the most appropriatecomposition of next-generation stands and how tobest manage for regeneration.

• Maintain a diversity of forest age classes, densi-ties, and structures either within the same standor among adjacent stands. Consider thinning,burning, and extended rotations to optimize thetime herbaceous and shrub layer vegetation isavailable; consider a mosaic of smaller, adjacentpatches of varying management regimes. Largeexpanses of even-aged, closed canopy standswhere herbaceous and shrub layer abundance anddiversity are suppressed, may not sustain manyamphibian and reptile populations.

• When possible, forested blocks should beplanned to help maintain connectivity. Placeroads and fields carefully to avoid fragmentingforests. When establishing wildlife food plots,stay within the footprint of previous disturbancesto avoid additional impacts. Stands that are sepa-rated from other forested stands by unfavorable habi-tat may limit the movement of amphibians and rep-tiles between stands. In some cases, corridors maybe an appropriate way to maintain connectivity fordispersal and migration of reptiles and amphibiansbetween larger forest stands.

• Follow natural contours when designing andconducting timber sales. Soil erosion can be mini-mized when disturbances such as skidder trails runparallel to slopes. Minimize stream crossings.

• Leave large cull trees or patches of trees on har-vested sites whenever practical. In addition to pro-viding mast for regeneration, these patches may alsosustain pockets of shade-dependent species untilthe surrounding harvest area achieves later succes-sional stages.

• When timber is harvested, consider harvestingtechniques such as group selection, single-treeselection, or small clearcuts. Where shade-depend-ent species or mature forest obligates are a concern,consider leaving patches of large trees. Forestedhabitat that can serve as refugia for forest-dwellinganimals from which they can more easily disperse andrepopulate harvested areas as they mature. Whereearly successional obligate species are a concern,large clearcuts may be preferred. Where both late-and early successional-related species are present,consider a patchwork of medium-sized clearcuts andsimilar-sized older forest stands.


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Timber harvesting can be done destructively or sensitively with fore-thought. Careful selection of techniques that minimize compaction ofthe soil and loss of non-target trees in the forest will help ensure thatherp populations persist after the disturbance.

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Although generally beyond the ability of local landowners and landmanagers to influence effectively, air quality poses a threat to forestecosystems with a trickle-down effect to the inhabitants, includingamphibians and reptiles.

• Minimize construction of new roads and ATVtrails where possible. Gate existing roads whennot in use. Keep sensitive habitats, especiallywetlands and stream channels, free of vehicletraffic, including ATVs. Where hunting and fish-ing access is an issue, encourage vehicle opera-tors to limit their traffic to the minimum neces-sary and follow marked trails. Elsewhere, limitoff-road traffic to official business and discour-age “recreational” (for example, racing, stuntdriving, “mud-digging”) off-road traffic. Exces-sive motorized vehicle traffic can compact and dis-turb soil, increase erosion and sediment, providecorridors for invasive plant species along trails, ele-vate vehicle-related mortality rates of amphibiansand reptiles, and disrupt animal activities. ATVs canseverely degrade seasonal wetlands.

• Use seasonal roadclosures to providebalance betweenspecies and habitatprotection and main-taining traditionaluses such as hunt-ing and fishing.Seasonal road clo-sures can reducevehicle-related mor-tality by limiting traf-fic during time peri-ods when herps aremoving across thelandscape (e.g.,breeding dispersal,turtle nesting).

• In areas managed for recreation, locate regularlyused roads, trails, landings, and recreationalfacilities away from sensitive habitats, migrationcorridors, and transitional zones between adja-cent habitats. Limit recreational access to as fewpoints as is feasible. Vehicle-related mortality, ille-gal collecting (e.g., turtles) and killing (e.g., Hellben-ders, snakes), and noise-related disruptions of natu-ral behaviors are unfortunate side effects ofrecreational access.

• Provide conservation-related educational materi-als to boaters, fishermen, hunters, loggers, hik-ers, campers, farmers, and other people who reg-ularly interact with the outdoors. Discouragefield personnel and recreational visitors fromshooting turtles, or killing snakes. An informedpublic benefits everyone. People are often unawareof conservation issues related to amphibians andreptiles.

IDEAL: Refuges, Sanctuaries, and PreservesWhen benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a PRI-MARY objective, as with nature preserves, wildliferefuges, and private lands whose owners wish tooptimize herpetofaunal diversity and abundance:

• Maintain or restore native vegetative structureand composition. Remove or contain the spreadof invasive plant species. Many reptiles andamphibians are specifically adapted to forage, bask,hibernate, and nest exclusively in native vegetativecommunities.

• Avoid residential, commercial or agriculturaldevelopment in areas where natural forests



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The use of ATVs in wetlands damages the vegetation and may poten-tially kill rare animals, such as Bog Turtles. Landowners and managerscan help protect these habitats by preventing ATV access.

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Turtles make seasonal movements to access open and sunny nestingareas or to find other sources of water during dry periods. Road-killsare high where roads bisect frequently used movement corridors.Alerting motorists that a turtle may be crossing the road in front ofthem may reduce turtle mortality.

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Closing roads for short periods of timeto allow amphibians and turtles toaccess breeding or nesting sites can bea valuable management strategy to mini-mize mass road mortality. The signabove provides information to motoristsabout Spotted Salamanders.

THE BASICS

occur and maintain native groundcover vegeta-tion. Seek out those areas that have been severelydisturbed for such landscape changes while protect-ing relatively intact natural habitats.

• Identify, restore and maintain natural fire fre-quency, intensity, and seasonality in fire-depend-ent habitats. Many reptiles and amphibians rely onnative fire-dependent vegetation, in which they for-age, nest, and shelter. Without fire, canopies in someforests tend to close and shade out herbaceousgroundcover, which is often the critical first link in thefood chain. Composition of dominant canopy treesmay also be altered by fire suppression, limiting mastdiversity and disrupting predator-prey cycles. Evenwetlands burn during times of extreme drought. Insome cases, fire will naturally skip or “spot” throughareas where conditions are too moist. Too much firecan be as harmful as too little fire. Consult your stateforestry agency before implementing any burn.

• Direct recreational use (for example, foot traffic,trails, boat landings) away from sensitive habitatfeatures such as hibernacula, wetlands, turtlenesting sites, seeps, ravines, and coves. Soil dis-turbances and noise-related disruptions of naturalbehaviors are among the unfortunate side effects ofrecreational access, as is facilitating access to illegalcollectors..

• Install culverts or tunnels in conjunction withbarriers to direct animals under or away fromroads. Barriers and ecopassages have been suc-cessful in certain instances to mitigate highway mor-tality near breeding sites or along seasonal migrationcorridors (see Roads section).

• Maintain or restore natural hydrological cycles ofwetlands by filling old drainage ditches andallow for the natural development of stream bankdynamics and associated vegetation. Naturalflood cycles are critical in maintaining the naturalcommunities in which amphibians and reptiles for-age, breed, and bask.

• Limit motorized vehicle (including All TerrainVehicles [ATVs] and motorboats) access to offi-cial conservation-related traffic. Excessive motor-ized vehicle traffic can compact and disturb soil,increase erosion and sediment, provide corridors forinvasive plant species along trails, elevate vehicle-related mortality rates, and cause noise-related dis-ruptions of faunal activities. ATVs can severelydegrade seasonal wetlands.


FOREST PRODUCTS COMPANY INITIATIVESInternational Paper’s professional foresters and wildlife biologists manage company forests with great care inaccordance with the Sustainable Forestry Initiative® program. IP was a leader in the development of the SFIprogram, which ensures the perpetual planting, growing and harvesting of trees while protecting wildlife, biodi-versity, plants, soil, water and air quality. In the U.S. alone, IP has protected more than 1.5 million acres ofunique and environmentally important habitat through conservation agreements and land sales to environmen-tal groups. Our forestry team is dedicated to managing trees, protecting biodiversity and growing more andmore forests. Under our Special Places in the Forest program, International Paper has voluntarily managedand provided protection for nearly 750 sites (totaling more than 114,000 acres) that have unique biological,ecological, geological, cultural or historic significance. International Paper protects eagles and other threatenedor endangered animal and plant species on its forestlands in cooperation with conservation groups, state agen-cies and the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.

In fact, in terms of herpetofauna, International Paper was the first in the paper and forest products industry todevelop a Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP) for the Red Hills Salamander (Phaeognathus hubrichti), a federal-ly threatened species endemic to Alabama. International Paper protects approximately 20% of the remainingP. hubrichti habitat in Alabama. IP was a founding entity of PARC and continues to be a strong supporter.

— Mark Danaher, International Paper Company

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Roadside ditches often attract amphibians and reptiles. Creating passageways under roads may reduce mortalities. Planning such passageways should be done as new roads are designed, therebyreducing costs.

• Avoid introduction of game and non-game fishwhere fish-free wetlands, ponds, or waterholesare present. Restricting vehicular public accessmay discourage unauthorized fish stocking.Remove introduced fish where necessary. Fishfeed on amphibians, their eggs, and tadpoles.

• Maintain contiguous habitat gradients (unfrag-

mented transition zones between adjacent habi-tat types). Ensure that land-use practices do notrender seasonal migration and natural dispersal pat-terns between complementary habitats difficult orimpossible.

• Ensure the availability of essential complementa-ry habitat types. Most amphibian and reptile



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Restoring a vernal pool wetland to its original hydroperiod, and usingnative vegetation will probably be the most effective way to benefitlocal amphibian species.

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If off-road vehicle driving is to be permitted, careful planning can minimize the impacts to sensitive wetland habitats that are used by amphibians andreptiles.

As unsuitable as it may seem, puddles and ruts along seldom-usedroads often provide breeding areas for amphibians whose larvae canmetamorphose in short periods of time. American Toads, SpadefootToads, and even Spotted Salamanders use road ruts successfully.Land managers can protect these sites by limiting unnecessary vehi-cle access.

other items that may leak contaminants into wet-lands and streams.

• Close unneeded roads and avoid construction ofpermanent roads wherever feasible. Where high-traffic roads are present, installation of culverts, tun-nels, and “drift fence” barriers (to direct animal trafficthrough safe passageways) has been successful incertain instances to mitigate highway mortality nearbreeding sites or along seasonal migration corridors(see Roads section).

species require two or more habitats for their life his-tory and annual activity patterns. Reducing the suit-ability of any one of these habitats for sensitiveamphibians or reptiles, even if the others are in idealcondition, may lead to declines and even local extir-pation.

• Use the minimum amounts of fertilizers, herbi-cides, and pesticides necessary to achieve man-agement objectives. When chemical application isneeded (for example, to remove invasive plants orcompeting vegetation), use selectively and followinstructions very carefully.

• Remove old cars, tires, electrical appliances, and

NEW YORK STATE’S FIRST AMPHIBIAN TUNNEL

In October 1999, Albany County incorporated a tunnel-barrier fence systeminto a roadway reconstruction project in an area previously demonstratinghigh amphibian diversity and abundance, as well as high road mortalityassociated with movements between hibernating, breeding, and foragingsites. The project, the first of its kind to be implemented in New York, wasdesigned to limit movements by amphibians and other non-target speciesonto the road surface while directing movements toward one of two tunnelsunder the highway. The system design included two concrete box culvertswith a bottom surface of native soil traversing the full width of a two-lanecounty highway. The 0.5 m x 1.2 m tunnel openings were connected with90± m of permanent, pressure-treated lumber barrier fencing on each sideof the roadway. Post-construction monitoring of the project area showedthat most amphibian movements had been successfully directed along thebarrier fence, while movements onto or over the road surface were nearlyeliminated. In an adjacent control area, approximately 40% of over 600 indi-viduals observed were road-kills. Only 2% of almost 300 individualsobserved in the tunnel area were road-kills. Monitoring also revealed nine amphibian species and threenon-target species using the tunnels.

— Alvin R. Breisch and Mark Fitzsimmons

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THE BASICS


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Amphibian larvae are very sensitive to water quality. Pollutants andsediments may render isolated wetlands inhospitable.

Appropriate use of silt fencing may help protect stream systems fromsedimentation during construction activities

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The following 14 habitat modules contain management recommendations pertinent totheir respective habitat. Thesemodules are accessible indi-vidually on ww.parcplace.org.

1 Biologists discuss strategies with landmanagers for re-vegetating riparianareas that will provide better streamhabitat for Wood Turtles. KurtBuhlmann

2 Unusual things happen to amphibiansand reptiles during the developmentalprocess like they do in other verte-brates, including humans. This East-ern Fence Lizard has both scoliosis(curved backbone) and kyphosis(humped backbone). Joe Mitchell

3 Eastern Gray Treefrogs call and breedin summer in the Northeast. Shallowpools of water are required for deposi-tion of several clusters of eggs on thewater’s surface. USGS PatuxentWildlife Research Center, NortheastARMI team

4 Look for opportunities for restoration.Many seasonal wetlands have beendrained or their natural hydroperiodsaltered as a result of ditching.Restoration to original condition maybe as simple as re-filling the old ditch.Blocking the ditch may also be effec-tive. In some cases, the clay lens ofthe wetlands may have been damagedduring ditch construction, and watermay still drain out the bottom. KurtBuhlmann

MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES BY HABITAT TYPE

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Seasonal wetlands include isolated depressions in thelandscape (sinkhole ponds, vernal pools, low swales,road ruts and ditches) that hold water in winter andspring but usually dry by mid-summer or fall. There areno permanent surface connections to flowing waterand fish are usually absent. Vernal pools in riparianfloodplains may contain fish periodically. Seasonalwetlands are critical breeding habitats for reptiles andamphibians, especially those vulnerable to fish preda-tion. Water sources include rainfall, snowmelt, elevat-ed water tables, or flooding in riparian pools. Vegeta-tion in these wetlands depends on soil type,hydroperiod, latitude, elevation, and historic land-use.Seasonal wetlands in areas with no or sparse forestcanopies support herbaceous plants, including grass-es, shrubs, sedges, and rushes. Those under treecanopy have little emergent non-woody vegetation.

Species assemblages of amphibians and reptiles inthe Northeast often vary from one pond to the nextdue to differences in vegetation, latitude, elevation,adjacent habitat type, canopy cover, and past land-


SEASONAL ISOLATED WETLANDS USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Northeast ARMI team

Woodland vernal pools are important breeding sites for Spotted Sala-manders, Wood Frogs, and other amphibians. The woody debris andemergent grasses provide attachment sites for egg masses. USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Northeast ARMI team

use. Most seasonal wetland-breeding amphibiansspend their entire lives within a few hundred meters ofthe wetland-used for breeding. Frogs generally dis-perse over longer distances (well over a kilometer)than salamanders (to over 1000 meters) but bothrequire appropriate habitat (usually closed canopy for-est in the Northeast) adjacent to their breeding pools.

The surrounding upland forest supports vernal poolamphibians for about 11 months of the year. The timespent in the pool is short. Such terrestrial habitataround pools may be better viewed as a “life zone”and not a “buffer zone.” Areas of loose soil, deep litter,logs, and patches of canopy shade are important formaintenance of a suitable forest floor.

Re-colonization of new or restored wetlands takeslonger for salamanders than for frogs. Once a popula-tion has been destroyed, it may take decades for fullre-colonization of the original assemblage. This timeframe assumes that source populations are presentand near enough to provide immigrants. Forestedhabitats between wetlands allow dispersal and helppopulations reduce the risk of complete isolation, lossof genetic diversity, extinction from drought and expo-sure to pathogens, or catastrophic event.

CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Four-toed Salamander, Jefferson Salamander,Blue-spotted Salamander, Marbled Salamander,Spotted Salamander, Red-spotted Newt, Ameri-can Toad, Fowler’s Toad, Upland Chorus Frog,Eastern Gray Treefrog, Spadefoot Toad, WoodFrog, Spring Peeper, Blanding’s Turtle, SpottedTurtle, Northern Water Snake



• Identify seasonal wetlands and the forest coveraround them on the property being managed.Maintaining forest cover around seasonal wetlandsmay make movements easier for amphibians thatbreed in isolated ponds.

• Consider timing of current and planned land-usepractices to minimize conflicts with animals



Marbled Salamanders arrive in the fall and mate on land when vernalpools are dry or nearly so. Females lay eggs under logs or leaves inthe pool basin and wait with them until rains fill the pool. Females thenleave the pools and return to the forest while the eggs hatch and thelarvae become aquatic.

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Searching for winter-breeding amphibians, such as Tiger Salamandersand Jefferson Salamanders, sometimes requires breaking the ice onthe pools to see them.

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SEASONAL ISOLATED WETLANDS

when they are active. Land-use activities such astilling and timber harvest conducted during adult andjuvenile migrations could result in mortality.

• Where feasible, maintain natural habitat connec-tivity between wetlands or ensure that the land-scape between wetlands does not impede move-ments. Movement between wetlands by amphibiansand reptiles is enhanced if the corridor or pathwayused is natural habitat.

• Maintain canopy cover where appropriate toencourage cool, moist forest floor in terrestrialbuffer and life zones. Amphibians need to be con-stantly moist. Such habitat conditions in these areaswill minimize mortality due to desiccation.

• Establish buffers and life zones in agriculturalareas around the core wetland’s terrestrial zone.Amphibians and reptiles use the core terrestrial zoneextensively, thus the real buffer is located around theoutside of this terrestrial life zone. Lack of bufferscreates abundant edges and reduces the size of thecore terrestrial habitat.

• Where feasible, minimize soil disturbance whenusing heavy equipment around wetlands andlimit the number of access roads and stagingareas. Such equipment and vehicles may have neg-ative impacts on amphibians and reptiles. Limitingthe areas impacted will reduce the number of nega-

tive impacts in the area.

• When possible, avoid grazing and watering live-stock in and near seasonal wetlands. Livestockwill trample eggs, and waste products will causeeutrophication, oxygen depletion, and amphibian lar-val death.

• Limit ATV and other recreational impacts onunpaved roads containing pools during amphib-ian breeding and larval development seasons.ATVs and other vehicles displace eggs and larvaefrom the pool and throw them up on shore wherethey dry out.

• When in or near seasonal wetlands, use the min-imum amount of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesti-cides required to achieve management objec-tives. Follow all directions on container labels.

• Locate high-intensity roads, trails, landings, andrecreational facilities away from seasonal wet-lands and transitional zones into upland habi-tats. Locate roads well away from these wetlands.

• Avoid diverting surface water from existingroads or facilities into wetlands. Surface run-offfrom roads may contain oil and other pollutants, aswell as sediments that can fill seasonal wetlands,detrimentally affecting the quality of these importantamphibian and reptile habitats.


Spotted Turtles use isolated wetlands and vernal pools as temporaryforaging sites or as over-wintering sites. The same turtles often returnto the same sites in subsequent years. These colorful and gentle tur-tles forage on tadpoles and insects.

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Wood Frogs lay their eggs communally. As the egg masses age, theyaccumulate a symbiotic alga that helps to keep the developingembryos oxygenated. The metamorphs can be very abundant and pro-vide a rich source of protein to predators. This process allows energyfrom the aquatic system to be transferred to the terrestrial system.

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• Where feasible, avoid creating permanent farmponds by altering seasonal wetlands. Create farmponds elsewhere while retaining natural seasonalwetlands. Creation of farm ponds will destroy sea-sonal wetlands and eliminate species that requiresseasonal wetlands.

• Consider constructing artificial wetlands orponds where natural wetlands have been degrad-ed or destroyed. A series of wetlands on the land-scape can facilitate dispersal and accelerate recolo-nization of amphibians in reforestation sites.

IMPORTANCE OF ADJACENT UPLANDSProtect small isolated wetlands while also incorpo-rating adjacent upland habitats and promoting aforested landscape connection to other wetlands.A seasonal wetland without appropriate surround-ing upland habitat will lose its amphibian and rep-tile fauna. Amphibians and many reptiles spendmost of their lives in a zone of 450 feet or morearound the wetland. This is the core terrestrialzone. The buffer around the wetland should beconsidered the zone outside of this core.


• Maintain natural wetland wet-dry cycles — nodrainage, excavations, or diversions into or outof the wetland. Wet-dry cycles with winter fill andsummer drying keep fish predators out of thesepools. Such annual variation in natural hydrologicalcycles is critical for amphibian breeding success.

• Maintain forested canopy conditions around por-tions of seasonal wetlands as adult amphibiansspend the non-breeding season in the surround-ing forest, up to 450 feet from the wetland. This isthe core terrestrial habitat necessary for populationsurvival outside the breeding season.

• Maintain water quality andavoid input of sediment,chemicals, and livestockrunoff. These pools are usu-ally shallow bodies of water,thus small inputs of such pol-lutants may harm amphibianlarvae.



Seasonal isolated wetlands support a diversity of plants and animals,many of which are rare and unique, such as Swamp Pink.

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A woodland vernal pool in Maryland has recently been filled by rainand will be used by several species in the winter and early spring.

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Wood Frogs are the poster amphibian for vernal pools in the North-east. They migrate to the pools in late winter, mate and lay eggs, andthen return to the surrounding hardwood forest. Wood Frogs requirefish-free vernal pools in which to breed.

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• Allow native vegetation to provide physicalstructure and organic inputs. Vegetative coveraround the margins of these pools will provide coverfor adults and emerging juveniles.

• Ensure that the natural integrity of the basin ismaintained — do not fill or alter contours. Basinintegrity is related to hydrological dynamics. Con-tours and depths vary considerably due to soil type,underlying substrate, and vegetation input from thesurrounding forest.

• Remove fill or unnatural debris (e.g., tires, trash)as necessary to maintain the natural basin. Trashand other discarded items may contain chemicalsand oil-generated pollutants that may kill or harmamphibians.

• Do not stock fish. Fish of all kinds eat eggs, larvae,tadpoles, and small frogs. Several amphibian speciescannot breed successfully in pools containing fish.

• Remove or control invasive exotic species, bothplant and animal. Invasive plants can alter wetlandsto the point where they cannot support amphibiansand reptiles, and exotic animals can act as predatorsor parasites, or interfere with food resources.

• Maintain ground cover such as coarse woodydebris in the terrestrial life zone. Emerging juve-nile amphibians require terrestrial cover to avoidexposure to predation and desiccation. Adults needcover during breeding periods and for survival.

• Encourage individual movement between wet-lands and the landscape by minimizing barriers,such as ditches, curbs, rock, rip-rap, horticultur-al netting, and wells. Barriers to dispersal increase

the chances of mortality and prevent individuals andhence genes from being exchanged among popula-tions.

• Construct and maintain tunnels with directionalbarriers under roads to allow dispersal andreduce mortality. Installation of tunnels (ecopas-sages) and barriers has been successful in someplaces to reduce or prevent highway mortality nearbreeding sites.

• Increase awareness of animal crossings andmortality on roads through outreach and educa-tion programs; post road signs. Local and region-al education has many benefits to amphibians andreptiles, as well as to landowners who will often gainsupport and recognition from neighbors and others.

• Avoid placement of improved or permanentroads within the terrestrial life zone. Seek to avoidthis important area that surrounds the actual aquaticbreeding site. Roads of any kind in this zone willcause mortality and reduce population survivorshipof several species.

• Exclude vehicle traffic, including ATVs, from wet-lands, especially during peak breeding and larvaldevelopment periods. Any vehicle will alter wetlandsubstrates and potentially kill amphibians and rep-tiles directly. Vehicles may release petroleum prod-ucts, thus causing pollution.


The first sign of salamander mating activity in a vernal pool is thepresence of spermatophores. Males lay down these gelatinous stalks,each topped with a sperm packet, before the females arrive. Each malecourts a female to entice her to pick up a sperm packet in her cloaca.Fertilization takes place soon thereafter.

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Spotted Salamanders are widely recognized as the classic vernal poolsalamander. They arrive at vernal pools in late winter, often with snowon the surrounding ground, mate, and lay eggs. Once they have com-pleted their tasks, they return to the forests, often some distanceaway, and live the rest of the year underground in small mammal bur-rows and decaying root systems.

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An acidic, boggy, open canopy wetland in the New Jersey Pine Bar-rens supports a select group of amphibians, including CarpenterFrogs and Pine Barrens Treefrogs.

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• Use the minimum amounts of chemicals neces-sary to achieve management objectives in ornear seasonal wetlands. Make sure there is anadequate buffer between places where fertilizersand pesticides are used.

• Restore connectivity among seasonal wetlandsby restoring corridors of natural habitat betweenwetlands and uplands. Movements of amphibiansand reptiles between aquatic habitats ensure genet-ic mixing and avoidance of inbreeding. Corridors ofappropriate habitat will likely reduce mortality duringdispersal and movements.

• Consider constructing artificial wetlands withseasonal wet-dry cycles where natural wetlandshave been lost or degraded. Guidelines are avail-able to direct proper construction of artificial pools foramphibian breeding. Such properly constructed wet-lands can enhance amphibian and reptile diversityand survival on your land.

• For open wetlands embedded in fire-maintainedhabitats, permit occasional fires to burn intopond basins when ponds are dry. Occasional fireswill burn away organic sediment and encourageplant diversity.

This is the Seasonal Isolated Wetlands module of the PARC publication,HMG-3. ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for furtherinformation, copies of the complete document, or a web-based version ofthese guidelines.



Female Blandings Turtles travel long distances to find nesting sites.They often use vernal pools as “stepping stones” to reach freshwatermarshes. While visiting the vernal pools, they forage on crayfish andtadpoles. Thus, the density of vernal pools in the landscape is criticalto their survival. Loss of any vernal pool is detrimental.

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Spotted Salamander metamorphs emerge from vernal pools in latespring or summer depending on elevation and latitude. They becomefood for numerous predators, including wild turkey. Vernal pool qualityinfluences the numbers of larvae surviving to this stage.

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A pair of mating Wood Frogs in a vernal pool in Pennsylvania. Thefemale lays eggs as the male clasps her from behind and sheds spermover them, a behavior called amplexus. These frogs are only found inthe vernal pools during the winter mating season. They live underleaves and decaying logs on the surrounding moist forest floor duringthe majority of the year.

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WEST NILE VIRUS

Health concerns regarding West Nile Virus (WNV)has in some cases resulted in the assumption thatmany types of standing water, including natural andcreated wetlands, may be producing dangerousnumbers of virus-infected mosquitoes and that thewetlands should be drained, filled, or sprayed toeliminate the possibility of WNV transmission tohumans.

Not all mosquitoes transmit WNV, not all mosquitoesfeed on humans, and habitats vary for mosquitospecies. Species of Aedes are typically produced infloodwaters in the spring and early summer.Species of Culex will deposit eggs in a variety ofwater-holding containers such as old tires, birdbaths,buckets, and wading pools. Culex pipiens, the north-ern house mosquito, is a common household mos-quito and the primary vector of WNV. Culex larvaethrive in pooled water in areas not normally wet,which do not support their predators.

Mosquitoes are a vital part of wetland food chains,and healthy wetlands have balanced predator-prey

relationships that provide natural mosquito control.Salamander larvae are major predators of mosquitolarvae. Altered or degraded wetlands often havestagnant water, increased nutrient levels, and fewernatural mosquito predators. Maintaining naturalfunctions of seasonal wetlands and restoringimpaired wetlands should be goals of private andpublic land managers, as well as mosquito controlagencies.

For more information:Centers for Disease Control http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/index.htm

American Mosquito Control Associationwww.mosquito.org

The USDA Regional Pest Management CentersNational Pest Alert brochure on WNVhttp://www.ncpmc.org/NewsAlerts/westnilevirus.htm

—Mark Bailey and Jeff Holmes

One of the more common species of frogs in temporary and permanent wetlandsin the Northeast is the Green Frog. These two are in amplexus with the male atopthe female. Note the difference in tympanum diameter behind the eyes; it is muchlarger in males.

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Although most amphibians are not active in icycold weather, some such as Northern Dusky Sala-manders can be found under the ice in smallstreams in the Northeast.

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open water in the center. Soils and hydrology affect thenature of the substrate, which in turn influence thespecies that can use these habitats. In some regions,grazing by bison (historically), colonization and aban-donment by beaver, and, more recently, livestock graz-ing have helped to maintain or restore sedge tussockand sphagnum-dominated wet meadows.

Human and natural processes in the surrounding land-scape affect wetland functions and processes directlyor indirectly. Sediments, pesticides, fertilizers, andother chemicals may flow into these wetlands fromupslope. Many of these wetlands have been drainedand lost to agriculture, mining, and urbanization.

CHARACTERISTIC SPECIESPine Barrens Treefrog, Green Frog, CarpenterFrog, Four-toed Salamander, Mud Salamander,Bog Turtle, Spotted Turtle, Box Turtle, GarterSnake, Ribbon Snake

Wet meadows occur in poorly drained areas, such aslow-lying depressions, are fed by precipitation, andoften dry in summer. Bogs are acidic, freshwater wet-lands with no inlet or outlet, spongy peat deposits andvarying densities of evergreen trees and shrubs.Sphagnum moss usually occurs in abundance. Watersources are rainwater, snow, and occasionally seep-ages. Fens are ancient open wetlands that are fed bygroundwater and seepages. They are less acidic thanbogs and have higher nutrient levels, thus they sup-port diverse plant and animal communities.

These habitats usually occur on flat to gently slopingareas and range from small and isolated to relativelyextensive areas connected by streams. Wet meadows,bogs, and fens are characterized by open to intermit-tent canopy, layers of peat muck or sand and high orperched water tables, and abundant, specialized vege-tation including sphagnum, cranberry, and sedge tus-socks. Zones of vegetation can usually be distin-guished in bogs and fens from dry edges to wet and


WET MEADOWS, BOGS, AND FENSKurt Buhlmann

WET MEADOWS, BOGS, AND FENS



• Where feasible, avoid filling, draining, ditching,damming, and excessive groundwater withdraw-al in and around wet meadows, bogs, and fens.Alteration of the hydrological regime that maintainsthese wetlands will eliminate its unique flora andfauna.

• When possible, mow grasslands around wetmeadows at high blade settings when cuttinghay. Mow during dry periods to minimize soil distur-bance and machinery-related mortality of amphib-ians and reptiles. Begin in the center and use a back-and-forth approach to avoid concentrating animalswhere they may be killed. Raising the mowing deckheight to 8 or even 12 inches will reduce mortalityand leave important cover.

• When planning roads, avoid wet meadows, bogs,and fens. (See the “Roads” section under “Threats”)Avoidance of these wetlands will prevent manyunforeseen problems with permitting and damage tothese systems.

• Control woody plant encroachment and succes-sion. Woody plant encroachment into these wet-lands alters local hydrological cycles and affects thephysical conditions that are needed by wetland


Wet meadows like this one in northern New Jersey occur as patches inthe landscape. Through natural succession, the encroaching forest willeventually shade the site and make it site less attractive to Bog Turtlesand other herps that require more sunlight. Land managers can workwith herpetologists to retard succession and maintain the needed sitecharacteristics.

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The federally threatened Bog Turtle occurs in wet meadows and bogsin several parts of the Northeast. The decline of wet meadow habitats,collectively through succession to forest, cessation of farming, outright destruction via housing developments, and commercial collection of the turtles themselves for the pet trade has led to theirendangerment.

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Ditching wet meadows channelizes the water, dries the surroundingsoil, and makes the site unsuitable for rare species like the Bog Turtle.Landowners and managers should avoid such activities.

• Avoid introduction of non-native invasive plantsand animals on your property. Species like purpleloosestrife, phragmites, and reed canary grass candestroy natural wetlands. They and non-native ani-mals can cause native species to decline.

• Where feasible, avoid plowing firebreaks in wetmeadows, bogs, and fens. A firebreak in a wetmeadow, bog, or fen will act as a ditch and causeunwanted drainage. It is better to let the fire burnthrough the wetland, as it will recover. Cutting andraking by hand in these firebreaks is effective.

LIVESTOCK AND BOGS

Recent studies have shown that light to moderategrazing by cattle and other livestock may be vitalto maintaining habitat suitability for Bog Turtlesand other rare species in bogs. Warning: Exces-sive grazing by can be harmful as they may tram-ple the vegetation and habitat structure managersand land owners wish to promote. Goats will helpcontrol woody vegetation and are less damagingto bog plants and substrates. Consult a Bog Turtlebiologist in your state to help with management ofthese wetlands in ways that are compatible withagricultural needs.


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Many wet meadows and bogs in the Northeast are located along smallmeandering rivulets and streams on farms. Straightening of thesestreams destroys the wet meadows, likewise, restoring the curves maybe a proactive management activity.

plants and animals. Open conditions are a require-ment of many bog-, fen-, and wet meadow-associat-ed species.

• Limit livestock grazing in wet meadows to thenumber that can maintain but not degrade thishabitat. In some areas moderate livestock grazingcan assist in maintaining desired vegetative compo-sition and structure and help keep out woody plants.(See box insert on cattle grazing in wet meadows)

• Prohibit collection of native species in these wet-lands on your land. Collection of native plants andanimals from these wetlands for commercial sale isa serious threat in the Northeast. Private and publicland managers can help minimize this problem bytheir own enforcement actions.



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Management of wet meadows and bogs may require manual removalof successional species such as red maple trees. Simply cutting redmaple will result in vigorous sprouting. Girdling trees and leavingthem standing achieves better results. Restoring open canopy willhelp sedges and other wetland plants to persist.

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Four-toed Salamanders often occur in wet meadows and bogs thathave an abundance of sphagnum. Lower nutrient conditions favorsphagnum growth, whereas runoff of fertilizers and animal waste willfavor other weedy plant species.


• Control encroachment of woody plants and eco-logical succession. Open canopy conditions are arequirement of many bog-associated species.

• Restore natural surface water and groundwaterhydrology using ditch plugs or temporary damsif necessary. Restoration of the natural hydrologicalcycle will restore the unique vegetation and animal

communities in these wetlands.

• Restore herbaceous vegetation using tools suchas prescribed burning, low-impact mechanicalremoval of woody vegetation, and low-impactcontrolled grazing. Under ideal conditions, thesehabitats and their inhabitants respond favorably tooccasional natural disturbances.

• Do not plow firebreaks in wet meadows, bogs,and fens. Inform local and regional fire control offi-cials of the presence of ecologically sensitive areasand clearly delineate boundaries with flagging tape,tree paint, or signs. Bogs and fens are very fragilesystems. Soil and vegetation disturbances can resultfrom poorly planned firebreaks.

• Provide a native vegetative buffer zone betweenthe wetland and adjacent uplands to help mini-mize input of fertilizers and pollutants from thesurrounding landscape. Such a buffer will act as abarrier in which the vegetation will take up theunwanted chemicals and serve as cover for amphib-ians, reptiles, and other animals.

• Prohibit commercial collection of native specieson your property. The commercial trade in someplants and animals, including protected species, is amajor threat. Landowners and managers can sup-port efforts to minimize this activity.

• Avoid the introduction of nonnative species.Invasive plants are well known to alter wetland habi-tats so much that unique native species can nolonger exist there. Released non-native animals,such as the Red-eared Slider, will compete withnative species.


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Green Frogs occupy wet meadows as long as surface water is avail-able for the lengthy duration, up to one year, of the tadpole stage.

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Natural ecological succession was a part of the dynamics of thesewetlands for eons. Species could once move easily to adjacent wet-lands, but humans have limited such opportunities. Thus, in-situ man-agement of these wetlands has become necessary.

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Numerous isolated depressions in the Northeast, many formed bymelting blocks of glacial ice, represent unique fen and bog habitats.Often floating mats of shrub vegetation and small trees cover theseunusual sites, such as this one in Massachusetts. Blandings Turtlesmay use these habitats.

• Manage beaver activities to attain desired vege-tation and open canopy conditions in bogs.Beavers in the Northeast often flood existing bogsand fens, but their actions may help restore olderwetlands that have been ditched or filled withencroaching woody vegetation. The value of beaver

activity may not be seen until after they have aban-doned the wetland or have been removed.

This is the Wet Meadows, Bogs, and Fens module of the PARC publication,HMG-3. ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for furtherinformation, copies of the complete document, or a web-based version ofthese guidelines.



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Wet sedge meadows and bogs support numerous amphibians and rep-tiles, including the endangered Bog Turtle. Keeping these marshesfree of encroaching hardwoods and shrubs is often a necessary man-agement activity, especially where grazing animals such as dairycows, are no longer present to help with the task.

A Spotted Turtle basks on a sphagnum-covered tussock sedge in aNew England wet meadow.

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Beavers were historically abundant in the Northeast and their damming activities created numerous wet meadow habitats. These meadows often havemucky soils, and support rare plants and animal species. Wet meadows eventually succeed into forest following abandonment by beaver. The cre-ation of new wet meadows on the landscape, as others disappear, is a process necessary to maintain long-term ecosystem health.



USING LIVESTOCK TO MANAGE BOG TURTLE HABITAT

Various types of livestock,including cows, sheepand goats, have beenused in New Jersey tomanage habitat for theFederally Threatened,State Endangered BogTurtle. Invasive plantssuch as phragmites, pur-ple loosestrife, multiflorarose and reed canarygrass can quickly turnbog turtle habitat intoproblematic monocul-tures. Specific livestockeat these non-nativespecies and consequent-ly break dense root matswith their hooves. Theyalso create depressionsin the muck that are laterused by the turtles. Intro-duced livestock theoreti-cally take the place of prehistoric grazers and othernatural forces that once served to keep vegetationlow and at an early successional stage in fens andwet meadows. Portions of open canopy in bog tur-tle habitat are crucial for reproductive success andbasking.

— Brian Zarate

Cattle grazing in wet meadows can be beneficial if cattle numbersare not too high. The area on the right is grazed. Trial and errorexperimentation may be necessary to achieve the managementgoal of maintaining a functional wet meadow, while minimizingtrampling. Goats are less damaging to the soil, browse invasivewoody vegetation, such as multi-flora rose, but require moresecure fencing.

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Dumping of farm and yard waste into wet meadows and bogs servesonly to contaminate the water and soil used by plants and animals.

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One of the early-breeding frogs in the Northeast is the Pickerel Frog.The male is in amplexus with the larger female and will shed his spermover her eggs as she is releasing them.


Permanent wetlands differ from seasonal wetlandsprimarily because they hold water throughout the yearand host populations of fish and other predators. Theyinclude natural lakes, ponds, wooded swamps, marsh-es, and impoundments whether made by beavers orhumans. We consider permanent wetlands in a differ-ent category than streams and rivers because runningwater provides different physical challenges toamphibians and reptiles. Water depth varies greatlyamong permanent wetland types. Shallow wetlandsallow vegetation to grow throughout much of thebasin, whereas deeper ponds and lakes have vegeta-tion usually confined to their perimeters. Someamphibians and reptiles occur in deep, open water,but not all of them. Emergent vegetation that common-ly occurs along shallow shorelines provides refugiafrom predatory fish. Thus, the physical structure ofpermanent wetlands dictates which species mayoccur in each type.

The Northeast has numerous natural permanent wet-lands, many of which were formed as the glaciersreceded over 10,000 years ago. Many are relativelydeep and cool with vegetation confined to narrow lakeor pond margins. Impoundments of varying sizes, from

Permanent wetlands are ponds, lakes, and other large bodies of stillwater that do not dry out. They usually have fish populations and asuite of amphibians and reptiles. Water depth and the types of vegeta-tion lining the shores influence which species occur.

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lakes to ponds, abound in the Northeast. Although arti-ficial, these wetlands offer habitats to several speciesof turtles, snakes, frogs, and salamanders. Ponds andlakes in the Northeast are impacted by pollution andsiltation from the surrounding landscape and by inva-sive species, like purple loose-strife and phragmites.Active management of these wetlands may be neces-sary in some cases to ensure that they continue tosupport amphibian and reptile populations.

CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES American Bullfrog, Green Frog, Mink Frog, Mud-puppy, Red-spotted Newt, Blanding’s Turtle, Com-mon Map Turtle, Musk Turtle, Painted Turtle,Snapping Turtle, Spiny Softshell Turtle, NorthernWater Snake



• When possible, do not lower water levels duringwinter when hibernating amphibians and rep-tiles would become exposed to freezing temper-atures. Time management activities to the biologi-cal needs of the animals.

• Maintain connectivity among wetlands. If neces-sary maintain naturally vegetated corridors.Movements of amphibians and reptiles amongaquatic habitats ensure genetic mixing and avoid-ance of inbreeding. Maintaining connectivity amongappropriate habitats will likely reduce mortality dur-ing dispersal and movements.

PERMANENT WETLANDS


• If possible, avoid complete change in land-use.Consider concentrating development or otheractivities in a portion of the landscape. Complete-ly changing the landscape and hence its habitats willlikely eliminate amphibian and reptile populations.Placement of high impact construction and activitiesaway from wetlands, core terrestrial habitats, andsensitive areas will help ensure that some or allspecies will survive. Construction activities that raiseor lower water levels can severely impact manyspecies of amphibians and reptiles.

• Maintain natural plant succession patterns inadjacent terrestrial habitats. Manage your land insuch a way that invasive species cannot becomeestablished. Learn the types of environments thatare favored by problematic invasives.

• Encourage conservation tillage and establishforest buffers in agricultural areas around per-manent wetlands. A combination of conservationtillage and natural forest buffers of adequate widtharound permanent wetlands will ensure that naturalpopulations of amphibians and reptiles will thrive.

• When using fertilizers and pesticides, be sure tofollow label directions and adequately buffer per-manent wetlands. The directions on the labels aregovernment mandated and have been tested forsafety. Use the minimum amount of chemical neces-sary to achieve management objectives. Ensurethere is an adequate buffer to prevent runoff.

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A glacially-carved northern marshland supports a population of Bland-ings Turtles, as well as the more common Painted Turtle.

The deep jug-o-rum call of male American Bullfrogs is often heard inpermanent wetlands in summer throughout the Northeast. Bullfrogsare voracious and will eat almost any animal they can fit into theirmouth, including juveniles of their own species. Juveniles disperseto other wetland types well away from the breeding sites to avoidcannibalism.

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• Where feasible, avoid road building and relatedactivities adjacent to wetlands. Construction ofroads can cause siltation, alter hydrological cycles,or directly damage wetlands. Roads of any kind adja-cent to wetlands will often reduce herpetofauna pop-ulation sizes and species diversity. When roads mustbe built adjacent to wetlands, carefully design andconstruct them to minimize these potential impacts.

• Maintain at least partial canopy cover where fea-sible for adjacent terrestrial habitat. Amphibiansand reptiles use adjacent terrestrial lands aroundpermanent wetlands extensively. Canopy cover den-sity can be variable but some cover will ensure thatthese animals will be able to use both aquatic andterrestrial habitats.

• Follow existing Best Management Practices tocontrol sediment and erosion associated withconstruction; enhance these practices. Usenative wood chips and hay bales to slow or preventintrusion into wetlands. Sediment deposits in wet-lands choke microhabitats used by amphibians andreptiles.

• Minimize scarification and rutting of adjacenthabitat and restore the landscape when the proj-ect is complete. Minimize long-term impact of roadsand other construction by restoring the landscape tonatural conditions after completion of the project.

• Meet or exceed forestry and agricultural BestManagement Practices and Streamside Manage-ment Zones. If your situation is not covered by theseguidelines, consider contacting PARC, NRCS, yourstate forestry commission, or your state Natural Her-itage Programs to determine what riparian zonemanagement practice will best benefit your localamphibians and reptiles.

• Minimize or exclude undesirable nutrients orcontaminants, such as residential and industrialwaste, from wetlands. State or local laws usuallyregulate such problems but operating in a responsi-ble manner on one’s property will ensure that thecommon good — the permanent wetland — willremain functional for the long term.

• Limit recreational access completely or to as fewpoints as is feasible, avoiding areas with existingaquatic vegetation. ATV activities should beavoided in and around permanent wetlands.Some recreational activities, especially those that useATVs, can destroy wetlands and natural vegetation.



Pickerel Frogs often prefer permanent wetlands, such as beaver pondsand man-made ponds. The males produce a snoring sound while hid-den under leaves at the waters edge.

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Northern Cricket Frogs are small frogs that can be abundant aroundthe grassy margins of permanent wetlands. However, they are declin-ing in abundance in the Northeast for unknown reasons.

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Permanent ponds created for wildlife support a wide variety of amphib-ians. This one in the George Washington National Forest in Virginia isa breeding site for Jefferson’s Salamanders and Red-spotted Newts.

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PERMANENT WETLANDS

• Provide conservation-related educational materi-als (kiosks, posters, brochures) to boaters,skiers, fishermen, and other recreational visitors.User education and acting as an example oftenincrease awareness and conservation-mindednessin others.

• Avoid creating permanent farm ponds by alteringnatural wetlands such as swamps and marshes.Destroying a natural wetland to create an impound-ment causes the loss of many natural populationsand increases the potential for introduced species. Ifa pond must be created, then seek places where itsplacement will not alter other wetlands.


• Maintain the natural hydrology of wetlands andprevent unnatural drainage. Amphibians and rep-tiles in the Northeast are adapted to natural hydro-logical cycles. Alteration is likely to reduce survivor-ship and cause population decline.

• Maintain native vegetation in and throughoutshallow wetlands and around the margins oflarge, deep lakes and ponds. Amphibians and rep-tiles use native vegetation extensively for hidingplaces and egg attachment sites. Vegetation alsoacts as a natural sewage treatment plant and helpsto maintain clean water.

• Maintain the integrity of wetland basins. Allow nofill, intrusion, drainage, damming, or excavation.Alteration of the basin is likely to affect hydrological

regimes and hydroperiod, two aspects of water pres-ence important to amphibians and reptiles.

• Prevent input of sediment, chemicals, and live-stock runoff in order to maintain or improvewater quality. Such sources of input may directly orindirectly impact amphibians and reptiles and can beprevented by creative landscape and livestock man-agement.

• Avoid introduction of exotic species, and removeexotic species already present. Invasive plantsalter wetland habitat structure and function and exot-ic animals act as uncontrolled predators and sourcesof parasites and disease.


Snapping Turtles are large omnivores that are primarily scavengers.They eat aquatic vegetation, crayfish, and other animals. They helpmaintain pond health by eating dead or perhaps dying fish. Theyreportedly capture ducklings, but it is likely a small part of their overalldiet. Snapping Turtles are important components of food webs in per-manent wetlands.

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Large reservoirs can support populations of amphibians and reptilesadapted to permanent water. Snapping Turtles, Painted Turtles, Red-spotted Newts are usually found in these wetlands in the Northeast.Maintenance of basking sites for turtles and shallow littoral zones withemergent vegetation will enhance herp populations.

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The Blandings Turtle is a large freshwater turtle associated with vernalpools, fens, glacial marshes, and other permanent natural wetlands ofthe northern United States and Canada.

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• Maintain habitat structures such as snags, bask-ing logs, rocks, and overhanging vegetation.Management of permanent wetlands with thesestructures ensures the presence of amphibians andreptiles because they offer basking sites and hidingplaces.

• Do not use heavy machinery within wetlandboundaries or in sensitive riparian areas. Suchweight and scouring of the land surface alters wet-land habitats and invites invasive plants to establisha foothold. They can also crush amphibians and rep-tiles already present.

• Provide natural buffer zones around or adjacentto wetland edge. A buffer of several hundred feet isideal and will help ensure that populations willremain healthy. Amphibians and reptiles use the sur-rounding uplands extensively.

• Maintain or add natural ground cover (e.g.,coarse woody debris) in core habitats, bufferzones, and wetland edges. These structures of var-ious sizes are used for hiding from predators andavoiding desiccation.

• Minimize barriers (ditches, curbs) to movementof individuals into and out of permanent wet-lands. Barriers to amphibians and reptiles migrationmay limit exchange of individuals between wetlandsand reduce genetic variation in populations.

• Maintain open, sunlit areas with little vegetationfor turtle nesting adjacent to or near wetlands.Turtles in the Northeast require open sunny areas sothat the nest temperature will be high enough forsuccessful development and hatching.

• Restore basins and hydrological cycles byremoving fill, filling ditches and breaking sub-strate drainage tiles. Restore permanent wetlandsthat have been altered in the past to make thesehabitats more attractive to amphibians and reptiles.

• Avoid placement of new roads near wetlands andconsider closing existing roads that act assources of mortality to animals moving to andfrom these wetlands. Vehicular traffic on roads is aprime source of mortality of many amphibians andreptiles. Construction of roads usually alters thehydrological cycles of adjacent wetlands.

• Increase awareness of wildlife road crossingsthrough outreach, education, and local sig-nage. Promote local education. Act as an exampleto others.

Permanent, water lily-choked ponds are favorite habitats of Red-belliedCooters. They need basking sites for regulation of body temperatures.The addition of logs and snags benefits most aquatic turtles by provid-ing basking sites.

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Juvenile Red-spotted Newts (called Red Efts), are terrestrial, havetoxic skin glands like their parents, and are brightly colored to pre-sumably deter predation by visual predators. Once they become adultsin 5-8 years, they reenter the pond or lake and become fully aquatic.Fish do not eat newts because of their toxicity.

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Permanent wetlands in many parts of the Northeast support popula-tions of large basking turtles, like the herbaceous Red-bellied Turtle.Submergent aquatic vegetation, such as elodea, is a critical compo-nent of their habitat.

PERMANENT WETLANDS

• Restore connectivity between wetlands with nat-ural terrestrial habitats. Ensure that amphibiansand reptiles do not have to run a gauntlet of obsta-cles and open spaces that expose them to predatorsjust to move between habitats they need.

• Restrict animal movement into hazardous wet-lands or upland zones (e.g., retention basinscontaminated by chemicals or radioactivity).Amphibians and reptiles will absorb chemicals andradioisotopes. Their movements across the land-scape also move contaminants to other areas.

• Restore natural shoreline habitat (e.g., removeretaining walls, rip rap). Unnatural objects aroundthe shoreline inhibit use of these areas and interferewith movements.

• Consider contouring restored wetlands withirregular edges and uneven bottom elevations.Such variation in restored or created permanent wet-lands helps to maintain diverse vegetation zonesand habitat structure that promotes greater amphib-ian and reptile diversity.

• Encourage enforcement of regulations designedto control and prevent illegal dumping. Such illegalactions introduce chemicals into wetlands that can killamphibians. It is against the law in most states.

• Avoid introduction of game fish or non-nativespecies, if fish are not present naturally. Restrict-ing vehicular public access may discourage unau-thorized stocking. Fish eat amphibian eggs and lar-vae. Some amphibians will avoid wetlands with fish.The introduced Chinese snakehead fish is a vora-cious predator that will undoubtedly harm amphibianand reptile populations.

INFORMATION FOR FISHERMEN

Snapping turtles and aquatic snakes occasionallyprey on fish, including some game and baitspecies. More often than not, however, largehealthy fish are too fast and strong to be caught byreptiles. As a result, reptiles feed primarily on fishweakened or slowed by poor genetics, disease, orstarvation due to overstocking. The presence offish-eating reptiles in the vicinity of fishing waterscan enhance the size and health of game fish bypreventing the spread of disease, weeding outgenetically inferior strains, and reducing overpop-ulation.

This is the Permanent Wetlands module of the PARC publication, HMG-3.ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for further information,copies of the complete document, or a web-based version of these guidelines.


Excavation of a depression in an old field on a Pennsylvania farm cre-ated this permanent pond. Filled primarily by surface runoff and rain-fall, the pond has become home to a small assemblage of commonamphibians and reptiles, including Bullfrogs, Green Frogs, Red-spot-ted Newts, Painted Turtles, and Northern Watersnakes. Shorelineemergent vegetation provides cover.

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The Mink Frog is a species of the far north, including eastern Canada.They typically inhabit permanent lakes and ponds with an abundanceof water lilies.

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Glaciers in parts of the Northeast carved many depressions in thelandscape that filled with water. Some are deep, while others are shal-low and have extensive marsh edges with emergent vegetation. Thisone in Massachusetts is home to Painted Turtles, Snapping Turtles,Blandings Turtles, and Bullfrogs, to name a few.

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Stream habitats in the Northeast include headwaterstreams, as well as the springs and seepages thatoccur within their often-narrow floodplains. They areusually shallow and have water flow except duringdrought years. Streams in natural landscapes usuallyhave a canopy provided by at least a line of treesalong the margins. Flow rates depend on elevationgradients, seepage volume production, rain andsnowmelt, and the physical structure of the streambasin and channel. Temperatures are usually coolerand dissolved oxygen levels greater in headwaterstreams than larger streams. Streams usually havefish populations, many of which prey on amphibiansand some reptiles, although headwater streams oftenlack fish. Physical structures in streams such as rocksand debris dams provide microhabitat for salaman-ders and frogs and their larvae to hide from fish.

Springs and seeps are integral parts of streamecosystems. Springs are primary sources of cool,clean water for headwater streams. Seepages areshallow, usually muddy habitats that develop adjacentto springs and have unique floras and faunas, includ-ing several species of salamanders. In part, the bioticuniqueness is due to the characteristically cool tem-


Daniel Hocking

SMALL STREAMS, SPRINGS AND SEEPAGES

Small streams, seeps, and springs are important habitats for manyamphibians, most notably salamanders. Dusky, Northern Spring, Red,and Two-lined Salamanders are generally restricted to these habitats.Seeps and springs are generally embedded within other habitats suchas hardwood or spruce and fir forests. Elimination of forest coverincreases temperature and sedimentation, and changes the characterof these sensitive habitats.

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Seal Salamanders may reach large population sizes in Appalachianand Blue Ridge Mountain streams. They are often referred as “springlizards” by local fishermen.

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Maintaining buffers of forest cover may protect springheads and theirsmall, cold-water pools in which Spring and Two-lined Salamandersbreed. Awareness of and protection for these small habitats will helpminimize losses of Northeast biodiversity.

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peratures of these systems. Care should be taken thatland-uses such as agriculture, silviculture, road con-struction, and development do not have unintendedconsequences on small streams, springs, and seep-ages. Springs and their associated seepages are usu-ally small and vulnerable, but their size also allows forsimpler measures of protection than some larger habi-tats. In the past, these “gullies” were often used asdumping places in residential and agricultural areasfor debris, old equipment, and trash leading to slowdischarge of contaminants into the streams.

CHARACTERISTIC SPECIESNorthern Two-lined Salamander, Northern RedSalamander, Northern Dusky Salamander, SealSalamander, Spring Salamander, Green Frog,Pickerel Frog, Wood Turtle, Queen Snake, North-ern Water Snake



• Meet or exceed forestry and agricultural BestManagement Practices and Streamside Manage-ment Zone standards for stream health. For linksto each state’s BMPs, visit www.forestrybmp.net.

• When possible, exclude or limit livestock accessto stream, spring and seepage habitats. Livestockwill trample microhabitats and waste products willcause eutrophication, oxygen depletion, and amphib-ian larval death.

• Minimize or eliminate agricultural, industrial, andresidential contaminants, nutrients, sediments,and silt in watersheds containing springs andheadwater streams. Control runoff and productionof these various forms of pollution.

• Minimize or control motorized vehicle (includingATV) access to stream channels. Such activitieswill disrupt and destroy sensitive microhabitats andcause pollution.

• When using fertilizers and pesticides, be sure tofollow label directions and adequately bufferstreams, springs, and seepages. The directions onthe labels are government mandated and have beentested for safety. Use the minimum amount neces-sary to achieve the management objective. Ensurethere is an adequate buffer to prevent runoff. Do notempty or clean containers in streams or other wet-lands.

Mountain streams in the Appalachian and Blue Ridge Mountains sup-port a diverse streamside salamander assemblage, including DuskySalamanders, Seal Salamanders, Northern Red Salamanders, andNorthern Spring Salamanders. Streams require forest canopy cover tomaintain cool water temperatures.

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• Minimize use of riprap for shoreline stabilization.Borders of large rocks can impede turtle movementsbetween aquatic habitats and upland nesting sites.

• Restrict and/or closely regulate collection anduse of salamanders as bait. (see “Spring Lizards”information box).

• Evaluate beaver populations and their effects inthe target area and control their numbers if nec-essary. Protect springs and seepages. Beaveralteration of streams will cause loss of the seepagehabitats and the stream environment within which aspecialized suite of species live. Creation of beaverponds will kill sensitive species but make the areaattractive to generalists.

• Minimize the number of road crossings overstreams. The more crossings, the greater thechances of pollution and direct alteration of smallstreams, springs, and seepages.


• Avoid clearing or replacing natural vegetationalong stream edges. Maintenance of canopy vege-tation in stream riparian zones will help keep watertemperatures cool and amphibian diversity high.

• Maintain stream floodplains in natural vegetationand avoid alteration. Natural vegetation in flood-

plains will slow flood rates, increase the nutrient con-tent of floodplains, and replenish small pools. Com-plexity of habitats in such zones ensures thatamphibians and reptiles will use these areas exten-sively.

• Provide upland forested buffer habitat along thestream’s riparian zone. Buffers should be as wideas possible. A minimum of two tree heights (100-150meters) is important for water quality, organic inputs,and riparian habitat for stream amphibians.

• Leave snags, other woody debris, and rocks instreams to provide microhabitat. All these struc-tures provide refugia for amphibians and reptiles.Juvenile and larval amphibians use these structuresextensively to avoid predation by adults.

• Retain natural stream channel undulations, back-water areas, and floodplains. Do not channelizestreams. Such alteration of stream courses removeshabitat diversity that is important to amphibians andreptiles and the food web on which they rely.

“SPRING LIZARDS”

Harvest of stream salamanders (known locally inthe southern Appalachians as spring lizards) forbait may lead to declines in populations. Somestates in the Northeast permit fishermen to col-lect Northern Dusky Salamanders, and someprohibit collections for bait. Other less commonspecies, however, are virtually indistinguishablefrom common “duskies” and are therefore inci-dentally taken as bait, even by the well-inten-tioned. Release of unused bait salamanders intoa system other than where they were collectedcan harm the native species.

—Mark Bailey

Some of the salamanders associated with these streams may use for-est habitats beyond the riparian zone.

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• Meet or exceed forestry and agricultural BestManagement Practices and Streamside Manage-ment Zones standards for stream health. Meet-ing stream BMPs and SMZ standards is a goodfirst step in providing habitat for amphibians andreptiles. For links to each state’s BMPs, visitwww.forestrybmp.net. In some cases, SMZs areadequate to protect aquatic-related amphibians andreptiles; however, in other cases, these practicesmay need to be modified, especially for species thatmigrate or disperse in and out of adjacent uplandhabitats.

This is the Small Streams, Springs, and Seepages module of the PARC pub-lication, HMG-3. ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for fur-ther information, copies of the complete document, or a web-based version ofthese guidelines.

• Avoid storing chemicals, salt, manure, and otherpossible contaminants near streams. Controlplacement of such chemicals to prevent leakage andinadvertent input into streams.

• Do not alter spring flows and do not disturb theassociated seepage areas. These small habitatsare critical to several species of salamanders. Alter-ation of any kind will cause population decline andpotential extirpation.

• Remove exotic vegetation. Non-native vegetationtends to overtake small streams and seepages, ren-dering them uninhabitable by the amphibians thatneed intact systems.

• Restrict activities upstream that could introducecontaminants downstream (e.g., water treatmentplants, mining). Think at the landscape level.Remember that whatever is introduced upstream willlikely make its way all the way downstream. Conta-minants can affect a large area.

Eggs of Two-lined Salamanders are deposited under leaf litter androcks along small streams. Pollution of these aquatic systems willharm eggs and larvae of these amphibians.

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Long-tailed Salamanders occur in small streams. Their larvae requireclean water and are easily eliminated by siltation and pollutants, suchas salts and oils from road run-off.

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The Northern Red Salamander inhabits small streams, seeps, andsprings. Brightly colored, they are rarely seen except by observantnaturalists who look for them under rocks and logs along the edges ofseeps and springs.

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Northern Dusky Salamanders live in the edges of small mucky streamsand seepages. Females deposit their eggs in depressions under coverand remain with them until they hatch. Like other streamside salaman-ders, they have no lungs and depend entirely on well-oxygenatedwater for respiration through skin adsorption.

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Rivers are the major drainage arteries for watershedsin the Northeast. Although some are shallow withrocky bottoms, most have relatively large, deep chan-nels and are steep-sided. Large volumes of waterpass through these permanent ecosystems, some-times at high flow rates, and temperature and turbidityfluctuate according to season, rain events and releaseschedules of major dams. As with fish, dams limitmovement of amphibians and reptiles up- and down-stream, especially species such as Hellbenders andMudpuppies that are fully aquatic during all life stages.Amphibians and reptiles that inhabit such dynamicsystems are usually able to tolerate extremes in waterflow, whereas others find rivers to be barriers to dis-persal.

Most rivers in the Northeast contain freshwaterthroughout most of their courses. Those near theAtlantic Coast, however, experience dramatic fluctua-tions in water depth twice daily. The daily fluctuation inthe Hudson River, for example, is 3-4 feet up to 150miles from the coast! Concentrations of salt water intidal zones also vary depending on how much freshwater is being passed through the watershed. In lowerportions of these rivers, salinities are higher in late


The Holtwood Dam on the Susquehanna River demonstrates the barri-er effect to movements of riverine fish, amphibians, and reptiles.Exchange of genes above and below the dam is hindered or cut offcompletely. Some riverine herps (i.e., Hellbenders, Northern Map Tur-tles) do not thrive in the lake-like conditions upstream.

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Kurt Buhlmann

RIVERS

RIVERS

summer and fall than in winter and spring when rain-fall amounts are usually greater.

Floodplains of rivers and large streams are used bymany species of herps, some on a periodic basisgiven flood events. Floodplains are integral parts ofriverine ecosystems and managers should take intoaccount their role in conservation and managementprograms on their lands.

Threats to amphibians and reptiles in river systemsinclude mortality from boat propellers, pollution, intro-duced predatory fish, and direct mortality from fisher-men who kill unwanted catch, such as Hellbenders.Sedimentation is a major problem for many speciesbecause of its smothering effects on amphibian eggs,larvae and benthic prey (e.g., mussels) and their hid-ing places. Channelization for increased navigation bylarge ships and flood control measures all affect river-adapted amphibians and reptiles. Although land own-ers and managers may have little control over suchactivities, these aspects of large river managementdecisions may influence what can or cannot be doneon adjacent property.

Rivers make up some of our most imperiled anddegraded ecosystems. Although threats to riverineherps include pollution, excessive flow rates, and silta-tion, conservation efforts focus primarily on drinkingwater, recreation, and flood control. Reductions inhigh-intensity land-use within floodplains, such asagriculture and development, would limit the econom-ic impact resulting from naturally occurring floods, helpimprove recreation opportunities, and improve drink-ing water quality while simultaneously enhancing habi-tat suitability for herpetofauna and other riverinewildlife.

CHARACTERISTIC SPECIESHellbender, Mudpuppy, Common Map Turtle,Musk Turtle, River Cooter, Snapping Turtle, SpinySoftshell Turtle, Wood Turtle, Northern WaterSnake


MAXIMIZING COMPATIBILITY: Timberlands,Hunt Clubs, Farmlands, Recreation Lands,and other Integrated Land-usesWhen benefiting amphibians and reptiles is sec-ondary to other management objectives:


Wood turtles mate in streams immediately following winter hiberna-tion. In late spring they emerge from the streams to forage and nest inadjacent woodlands and fields.

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The natural rocky falls on the New River in West Virginia provideunderwater structure and microhabitat for Hellbenders and Mudpup-pies, as well as basking sites for River Cooters.

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Operating heavy machinery in rivers can be destructive to the bottom-dwelling fauna, notably freshwater mussels and hellbenders. It is ille-gal in some states.

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• Meet or exceed forestry and agricultural BestManagement Practices and Streamside Manage-ment Zones. If your situation is not covered by theseguidelines, consider contacting PARC, NRCS, yourstate forestry commission, or your state Natural Her-itage agency to determine what riparian zone man-agement practice will best benefit your local amphib-ians and reptiles.

• When using fertilizers and pesticides, be sure tofollow label directions and adequately bufferrivers. The directions on the labels are governmentmandated and have been tested for safety. Use theminimum amount necessary to achieve manage-ment objectives. Ensure there is an adequate bufferto prevent runoff.

• Minimize activities that alter flow or temperatureregimes. Discharges from dams should be sched-uled to coincide with natural flooding cycles and tomaintain base flow rates during drought periods; nat-ural seasonal flow and temperature regimes shouldbe maintained.

• Minimize or exclude industrial, agricultural, andresidential runoff. Waters from these sources carrypollutants that can harm aquatic life, includingamphibians and reptiles.

• Limit or avoid livestock watering activities inrivers and develop alternative watering sites.Livestock will trample eggs in turtle nesting sites and

their waste products may cause eutrophication, oxy-gen depletion, and amphibian larval death.

• Stabilize impaired riverbanks to allow wildlifeaccess corridors to floodplains and upland nest-ing sites. Steep, undercut, and blocked banks pre-vent animals from using river resources by blockingtheir access.



Northern Water Snakes occupy rivers in the Northeast where they feedon frogs and small fish. They often bask on logs and branches thatoverhang the banks. They are not “water moccasins,” and they are notvenomous. The true venomous Cottonmouth occurs no farther norththan southeastern Virginia.

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Slow-moving rivers usually support emergent vegetation along shal-low margins and offer habitat to many species of amphibians and rep-tiles. Bullfrogs, Green Frogs, Red-spotted Newts, and several speciesof turtle will occur here.

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Downed timber and undercut banks provide hibernation sites for WoodTurtles along a northern New Jersey river.

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RIVERS

• Restrict public access to nesting sites and othersensitive habitats. Turtle nesting sites along riverbanks and in riparian zones can be adverselyimpacted by excessive recreational activities.

• Keep snag removal activities to the minimumnecessary for boat traffic. Components of a river’sflow regime, woody and rocky structure provideimportant shelter, basking, and other microhabitat.

• Avoid introducing non-native game fish andother exotic species. Propagation and stockingprojects should focus on the restoration of nativefishes, mollusks, and invertebrates.

• Limit harvest and indiscriminant killing ofamphibian and reptile species and/or enforceexisting regulations more strictly. Shooting bask-ing turtles and snakes for sport remains a persistentproblem throughout parts of the Northeast as doeskilling of Hellbenders by fishermen who mistakenlyfear they are venomous or impact sport fish popula-tions. These practices may be contributing to thedecline of some species.

• Provide conservation-related educational materi-als to boaters, fishermen, and other recreationalvisitors. These users would likely aid in amphibianand reptile conservation if they knew the problemsand potential solutions. Most would welcome usefuleducational materials.

• Roads should be routed to avoid floodplains andnesting areas. Road mortality of amphibians andreptiles is usually highest in these areas.

• Dispose of uncontaminated dredge spoil to areasthat would benefit nesting turtles. Although dredg-ing degrades habitat quality for some species, spoilpiles that are high in sand content can serve asimportant turtle nesting habitat if deposited abovethe high-water mark along the shore or as createdislands. NOTE: Professional input from local her-petologists might be needed as new sandy beachescan also attract egg predators and, in some cases,elevate nest loss.

• Avoid filling in wetlands connected to rivers andriver floodplains. Amphibians and reptiles use suchhabitats extensively.

For detailed, site-specific guidelines regard-ing restoration of stream banks and associat-ed aquatic habitats, check with your localNRCS office (county directory available atwww.nrcs.usda.gov).


• Avoid clearing vegetation along river banks orreplacing natural vegetation with non-nativespecies. Vegetation cover along river banks pro-vides habitat for many species of amphibians andreptiles. Vegetation cover will minimize thermal vari-ation and excessive bank erosion.

• Restore upland buffer habitats along the river’sriparian zone. A width of several hundred feet is rec-ommended.

• Allow natural movement of sand and gravel:retain sand and gravel bar-related processes byavoiding in-stream mineral extraction, vehiculartraffic, and other disruptions to riverbeds. Sandbars and other open habitats in and along rivers pro-vide basking sites and, most importantly, nesting


The Hellbender, the largest salamander in river systems in the North-east, is sometimes caught on fishermen’s baited hooks and oftenkilled. Hellbenders require clean and clear-flowing rivers, with gravelsubstrates and large rocks under which they hide. They are known tolive as long as 30 years. Hellbenders are harmless and eat crayfish.

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sites for turtles. Allowing natural formation of suchplaces will also enhance natural ecological process-es in the river and benefit many other species.

• Avoid alteration of river undulations and backwa-ter areas. Do not channelize rivers and largestreams. Channelization destroys many microhabi-tats used by amphibians and reptiles in water andalong the banks.

• Allow the natural buildup and movement ofwoody debris, banks, and rocky structures. Donot remove snags and rocks. These structures areused as basking sites by snakes and turtles.

• Exclude point source and non-point source pol-lution. Seek ways to minimize or eliminate suchsources of pollution.

• Follow label instructions for use of agriculturalchemicals and proper disposal of empty contain-ers. Do NOT rinse canisters in river or stream water.

• Limit or avoid the use of rip-rap, bulkheads, orother structural modifications that could trap orimpede movements of amphibians and reptiles.Unnatural objects around the shoreline inhibit use ofthese areas and interfere with movements into andout of the water. Rip-rap can trap animals and causethem to die inhumane deaths.

This is the Rivers module of the PARC publication, HMG-3. ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for further information, copies of the com-plete document, or a web-based version of these guidelines.



Spiny Softshell Turtles inhabit clear rivers with sand bottoms in thewestern portion of the Northeast, as well as Lake Champlain and thelower parts of the Ottawa River. Softshell turtles are susceptible toriver pollution.

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Northern Map Turtles inhabit a number of northeastern rivers, includ-ing the Susquehanna, Delaware, and St. Lawrence. Map turtles feed onmussels and snails, thus their persistence is tied to water quality andthe survival of endangered mollusks.

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Forested riparian margins along rivers provide shade and cover, aswell as help to maintain appropriate water temperatures.

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Large hydroelectric dams, such as Bluestone Dam on the New River,West Virginia, can alter river environments and affect fauna by increas-ing natural summer low flows and decreasing winter high flows. Tem-peratures downstream are colder than normal and the water has lessoxygen due to the release of water from the bottom of the upstreamreservoir.

Tidal estuarine wetlands along the North American coast are highlyproductive ecosystems. They are often polluted from agricultural andurban activities. Diamond-backed Terrapins occur in these marshsystems.

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Estuarine and coastal ecosystems are truly dynamicenvironments. Salt in these waters challenges thephysiology of amphibians and reptiles because thesevertebrates are adapted to fresh water. Wave action,tidal surges, cyclical turnover of salt and fresh water,wind, sand, storms, changing temperatures, and themany predators in these habitats challenge life inthese places. Estuarine systems include open bays,tidal rivers, and salt marshes characterized by salini-ties that vary monthly, seasonally, and even dailywhen storms occur. Several species of amphibiansand reptiles inhabit estuaries because they are able totolerate salt or brackish water permanently or periodi-cally. Coastal zones include beaches, sand dunes,and maritime forests. A higher diversity of amphibiansand reptiles live in these habitats. True marine habitaton the other hand supports relatively few reptiles, andnearly all of those are sea turtles. These large reptilesroutinely occur in large estuaries in the Northeast suchas Chesapeake and Delaware bays and Long IslandSound. The bays are critical nursery grounds for juve-nile sea turtles. The Diamond-backed Terrapin is theonly true estuarine reptile in the United States andoccurs in estuaries from Cape Cod southward.


Kurt Buhlmann

ESTUARINE AND COASTAL

Several species of amphibians and numerous reptilesoccur on barrier islands and along oceanic shorelinesof the Northeast. Management of these animals inestuarine and coastal zones should include consider-ations of their populations in these waters but also onthe land areas adjacent to them. Barrier islands arebordered on the bay side by brackish marshes andintertidal swales and on the ocean side by sandyshorelines and dunes. Barrier islands and mainlandshorelines receive periodic over-wash that may inun-date freshwater ponds or pools. The dynamic natureof these habitats can seriously affect the amphibianand reptile populations that use them.

Beaches and dunes on barrier systems are criticalnesting habitats for sea turtles, all of which are pro-tected. The northernmost-known nesting sites are inVirginia. Estuaries, barrier islands, and most duneareas are also used extensively by Diamond-backedTerrapins. This species is experiencing majordeclines. Pollution has killed turtles and destroyednesting beaches in many areas. Such habitats for tur-tles and their nests are important targets for activemanagement and protection. Causeways across saltmarshes are also important habitats because Dia-mond-backed Terrapins nest on them extensively.Unfortunately, vehicular traffic causes high mortalityrates of females seeking nesting sites. Managementand conservation projects offer challenging opportuni-ties to land managers, biologists, and landowners.

Another challenge is to minimize the loss of individualsea turtles and Diamond-backed Terrapins from nets,trawls, and commercial and recreational crab pots.Although there are laws and regulations that shouldhelp this problem, the reality is that these turtles arestill declining in the Northeast.

CHARACTERISTIC SPECIESEstuaries — Diamond-backed Terrapin, Kemp’sRidley Sea Turtle, Loggerhead Sea Turtle;Coastal Zones — Fowler’s Toad, Green Treefrog,Southern Leopard Frog, Eastern Mud Turtle,Snapping Turtle, Northern Water Snake



• When feasible, planned activities to avoid nest-ing periods (May-July) and hatching periods(August-September) of turtles. If the specific areaneeds management, then do so only before or afterthe nesting and hatchling emergence season.

• When possible, maintain existing adjacentcoastal wetlands that act as buffers for estuarinesystems. Limit the amount of land and brackishhabitats lost to housing development and its infra-structure in these systems.

• Where practical, remove sources of garbage andfood that may attract predators. Subsidized pred-ators (e.g., raccoons, skunks) kill many species andcan completely eliminate all the eggs laid by a turtlepopulation.

• Limit pedestrian and motorized traffic on beach-



The Diamond-backed Terrapin is the only truly estuarine reptile in theNortheast. Their populations are declining from loss of habitat, drown-ing in recreational crab pots, road mortality during nesting excursions,and commercial exploitation.

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Maritime forests occur on secondary dunes and support a diversity ofreptiles such as Black Racers and Six-lined Racerunners that areadapted to living in this hot and dry environment.

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es and adjacent shorelines, including boats, jetskis, dune buggies, and ATVs.

• Seek to incorporate herpetofauna habitat needsinto development plans. Allow for naturally vege-tated shorelines and dunes. Where possible, provideforested or marsh dispersal corridors between creekchannels.

• Identify road-crossing areas of Diamond-backedTerrapins. Install signs to alert drivers to turtles onthe road. Reduce speed limits during the nesting sea-son. Consider temporary road closings if possible.

• Install signs around turtle nesting areas to dis-courage human activity during turtle nesting sea-son. Educational signage may help prevent nest sitedestruction.

• Use oversized culverts to maintain natural salt-water flow patterns. These culverts may also allowDiamond-backed Terrapins to move freely and safe-ly where roads or other manmade structures arepresent.

• Use innovative, non-toxic techniques for mos-quito control where possible. Excessive use ofinsecticides can disrupt food chains by reducing theabundance of important invertebrate and small ver-tebrate prey. Many biologically based controls formosquitoes are environmentally sensitive andspecies-specific. Consult a licensed pesticide spe-cialist before using any insecticide.

• If fencing is needed to restore damaged dunes,use only in areas where it will not interfere withDiamond-backed Terrapins and sea turtles. Provide


The coastal zone along the northeastern coast of Maine is rocky anddotted with numerous islands. The Maritime Garter Snake is the onlyreptile that occurs in this habitat.

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A juvenile Diamond-backed Terrapin hides in salt marsh grasses toavoid the many predators that can easily eat this small turtle.

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A Leatherback Sea Turtle washed up on a Virginia barrier island. Plas-tic bags are mistaken for jellyfish and ingested by Leatherback SeaTurtles, leading to intestinal blockage and mortality.

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gaps of sufficient size in beach armament/ seawalls toaccommodate nesting terrapin and sea turtles.

• Remove, reduce, or modify lighting that affectknown turtle nesting areas. Unnatural lightinginhibits adult nesting behavior and causes hatchlingsto crawl toward lights. Hatchlings use cues from thesea and sky interface for direction; artificial lightsinterfere with this process. Avoid installing lighting onbeaches or avoid use during nesting (May – July)and hatching (August – September) seasons.

• Encourage use of turtle-friendly fisheries equip-ment and excluder devices in crab traps. Theunintentional take of marine turtles and Diamond-backed Terrapins is a significant source of unnaturalmortality.


• Maintain or restore natural vegetation, especiallywhere beach and dune stabilization is an issue.Exclude or remove exotic plant species. Many



Human manipulation of marshes, whether fresh or salt, will cause changes in their ecology. In Virginia Beach, the use of bulkheads lead to salt waterintrusion into a freshwater swale wetland with mortality of the bald cypress trees.

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Forgotten crab pots kill Diamondback Terrapins by drowning them.This pot contains the shell of a female terrapin scoured by crabs, aswell as a live male terrapin. “Ghost traps” abandoned or lost by com-mercial or recreational crab trappers continue to kill untold numbers ofterrapins. Educational outreach may minimize the problem, as wouldthe use of turtle excluders that prevent all but the smallest terrapinsfrom entering the traps, with no impact on crab catch.

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reptiles and amphibians are specifically adapted tosurvive in native vegetative communities.

• Maintain natural shoreline and dune integrity andrestore them where possible. Maintain or restorenatural tidal and wave action. Pilings, sea walls, andother manmade disruptions to tidal process mayalter flow regimes, thereby degrading habitat suit-ability.

• Minimize or eliminate point source and non-pointsource pollution. Pollution of all sorts threatens ordestroys microhabitats used by amphibians and rep-tiles. Actions to prevent pollution may require collab-oration with neighbors and others in the area.

• Remove sources of garbage and food that mayattract predators. Subsidized predators kill manyspecies and can completely eliminate all the eggslaid by a turtle population.

• Protect adjacent complementary habitats, likedunes, swales, and maritime forests, to allow forseasonal movement of species. Reptiles andamphibians in these systems move considerable dis-tances. Allowing movements between habitat typesaids in population survival and genetic diversity.

• Maintain or restore natural hydrological cycles,including storm over-wash and formation ofsand bars on beaches and barrier islands, byremoving jetties, pilings, and revetments thatalter natural sand flow. Maintenance of large-scalenatural processes will enhance the habitats used byestuarine and coastal zone amphibians and reptiles.

• Exclude or remove non-native invasive plants inmarshes and on dunes. Non-native plants are notlikely to be as effective in dune stabilization and mayunsuitably alter natural microhabitat structure fornesting turtles. Non-native invasive plants maychoke out native species.

• Prevent ATV use on beaches and dunes used fornesting by Diamond-backed Terrapins and seaturtles. Killing and noise-related disruptions of natu-ral behaviors are unfortunate side effects of recre-ational access. ATVs and other motorized vehiclescompact soil, increase erosion, provide corridors forinvasive plant species along trails, elevate vehicle-related mortality rates, and cause noise-related dis-ruptions of faunal activities.

• Minimize barriers to movements of females nest-ing on beaches, as well as emerging hatchlingswhen they hatch. Physical barriers could prevent


Female Diamondback Terrapins on nesting forays are killed on cause-ways that span the salt marshes. Additive mortality from automobilesleads to population declines of these long-lived animals.

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Coastal dunes and swales are home to several species of snakes andlizards. Dunes also protect the coastline from storms and erosion.

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female sea turtles and Diamond-backed Terrapinsfrom reaching nest sites and hatchlings from reach-ing the sea.

• Use non-toxic techniques for mosquito control ifpossible. Use innovative techniques for mosquitocontrol. Avoid ditching, introduction of exotic fish,and excessive use of chemicals. Excessive use ofinsecticides can disrupt food chains by reducing theabundance of important invertebrate and small ver-tebrate prey. Many biologically based controls formosquitoes are environmentally sensitive andspecies-specific. Consult a licensed pesticide spe-cialist before using any insecticide.

• Remove or modify lighting that affects knownturtle nestingareas. Unnaturallighting inhibitsnesting behaviorand causes hatch-l i ngs to crawltoward lights.

• Limit shorelinedevelopmentwhere possible.Developmentdestroys or frag-ments habi tat ,

increases pollution, elevates vehicle- and otherhuman-related mortality, cause noise-related disrup-tions to wildlife activities, and can contribute to pollu-tion.

• Specific actions for Diamond-backed Terrapins:

• Identify intensively-used nesting areas anddesign strategies that reduce female nestingmortality and nest predation.

• Post signs for motorists that identify areas whereterrapins cross roads while searching for nestingsites. Reduce roadway speed limits during thenesting season, May-mid-July.

• Provide educational materials that illustrate thedrowning potential to terrapins in abandonedand infrequently-checked crab pots.

This is the Estuarine and Coastal module of the PARC publication, HMG-3.ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for further information,copies of the complete document, or a web-based version of these guidelines.



Salt marsh habitat at low tide. Diamondback Terrapins must be able tomove between tidal creeks and salt marsh flats. Bulkheads and riprapprevent such movements.

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Each May and June, female Diamondback Terrapins are killed in largenumbers as they search for nesting sites above the high tide line.Many terrapins are drawn to the edges of causeways that span saltmarshes and connect the mainland with barrier islands. Rescuinglarge numbers of terrapins from roadways has become an annualevent in some states. The real management challenge is to providesafe nesting areas while keeping terrapins from accessing the cause-ways.

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The Loggerhead Sea Turtle is an annualvisitor to northeastern coastal areas. TheChesapeake Bay is the largest nursery forjuveniles of this species along the Atlanticcoast; many also spend summers in thewaters around Long Island, NY. Their pres-ence is linked to the health of bay shell-fisheries.

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Hardwood forest canopy usually allows sunlight to filter down to theforest floor. The mosaic of sunlit patches helps to generate the richherbaceous cover that supports populations of woodland salaman-ders.

Much of the Northeast was covered with hardwoodforests of various species compositions, depending onelevation, aspect, and location, before European colo-nization and wide-scale clearing. Major forest typesincluded oak-chestnut-hickory, elm-ash-cottonwood,and maple-beech-birch. In some areas, aspen wasmixed with birch. Pine or hemlock was interspersedamong the oaks in many locations. Hardwood forestsstill remain in much of the Northeast but introduceddiseases and pests, such as the chestnut blight, Dutchelm disease, and hemlock wooly adelgid, have alteredspecies compositions in many areas.

Hardwood forest trees are deciduous and have exten-sive root systems. They help to create a three-dimen-sional forest floor structure of leaves, organically richsoil, and subterranean passageways that supports adiversity of predators and prey, including amphibiansand reptiles. Decomposing logs and limbs (downedwoody debris and leaves) provide critical microhabi-tats for many species. Herbaceous vegetation,shrubs, and understory trees add structure to the for-est above ground. The soils tend to be relatively moistcompared to pine forests that develop on coarser,sandy soils. Energy flow through amphibians and rep-


Don Cameron

HARDWOOD FORESTS

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tiles in northeastern hardwood forests is substantial.The biomass (energy in animal tissues per squaremeter) of a single Red-backed Salamander populationin New Hampshire was twice that of all the birds dur-ing peak breeding season and about equal to that ofall the small mammals in the area. Other terrestrialsalamander species can also reach similar high densi-ties in some areas (e.g., Appalachians). Thus,amphibians and many reptiles that act as predatorsand prey are important players in energy dynamics inmesic upland forests.

The diversity of amphibians and reptiles found in anyhardwood forest depends on many factors, includingforest structure, canopy openness or closure, and thehistory of the landscape. Slope and aspect influencetemperature and moisture; elevation and latitude alsodetermine which species are present. Forest structureand canopy openness varies across the landscapedue to tree density, gaps in the forest created by treeblow-downs, and amount of edge habitat. How

humans used the land historically affects whichspecies occur there. Severely degraded soils fromcenturies of intensive agriculture will support fewerspecies than soils in areas that have largely remainedforested. Generally, most amphibians tend to rely oncool, moist habitats to maintain their critical skin mois-ture, whereas most reptiles need more sunlight andhigher temperatures. Thus, a mosaic of microhabitatsin a mesic hardwood forest will support a higher diver-sity of herps than a forest with uniform environmentalconditions.

Amphibians and reptiles are affected by forest patchsize, its isolation from other patches, the amount ofedge around the patch, water systems in the patch and



Hardwood forests at the northern latitudes of the Northeast containmore birch, beech, elm, sugar maple, and ash than forests farthersouth. However, they function in much the same way and have someof the same species of amphibians and reptiles.

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Eastern hardwood forests are dynamic systems with full to partialcanopies, gaps from tree falls, an understory of herbaceous plants,layers of leaves in various stages of decomposition, and rich soil.Slimy and Red-backed salamanders, Ring-necked and Worm Snakes,and Box Turtles are naturally abundant in these rich habitats.

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Much of the Appalachian Mountains are covered with hardwoodforests composed of mixed oaks, hickories, and tulip poplar. Histori-cally, American chestnut dominated these forests. Large tracts of thisregion, especially in the southern Appalachians are owned and man-aged by the U.S. Forest Service.

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HARDWOOD FORESTS

distance from water sources, tree density, and canopycover. Fragmentation of forests across the landscapecreates a patchwork of habitats of various sizes anddegrees of isolation. Herp populations in northeasternforests contend with the many problems associatedwith small population size, isolation, and susceptibilityto disease and catastrophic environmental events.Acid precipitation impacts herps on the forest floor andin aquatic systems associated with mesic hardwoodforests. Fewer salamanders have been found in areasof forests with low pH soils, for example.

CHARACTERISTIC SPECIESRed-backed Salamander, Blue-spotted Salaman-der, Northern Slimy Salamander, Spotted Sala-mander, Wood Frog, American Toad, Five-linedSkink, Eastern Worm Snake, Eastern Ratsnake,Ring-necked Snake, Eastern Box Turtle, MilkSnake, Timber Rattlesnake, Copperhead



• On sites where options exist, favor site prepara-tion techniques that minimize soil disturbance.

• When possible, harvest during drier periods orperiods with snow cover, and use low-pressuretires. Harvesting during dry periods minimizes rut-ting and disturbance to soil structure.

• Leave stumps, some logs, dead standing snags,and other coarse woody debris following timberharvests. Many amphibians and reptiles requirewoody debris and stump holes for shelter, nesting,and foraging.

• Meet or exceed existing Best Management Prac-tices for sediment and erosion control.

• When timber is harvested, consider harvestingtechniques such as group selection, single-treeselection, or small clearcuts. Seek to minimize theimpacts of the harvest prescription on the forest floor.

• Limit construction of new logging roads andstaging areas; return the area to natural contoursand conditions when they are no longer needed.Minimize the footprint of your operation in the har-vested area.

• When using fertilizers and pesticides, be sure tofollow label directions and adequately bufferrivers. The directions on the labels are governmentmandated and have been tested for safety. Use theminimum amount necessary to achieve manage-ment objectives. Ensure there is an adequate bufferto prevent runoff.


The Red-backed Salamander can reach very high densities in north-eastern hardwood forests. The biomass (combined weight of all indi-viduals) in some sites can be more than all the mammals combinedand equal to all the birds combined.

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Red-backed Salamanders occur in two primary color phases, one withthe red stripe (red-backed phase) and one without the stripe (lead-backed phase). These woodland salamanders are major preda-tors of invertebrates and are themselves prey for snakes, birds, andsome mammals.

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lands, springs, seepages, and rock outcrops.These microhabitats are special places for manyspecies of amphibians and reptiles. They act as crit-ical areas; without them these species will not bepresent.

• When timber is harvested, consider harvestingtechniques such as group selection, single-treeselection, or small clearcuts. Where shade-dependent species or mature forest obligates are aconcern, consider leaving patches of large trees.Forested habitat that can serve as refugia for forest-dwelling animals from which they can more easilydisperse and repopulate harvested areas as theymature. Where early successional obligate speciesare a concern, clearcuts may be preferred. Whereboth late- and early successional species are pres-ent, a patchwork of harvest practices may be appro-priate.

OAK DECLINE: AN ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL THREAT. Oaks are valuable to humans as a timber sourceand to wildlife as a food source. In some parts ofthe Northeast, xeric oak and pine-oak ecosystemsare declining significantly due to a variety of fac-tors such as pathogens, parasites, and fire sup-pression. In addition to having economic conse-quences, the loss of oaks in particular has seriousimplications for many wildlife species, includingamphibians and reptiles. Acorns are a fundamen-tal element in the forest floor food chain, providingforage for many wildlife species, including squir-rels, rats and mice (snake prey). In many cases,the restoration of natural fire frequency, intensity,and seasonality may be all that is needed toreduce less-desirable timber species (sweetgum,red maple, etc.) and increase higher-quality oaks.


• Maintain or restore native forest cover. Protectstands of older trees, especially old-growth stands,from harvest. Maintain a diversity of forest age class-es, densities, and structures either within the samestand or among adjacent stands. While many mesichardwood-related amphibians and reptiles needmature forest stands, others require a variety ofstructure and composition regimes.

• Maintain or restore downed woody debris on theforest floor. Allow limbs and snags to stay in placeand decompose naturally. Salamanders and theirprey, notably invertebrates, use such microhabitatsextensively.

• Avoid fragmenting large blocks of forests withroads, field crops, developments, and other bar-riers between them. Habitat fragmentation createssmall population sizes that are subject to a host ofproblems, especially if individuals cannot migratebetween them. Some species will not cross openspaces, and those that try are subject to exposure,desiccation, and predation.

• Give special consideration to unique habitat fea-tures within the forest, such as ephemeral wet-



The Peaks of Otter Salamander is an example of a hardwood forestsalamander that has a very small range. It occurs only in a small sec-tion of the Blue Ridge Mountains in Virginia, and is likely a glacialrelict. Loss of the hardwood forests on that mountain could endangerthe species.

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Eastern Box Turtles are especially prevalent in hardwood forests of theNortheast. They eat worms, fruits, and mushrooms. Isolated popula-tions in small forest fragments eventually die out due to road mortalityand low reproductive success. Because Box Turtles live so long, sight-ings of individual turtles often continue after the population is func-tionally extinct.

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HARDWOOD FORESTS

• Manage deer populations so that forests willmaintain understory structure crucial to amphib-ians and reptiles. Too many deer can have negativeimpacts on the herbaceous and shrub layers in hard-wood forests. Salamanders climb onto this vegeta-tion to forage on insects on wet nights.

• Ensure that the forest floor structure is main-tained in as natural a state as possible. Leavelogs, snags, leaves, and other woody debris on site;replace as needed.

• Minimize or eliminate barriers to dispersalacross the landscape between forest fragments;leave or add windbreaks and hedgerows. Mostspecies risk exposure to predation and desiccation ifthey try to cross open spaces.

• To the extent possible, mimic natural distur-bance patterns, such as wind-throws and fire,when conducting forest management activities.Such actions provide natural openings in the canopyand alter the forest structure, thus making thesesmall places attractive to species that could not sur-vive in a closed canopy forest.

• Avoid locating trails through core habitat, sea-sonal wetlands, and intact old-growth forests.Trampling of the leaf litter, downed woody debris,and other microhabitat features on the forest floorcan impact salamander populations. Public accessto wetlands via trails increases the chances for pol-lution and collection of amphibians and reptiles.

• Carefully monitor the use of insecticides for con-trol of gypsy moth and other invasive insects.Non-targeted insects, specifically moths, are oftenaffected, impacting the prey base of amphibians andreptiles.

THE VALUE OF FOREST OPENINGS

Box Turtles and many other reptiles need nestingareas where soils are well drained and where sun-light reaches the ground. Old borrow pits, quar-ries, and other man-made openings may actuallybe of considerable importance to nesting reptiles.Before reclaiming such sites, determine first if nat-ural openings are available. When the only avail-able sun-exposed ground is along roadsides andhighways, road mortality may occur as femalesseek nesting sites.

Forest openings or tree-fall gaps caused by wind,called gaps, provide sunlit patches to lizards andsnakes that need basking sites. Such gaps areintegral parts of a dynamic hardwood forest. Ulti-mately, decomposing logs will provide habitat forterrestrial salamanders. Fallen trees and snagsare essential microhabitat and should not beremoved.

This is the Hardwood Forests module of the PARC publication, HMG-3. ISBN0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for further information, copiesof the complete document, or a web-based version of these guidelines.


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Eastern Rat Snakes are common inhabitants of hardwood forests inthe Northeast, although there are becoming increasingly rare at thenorthern end of their range. They help to regulate rodent communitiesand will prey on bird eggs and fledglings.

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Invasive plant species can change the structure of hardwood forestunderstories. Barberry has established itself in thick patches alongthis trail in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. Theeffects of this spiny plant on amphibians and reptiles are unknown,but walking through the forest is certainly now less pleasant forhumans.

Mature spruce and fir forests often contain swamps with cinnamonferns and sphagnum. These forest floor habitats support a variety ofcool-adapted amphibians and reptiles.

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Al Breisch

SPRUCE AND FIR FORESTS

The primary forest type in northern New England,notably Maine and northern New York, is comprised ofred spruce and balsam fir. This forest dominates thepoorly-drained and acidic soils of glacial origin in theNorthern Appalachian-Boreal Forest ecoregion. Coldtemperatures and soil conditions allowed this forest toremain relatively intact until recently. In areas with rel-atively fertile soils, deciduous trees such as yellow andpaper birch, red maple, American beech, northern redoak, and sugar maple are interspersed with spruceand fir. At the highest elevations, this forest gives wayto alpine vegetation.

In the southern portion of the Northeast, spruce and firforests are limited to the highest peaks in the South-ern Blue Ridge ecosystem. Canopy trees are oftenmisshapen by high winds. In some cases, canopytrees may be sparse or entirely absent and replacedby heath or grassy balds. Spruce and fir forests aresusceptible to insect outbreaks such as the nativespruce budworm and the introduced balsam woollyadelgid.

Spruce and fir forests in the Appalachians support ahigh diversity of forest-dwelling salamanders in the

CHARACTERISTIC SPECIESSpotted Salamander, Four-toed Salamander,Red-backed Salamander, American Toad, SpringPeeper, Wood Frog, Eastern Garter Snake, MilkSnake, Red-bellied Snake



• Maintain connectivity of suitable habitats to facil-itate dispersal and migration of reptiles andamphibians between forest stands. In somecases, retaining corridors may be an appropriateway to link suitable habitat. Stands that are separat-ed from other forested stands by unfavorable habitatmay limit the movement of amphibians and reptiles.Select locations for roads, fields, and openings care-fully to avoid fragmenting forests. When establishingwildlife food plots, stay within the footprint of previ-ous disturbances to avoid additional impacts.

• Allow dead, fallen trees and woody debris toremain and decompose naturally on the ground.These microhabitats are essential to forest flooramphibians and reptiles.


family Plethodontidae (See Appendix A), several ofwhich are endemic (found no where else) to high ele-vation mountaintops. Amphibians in these habitatsuse cover objects (e.g., rocks, logs) on the forest floorfor foraging, refugia and hibernacula. Some salaman-ders can reach high densities in the moss and duff lay-ers. The few reptiles in these forests, such as EasternGarter Snakes and Milk Snakes, need gaps in thecanopy and exposure to sun. They are usually associ-ated with rocky areas in this habitat.


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Throughout the Northeast's higher latitudes and elevations, softwoodforests, such as this red spruce-balsam fir type, may dominate thelandscape providing habitat for northern species such as the Red-backed Salamander, Blue-spotted Salamander, Wood Frog including dorsally-striped northern forms), Red-spotted Newt, MaritimeGarter Snake, and Northern Ring-necked Snake.

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dierThe moist forest floor in red spruce forests in the mountains of WestVirginia support a rich terrestrial salamander fauna due to the pres-ence of mosses, ferns, and abundant ground cover.

• Limit pedestrian and motorized vehicle access,including ATVs. Limiting human access will reducethe chances that amphibians and reptiles will bekilled on roads and trails, their habitat trampled, andanimals removed for the illegal trade in animals.

• Stabilize roadbeds and trails if erosion is a prob-lem. Erosion of road and trail beds causes siltation instreams.

• Regulate the collection of mosses for personaluse and commercial sale. Excessive moss harvesthas the potential to damage salamander populationsand their habitats.

• Manage deer populations so that forests willmaintain understory structure crucial to amphib-ians and reptiles. Too many deer can have negativeimpacts on the herbaceous and shrub layers in hard-wood forests. Salamanders use the moss and dufflayer extensively, thus, removal of such cover couldeliminate local populations.

• Where appropriate, maintain some forest canopycover in its natural, unmanaged state. Canopycover helps maintain cool temperatures and moistenvironments on the forest floor for salamanders,Wood frogs, and small snakes such as Red-belliedSnakes.

• Minimize soil disturbance (e.g., tire ruts, soilcompaction) when using heavy equipment. Uselow-pressure tires and limit equipment use to drierseasons or when the ground is frozen. Heavy equip-ment can disturb and compact soil, increase erosionand sediment, disrupt vegetative succession, andprovide distribution corridors for exotic plants.Although some amphibian species may be able tobreed successfully in tire ruts on low-traffic roads,the detrimental effects of excessive soil compactionand disturbances may outweigh the benefits.

• Leave large cull trees or patches of trees on har-vested sites whenever practical. These patchesmay sustain pockets of intact forest floor cover andhabitat for shade-dependent species until the sur-rounding harvest area achieves later successionstages.

• Minimize fragmentation of large tracts of forest.Fragmentation creates small populations with all theproblems of inbreeding and susceptibility to diseaseand predation.



Northern Ring-necked Snakes are predators of Red-backed Salaman-ders in spruce and fir forests. They inhabit the moist forest floor andmay be affected by timbering activities that change the substrate tem-perature and moisture.

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Red-backed Salamanders are likely the most abundant amphibianspecies in spruce and fir forests.

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Ribbon Snakes are becoming rare species in the spruce and fir forestsof the Northeast. They require grassy wetlands embedded in thespruce and fir forest type.

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• Avoid fragmenting large blocks of forests withroads, field crops, suburban developments, andother barriers. Habitat fragmentation isolates smallpopulations in small patches that are subject to ahost of problems, especially if individuals cannotmigrate between them. Some species will not crossopen spaces, and those that try risk predation anddesiccation.

• Exclude motorized vehicles, including ATVs. Off-road drivers do not always stay on the trails provid-ed. Trampling of amphibians and reptiles on the for-est floor and trails is a threat from these vehicles.The mossy forest floor is particularly vulnerable tomotorized vehicles and pedestrian traffic.

• Maintain and restore native forest cover wherepossible. Protect stands of older trees, especiallyold-growth stands, from harvest. Allow youngerstands to reach maturity.

• Maintain or restore downed woody debris on theforest floor. Allow limbs and snags to stay in placeand decompose naturally. Salamanders and theirprey use such microhabitats extensively.

• Protect unique habitat features within the forest,such as ephemeral wetlands, springs, seepages,and rock outcrops. These microhabitats are impor-

tant for breeding sites, foraging areas and hibernac-ula. Without them several species of amphibians andreptiles will not be present.

• Prevent loss of moss and herbaceous groundcover by controlling deer populations andhuman access. Too many deer and loss of mosscover due to commercial harvest may alter the habi-tat enough to impact salamanders.

• Identify threats from acid precipitation. Acid precip-itation impacts spruce and fir forests, streams, and theamphibians that occur in them. Seek ways to minimizeor ameliorate the effects of the additional acidity.

This is the Spruce and Fir Forests module of the PARC publication, HMG-3.ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for further information,copies of the complete document, or a web-based version of these guidelines.


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Relict high elevation spruce and fir forests in the Appalachian Moun-tains of Virginia and West Virginia are dying from air pollution. Man-agement of these forests and their herp inhabitants presents chal-lenges at a scale that most landowners will seldom face.

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American Toads, like all toads, lay long strings of black eggs in shallow water. They are widespread in northeastern North America.

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The Blue-spotted Salamanders is a Northeast and upper Midwestspecies that breeds in wooded vernal pools. The species has a limiteddistribution in New Jersey.

Parts of the Northeast have xeric (low moisture), well-drained soils that do not support deciduous, broad-leaved trees. Such areas support a variety of pineforests. Examples are the pitch pine barrens in NewYork, the Pine Barrens in southern New Jersey, andthe Virginia pine forests on south-facing slopes in theBlue Ridge and Appalachian mountains. In the North-east, loblolly pine forests also occur on former agricul-tural fields in the Piedmont of Maryland and Virginia.Many pine forests have associated oak trees (e.g.,scrub oak) but these tend to be sub-dominant. Natu-rally occurring pine forests are relatively open with anherbaceous ground cover and shrub layer. Recurringfire is an important component of natural pine foreststhat retards hardwood growth and maintains the moretolerant pine species. Where possible, fire should be apart of the manager’s toolbox in this habitat.

Amphibians and reptiles use the forest floor extensive-ly in pine-dominated habitats. Systems of decayingroots and stumps, as well as mammal tunnels, serveas hiding places and hibernacula. Moisture conditionsaffect activity patterns, with much of the amphibianactivity correlated with periods of rainfall. Toads willstay underground for months until the surface is wet.

Reptiles are somewhat less limited by moisture.Embedded wetlands within some pine habitats sup-port uncommon amphibians, such as Pine BarrensTreefrogs and Tiger Salamanders.


Kurt Buhlmann

XERIC UPLAND AND PINE FORESTS

The Pine Barrens in southern New Jersey represents a unique ecosys-tem that supports amphibians and reptiles do not occur farther north.Encroaching urban development will make prescribed burns increas-ingly difficult and may cause this region to ultimately become the “OakBarrens.”

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CHARACTERISTIC SPECIESTiger Salamander, American Toad, Fowler’s Toad,Pine Barrens Treefrog, Northern Fence Lizard,Black Racer, Copperhead, Hog-nosed Snake,Northern Pine Snake, Scarlet Snake, Timber Rat-tlesnake



• Maintain connectivity of suitable habitats to facil-itate dispersal and migration of reptiles andamphibians between larger forest stands. In

some cases, retaining corridors may be an appropri-ate way to link suitable habitat. Stands that are sep-arated from other forested stands by unfavorablehabitat may limit the movement of amphibians andreptiles. Locate roads, fields, and other openingscarefully to avoid fragmenting forests. When estab-lishing wildlife food plots, stay within the footprint ofprevious disturbances to avoid additional impacts.

• On sites where options exist, favor site prepara-tion techniques that minimize soil disturbance.

• When timber is harvested, consider harvestingtechniques such as group selection, single-treeselection, or small clearcuts. Where shade-dependent species or mature forest obligates are a


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Many pine forests in the Northeast occur on mountains, or on theCoastal Plain, such as this one at Mount Misery in southern New Jersey. Low intensity prescribed fires would maintain the sparseunderstory and enhance this habitat for xeric-adapted amphibians and reptiles.

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Fowler’s Toads occur in pine forests and other habitats with sandysoils. They require small pools of water for breeding and tadpoledevelopment.

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Eastern Hog-nosed Snakes forage exclusively for toads in dry sandyand sand-loam soils in pine forests. Non-venomous Hognose Snakeswill often roll over on their backs and play dead; they do not bite.

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Pine forests in the Northeast are targets of timber harvesting and man-agement, as well as places slated for housing subdivisions. Manage-ment often results in mixed aged stands, as well as rutted roads. Someamphibians breed in these road rut pools.

concern, consider leaving patches of large trees.Where both late- and early successional species arepresent, consider a patchwork of medium-sizedclearcuts and similar-sized forested stands.

• Consider maintaining or creating canopy gaps inmanaged pine forests. Such gaps in the canopyallow species that need sunlight to thrive in pineforests.

• Retain downed woody debris on the forest floorbetween fire cycles. Amphibians and reptiles usesuch debris extensively for shelter and foraging.


• Where feasible, restore natural fire frequency,intensity, and seasonality. Without fire, hardwoodsoften dominate pine forest ecosystems. Thick forestcanopies shade out herbaceous groundcover, whichis often the critical first link in the food chain.

• Consider prescribed burns to manage pineforests. Fire was likely an integral part of the historyof many areas in the Northeast. Consult with a pre-scribed fire expert and a regional herpetologist to

determine the correct management for your area.

• Avoid fragmenting large blocks of forests withroads, field crops, developments, and other bar-riers between them. Habitat fragmentation createssmall population sizes that are subject to a host ofproblems, especially if individuals cannot migratebetween them. Some amphibians and reptiles willnot move across large open spaces, and those thattry risk predation and desiccation.



The Eastern Fence Lizard requires open canopies and lots of sunlight,as do most other lizards. They thrive in sparse-canopy pine stands.

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Most pine stands are tolerant of fire. Serotinous cones of some pinespecies open only after being burned. Fire maintained pine forests,often have sparse canopies with low herbaceous groundcover.

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Northern Pine Snakes are large and beautiful snakes of the New Jer-sey Pine Barrens. Pine Snakes have large home ranges. Habitat frag-mentation, roads and automobile traffic are jeopardizing this species.Conservation strategies must include a landscape-level perspectiveand multiple land parcels, as most single private land holdings are notof sufficient size to maintain viable populations of this snake.

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• Protect unique habitat features embedded withinthe forest, such as ephemeral wetlands, springs,seepages, and rock outcrops. These microhabitatsare special places for many species of amphibiansand reptiles. They act as critical areas; without themthese species will not be present.

• Leave logs, snags, and other woody debris on site;replace as needed. Amphibians and reptiles use suchmicrohabitat features for shelter and foraging.

• Avoid removing stumps when landscaping orrestoring habitat for amphibians and reptiles.

Where possible, retain stumps as refuges for thearea’s amphibians and reptiles; they provide deepunderground shelters as they decay.

• Work with knowledgeable state and regional her-petologists to minimize impact on native speciesthrough judicious use of timber prescriptions.Creative forest management will help maintain adiverse regional herpetofauna.

This is the Xeric Upland and Pine Forests module of the PARC publication,HMG-3. ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for furtherinformation, copies of the complete document, or a web-based version ofthese guidelines.


The Pine Barrens Treefrog has a restricted range in the Northeast,being known from the Pine Barrens of New Jersey. These treefrogslive in pine and hardwood forests and breed in acidic seasonal wet-lands, as well as abandoned cranberry bogs.

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Black Racers are xeric-adapted snakes that forage in the open grassand herbaceous ground cover in managed pine forests.

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Eastern Hog-nosed Snakes provide great examples of how snakes caneat large prey. American Toads fill up with air as a defensive measure.Enlarged teeth in the snake’s upper jaw puncture the toad, let the airout, and allow it to swallow the toad whole.

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The Eastern Hog-nosed Snake is the only species in the Northeast thatplays dead after bluffing with head and neck expanded, to hopefully,avoid predation. Of course, all good dead snakes have to be on theirbacks, as this snake will quickly turn over on its back if you put it onits belly.

Grass-dominated habitats have increased in theNortheast due to extensive forest clearing and agricul-ture. Abandoned fields and reclaimed surface minesare quickly colonized by annual and perennial grassesthat produce extensive ground cover. Small mammalsuse this microhabitat extensively and thus attract sev-eral species of predatory snakes. There is no canopy,thus high temperatures in warm months limit theoccurrence of amphibians. Frogs and some salaman-ders may be present when there are associated micro-habitats such as rock cover, downed woody debrisfrom adjacent forests, ephemeral pools, and streams.When farmlands are in proximity to rivers andstreams, Wood Turtles and Box Turtles may use themin spring and summer by for foraging on berries andearthworms. Patches of grasslands within extensiveforest cover, at high elevations, and at northern lati-tudes offer open canopy areas where reptiles canachieve temperatures necessary for maintenance andembryonic development.

Natural grasslands in the Northeast include areas withmountain-top balds and pine barrens. Fire plays animportant role in maintaining these natural systems.Fire frequency regulates the number and density of


Mike Marchaud

GRASSLANDS AND OLD FIELDS

Grasslands in the Northeast are most often the historic result of landclearing for farming and grazing, and they vary in size and configura-tion. Abandoned agricultural fields often succeed back to forest, butmay also be managed for herbaceous diversity, with benefits to certainbirds, butterflies, and other insects that require open areas.

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pine and other fire-tolerant trees in these areas. Nat-ural grasslands are generally rare in the Northeast.Farming and grazing for the past 300 years or so, per-haps earlier by bison, maintained most of the grass-lands in the Northeast. Some grassland areas onnortheastern farms support embedded wet meadowswhere the endangered Bog Turtle may occur.

CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES American Toad, Northern Leopard Frog, PickerelFrog, Eastern Box Turtle, Wood Turtle, BlackRacer, Eastern Garter Snake, Eastern Milk Snake,Smooth Green Snake



• Where mowing and haying are goals:• mow when reptiles and amphibians are least

active (preferably prior to emergence from hiber-nation, e.g., November - February).

• mow at high blade settings (8 inches or greater).• do first cutting after turtle nesting season is over

(generally safe after mid-July).

• Rotate livestock frequently to prevent over-graz-ing. Over-grazing eliminates grass cover used byamphibians, reptiles, and other wildlife, and itincreases erosion on slopes.

• Limit pedestrian and motorized vehicle traffic,including dirt bikes and ATVs except on estab-lished trails and roads. Excessive use of grass-lands by humans and their vehicles can tramplemicrohabitats used by amphibians and reptiles andincreases erosion.


• Maintain the open nature of the habitat; promotea spatially-variable or sparse tree canopy coverappropriate for the area. Canopy provided by older


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A mountaintop bald in the George Washington National Forest is hometo Eastern Garter Snakes, Milk Snakes, and Smooth Green Snakes.Debate continues as to how these mountaintop grasslands originatedand remain open—perhaps by frequent lightning strikes, or perhapsgrazing.

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Eastern Garter Snakes are common inhabitants of grasslands at allelevations. They are predators of salamanders, frogs, and earthworms.Their longitudinal stripes make them difficult to detect in the grasses.

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Smooth Green Snakes can be frequently encountered under large flatrocks within open grassy mountaintop balds.

trees may be desirable in a grassland communitybecause it provides a variable microclimate andstructures used by some species of reptiles, such assnakes and lizards.

• Promote diverse, native grasses and forbs, andwhen necessary remove exotic plant species,woody encroachment, and woody succession.Many species require the physical structure (clump-ing) provided by native vegetation such as warmseason grasses. Introduced vegetation does notform clumps but create mats, thus preventing use ofthe area by some amphibians and reptiles.

• If possible limit or prohibit off-road vehicleaccess. Trampling of grasslands will likely kill indi-vidual animals and destroy essential microhabitats.

• Maintain or restore connectivity between similarhabitats and between complementary but dis-similar habitats. Amphibians and reptiles will movegreat distances between habitats. Natural corridors



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Patches of grassland habitat occur as a result of past rock quarry operations in the Northeast. The pile of rock remaining in the open habitat receivessubstantial sunlight and may attract Eastern Garter, Milk, Hog-nosed, and Copperhead snakes, as well as Fence Lizards. Such embedded microhabitatfeatures provide basking and hibernation sites for reptiles.

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A strip mine in West Virginia may provide habitat for grasslandspecies if the reclamation follows best management practices.

GRASSLANDS

provide routes that minimize mortality due to preda-tion and desiccation.

• Restore natural fire frequency, intensity, and sea-sonality where appropriate. Fire-maintained grass-lands, especially those with native plants, will regen-erate quickly and form a diverse habitat favored bymany species.

• Maintain or restore natural hydrological cycles inwet grasslands. Many types of grasslands haveimbedded seepages and small, perennial streams.Avoid altering these hydrological features.

PASTURE AND HAYFIELD TIPS

When sown with native grasses, pastures andhayfields can closely mimic natural prairie habitatsand may provide important habitats for grassland-adapted amphibians and reptiles and otherwildlife. If mowed, start in the center and use aback-and-forth approach to avoid concentratingfleeing animals where they may be killed orstranded. Elevating the mowing deck height to 8or even 12 inches will reduce mortality and willleave important cover. This will help prevent killingBox Turtles and Wood Turtles that are commonusers of grassland habitats. Visit the NRCS web-site for information about planting old fields withnative grasses.

This is the Grasslands and Old Fields module of the PARC publication, HMG-3. ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for further informa-tion, copies of the complete document, or a web-based version of theseguidelines.


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Northern Leopard Frogs spend substantial amounts of time away fromwetlands and forage in grassland habitats. Indeed, Northern LeopardFrogs are often called “grass frogs” due to their frequent use of grass-lands.

Joe

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Management and maintenance of the Big Meadows grassland inShenandoah National Park, Virginia, is accomplished by periodic pre-scribed burns. Growing season burns stimulate grasses to flower andproduce seed, and return nutrients to the soil. Smooth Green Snakes,Milk Snakes, and Eastern Garter Snakes occur here.

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Hatchling Black Racers, like baby Eastern Ratsnakes, looknothing like their parents. These snakes become entirelyblack with age. The blotch pattern helps with camouflage.

Exposed rock outcrops and talus slopes are relativelysmall habitats embedded within larger ecosystemssuch as hardwood forests. Most in the Northeast areusually located in mountainous or hilly areas in theAllegheny Plateau, Central Appalachian Forest, andSouthern Blue Ridge ecoregions. They are dry,sparsely vegetated, with little soil and sparse canopy,and have an abundance of hiding places among therocks and crevices. Gradients between open sun,shade, and moisture regimes are often abrupt. Grassyareas, cliffs, talus, quarries, rock slides, and ledgesare examples of this habitat type. Reptiles are morecharacteristic of these habitats than amphibians. Sev-eral snakes, notably Timber Rattlesnakes and Cop-perheads, use such habitats for basking sites, birthingrookeries, and winter hibernacula, especially onsouth-facing slopes. Except for some species like theNorthern Fence Lizard, reptile use of this habitat typeis usually seasonal. Several species of amphibianssuch as the Cow Knob and Shenandoah salamandersoccupy talus slopes and rocky seepages on north-fac-ing slopes in the Central Appalachian Forest ecore-gion. Occupancy by these herps tends to be year-round.


ROCK OUTCROPS AND TALUS

Rock outcrops represent ancient den sites for several species ofsnakes, notably the Timber Rattlesnake. Deep crevices and fissuresallow these snakes to escape freezing winter temperatures. Severalstates now protect these important sites.

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Rock outcrops, ledges, talus, and rocky glades aresubject to a variety of threats, including human usefrom various forms of recreation. Some areas knownfor their numbers of snakes attract some people whoseek to eliminate them. Fire is usually a natural formof maintenance but exclusion of fire causes over-growth of vegetation, including canopy that destroysthe thermal characteristics of these habitats.

CHARACTERISTIC SPECIESPickerel Frog, Cheat Mountain Salamander,Green Salamander, Shenandoah Salamander,Cow Knob Salamander, Five-lined Skink, North-ern Fence Lizard, Black Racer, Copperhead,Eastern Milk Snake, Smooth Earth Snake, TimberRattlesnake



• Manage rock climbing and other recreationalactivities to areas well away from biologicallysignificant areas. Climbers should be aware of pro-tected species.

• Limit motorized vehicles, including dirt bikes andATVs, to areas well away from biologically signif-icant sites, such as rattlesnake dens. Such man-agement actions will minimize destruction and alter-ation of these sensitive sites.

• Implement Best Management Practices (BMPs)in order to minimize erosion and soil distur-bances uphill from talus and scree slopes.Excessive sediment from uphill can wash down, fill-ing cracks and crevices that amphibians and reptilesneed for microhabitat.

• Restore direct sunlight to outcrops that have


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Talus slopes with fields of rocks and small boulders provide shelterand basking places for snakes and lizards. Snakes may overwinter intalus slopes if loose rock layers are deep and thus afford places toescape cold winter temperatures.

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Rock outcrops may be sunlit or completely shaded. The amount ofsunlight reaching the rocks will determine whether outcrops are inhab-ited primarily by salamanders (shaded and moist) or snakes andlizards (sunny and dry). Therefore, altering the surrounding forestcanopy will affect the composition of the rock outcrop herpetofauna.

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Copperheads also use rock outcrops as den sites in the Northeast.They occasionally overwinter with Timber Rattlesnakes and EasternRat Snakes.

been invaded by native or non-native plants thatshade the area. Some outcrops are susceptible toforest shading from the edges and below as treesgrow.

• Limit hard rock mining in the vicinity of overwin-tering or birthing sites used by snakes. Miningcan severely impact or eliminate snake populationsin these areas.

IDEAL: Refuges, Sanctuaries, and PreservesWhen benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a PRI-MARY objective, as with nature preserves, wildliferefuges, and private lands whose owners wish tooptimize herpetofaunal diversity and abundance

dwelling salamanders are unable to move elsewhereif their habitat is lost.

• Minimize publicity of sensitive and unique areasto prevent poaching or indiscriminate killing.Hibernating snakes and dense colonies of salaman-ders are extremely vulnerable to collecting or killingbecause they are concentrated in small areas.

• Protect habitats adjacent to outcrops and talusareas to allow dispersal of amphibians and rep-tiles to foraging areas and other sites. Hibernatingreptiles and rock-dwelling salamanders usuallyspend only a part of their annual cycles in talus andoutcroppings. Reptiles often disperse to adjacenthabitats to forage during warmer months. Somesalamanders may breed in nearby springs, seeps,and headwaters. Both the rocky uplands and theadjacent, complementary habitats must be presentfor these species to survive. Ensure that land-usesdo not render seasonal migration and natural disper-sal patterns difficult.



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Green Salamanders are inhabitants of sandstone and limestone rockoutcrops in Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. Hori-zontal, deep cracks on partially-shaded, moist rock faces are pre-ferred. Extensive timber harvest operations around these sites mayincrease temperatures and reduce moisture, prevent inter-populationmovements, and presumably cause extirpation of local populations.Recolonization, if possible, is likely a slow process.

• Exclude ATV access especially in the vicinity ofsensitive habitat elements used for nesting,breeding, or denning areas. ATV and other vehicu-lar traffic can compact soil, increase erosion andsediment, provide corridors for invasive plantspecies along trails and kill animals, especiallysnakes.

• Use adequate buffers and other Best Manage-ment Practices to protect biologically significantsites from logging, grazing, development, andother erosion-generating activities that mayoccur uphill. Sensitive sites below such activitieswill receive sediment or pollution that flows downhill.

• Monitor the long-term condition of reptile densites and significant salamander locations.These snakes are imprinted to hibernate at a singlelocation—if the hibernaculum is degraded ordestroyed, they may not be able to find a suitablereplacement. Because of limited mobility and a lowtolerance for unfavorable habitats, most rock-

• Where feasible, maintain and restore natural firefrequency, intensity, and seasonality, especiallyat landscape scales in surrounding, complemen-tary habitats. Fire is especially important for reptilesthat hibernate in sunny, south-facing rock exposures.Woody encroachment and excessive shade mayrender basking impossible. (See insert: “A Long Win-ter’s Nap”)

• Exclude or remove exotic plant species.Encroachment of non-native plants could alter thesite’s microclimate and physical structure needed byamphibians and reptiles.

• Route hiking trails around outcrops and taluszones, and reroute existing trails to avoid them.Avoidance and out-of-sight means out-of-mind poli-cies will help maintain such sensitive sites.

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Newborn and juvenile Copperheads possess a bright yellow tail tipthat they use for luring insects, lizards, and other small prey as theysit camouflaged on the forest floor.


A LONG WINTER’S NAP

Like all amphibians and reptiles, snakes are “cold-blooded” and their body temperatures are dictated bytheir surroundings. As temperatures become increas-ingly cold, snakes are too sluggish to hunt or feed and

may freeze todeath if they stayon the surface.Therefore, theyhibernate to con-serve energy andavoid freezing. Inorder to success-fully hibernate,snakes must usean undergroundlocation that isdeep enough toescape freezingt e m p e r a t u r e sand has a south-facing aspect toal low them towarm quickly whenbasking.

To survive longwinters, snakes

must “fatten up” prior to hibernation in the fall and feedas soon as possible after emergence in the springSince temperatures are often marginal during thesetimes, snakes must bask in direct sunlight (preferablyon heat-absorbing surfaces such as rocks or fire-blackened ground) in order to build up enough energyto forage. Woody encroachment and excessive shad-ing around hibernation sites may render basking diffi-cult or impossible. As the habitat surrounding a hiber-nation den degrades, fewer and fewer snakes are ableto survive the winter.

Why not simply move to another den? Snakes areusually imprinted on a single hibernation site and areincapable of finding a suitable replacement. In colderclimates, generations upon generations of snakesfrom the same colony may gather at the same hiber-naculum. These annual migrations repeat for decadesor even centuries, as long as the site remains favor-able. If the den is destroyed by development ordegraded by fire suppression, the entire colony maybe lost.

— Mark Bailey and Jeff Holmes


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Talus slopes in some parts of the Appalachian and Blue Ridge Moun-tains support unique and endemic salamanders, like the endangeredShenandoah Salamander in Shenandoah National Park.

Timber Rattlesnakes bask among the rocksto regulate their body temperatures. Rat-tlesnake hibernation den sites are used forrepeatedly for many years. Juvenile snakesuse scent-trailing to follow adults back tothese dens each autumn. Since many rat-tlesnakes may congregate at a single den,the loss or disturbance of the site mayendanger the local population. Completecanopy closure decreases the value of thesesites but can be managed through monitor-ing and planned removal of some vegetation. Robin Jung-Brown

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Eastern Ratsnakes often overwinter with Copperheads and Timber Rattlesnakes in northeastern dens. Large Black Racers, however, areknown to kill and eat them.

This is the Rock Outcrops and Talus module of the PARC publication, HMG-3. ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for further informa-tion, copies of the complete document, or a web-based version of theseguidelines.

Despite the fact that they are made of limestone rocks,caves and karst habitats are fragile systems. They arespecialized habitats that have unique air flow patterns,high humidity levels, and other microhabitat character-istics that remain stable over centuries. They are sen-sitive to surface activities that result in pollution.Human recreational use can easily disrupt the stableenvironmental balance and physical structure of thesehabitats, and thus harm the often-unique animalinhabitants in the process. Reputable caving andspelunking organizations are good stewards of thecaves they visit. Caves and karst systems occur in theNortheast primarily in the Cumberlands and SouthernRidge and Valley, Southern Blue Ridge, and CentralAppalachian Forest ecoregions. Some are well knownand operated commercially (e.g., Luray Caverns inVirginia and Howe’s Cavern in New York) and othersare well-kept secrets. Land managers and privatelandowners protect many caves themselves. Aban-doned mineshafts can function much like caves andbe used by some species of herps. Although the cavesand karst systems module has been placed in the ter-restrial habitat section of this Guide, the occurrence ofmany salamanders in caves is dependent on cavestreams and pools.

Kurt Buhlmann

CAVES AND KARST SYSTEMS

Although large, spectacular caves are generally restricted to Virginiaand West Virginia within the Northeast region, smaller caves can befound in most ecoregions that contain limestone rock layers (e.g., Cen-tral Appalachian Forest, Cumberlands and Southern Ridge and Valley,High Allegheny Plateau ecoregions).

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CAVES AND KARST SYSTEMS

The animals that are truly adapted to cave environ-ments are unique and extremely sensitive to distur-bance. Some salamanders are especially suited forthe dark reaches of caves and karst systems. Onesuch species in the Northeast, the West VirginiaSpring Salamander, is known from only one stream inone cave; it is troglobitic and endemic to that cave.Cave and Long-tailed Salamanders are well-knowncave inhabitants, although they also use adjacentmesic hardwood forests. The twilight zone of caves isused by several species of reptiles and frogs and lessspecialized salamanders. A few reptiles may usecaves and karst systems for winter hibernacula.

CHARACTERISTIC SPECIESLong-tailed Salamander, Cave Salamander,Green Salamander, West Virginia Spring Sala-mander, Pickerel Frog, Eastern Ratsnake, East-ern Garter Snake.



• Where cave access is permitted, limit humanactivity to times outside of seasonal fauna activ-ity. Consider guided tours over open access. Workwith a management partner (caving grotto) or devel-op a permitting system to foster user accountability.

• Protect subterranean systems from sedimentfrom timber harvest, agriculture, residentialdevelopment, and other land-use activities insurrounding habitats. Sediment and runoff fromactivities on the surface outside caves can destroysensitive microhabitats used by cave amphibians.

• Meet or exceed Best Management Practices. Caveamphibians and endemic invertebrates are extremelysensitive to changes in the quality of their habitat.

• Establish natural buffer zones around sinkholesin order to maintain the quantity and quality ofwater entering the karst aquifer. Treat these sensi-tive habitats like vernal pools.


• Each cave is unique, an irreplaceable creationthat should be protected from damage. Erectgates where necessary to prevent illegal entry. Gatedesign should not alter airflow, temperatures, orhumidity, or interfere with passage of fauna such asbats. Gate designs are available through Bat Con-servation International (http://www.batcon.org/news2/mines/batsmines_38-45.pdf).

• Maintain natural airflow patterns and preventsediment from entering the cave. Altering caveentrances will change airflow, temperatures, andhumidity. Cave organisms are sensitive to rapidchanges in their cave ecosystem.


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Caves that contain unique biological or historical significance havesometimes been gated to protect those resources. Caves are stillextremely vulnerable to surface runoff from poor agriculture or timberharvest practices. There are opportunities to work with cave conserva-tion organizations to protect cave resources.

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Pickerel Frogs are often found in cave entrances, especially those withstreams. They are not true cave inhabitants and are only visitors, thusthey are considered trogloxenes.



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Small caves may be overlooked as insignificant, but in fact they mayharbor populations of endemic invertebrates that are thus foundnowhere else in the world.

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The Long-tailed Salamander is considered a cave troglophile because they can exist and reproduce within a cave (as long as there is a cave streampresent), although they are not obligated to remain there. In fact, most cave-dwelling populations of Long-tailed Salamanders regularly forage in hard-wood forests that surround many caves.

• Maintain forest buffers around all caveentrances. Forests help prevent sedimentation fromentering cave entrances. However, organic particlesgenerated by forest ecosystem processes do serveas a food sources for cave organisms.

• Prevent point and non-point source pollution fromentering caves. Learn all the points of entry of yourcaves and protect them from input of polluted water.

• Prohibit dumping of commercial, industrial, andresidential waste into caves, including trash andorganic debris. Input of petroleum products, septic

waste, and other contaminants can kill sensitivecave animals.

• Maintain natural hydrological patterns through-out the recharge areas of the caves on your prop-erty. Maintenance of natural water flow patterns willhelp keep pollution from entering cave rechargepoints.

• Restrict human use of caves of least sensitivity.If privately owned, consider partnering with a cavinggrotto to oversee visitation management. If govern-ment owned, consider a permitting system.

• Keep livestock out of cave openings and sink-holes.

• Remove trash and debris dumped into cavesand sinkholes.

For additional information on cave conservation, visitthe websites of the Virginia Cave Board:www.dcr.virginia.gov/dnh/vcbsinkholes.htmNational Speleological Society: www.caves.orgAmerican Cave Conservation Association:www.cavern.org/acca/accahome.htmlSoutheastern Cave Conservancy: www.scci.org

This is the Caves and Karst Systems module of the PARC publication, HMG-3. ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for further informa-tion, copies of the complete document, or a web-based version of theseguidelines.

Some 22% or more of the landscape in the Northeastis used for agricultural purposes, although theamount of land varies among states. Agricultural land-scapes are actually mosaics of cultivated crops, pas-tures, orchards, hedgerows, farm ponds, swales,ditches, out buildings, barns, rock walls, and aban-doned fields. With some thought to the naturallyoccurring habitat that existed before conversion, agri-cultural lands can provide significant and critical habi-tat for amphibians and reptiles. Croplands, pastures,and orchards can support some of the amphibiansand reptiles that occurred there under natural condi-tions. Embedded wetlands, vegetated stream banks,wooded slopes adjacent to fields, remnant prairiepatches, glades and barrens, and other non-cultivat-ed areas (even fencerows and irrigation ditches) mayserve as important patches of “natural” habitats inwhich amphibians and reptiles can survive in agricul-tural landscapes. Amphibians and reptiles will useagricultural lands to forage or to migrate to other nat-ural habitats. For this reason, it is important to main-tain corridors of suitable habitat connecting naturalareas within agricultural lands.


Mike Marchand

AGRICULTURAL LANDS

Monoculture crops do not afford much habitat for amphibians and rep-tiles, however, associated imbedded habitats such as farm ponds,hedgerows, and woodlots create a mosaic of habitats in which a num-ber of common amphibians and reptiles maintain populations.

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CHARACTERISTIC SPECIESEastern Spadefoot, American Toad, AmericanBullfrog, Eastern Box Turtle, Painted Turtle, Snap-ping Turtle, Wood Turtle, Five-lined Skink, BlackRacer, Eastern Ratsnake, Eastern Garter Snake,Northern Water Snake



• Protect and buffer natural areas in agriculturallandscape. These are the areas where mostamphibians and reptiles are found in agriculturallandscapes.

• If necessary, develop naturally vegetated corri-dors between habitat fragments. Core habitats,refugia, and migration and dispersal corridors areessential to amphibian and reptile survival in agricul-tural zones.

• Consider restoring natural hydrological cycles todrained wetlands. Natural flood cycles and season-al water retention may enhance breeding amphibianpopulations.

• When possible, avoid mowing wetlands, shore-lines, and ditches from mid-spring through mid-fall. When mowing fields, raise deck height to at



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Wood Turtles are frequently found in agricultural landscapes in theNortheast. They require a matrix of streams for winter hibernation andbreeding, as well as fields, meadows and woodlands for summer for-aging on berries and earthworms.

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Many agricultural areas in the Northeast are embedded in highlyforested landscapes. This mosaic of habitats benefits many species ofamphibians and reptiles, especially when water bodies are present.

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Wood Turtles frequently use agricultural fields for foraging and shelterduring spring and summer but are risk being killed by mowers. Settingblade heights to 8 inches or higher would have avoided this accident.

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Cattle have mixed benefits for amphibians and reptiles. Trampling ofwetland vegetation can alter these habitats, but grazing can keep suchplaces free of hardwood encroachment. Low levels of cattle grazingare beneficial to endangered Bog Turtle habitats.

AGRICULTURAL LANDS

least 8 inches. Raising the mowing deck height to 8or even 12 inches will reduce mortality of Wood Tur-tles and other species.

• Rotate livestock frequently in order to retaingroundcover vegetation as habitat for amphib-ians and reptiles. Hoof prints can disturb and com-pact soil, thus increasing erosion and runoff.

• Limit livestock grazing in wetlands. Where feasi-ble, pump water to troughs away from wetlands.Livestock trample native wetland plants, alteringhabitats for amphibians and reptiles. Excessive con-centrations of nutrients (manure) in aquatic systemscan cause unnatural algal blooms, alter dissolvedoxygen and CO2 levels, and affect aquatic amphib-ians and reptiles, especially tadpoles and salaman-der larvae. Livestock can be used to control invasivespecies in wet meadows and fens.

• Follow fertilizer, herbicide, and insecticide labeldirections very carefully; use the minimumamounts needed to achieve management objec-tives precisely where needed.

• Encourage conservation tillage in agriculturallands if they are located near forested areas con-taining isolated, seasonal wetlands. Conservationtillage will minimize mortality of ground-dwellingamphibians and reptiles that are often killed by disking.

• Use native species wood chip berms, hay bales,and staggered siltation fencing for erosion con-trol in areas surrounding wetlands and their ter-restrial buffers. Be creative in preventing pollutionof the waters on your property. These materials canallow passage of animals from breeding sites toupland refugia.


• Add buffers several hundred feet in width alongwetlands and streams. Amphibians and reptilesuse much of the adjacent habitats around wetlands,streams, and rivers. Vegetated buffers limit fertilizerand pesticide input from agricultural areas, as well asproviding cover for these animals.

• Develop corridors with hedgerows between habi-tat fragments. Amphibians and reptiles will movealong such habitats as they disperse to other areas.


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American Toad tadpoles are black and usually congregate together.They have to reach metamorphosis quickly before the pool dries up.This can take as little as three weeks. The metamorphs then dispersewidely.

American Toads are often found in agricultural landscapes. They breedsuccessfully in farm ponds and can move long distances from water.They hibernate underground in soft or sandy soil.

Toads breed and lay long strings of black eggs in very shallow water.American and Fowler’s Toads can use mud puddles and road rut pud-dles in agricultural areas.

• Avoid mowing or plowing around shorelines ofpermanent and seasonal wetlands. Maintainingshoreline cover will benefit wildlife that use thesewetlands. This management activity will reduce mor-tality to many species inhabiting wetland shorelinesand the areas around them.

• Avoid precision land leveling where possible.Such practices eliminate shallow depressional wet-lands that are primary breeding habitats for severalspecies of amphibians. Some species are in declinebecause of this practice.

• Prevent livestock access to streams and wet-lands. Use fences or other means to keep livestockout of water bodies and consequently polluting them.

• Avoid storing silage, manure, salt, and other pos-sible contaminants near wetlands. Minimize con-tamination of water bodies from these sources.

• Avoid using chemicals where possible. Recent stud-ies have demonstrated that even low concentrationsof some chemicals may cause harm to amphibians.

• Restore and protect existing wetlands and wet-land complexes. Restoration of such habitats usedextensively by amphibians and reptiles will go a longway to ensuring their continued presence on yourproperty.

• Reduce erosion from livestock and tillage. Use con-servation tillage and minimize overgrazing. See recom-mendations by the Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay(http://www.alliancechesbay.org/project.cfm?vid=85)

• Learn effective nutrient management (timing,amounts, mechanics of spreading). Considerusing crop rotation and burning to add nutrients tothe soil rather than chemicals.



• Be careful with or avoid using plastic mesh net-ting for reducing deer and bird impact on com-mercial plants and fruit trees. Snakes and otherwildlife become entangled in the mesh and often dieinhumanely from overheating or struggling. They canbe removed safely by clipping the mesh away andreleasing the animal.

• Do not kill snakes in and around barns and otherstructures. These predators eat mice and otherrodents and thus serve a valuable function to farmers.

This is the Agricultural Lands module of the PARC publication, HMG-3. ISBN0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for further information, copiesof the complete document, or a web-based version of these guidelines.

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Overgrazing by cattle can lead to erosion of soil and minimize thevalue of wet meadows and rivulets to amphibians and reptiles.

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Upland Chorus Frogs will persist in agricultural settings provided thatwoodlots and hedgerows are present and pools contain water for atleast three weeks.

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The Eastern Milk Snake is unfortunately mistaken for the venomousCopperhead and killed when encountered by humans. Milk Snakes gottheir name because they eat mice around barns and early settlersthought they sucked milk from cows. They are beneficial in agriculturallandscapes.

A mosaic of landscapes ranging from completelyunsuitable for amphibians and reptiles to those thatsupport populations of tolerant species characterizesurban and residential areas. Yet, patches of habitatsuitable for some species persist. Patches of habitat inurban areas include parks, woodlots, backyard habi-tats and ponds, wetlands of varying quality, streamswith narrow wooded buffer zones, golf courses, andplant nurseries. Some species persist for many yearsin these habitats, and these habitat patches offeropportunities for enhancement, restoration, and cre-ation that would greatly benefit some amphibians andreptiles. The urban landscape comprises over five mil-lion hectares in the Northeast.

Dispersal between habitat patches is difficult foramphibians and reptiles because of several forms ofbarriers such as storm drains, curbs, fences, buildings,channelized streams, and hot asphalt. Dogs, cats,crows, blue jays, raccoons, opossums and other subsi-dized predators usually thrive in urban systems. Urbanand suburban areas containing suitable habitatswhether in patches or along stream and river corridorsoffer many opportunities for education and study onhow well some species adapt and why some do not.


Joe Mitchell

URBAN AND RESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS

This new development has many barriers to amphibians and reptilesand little natural habitat. Only the woodlot to the right may supportsmall species, such as Southern Leopard Frogs, Red-backed Salaman-ders, Worm Snakes. Large urban parks may continue to support BoxTurtle populations.

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CHARACTERISTIC SPECIESTwo-lined Salamander, Spring Peeper, AmericanToad, Fowler’s Toad, American Bullfrog, GrayTreefrog, Northern Green Frog, Common Snap-ping Turtle, Eastern Garter Snake, NorthernBrown Snake



• Include existing natural areas in the design andplanning of new neighborhoods. Retention of nat-ural areas will greatly enhance the capacity of neigh-borhoods and other urban developments to supportamphibians, reptiles, and other native animals.

• Identify and protect existing special habitat fea-tures such as streams, wetlands, rock walls, androck outcroppings. A survey of such habitats avail-able to amphibians and reptiles is a good first step inprotecting these sensitive areas.

• Consider protection of wetlands, stream corri-dors, and representative terrestrial habitats dur-ing the planning process before development



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Open drainage grates in urban areas are traps to small animals,including amphibians and reptiles. The curb is a barrier to the move-ments of salamanders and turtles.

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Cape Cod curbing along roadsides would allow amphibians and rep-tiles, especially turtles, to crawl over it rather than be blocked by thevertical walls provided by standard curbing.

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Manicured yards are understandably the norm for northeastern homesites. Yet, such lawns are inhospitable to amphibians, reptiles, andmost other fauna due to the close cropping, herbicide applications,and lack of cover. Consider adding natural structure to your yard,where possible.

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These Southern Leopard Frogs are trapped in a culvert beneath agrate in Delaware.


permits are issued. Doing so in an early phase ofplanning will ensure that these sensitive habitats arenot overlooked.

• Protect and maintain riparian and wetland areas,including the maintenance of pre-developmenthydrological regimes (depth, duration, and fre-quency of flooding) of streams and wetlands.Many species that would otherwise be lost to devel-opment may be able to persist if natural hydrologicalcycles and associated vegetation buffers are protect-ed or restored.

• Install a garden pool. If you build it, frogs will find it.Don’t stock it with fish or non-native animals, however.

• Landscape with native species. Prevent theintroduction and spread of exotic plants. Manyreptiles and amphibians are specifically adapted tosurvive in native vegetative communities. Highlyadaptable, rapidly reproducing invasive plants cansometimes out-compete, displace, and ultimatelyextirpate more specialized native plant species.

• Spay and neuter cats and dogs, and keep themindoors. Uncontrolled pets kill amphibians, reptiles,songbirds and other wildlife.

• Control subsidized predator populations. Rac-coons, foxes, and other subsidized predators kill andeat many amphibians and reptiles, especially turtlesand their eggs. Homeowners should limit access tofood, garbage, and shelter for subsidized predators.

• Use the minimum amount of fertilizers, herbi-cides, and pesticides necessary to achieve man-


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Golf course ponds may contain freshwater turtle populations. Painted,Red-bellied, Snapping, and Musk Turtles lived in this golf course pondin Newport News, Virginia. However, the pond was adjacent to a largepermanent reservoir that allowed for immigration and subsequentrecolonization when the pond was periodically drained to retrieve golfballs, and then re-filled.

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The same golf course pond in Newport News, Virginia after draining inearly autumn. Turtles were able to move successfully to the adjacentreservoir. If the pond had been drained in winter, mortality from expo-sure would have been severe.

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American Toads often disperse widely from breeding pools in residen-tial areas and may show up in one’s backyard. Their carnivoroushabits are helpful for control of insects.

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Free-ranging house and feral cats are notorious for killing wildlife,including snakes. Cats in a suburban residential area found this East-ern Garter Snake.

agement objectives, especially on golf courses.

• Identify or create breeding habitats with associ-ated upland habitat and corridors to connectthem. Include road crossings (culverts, ecopas-sages) where feasible. Use signs in the vicinity ofknown migration routes. Even when all comple-mentary habitats are present, road mortality alongmigration routes can eliminate amphibian and reptilepopulations.

• Encourage developers to design their projectsaround natural areas to minimize habitat frag-mentation, protect stream corridors, and main-tain natural vegetation. Education of all personsconcerned with urban development will greatlyincrease the chances that some natural areas will beset aside.

• Encourage and support public education aboutthe functions and values of wildlife. Educationcan go a long way in affecting value systems and anappreciation for nature.

• Provide ground cover such as rocks and logs inpatches of natural habitats. Such microhabitatswill be attractive to some amphibians and reptiles.

• Do not introduce non-native species, such as fireants and terrestrial flatworms, in landscapeplants and other materials. Be careful what youbring home on potted plants and other landscapematerials.

• Consider rerouting planned or existing roadsaround, instead of through, sensitive natural



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and

Small ponds in urban zones receive excessive nutrients from fertilizerapplications on lawns and golf courses. The result is a eutrophic sys-tem with algal blooms, concentration of pollutants, and a reducedcapacity to support amphibians.

Joe

Mitc

hell

Channelizing streams and lining them with rock and concrete is acommon way to deal with wetlands in urban and residential areas inthe Northeast. Unfortunately, it eliminates nearly all of the amphibianand reptile fauna.

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hell

Streams in urban areas are often mismanaged. Note the steep erodedbanks and exposed public waterworks pipe. These problems occurbecause large amounts of imperious surfaces, such as asphalt andconcrete, greatly exacerabate water flow rates.


floodplains. Seek ways to ensure that the naturalfunctions of such places remain intact. Buffersaround wetlands help control pollution input and pro-vide additional habitat.

• Maintain and develop corridors between habitatfragments; eliminate vertical curbing along road-ways. Movement of amphibians and reptiles acrossthe landscape is a common activity of their lives

• Maintain historical water regimes in streams andrivers. Urban and residential systems usually alterthese systems. Seek to restore them to historic nat-ural conditions.

• Maintain vernal poolsand other small wet-lands in riparian zonesand elsewhere. Thesesmall, ephemeral poolsin riparian zones inurban areas may be theonly place where severalspecies of amphibianscan breed. Salamanderlarvae will consumemosquito larvae in wood-land pools.

• Avoid using non-nativevegetation in land-scaping, and encour-age control of non-native species. Keep cats indoors, as they are wellknown to kill amphibians and reptiles, as well asbirds.


US

GS

Pat

uxen

tW

ildlif

eR

esea

rch

Cen

ter,

Nor

thea

stA

RM

Ite

am)

Snapping Turtles occupy rivers, streams, ponds, and lakes in urbanand residential areas throughout the Northeast. They are susceptibleto mosquitoes just like humans. We do not know if these turtles con-tract mosquito-bourn diseases.

Ste

veR

oble

Spring Peepers may be heard inspringtime in residential areas ifthere are small bodies of water inwhich to breed and trees andshrubbery in which to hide andforage.

THE MOST ENVIRONMENTALLY-FRIENDLY PESTICIDE?

Anyone who owns a flowerbed knows that slugs can seriouslydamage ornamental foliage. Although there are numbers of pesti-cides on the market that target slugs, they often raise questions:How safe are they? Why do the slugs keep coming back?

Garter Snakes, Northern Brown Snakes, Red-bellied Snakes, andBox Turtles love to eat slugs (and other pests) and have adaptedto urban life in many areas. Unlike most pesticides, snakes and tur-tles are guaranteed 100% environmentally safe and can find andeat source populations of slugs in places where chemicals can’t(e.g., foundations, burrows, stone walls).

— Mark Bailey

The Northern Brown Snake has beencalled the “City Snake” because it some-times occurs in abundance in vacantwooded lots in urban areas. It feeds onslugs and earthworms, and is thus a valu-able addition to a suburban garden.

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hell

areas. Work with planners and Department of Trans-portation personnel to help minimize impacts on nat-ural areas remaining in your area.

• Road curbing that allows small animals to climbout of the roadbed is preferred over steep, verti-cal curbing. Small animals, such as Box Turtles,cannot climb over vertical curbs that are common-place in urban areas. Cape Cod curbing is preferred.


• Protect and buffer special natural areas, such asisolated wetlands, vernal pools, forested riverine

• Assess the impact and consider control of subsi-dized native predators. Raccoon populations canbecome very dense in residential areas and are amajor threat to amphibians and reptiles. Work withlocal animal control officers and game wardens to findways to reduce subsidized predator populations.

• Use the minimum amount of fertilizers, herbi-

cides, and pesticides necessary to achieve man-agement objectives, especially on lawns. Thesechemicals are often applied to lawns and in otherurban settings in excessive amounts that run off andpollute water systems in the area and downstream.Even low concentrations of some chemicals canharm amphibians.

• Create a compost pile in natural landscaping.These are good sites for Box Turtle nests and over-wintering sites. Even some snakes may use them foregg deposition and hiding.

• Be careful with or avoid using plastic mesh net-ting to control deer and bird impact on horticul-tural and landscape plants. Snakes and otherwildlife become entangled in the mesh and often dieinhumanely from overheating and struggling. Theycan be removed safely by clipping the mesh awayand releasing the animal.

This is the Urban and Residential Systems module of the PARC publication,HMG-3. ISBN 0-9667402-3-8. Please visit www.parcplace.org for furtherinformation, copies of the complete document, or a web-based version ofthese guidelines.



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Rough Green Snakes can persist in residential areas in overgrown woodlots and shrub thickets. Domestic house cats often kill these harmless, non-venomous, insectivorous snakes.

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hell

People often mistakenly kill juvenile Eastern Rat Snakes, picturedhere, because they think they are Copperheads. Rat snakes are occa-sionally found in woodlots in residential areas.

The Northeast supports at least 155 species ofamphibians and reptiles: 31 frogs, 57 salamanders, 25turtles, 9 lizards, and 33 snakes. The following tablepresents species occurrence information for eachstate and habitat covered in this book. We have usedthe most recent taxonomic information available, butsome of the names used to describe species maychange over time. Species occurrences by Habitat areprovided, and each habitat is qualitatively assessed asP (preferred), S (suitable), or M (marginal).

Global and State ranks: We have used NatureServe’sglobal (G) and state (S) ranks to provide a standard-ized measure of rarity of each species throughout itsglobal range and by each State within which it occurs.This numeric system is not regulatory, and does notindicate federal or state protected status. Ranks maychange as more information becomes available. Eachspecies has a single G rank indicating the total num-ber of occurrences throughout its range. An S rank isalso assigned for each species’ state occurrence(blank fields in the table below indicate the speciesdoes not occur in the state). The definitions providedbelow apply to both global and state ranks. Note thata species ranked G1 is at very high risk of extinctionglobally, whereas a species ranked S1 is at very highrisk of extirpation within a particular state, and may besecure elsewhere in its range. NatureServe ranks sev-eral species with a range (e.g., 2-3, 3-4), but for spaceconsiderations, the lower number (i.e., higher conser-vation priority) is used in the following table.

1 = Critically Imperiled—At very high risk of extirpationdue to extreme rarity (often 5 or fewer popula-tions), very steep declines, or other factors.

2 = Imperiled—At high risk of extirpation due to veryrestricted range, very few populations (often 6-20),steep declines, or other factors.

3 = Vulnerable—At moderate risk of extirpation due toa restricted range, relatively few populations often21-80), recent and widespread declines, or otherfactors.

4 = Apparently Secure—Uncommon but not rare;some cause for long-term concern due to declinesor other factors.

5 = Secure—Common; widespread and abundant.

N = Not Ranked. For various reasons, a species’ sta-tus is unknown and awaiting further scientificinformation.

U = Unknown

i = Introduced

H = Species was known historically, but its presencemay not have been verified in the past 20-40years.

X = Species regarded as Extirpated.

More information about the NatureServe ranking sys-tem may be found at: www.natureserve.org/explorer.

Federal Status: Endangered Species Act protection,according to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, as of Jan-uary 2006. E = Endangered, T =Threatened. Informa-tion about Federally protected species can be foundat: www.fws.gov/endangered.

State Protection Status: Each state has laws and/orregulations protecting certain amphibians and reptiles.These may appear on state lists as Special Concern,Endangered or Threatened. NatureServe state ranksfor any species that has regulatory protection in thatstate are given in boldface red. Check with your statenatural resource agency for most up-to-date informa-tion on legal status (see Appendix C).

One of the goals of PARC is to help keep commonspecies common, as well as to restore species thathave declined as a result of human activities. There-fore, providing information about species occurrencesand their rarity, as well as current protected status,may be useful to land owners and land managers forevaluating the positive effects of their habitat manage-ment actions. These ranks and protected status list-ings were accurate as of January 2006.

Future actions by the PARC community may affectwhether species become scarcer or more abundant.Thus, this table can also be used as a benchmark tomeasure our future success.


APPENDIX A. AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHEAST


APPENDIX A

NATURESERVE GLOBALRANKS

FEDERAL(USFWS) STATUS

CONNECTICUT

DELAWARE

DISTRICTOF COLUMBIA

MAINE

MARYLAND

MASSACHUSETTS

NEW HAMPSHIRE

NEW JERSEY

NEW YORK

PENNSYLVANIA

RHODE ISLAND

VERMONT

VIRGINIA

WESTVIRGINIA

SEASONALISOLATED WETLANDS

PERMANENTWETLANDS

WETMEADOWS, BOGS, & FENS

SMALLSTREAMS, SPRINGS, SEEPS

RIVERS


HARDWOOD FORESTS


XERIC UPLAND & PINE FORESTS



CAVES AND KARST

AGRICULTURALLANDS

URBAN AND RESIDENTIALSYSTEMS

AM

PHIB

IAN

S:Fr

ogs

and

Toad

sAc

riscr

epita

nsN

orth

ern

Cric

ketF

rog

55

35

N1

24

2S

PS

SS

MS

Acris

gryl

lus

Sout

hern

Cric

ketF

rog

54

PP

SM

Bufo

amer

ican

usA

mer

ican

Toad

55

55

55

55

55

55

55

5P

PS

MP

PP

PS

S

Bufo

fow

leri

Fow

ler’s

Toad

54

55

55

34

43

31

55

PP

SP

PS

MM

Bufo

quer

cicu

sO

akTo

ad5

1P

PS

P

Bufo

terre

stris

Sout

hern

Toad

54

PP

SP

P

Gas

troph

ryne

caro

linen

sis

East

ern

Nar

row

-mou

thed

Toad

51

4P

PS

PP

S

Hyl

aan

ders

onii

Pine

Bar

rens

Tree

frog

43

PP

PS

Hyl

ach

ryso

scel

isC

ope’

sG

ray

Tree

frog

52

45

25

4P

PP

PP

MM

S

Hyl

aci

nere

aG

reen

Tree

frog

53

H5

4P

PS

PP

S

Hyl

afe

mor

alis

Pine

Woo

dsTr

eefr

og5

4P

PP

Hyl

agr

atio

saB

arki

ngTr

eefr

og5

11

H1

PS

P

Hyl

asq

uire

llaSq

uirr

elTr

eefr

og5

4P

PS

PS

Hyl

ave

rsic

olor

Gra

yTr

eefr

og5

54

44

54

55

54

55

55

PP

PM

PM

MS

Pseu

dacr

isbr

achy

phon

aM

ount

ain

Cho

rus

Frog

52

24

4P

PS

PM

PM

S

Pseu

dacr

isbr

imle

yiB

rimle

y’s

Cho

rus

Frog

54

PP

Pseu

dacr

iscr

ucife

rSp

ring

Peep

er5

55

45

55

55

55

5N

55

PP

PM

PM

SS

M

Pseu

dacr

isfe

riaru

mU

plan

dC

horu

sFr

og5

NN

N2

PP

SP

PS

MM

Pseu

dacr

iska

lmi

New

Jers

eyC

horu

sFr

og5

4N

1N

PP

SP

PS

MM

Pseu

dacr

isni

grita

Sout

hern

Cho

rus

Frog

52

PP

SS

S

Pseu

dacr

isoc

ular

isLi

ttle

Gra

ssFr

og5

3P

PP

SP

Pseu

dacr

istri

seria

taW

este

rnC

horu

sFr

og5

42

1P

PP

Ran

aca

tesb

eian

aA

mer

ican

Bul

lfrog

55

54

55

55

55

55

55

5P

SS

MS

M

Ran

acl

amita

nsG

reen

Frog

55

55

55

55

N5

55

55

5M

PS

PP

MM

SS

M

Ran

apa

lust

risPi

cker

elFr

og5

55

55

55

55

55

54

55

PS

PS

SM

S

Ran

api

pien

sN

orth

ern

Leop

ard

Frog

52

34

43

i5

32

42

SP

PP

MS

PM

Ran

ase

pten

trion

alis

Min

kFr

og5

43

54

PS

PM

SM

Ran

asp

heno

ceph

ala

Sout

hern

Leop

ard

Frog

55

24

51

14

PP

SS

SP

SS

S

Ran

asy

lvat

ica

Woo

dFr

og5

44

25

55

55

55

55

55

PS

MP

S

Ran

avi

rgat

ipes

Car

pent

erFr

og5

12

43

MP

P

Scap

hiop

usho

lbro

okii

East

ern

Spad

efoo

t5

14

H4

2N

21

14

1P

PP

SM

AM

PHIB

IAN

S:Sa

lam

ande

rsAm

byst

oma

barb

ouri

Stre

amsi

deSa

lam

ande

r4

1P

PP

S

Amby

stom

aje

ffers

onia

num

Jeffe

rson

Sala

man

der

53

H3

32

34

42

43

PP

MP

PS

Amby

stom

ala

tera

leB

lue-

spot

ted

Sala

man

der

51

43

41

43

PM

MP

SP

M

Spec

ies

Com

mon

Nam

e

APPENDIX A


Spec

ies

Com

mon

Nam

e



CONNECTICUT

DELAWARE

DISTRICTOF COLUMBIA

MAINE

MARYLAND

MASSACHUSETTS

NEW HAMPSHIRE

NEW JERSEY

NEW YORK

PENNSYLVANIA

RHODE ISLAND

VERMONT

VIRGINIA

WESTVIRGINIA


PERMANENTWETLANDS



RIVERS


HARDWOOD FORESTS





CAVES AND KARST

AGRICULTURALLANDS


Amby

stom

am

abee

iM

abee

’sSa

lam

ande

r4

1P

PP

M

Amby

stom

am

acul

atum

Spot

ted

Sala

man

der

55

24

55

45

35

54

55

5P

SM

MP

SS

SM

Amby

stom

aop

acum

Mar

bled

Sala

man

der

54

33

52

13

33

25

5P

PS

MM

M

Amby

stom

ata

lpoi

deum

Mol

eSa

lam

ande

r5

1P

PP

P

Amby

stom

ate

xanu

mSm

all-m

outh

edSa

lam

ande

r5

1P

PS

Amby

stom

atig

rinum

Tige

rSal

aman

der

51

2N

1X

1P

SP

PS

Amph

ium

am

eans

Two-

toed

Am

phiu

ma

54

PS

M

Anei

des

aene

usG

reen

Sala

man

der

32

13

3P

PP

P

Cry

ptob

ranc

hus

alle

gani

ensi

sH

ellb

ende

r3

12

32

2P

P

Des

mog

nath

usau

ricul

atus

Sout

hern

Dus

kySa

lam

ande

r5

4P

PM

P

Des

mog

nath

usfu

scus

Nor

ther

nD

usky

Sala

man

der

54

55

55

55

N5

54

45

5S

MP

MP

S

Des

mog

nath

usm

arm

orat

usSh

ovel

-nos

edSa

lam

ande

r4

2P

PP

Des

mog

nath

usm

ontic

ola

Seal

Sala

man

der

55

45

5P

PS

Des

mog

nath

usoc

hrop

haeu

sAl

legh

eny

Mou

ntai

nDu

sky

Sala

man

der

55

H5

54

4P

PP

Des

mog

nath

usor

este

sB

lue

Rid

geD

usky

Sala

man

der

43

PP

S

Des

mog

nath

usqu

adra

mac

ulat

usB

lack

-bel

lied

Sala

man

der

54

3P

MS

P

Des

mog

nath

usw

elte

riB

lack

Mou

ntai

nSa

lam

ande

r4

32

PM

SP

Des

mog

nath

usw

right

iPy

gmy

Sala

man

der

32

PP

SP

Eury

cea

bisl

inea

taN

orth

ern

Two-

lined

Sala

man

der

55

55

55

55

55

55

55

5M

MS

PS

PS

MM

M

Eury

cea

cirri

gera

Sout

hern

Two-

lined

Sala

man

der

55

5M

SS

PP

P

Eury

cea

gutto

linea

taTh

ree-

lined

Sala

man

der

54

SP

PP

Eury

cea

long

icau

daLo

ng-ta

iled

Sala

man

der

51

N5

N2

55

5S

PP

PM

P

Eury

cea

luci

fuga

Cav

eSa

lam

ande

r5

43

SP

MP

Eury

cea

wild

erae

Blu

eR

idge

Two-

lined

Sala

man

der

52

PP

SS

Gyr

inop

hilu

spo

rphy

ritic

usSp

ring

Sala

man

der

52

34

34

N5

51

45

5P

PP

MP

Gyr

inop

hilu

ssu

bter

rane

usW

estV

irgin

iaSp

ring

Sala

man

der

11

MP

Hem

idac

tyliu

msc

utat

umFo

ur-to

edSa

lam

ande

r5

41

H3

53

33

54

32

55

PP

PM

PS

M

Nec

turu

sm

acul

osus

Mud

pupp

y5

NN

1N

N4

4N

22

4S

PP

Nec

turu

spu

ncta

tus

Dw

arfW

ater

dog

42

PP

Not

opht

halm

usvi

rides

cens

Red

-spo

tted

New

t5

54

35

55

5N

55

55

55

PP

MP

PP

PP

SM

MM

Plet

hodo

nch

loro

bryo

nis

Atla

ntic

Coa

stSl

imy

Sala

man

der

55

PP

Plet

hodo

nci

nere

usEa

ster

nR

ed-b

acke

dSa

lam

ande

r5

55

55

55

55

55

55

55

PS

SM

M

Plet

hodo

ncy

lindr

aceu

sW

hite

-spo

tted

Slim

ySa

lam

ande

r5

54

PM

M

Plet

hodo

nel

ectro

mor

phus

Nor

ther

nR

avin

eSa

lam

ande

r5

35

PM

Plet

hodo

ngl

utin

osus

Nor

ther

nSl

imy

Sala

man

der

52

X5

HN

55

55

PM

S


APPENDIX A

Spec

ies

Com

mon

Nam

e



CONNECTICUT

DELAWARE

DISTRICTOF COLUMBIA

MAINE

MARYLAND

MASSACHUSETTS

NEW HAMPSHIRE

NEW JERSEY

NEW YORK

PENNSYLVANIA

RHODE ISLAND

VERMONT

VIRGINIA

WESTVIRGINIA


PERMANENTWETLANDS



RIVERS


HARDWOOD FORESTS





CAVES AND KARST

AGRICULTURALLANDS


Plet

hodo

nho

ffman

iVa

lley

and

Rid

geSa

lam

ande

r5

54

44

PS

Plet

hodo

nhu

bric

hti

Peak

sof

Otte

rSal

aman

der

22

PP

Plet

hodo

nke

ntuc

kiC

umbe

rland

Plat

eau

Sala

man

der

43

3P

M

Plet

hodo

nm

onta

nus

Nor

ther

nG

ray-

chee

ked

Sala

man

der

3N

Plet

hodo

nne

tting

iC

heat

Mou

ntai

nSa

lam

ande

r2

T2

PP

Plet

hodo

npu

ncta

tus

Cow

Kno

bSa

lam

ande

r3

21

PS

S

Plet

hodo

nric

hmon

diSo

uthe

rnR

avin

eSa

lam

ande

r5

44

PM

Plet

hodo

nsh

enan

doah

Shen

ando

ahSa

lam

ande

r1

E1

PP

P

Plet

hodo

nsh

eran

doB

igLe

vels

Sala

man

der

22

PS

Plet

hodo

nve

ntra

lisSo

uthe

rnZi

gzag

Sala

man

der

41

PP

Plet

hodo

nvi

rgin

iaSh

enan

doah

Mou

ntai

nSa

lam

ande

r2,

32

2P

M

Plet

hodo

nw

ehrle

iW

ehrle

’sSa

lam

ande

r4

23

44

4P

PP

S

Plet

hodo

nw

elle

riW

elle

r’sSa

lam

ande

r3

2P

SP

Plet

hodo

nyo

nahl

osse

eYo

nahl

osse

eSa

lam

ande

r4

3P

P

Pseu

dotri

ton

mon

tanu

sM

udSa

lam

ande

r5

13

2N

15

1S

SP

PP

P

Pseu

dotri

ton

rube

rR

edSa

lam

ande

r5

33

5N

35

53

PP

PP

MM

Sire

nIn

term

edia

Less

erSi

ren

52

PP

Sire

nla

certi

naG

reat

erSi

ren

5H

3P

SS

M

Ster

eoch

ilus

mar

gina

tus

Man

y-lin

edSa

lam

ande

r5

3P

P

REP

TILE

S:Tu

rtle

sC

aret

taca

retta

Logg

erhe

adSe

aTu

rtle

3T

NN

N1

1N

N1

N1

P

Che

loni

am

ydas

Gre

enSe

aTu

rtle

3T

NN

N1

1N

1N

NP

Der

moc

hely

sco

riace

aLe

athe

rbac

kSe

aTu

rtle

2E

NN

N1

1N

N1

NN

P

Eret

moc

hely

sim

bric

ata

Haw

ksbi

llSe

aTu

rtle

3E

NN

1N

XN

NP

Lepi

doch

elys

kem

pii

Kem

p’s

Rid

ley

Sea

Turt

le1

EN

NN

11

NN

1N

1P

Apal

one

mut

ica

Smoo

thSo

ftshe

ll5

X1

PM

Apal

one

spin

ifera

Spin

ySo

ftshe

ll5

1i

23

12

4P

MP

M

Che

lydr

ase

rpen

tina

Snap

ping

Turt

le5

55

55

55

55

55

55

55

SP

SP

PM

MM

SM

Chr

ysem

yspi

cta

Pain

ted

Turt

le5

55

55

55

55

55

55

55

SP

SP

PM

MM

SM

Cle

mm

ysgu

ttata

Spot

ted

Turt

le5

43

13

53

34

33

51

41

PP

PS

SM

M

Dei

roch

elys

retic

ular

iaC

hick

enTu

rtle

51

PP

S

Emyd

oide

abl

andi

ngii

Bla

ndin

g’s

Turt

le4

22

32

1P

PS

SP

PM

S

Gly

ptem

ysin

scul

pta

Woo

dTu

rtle

43

H4

43

33

33

23

22

SS

MP

PP

SP

S

Gly

ptem

ysm

uhle

nber

gii

Bog

Turt

le3

T1

1X

21

22

11

PM

M

Gra

ptem

ysge

ogra

phic

aN

orth

ern

Map

Turt

le5

13

33

32

2P

APPENDIX A


Spec

ies

Com

mon

Nam

e



CONNECTICUT

DELAWARE

DISTRICTOF COLUMBIA

MAINE

MARYLAND

MASSACHUSETTS

NEW HAMPSHIRE

NEW JERSEY

NEW YORK

PENNSYLVANIA

RHODE ISLAND

VERMONT

VIRGINIA

WESTVIRGINIA


PERMANENTWETLANDS



RIVERS


HARDWOOD FORESTS





CAVES AND KARST

AGRICULTURALLANDS


Gra

ptem

ysps

eudo

geog

raph

ica

Fals

eM

apTu

rtle

51

P

Kino

ster

non

baur

iiSt

riped

Mud

Turt

le5

4P

P

Kino

ster

non

subr

ubru

mEa

ster

nM

udTu

rtle

55

45

N1

H5

SP

MS

SP

M

Mal

acle

mys

terra

pin

Dia

mon

d-ba

cked

Terr

apin

43

4X

42

U3

14

P

Pseu

dem

ysco

ncin

naR

iver

Coo

ter

5X

42

P

Pseu

dem

ysru

briv

entri

sN

orth

ern

Red

-bel

lied

Turt

leor

Coo

ter

5E

54

51

4i

24

2P

P

Ster

noth

erus

min

orLo

gger

head

Mus

kTu

rtle

54

MP

Ster

noth

erus

odor

atus

Stin

kpot

54

54

35

55

55

44

25

5M

PM

P

Terra

pene

caro

lina

East

ern

Box

Turt

le5

45

31

53

N5

34

44

5S

MS

SP

MP

SM

Trac

hem

yssc

ripta

Slid

er5

ii

ii

ii

ii

43

SP

SS

REP

TILE

S:Li

zard

sC

nem

idop

horu

sse

xlin

eatu

sSi

x-lin

edR

acer

unne

r5

X4

51

PP

P

Eum

eces

anth

raci

nus

Coa

lSki

nk5

U2

32

2P

PP

P

Eum

eces

fasc

iatu

sC

omm

onFi

ve-li

ned

Skin

k5

15

45

X3

34

15

5S

PS

PS

Eum

eces

inex

pect

atus

Sout

heas

tern

Five

-line

dSk

ink

54

NP

P

Eum

eces

latic

eps

Bro

ad-h

eade

dSk

ink

5H

14

15

2S

PP

M

Oph

isau

rus

atte

nuat

usSl

ende

rGla

ssLi

zard

54

PP

Oph

isau

rus

vent

ralis

East

ern

Gla

ssLi

zard

51

PS

PP

Scel

opor

usun

dula

tus

East

ern

Fenc

eLi

zard

55

H5

N1

35

5P

PS

P

Scin

cella

late

ralis

Gro

und

Skin

k5

1N

54

53

SP

PP

REP

TILE

S:Sn

akes

Agki

stro

don

cont

ortri

xC

oppe

rhea

d5

31

15

1N

34

55

PP

PP

PS

Agki

stro

don

pisc

ivor

usC

otto

nmou

th5

3S

PP

P

Car

phop

his

amoe

nus

East

ern

Wor

mSn

ake

54

54

53

N3

31

53

PP

PM

Cem

opho

raco

ccin

eaSc

arle

tSna

ke5

HH

3N

4P

PP

Clo

noph

iski

rtlan

dii

Kirt

land

’sSn

ake

2H

PP

PP

Col

uber

cons

trict

orEa

ster

nR

acer

55

54

25

53

54

55

15

5S

PM

PP

SM

Cro

talu

sho

rridu

sTi

mbe

r/C

aneb

rake

Rat

tlesn

ake

41

HH

31

1N

33

X1

43

PM

PS

PS

S

Dia

doph

ispu

ncta

tus

Rin

g-ne

cked

Snak

e5

55

45

55

55

55

N4

55

SP

MM

PP

S

Elap

heal

legh

anie

nsis

East

ern

/Bla

ckR

atSn

ake

54

5N

51

N4

52

25

5P

PP

PS

SS

Elap

hegu

ttata

Cor

nSn

ake

51

X4

N4

1P

PP

P

Fara

ncia

abac

ura

Mud

Snak

e5

4S

PS

Fara

ncia

eryt

rogr

amm

aR

ainb

owSn

ake

51

3S

PS

Het

erod

onpl

atirh

inos

East

ern

Hog

-nos

edSn

ake

53

4H

54

35

33

25

3P

PS

M

Lam

prop

eltis

callig

aste

rM

ole

Kin

gsna

ke5

H4

5P

PP

SM


APPENDIX A

Spec

ies

Com

mon

Nam

e



CONNECTICUT

DELAWARE

DISTRICTOF COLUMBIA

MAINE

MARYLAND

MASSACHUSETTS

NEW HAMPSHIRE

NEW JERSEY

NEW YORK

PENNSYLVANIA

RHODE ISLAND

VERMONT

VIRGINIA

WESTVIRGINIA


PERMANENTWETLANDS



RIVERS


HARDWOOD FORESTS





CAVES AND KARST

AGRICULTURALLANDS


Lam

prop

eltis

getu

laEa

ster

nK

ings

nake

52

25

NX

52

PS

PP

PS

Lam

prop

eltis

trian

gulu

mEa

ster

nM

ilkSn

ake

55

21

55

55

N5

55

55

5S

MP

PS

P

Ner

odia

eryt

hrog

aste

rPl

ain-

belli

edW

ater

Snak

e5

12

4S

PP

PS

S

Ner

odia

sipe

don

Nor

ther

nW

ater

Snak

e5

55

45

55

55

55

55

55

MP

SP

PS

MS

S

Ner

odia

taxi

spilo

taB

row

nW

ater

Snak

e5

4S

PP

Oph

eodr

ysae

stiv

usR

ough

Gre

enSn

ake

52

45

51

53

SP

SS

SP

SS

Oph

eodr

ysve

rnal

isSm

ooth

Gre

enSn

ake

53

X5

55

33

43

54

35

SS

SP

M

Pitu

ophi

sm

elan

oleu

cus

Pine

Snak

e4

HN

1H

PP

Reg

ina

rigid

aG

loss

yC

rayf

ish

Snak

e5

1P

P

Reg

ina

sept

emvi

ttata

Que

enSn

ake

51

15

H1

35

4M

PS

Sist

ruru

sca

tena

tus

Mas

sasa

uga

3,4

1N

PS

SS

Stor

eria

deka

yiN

orth

ern

Bro

wn

Snak

e5

53

43

55

55

55

44

54

SP

SP

SM

M

Stor

eria

occi

pito

mac

ulat

aR

ed-b

ellie

dSn

ake

54

1H

55

55

N5

52

55

5S

PM

SP

SM

M

Tant

illaco

rona

taSo

uthe

aste

rnC

row

ned

Snak

e5

2P

PS

M

Tham

noph

isbr

achy

stom

aSh

ort-h

eade

dG

arte

rSna

ke4

33

SP

P

Tham

noph

issa

uritu

sEa

ster

nR

ibbo

nSn

ake

53

24

35

55

54

33

25

2P

PP

SS

PM

MS

Tham

noph

issi

rtalis

Com

mon

Gar

terS

nake

55

55

55

55

55

55

55

5S

SS

SP

SP

PS

SS

Virg

inia

stria

tula

Rou

ghEa

rth

Snak

e5

4P

PS

S

Virg

inia

vale

riae

Smoo

thEa

rth

Snak

e5

14

2U

21

2P

PS

DIS

TRIB

UTI

ON

CO

DES

HAB

ITAT

CO

DES

N=

Not

Ran

ked

orN

otAp

plic

able

P=

Prim

ary

i=In

trodu

ced

S=

Suita

ble

X=

Extir

pate

dM

=M

argi

nal

H=

His

toric

U=

Unk

now

n

DECIDING ON CONSERVATION OPTIONSThere are many opportunities available to help youprotect and improve natural resources on your proper-ty. Many include incentives such as annual rental pay-ments, cost-share payments, tax relief, and technicalassistance. Deciding which of them is right for you canbe confusing. Some of the more popular options arepresented here.

CONSERVATION RESERVE PROGRAM (CRP) CRP protects erodible soils by removing them fromagriculture. It also improves water quality adjacent toagricultural lands and can enhance wildlife habitats.CRP annual land rental payments are provided basedon the dry land cash rental rate in your county. Cost-share payments are available for establishing conser-vation practices. Additional incentive payments (up to20%) are available for high priority practices. Erodiblesoils are protected, meaning your soil stays on yourproperty. Water quality is improved by reducing ero-sion. Wildlife habitats are enhanced. You are compen-sated for the land taken out of production and are pro-vided funds for conservation practices. Website:www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/crp

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY INCENTIVESPROGRAM (EQIP) EQIP identifies resource conservation priorities andaddresses concerns such as soil erosion, water quali-ty, wildlife habitat, waste management, etc. Cost-share payments of up to 75% are available for imple-menting certain conservation practices. For somepractices, incentive payments are available on a per-acre basis over a term of 1 to 3 years. Funding andtechnical assistance are provided to establish variousconservation practices. Website: www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/eqip

PARTNERS FOR FISH AND WILDLIFEPartners for Fish and Wildlife restore and enhanceunique ecosystems such as wetlands and improvewildlife and fish habitats. Priorities include migratorybirds, threatened and endangered species, and imper-iled natural communities, like wetlands for Bog Turtles.Cost-share payments (up to 100%) are available forhabitat restoration and direct benefits to federally pro-tected species. There is a maximum of $10,000 perlandowner per year. Technical assistance is alsooffered. This is a good way to help fund conservationpractices specific to your needs and those of theresource. Website: http://partners.fws.gov

WETLAND RESERVE PROGRAM (WRP)WRP is a voluntary land-retirement program. The pro-gram is designed to improve water quality andenhance wildlife habitats by restoring wetlands thathave been degraded due to agricultural practices. Theprogram provides both technical and financial assis-tance. Payments are available based on the agricul-tural value of the land and the duration of the ease-ment placed on the property. Website: www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/wrp

WILDLIFE HABITAT INCENTIVES PROGRAM (WHIP)WHIP is a land-management program. The primaryfocus is to create, enhance, and restore habitats forupland and wetland species, threatened and endan-gered species, fish, and other types of wildlife. Of par-ticular concern are habitats for threatened species,neotropical songbirds, amphibians, and plant commu-nities such as early succession habitats, upland andbottomland hardwoods, and habitats associated withisolated wetlands. Technical and cost-share assistanceof up to 75% may be provided for conservation prac-tices. Website: www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/whip

CONSERVATION EASEMENTSA Conservation Easement is a legal agreementbetween a landowner and a qualified conservationorganization (land trust, government agency, or otherorganization) that contain restrictions you voluntarilyplace on your property. Easements are a flexible toolused to protect your property and to help you keep theland in your family. Since you help write the easement,you can choose which rights are restricted. Incentivesinclude keeping the land in the family, maintaining tra-ditional uses that are compatible with conservation,reduction in federal and state income and estatetaxes, and potential property tax savings. Contact yourstate wildlife or forestry agency, or consult the LandTrust Alliance website (www.lta.org) for a list of landtrusts in your area.

ALLIANCE FOR THE CHESAPEAKE BAYThere are many private groups that offer guidance forhabitat management and restoration. The Alliance forthe Chesapeake Bay is one that provides several freebooklets and guidance for landscaping your property.BayScapes are low-input landscapes, requiring lessmowing, less fertilizing, and less pesticide use.BayScapes help to protect the water quality in ourstreams, rivers, and the Chesapeake Bay. BayScapesare attractive, colorful landscapes with hundreds of


APPENDIX B: CONSERVATION OPTIONS

colorful and beneficial plants to choose from. Alongwith reducing pollution, BayScapes provide diversehabitats for amphibians, reptiles, songbirds, smallmammals, butterflies, and other creatures. TheAlliance for the Chesapeake Bay and the U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service have produced a series of freeguides for homeowners, including: BayScapes forWildlife Habitat—A Homeowner’s Guide, ConservationLandscaping—A BayScapes Homeowner’s Guide,Creating Landscape Diversity—A Homeowner’sGuide, and Using Beneficial Plants—A Homeowner’sGuide. Website: http://www.alliancechesbay.org/project.cfm?vid=85

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMPS)FOR FORESTRY AND AGRICULTUREBest Management Practices promote voluntary com-pliance. If resource users implement BMPs success-fully, there would be little need for mandatory pro-grams. BMPs give you the ability to protect basic soiland water resources while allowing you to maintainhealthy forests and/or agricultural production. Forforestry BMPs, contact your state forestry agency. Foragricultural BMPs, contact the NRCS office in yourcounty.

CONSERVATION TILLAGE PROGRAMSThere are several websites one will find when search-ing this topic. Crop Residue Management (CRM) is an“umbrella” term encompassing several tillage systemsincluding no-till, ridge-till, mulch-till, and reduced-till.Conservation buffers are associated with conservationtillage and part of an overall program to enhance envi-ronmental quality and habitat and wildlife manage-ment. Buffers are small areas or strips of land in per-manent vegetation, designed to slow water runoff,provide shelter and stabilize riparian areas. Strategi-cally placed buffer strips in the agricultural landscapecan effectively mitigate the movement of sediment,nutrients, and pesticides within farm fields and fromfarm fields. Conservation buffers protect soil, improveair and water quality, enhance fish and wildlife habitat,and beautify the landscape. Search on this topic forprograms and guides to serve your needs.

FOREST STEWARDSHIP PROGRAM (FSP)FSP provides technical assistance, through stateforestry agencies, to non-industrial private forest own-ers to encourage and enable active long-term forestmanagement. Technical assistance is provided andyou are furnished with a management plan. This pro-gram enables you to manage your land for multipleresource objectives, such as conservation, wildlife,timber, recreation, water quality enhancement, andaesthetics. Website: www.fs.fed.us/spf/coop/pro-grams/loa/fsp.shtml


APPENDIX B

Mik

eM

arch

and

All frog populations exhibit deformities in very low frequencies (about 1%) such as this Green Frogwith an extra forelimb. However, high frequencies of deformities indicate severe ecosystem, parasite,and perhaps disease problems. High incidences should be reported to the state wildlife departments.

SUGGESTED READING FOR MANAGERS

References below provide a starting point for land man-agers who wish to learn more about this subject. This isa small sample of the abundant literature available.

Biebighauser, T.R. 2003. A Guide to Creating VernalPonds. USDA Forest Service, Morehead, KY. Freecopy: 606-784-6428

Buhlmann, K.A. and J.W. Gibbons. 2001. Terrestrialhabitat use by aquatic turtles from a seasonallyfluctuating wetland: implications for wetland con-servation boundaries. Chelonian Conservationand Biology 4(1):115-127.

Calhoun, A.J.K. and P. deMaynadier. 2004. Forestryhabitat management guidelines for vernal poolwildlife. MCA Technical Paper No. 6, Metropoli-tan Conservation Alliance, Wildlife ConservationSociety, Bronx, New York. 32 pp.

Calhoun, A.J.K. and M.W. Klemens. 2002. Best Devel-opment Practices, Conserving Pool-breedingamphibians in residential and commercial devel-opments in the northeastern United States. MCATechnical Paper No. 5, Metropolitan ConservationAlliance, Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY.57 pp.

Dodd, C.K., Jr. 1993. Strategies for snake conserva-tion. Pp. 363-393 In: R.A. Seigel and J.T. Collins(eds.), Snakes: Ecology and Behavior. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.

Heyer, R.W., M.A. Donnelly, R.W. McDiarmid, L.C.Hayek, and M.S. Foster. 1994. Measuring andMonitoring Biological Diversity: Standard Methodsfor Amphibians. Smithsonian Institution Press,Washington, DC. 364 pp.

Hunter, M.L., Jr. (editor). 1999. Maintaining Biodiversi-ty in Forest Ecosystems. Cambridge UniversityPress, New York, NY. 698 pp.

Johnson, E.A., and M.W. Klemens (eds.). 2005.Nature in Fragments. Columbia University Press,New York, NY. 382 pp.

Kenney, L.P., and M.R. Burne. 2000. A Field Guide tothe Animals of Vernal Pools. Massachusetts Div.Fisheries & Wildlife., Westborough, MA.

(http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/nhesp/nhpubrare.htm#vernpubs)

Klemens, M.W. (ed.). 2000. Turtle Conservation.Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.334 pp.

Pechmann, J.H.K., R.A. Estes, D.E. Scott, and J.W.Gibbons. 2001. Amphibian colonization and use ofponds created for trial mitigation of wetland loss.Wetlands 21:90-111.

Ripple, K.L. and E.W. Garbisch. 2000. POW! Theplanning of wetlands, An Educator’s Guide. Envi-ronmental Concern, Inc., St. Michaels. MD.(www.wetland.org)

Schneider, R.L., M.E. Kransy, and S.J. Morreale.2001. Hands-On Herpetology, Exploring Ecologyand Conservation. National Science TeachersAssociation Press, Arlington, VA. 145 pp.

Semlitsch, R.D. (ed.). 2003. Amphibian Conservation.Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.324 pp.

Semlitsch, R.D. and J. B. Jensen. 2001. Core habitats,not buffers. National Wetlands Newsletter 23(4):5-11. Environmental Law Institute, Washington, D.C.http://www.eli.org

Stebbins, R.C., and N.W. Cohen. 1995. A Natural His-tory of Amphibians. Princeton University Press,Princeton, NJ. 316 pp.

AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILE IDENTIFICATION SOURCES

Titles below provide a sample of available literature onidentification and natural history of amphibians andreptiles.

REGIONALBehler, J.L., and F.W. King. 1979. The Audubon Soci-

ety Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphib-ians. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, NY. 719 pp.

Conant, R. and J.T. Collins. 1998. A Field Guide toReptiles and Amphibians Eastern and CentralNorth America. 3rd expanded edition. HoughtonMifflin Co., Boston, MA. 616 pp.


APPENDIX C: RECOMMENDED READING AND ONLINE RESOURCES

Dodd, C.K., Jr. 2001. North American Box Turtles. ANatural History. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman.231 pp. [soft cover edition issued in 2002]

Ernst, C.H., and E.M. Ernst. 2003. Snakes of the Unit-ed States and Canada. Smithsonian InstitutionPress, Washington, DC. 668 pp.

Ernst, C.H., J.E. Lovich, and R.W. Barbour. 1994. Tur-tles of the United States and Canada. Smithson-ian Institution Press, Washington, DC. 578 pp.

Petranka, J.W. 1998. Salamanders of the UnitedStates and Canada. Smithsonian InstitutionPress, Washington, D.C. 587 pp.

Smith, H.M. 1946. Handbook of Lizards of the UnitedStates and Canada. Cornell University Press,Ithaca, NY. 557 pp.

Wright, A.H., and A.A. Wright. 1949. Handbook ofFrogs and Toads of the United States and Cana-da. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. 640 pp.

STATE

ConnecticutKlemens, M. 1993. Amphibians and Reptiles of Con-

necticut and Adjacent Regions. State Geologicaland Natural History Survey of Connecticut, Bul-letin 112, Hartford, CT. 318 pp.

DelawareWhite, J. and A. White. 2002. Amphibians and Reptiles

of Delmarva. Tidewater Publishers, Centreville,MD. 248 pp.

MaineHunter, M.L., Jr., A.J.K. Calhoun, and M. McCollough.

1999. Maine Amphibians and Reptiles. Universityof Maine Press, Orono, ME. 252 pp.

Maryland and Washington D.C.Harris, H.S., Jr. 1975. Distributional survey (Amphib-

ia/Reptilia), Maryland and District of Columbia.Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society11:73-167.

MassachusettsLazell, J.D., Jr. 1974. Reptiles and amphibians in

Massachusetts. Massachusetts Audubon Society,Lincoln, MA. 34 pp.

Lazell. J.D., Jr. 1976. This Broken Archipelago. Quad-rangle, New York, NY. 260 pp.

New HampshireTaylor, J. 1993. The Amphibians and Reptiles of New

Hampshire. New Hampshire Fish and GameDepartment, Concord, NH. 71 pp.

New JerseySchwartz, V., and D.M. Golden. 2002. A Field Guide to

Reptiles and Amphibians of New Jersey. New Jer-sey Division of Fish and Wildlife, Trenton, NJ. 89 pp.

New YorkGibbs, J.P., A.R. Breisch, P.K. Ducey, G. Johnson, J.L.

Behler and R.C. Bothner. In press. Amphibiansand Reptiles of New York State: Identification,Natural History, and Conservation. Oxford Univer-sity Press, New York, NY.

Metropolitan Conservation Alliance. 2002. Conserva-tion Area Overlay: A Model Local Law. TechnicalPaper Series, No. 3, Bronx, NY. 46 pp.

New York State Amphibian and Reptile Atlas Projecthttp://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/wildlife/herp/index.html

PennsylvaniaHulse, A.C., C.J. McCoy, and E.J. Censky. 2001.

Amphibians and Reptiles of Pennsylvania and theNortheast. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.419 pp.


AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILE IDENTIFICATION SOURCES

Northern Fence Lizards that occur in dry habitats illustrate two charac-teristics commonly found in reptiles. The female on the left is largerand has a different pattern than the male on the right. The relationshipis also reversed in many species with males being larger than females.

Joe

Mitc

hell

APPENDIX C

Rhode IslandRaithel, C. in press. Amphibians of Rhode Island.

Rhode Island Natural History Survey, Kingston, RI.

VermontVermont Amphibian and Reptile Atlas. 2005.

http://cat.middlebury.edu/herpatlas/

VirginiaMitchell, J.C. 1994. The Reptiles of Virginia. Smithson-

ian Institution Press. Washington, DC. 352 pp.


Mitchell, J.C., and K.K. Reay. 1999. Atlas of Amphib-ians and Reptiles in Virginia. Spec. Publ. No. 1,VA Dept. of Game and Inland Fisheries, Rich-mond, VA. 122 pp.

Pinder, M.J., and J.C. Mitchell. 2002. A guide to thesnakes of Virginia. Spec. Publ. No. 2, VA Dept. ofGame and Inland Fisheries, Richmond, VA. 32 pp.

West VirginiaGreen, N.B., and T.K. Pauley. 1987. Amphibians and

Reptiles in West Virginia. University of PittsburghPress. Pittsburgh, PA. 240 pp.

ORGANIZATIONS

Massachusetts-based Vernal Pool Association..........................................................................www.vernalpool.com

Rhode Island Vernal Pool Website...................................................................................www.uri.edu/cels/nrs/paton

The Nature Conservancy (search by state)......................................................................................http://nature.org/

The National Speleological Society ...................................................................................................www.caves.org

STATE AGENCY WEBSITES

Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection ..............................................................http://dep.state.ct.us/Connecticut Wildlife Division ........................................................http://dep.state.ct.us/burnatr/wildlife/wdhome.htm

Delaware Department of Environmental Resources and Environmental Control .........................................................................http://www.dnrec.state.de.us/dnrec2000/

Delaware Division of Fish and Wildlife.................................................http://www.dnrec.state.de.us/fw/wildregs.htm

District of Columbia Environmental Health Administration, Fisheries and Wildlife Division ...................http://dchealth.dc.gov/doh/cwp/view,a,1374,q,584468,dohNav_GID,1810.asp

Maine Department of Environmental Protection .....................................................www.maine.gov/dep/index.shtml

Maryland Department of Natural Resources ..................................................................http://www.dnr.state.md.us/

Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection ........................http://www.state.ma.us/dep/dephome.htm

New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services ................................................http://www.des.state.nh.us/New Hampshire Fish and Game Department .........................................http://www.wildlife.state.nh.us/hunting.htm

http://www.wildlife.state.nh.us/Wildlife/Northeast_Hab_Mgt_Guide.htm

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection ......................................................http://www.state.nj.us/dep/New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife ..................................................http://www.state.nj.us/dep/fgw/njregs.htm

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation...........................................http://www.dec.state.ny.us/

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection ................................................. http://www.dep.state.pa.us/Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ..............................http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission.....................................................http://www.fish.state.pa.us/mpag1.htm


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Max Baughman, MeadWestvaco Corporation, Sum-merville, SC

Jim Beemer, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, NYMark Bailey, Conservation Southeast, Inc., Andalusia,

ALRobert T. Brooks, U.S. Forest Service, Northeast

Research Station, Amherst, MAAram Calhoun, University of Maine, Orono, MEEd Christophers, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,

Hadley, MAErin Clark, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GAMark Danaher, International Paper Company, Bolton,

NCPhillip deMaynadier, Maine Inland Fisheries and

Wildlife, Bangor, MEMike Dorcas, Davidson College, Charlotte, NCDianna Ellis, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Cortland,

NYMark Ferguson, Vermont Fish and Wildlife Depart-

ment, Waterbury, VTMark Fitzsimmons, Albany County Office of Natural

Resources, Albany, NYErnie Garcia, PARC-U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,

Weaverville, CAWhit Gibbons, University of Georgia’s Savannah River

Ecology Lab, Aiken, SCDave Golden, NJ Division of Fish and Wildlife, Wood-

bine, NJRandy Gray, Natural Resources Conservation Ser-

vice, Washington, DCHank Gruner, Science Center of Connecticut, West

All reptiles lay shelled eggs or give live birth. Black Racers lay shelledeggs under logs and other surface objects and hatch in about 90 days.Hatchlings have a blotched pattern but change to uniform black duringgrowth.

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Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management ..............................................http://www.state.ri.us/dem/Rhode Island Division of Fish and Wildlife .............http://www.state.ri.us/dem/programs/bnatres/fishwild/index.htm

Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation ...................................http://www.anr.state.vt.us/dec/dec.htmVermont Department of Fish and Wildlife .......................................................http://www.anr.state.vt.us/fw/fwhome/

Virginia Department of Environmental Quality ................................................................http://www.deq.state.va.us/Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries ........................................... http://www.dgif.state.va.us/wildlife/Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation ..................http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/dnh/vcbsinkholes.htm

http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/dnh/vcbsurvival.htm

West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection ........................................................http://www.dep.state.wv.us/

OTHER WEB SITES

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ...................................................................................... http://www.epa.gov/

Natural Resources Conservation Service .........................................................................http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service .....................................................................................................http://www.fws.gov/

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis publication is the result of a collaborative process including the following people:

Hartford, CTPaula Henry, U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent

Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MDJeff Holmes, Conservation Southeast, Inc., Nashville, TNMark Hughes, International Paper Company, Bain-

bridge, GARobin Jung-Brown, U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent

Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD

APPENDIX C

John Kanter, New Hampshire Fish and Game, Con-cord, NH

Bruce Kingsbury, Indiana-Purdue University, FortWayne, IN

John Kleopfer, VA Department of Game and InlandFisheries, VA

John Jensen, Georgia Department of NaturalResources, Forsyth, GA

Kathy Leo, West Virginia Division of Natural Resources,Elkins, WV

Kevin Leftwich, U.S. Forest Service Region 8, Athens,GA

J.M. Lewandowski. Maryland Natural History Society,Baltimore, MD

Laura Manzanti, USDA NRCS Wetlands Science Insti-tute, Laurel, MD (deceased)

Mike Marchand, New Hampshire Fish and Game,Concord, NH

Scott Melvin, Division of Fish and Wildlife, West-borough, MA

Priya Nanjappa Mitchell, State PARC CoordinatorHolly Niederitter, Delaware Division of Fish and Wildlife,

Smyrna, DESteve Parren, Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department,

Waterbury, VTPeter Paton, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RIT.K. Pauley, Marshall University, Huntington, WVEarl Possardt, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta,

GACharlotte Pyle, USDA Natural Resources Conserva-

tion Service, Tolland, CTChris Raithel, RI Division of Fish and Wildlife, West

Kingston, RIKlaus Richter, King County Dept. Natural Resources,

Seattle, WADon Schwab, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Suffolk, VAMonica Schwalbach, U.S. Forest Service, Asheville, NCScott Smith, Maryland Department of Natural Resources,

Wye Mills, MDHenning Stabins, Plum Creek Timber Company,

Columbia Falls, MTTracey Tuberville, University of Georgia’s Savannah

River Ecology Lab, Aiken, SCChris Urban, Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commis-

sion, Bellefonte, PALinda Weir, U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife

Research Center, Laurel, MDJim White, Delaware Nature Society, Hockessin, DET. Bently Wigley, National Council for Air and Steam

Improvement, Inc., Clemson, SCJennifer Wykle, West Virginia Division of Natural

Resources, Elkins, WVRobert Zappalorti, Herpetological Associates, Inc.,

Jackson, NJBrian Zarate, New Jersey Dept. Fish & Wildlife, Clinton,

NJ

PHOTOS WERE SUBMITTED BY:Matt Aresco, Kenny Barnett, Al Breisch, KirstinBreisch, Will Brown, Kurt Buhlmann, Don Cameron,Evan Castner, Cindy Cragland, Phillip deMaynadier,Mike Dorcas, Alan Dorfman, Cindy Driscoll, HarrietForrester, James Gibbs, Daniel Hacking, JohnJensen, Keith Johnson, Wayne Jones, Robin Jung-Brown, Rolf Kamp, Chuck Landrey, Joe Lewandowski,Margaret Liszka, Mike Marchand, Joe Mitchell, KarynMolines, Priya Nanjappa Mitchell, Ken Nemuras, TomPauley, Ellen Pehek, Laura Eaton-Poole, Linh Phu,Lynda Richardson, Wendy Robertson, Steve Roble,Kenneth Roblee, the late Gerald Schaffer, SarahSchute, Scott Smith, Chris Swarth, Stephanie Szerlag,Mark Tegges, Mike Torocco, USGS Patuxent WildlifeResearch Center, Northeast ARMI team, Wayne VanDevender, Kurt Weiskotten, Virginia Division of Natur-al Heritage, Melissa Yearick.


A female Northern Water Snake flees after release using the sinusoidallocomotion typical of most snakes. Snakes cannot move overlandfaster than humans can run.

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Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians and …northeastparc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Final-NE-HMG.pdf · habitat management guidelines for amphibians and reptiles of the

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