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manyotherboas,theyliveinrainforestswithdenseunder-growth,highhumidity,andlotsofrainandprey.However,theseboasthriveequallywellindrygrasslands,woodlands,plantations, and around human dwellings. The genusCandoiaislikenootherboidgenus.Theyareuniqueindis-tributionandappearance,butareoverlookedbyherpetologi-calhobbyists. Candoiaisoneof13generainthreesubfamiliesinthefamilyBoidae(HendersonandPowell2007).Otherfamil-iargeneraareBoa (boas),Eunectes (anacondas),Epicrates(WestIndianandrainbowboas),andCorallus(Neotropicaltreeboas) of theAmericas.However, snakes in thegenusCandoiapossessneitherthesizeofEunectes,theiridescenceofEpicrates,thebrightTechnicolorcolorationofsomeCorallus,northepopularityofBoa.JerryConway,oneofthefirsthob-byiststogiveCandoiaarealchance,andthefirstinnovatoroftheircare,saiditbest:“[Candoia]arenaturallybeautiful…thereareno‘morphs’…noman-madenonsenseinvolvedwithCandoiaatall…theyareunderdogsofthesnakeworld…true,primitivewondersofthewild.”Theseboasarehid-
H U S B A N D R Y
IRCF REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS • VOL15, NO 4 • DEC 2008 189TABLE OF CONTENTS
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
F E A T U R E A R T I C L E S
Chasing Bullsnakes (Pituophis catenifer sayi) in Wisconsin: On the Road to Understanding the Ecology and Conservation of the Midwest’s Giant Serpent ...................... Joshua M. Kapfer 190
The Shared History of Treeboas (Corallus grenadensis) and Humans on Grenada: A Hypothetical Excursion ............................................................................................................................Robert W. Henderson 198
R E S E A R C H A R T I C L E S
The Texas Horned Lizard in Central and Western Texas ....................... Emily Henry, Jason Brewer, Krista Mougey, and Gad Perry 204 The Knight Anole (Anolis equestris) in Florida
.............................................Brian J. Camposano, Kenneth L. Krysko, Kevin M. Enge, Ellen M. Donlan, and Michael Granatosky 212
C O N S E R V A T I O N A L E R T
World’s Mammals in Crisis ............................................................................................................................................................. 220 More Than Mammals ...................................................................................................................................................................... 223 The “Dow Jones Index” of Biodiversity ........................................................................................................................................... 225
H U S B A N D R Y
Captive Care of the Central Netted Dragon ....................................................................................................... Shannon Plummer 226
P R O F I L E
Kraig Adler: A Lifetime Promoting Herpetology ................................................................................................ Michael L. Treglia 234
C O M M E N T A R Y
The Turtles Have Been Watching Me ........................................................................................................................ Eric Gangloff 238
B O O K R E V I E W
Threatened Amphibians of the World edited by S.N. Stuart, M. Hoffmann, J.S. Chanson, N.A. Cox, R. Berridge, P. Ramani, and B.E. Young .............................................................................................................. Robert Powell 243
CONSERVATION RESEARCH REPORTS: Summaries of Published Conservation Research Reports ................................. 245 NATURAL HISTORY RESEARCH REPORTS: Summaries of Published Reports on Natural History ................................. 247 NEWBRIEFS ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 248 EDITORIAL INFORMATION ..................................................................................................................................................... 251 FOCUS ON CONSERVATION: A Project You Can Support ............................................................................................... 252
Front Cover. Shannon Plummer.Totat et velleseque audant mo estibus inveliquo velique rerchil erspienimus, quos accullabo. Ilibus aut dolor apicto invere pe dolum fugiatis maionsequat eumque moditia erere nonsedis ma sectiatur ma derrovitae voluptam, as quos accullabo.
Back Cover. Michael KernTotat et velleseque audant mo
estibus inveliquo velique rerchil erspienimus, quos accullabo. Ilibus
aut dolor apicto invere pe dolum fugiatis maionsequat eumque
moditia erere nonsedis ma sectia-tur ma derrovitae voluptam, as
IRC
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REPTILES & AMPHIBIANSC O N S E R V AT I O N A N D N AT U R A L H I S T O R Y
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The Pacific Boas: Natural History and Husbandry of Candoia
Species and SubspeciesCandoia aspera(ViperBoa,akaNewGuineaGroundBoa)isthebest-knownspecies.Morefrequentlyencounteredinthereptileindustrythanitscongeners,thesesnakesarerelativelyabundantthroughouttheirrange.Theyoccurontheirname-sakeisland,NewGuinea,onIrianJaya,andonhundredsofotherIndonesianislandsandislets.ViperBoasareshortandstocky,resemblingdeathadders,anddisplayalotofvaria-tionintheircoloring.Theyrunthegamutfromblackandbrowntoorange,yellow,andgold,andcanbeblotchedorbanded.Themostimpressiveindividualsarefire-engineredwithredventralscales.ThesesnakeshavethethickestkeeledscalesofallCandoia,rangeinlengthfromabout55toover90cm(2–3ft)asadults,andspendalotoftheirtimeintheirwaterbowls,althoughinnaturetheyarecompletelyterrestrialandevensemi-fossorial.Twosubspeciesarerecognized:C. a. aspera (BismarckGroundBoa)andC. a. schmidti (NewGuineaGroundBoa). Two subspecies of Candoia bibroni are recognized.Candoia b. australis(SolomonIslandsTreeBoa)isprobably
thesecondmostwellknownspeciesofCandoia,althoughnotnearlyaswidelyavailableasC. aspera.SolomonIslandsTreeBoasarefoundthroughouttheislands,usuallyincoastalmangrovesorcultivatedareas.Theyvaryconsiderably incolorandpattern,withcolorsincludingreds,pinks,oranges,yellows,browns,grays,andblack.Patternsmaybeblotchedorsplotchy,lackingaltogether(uniformlycolored),orwithanalmostzigzagdorsalstripe.Additionally,thesesnakescanbecomelighterordarkerinthecourseofaday.Ihaveseenindividualschangefromadarkbrownish-redwithheavypat-terningtoalightpinkish-tanwithfaintpatterningoverthecourseofafewhours.ThehabitsofSolomonIslandsTreeBoasarealmostcompletelyoppositetothoseoftheViperBoas.Theyarearboreal90%ofthetime,sometimesevendrapedover limbs in theclassic fashionofaGreenTreePython(Morelia viridis).Theirthinbodieslendthemselvesnicelytoanarboreallifestyle,wheretheycanstretchacrossandmovebetweenbrancheswithease.Onlyrarelywillyouencounter individualscoiledontheground.Males rangefromabout90toover120cm(3–4ft)inlength,whilethelargerfemalescanexceed180cm(>6ft). Candoia b. bibroni(FijiIslandBoa)isknownfromFiji,Samoa,Tonga,andothersmallSolomonIslands.Theseboasaremostlyterrestrial,rarelyclimbing.FijiIslandBoasaredark
speciesinthegenus.Thesesnakesfrequentlyareencounteredonlowshrubberyaroundhumandwellingsandplantations.NewGuineaTreeBoascanbefoundclimbing,coiledontheground,andevenburrowing.Individualsareusuallyblotched,withflowerypatterning,buttheycanbestriped,banded,oruniformlycolored.Groundcolorscanbegray,tan,yellow,cream,orreddish-brown,withmostamottledgrayandwhitesimilartoHyla marmorata(theMarbledTreeFrog).Mottledindividualsarequitecryptic,blendingextremelywellwithtreebark.Allindividualshaveadistinctiveyellow-creamdor-salstripejustanteriortoandawhiteventralspotposteriortothecloaca.Adultsizesrangefrom~40–60cm(16–24in),andeventhelargersnakesarenotmuchthickerthanaSharpiehighlighter.SnakesfromWaigeoIslandarealmostalwaysbrownandtanwithadarkstriperunningdorsallyfromtheheadallthewaytothetipofthetail.Someindividualshaveabrokendorsalstripe.SomeauthoritieshavesuggestedthatWaigeoIslandCandoia areaseparatesubspeciesofC. cari-nata,butthishasnotbeenverified.Twosubspeciesarerec-ognized,C. c. carinata(WesternNewGuineaTreeBoa)andC. c. tepedeleni (Tepedelen’sTreeBoa). Candoia paulsoni(PacificorSolomonIslandsGroundBoa)prefersdrygrasslandsandwoodedareas,butcanbefoundonthegroundandclimbingthroughpineappleandcoffeeplantations.Backgroundcolorsinthisspeciesrunthegamutfromred,gold,orange,andtantobluish-brown.Afewleucisticindividualshavebeenfound.Patternsconsistofadarkdorsalzigzagfromheadtotail.TheIsabelIslandBoa(theprettiestofallCandoia),apossiblesubspecies,isalocalpatternvariantthatusuallyhasawhitegroundcolorwithdarkdorsalstriping.SimilartoC. australis,C. paulsonihastheabilitytobecomedarkerandlighterthroughouttheday.Adultsofthisspeciesaverageabout90cm(~3ft)formalesandabout150cm(~5ft)forfemales.Sixsubspecies
arerecognized,C. p. paulsoni(SolomonGroundBoa),C. p. vindumi(Vindum’sGroundBoa),C. p. tasmai (Tasma’sGroundBoa),C. p. mcdowelli (McDowell’sGroundBoa),C. p. sadlieri(Sadlier’sGroundBoa),andC. p. rosadoi(Rosado’sGroundBoa). Candoia superciliosa(PalauBevel-nosedBoa)istheleastknownspeciesofCandoia.Untilrecently(withinthelasttenyears),theseboaswereconsideredasubspeciesofCandoia carinata,thereforemuchoftheinformationonthemactuallyappliestothenaturalhistoryoftheNewGuineaTreeBoa.TheyarefoundontheislandsofPalauandNgeaur(Angaurisland).Adaptingwelltodisturbance,theseboasliveindefor-estedareas,aswellasbananaandtaroplantations.AswithC. carinata,theyarethin,arborealsnakeswithprehensiletailsthatcanbefoundinlowshrubberyandontheground.ColorationinthePalauBevel-nosedBoavariesfromyellowandredtoblack,withpatternsofdullorbrightlycontrast-ingstripes,spots,mottling,orzigzags.Theseboashavethedistinctivewhitespotbehindthecloaca,characteristicoftheNewGuineaTreeBoa,andenlargedscalesabovetheeyes.Twosubspeciesarecurrentlyrecognized,C. s. superciliosa(NorthernBelauBevel-nosedBoa)andC. s. crombiei(NgeaurBevel-nosedBoa).
Candoia in the Reptile TradeCaptive bred-and-born Candoia are virtually impossibletofind,andthisdoesnotbodewellforconservation.Iamnotatree-huggingconservationnut—I’veworkedfortreecompanies,clearingacresofland;keepdozensofsnakes;andcreateahugecarbonimprintwithallofmytraveling.Iam,however,againsttheimportationandexportationofmanyspecies.Animalssufferandmanydieorareill,malnourished,orinfestedwithparasites.Inadvertentlyimportedmitescaninfectotherwisehealthyindividualsincollections.Ibelieve
thatsmallnumbersofpopularspeciesshouldbeimported,bred,anddistributed.Whatevercanbedonetolimitdeaths,minimizeparasiticinfections,andincreasethenumbersofhealthy,“tame”snakesinthetradeisthebestoption.Snakesmakegreatpets,butwithoutconservationwecannotmain-tainviablewildpopulations.Iwouldhatetoseeaspeciesdis-appearfromthewildbecauseIwantedtoputasnakeinatankjusttoadmireit.Thatsaid,almostallavailableCandoia arewild-caught, areusuallydehydrated,andmanycomeinfestedwithmitesorotherparasites. WiththeexceptionofC. aspera, Candoiaarenaturallycalm,but youwant to look for an individual that lookshealthyandisactivewhenheld.Youshouldtrytobuyyoursnakefromavendorthathassomeknowledgeofthespeciesratherthanapersonwhocanonlytellyouthecountryfromwhichitwasexported.Aswithallnewsnakes,theyshouldbequarantined,rehydrated,andleftaloneuntiltheyacclimate.Oncehome,I’llsoakthesnakeinawaterbathtorehydrateit.ThismeansputtingthesnakeinaRubbermaidcontainerforafewhourswithafewinchesofcleanwaterandabranchonwhichitcanclimb.Afterrehydration,Iholdnewindividualsinaseparateroomfortwotofourmonths,checkingformitesandotherillnesses(andtreatingthemasnecessary)beforeImergethemintotherestofmycollection. Disposition.—AlmostallCandoia arehesitanttobite,andiftheydo,itisonlytodeterminewhatyouare(i.e.,toseeifyou’retasty).Candoia b. australis rarelyeverbitesunlessyouarerestrainingit;C. carinatawillbiteforthesamereason,butissosmallthatitcanbarelybiteapinkyfinger;C. b. bibroni andC. paulsoni will bitewhenunsettled,butmostwillsitstillforacagecleaningaslongastheyarenotmovedtoomuch.ContrarytoalltheotherspeciesofCandoia,C. asperacanbedownrightmean.TheyarebyfartheCandoiamostinclinedtobite.However,aswithallsnakes,captive-bredindividu-alswillalmostalwaysbemoredocilethanindividualsthatarewild-caught,andeventhelattercanbecalmedifhandledfrequentlyandgently.
Morphs.—Untiltheendof2011,noCandoiamorphswereknown(otherthanasingleleucisticC. paulsoniwithwhichJerryConwayhadbeenworking).Recently,severalalbinoprojectshavepoppedup.AlbinosUnlimited, Inc.announcedtheimportationofawild-caughtalbinoC. aspera.Ifallgoeswell(andifthetraitprovestoberecessive),albi-nosshouldenterthehobbywithinthenextcoupleofyears.Anotherprivatehobbyist is currentlyworkingwithpos-siblehetalbinoIsabelIslandGroundBoas(C. paulsoni)andhypomelanisticCandoia sp.StillanotherprivatehobbyistisworkingonproducingcalicoC. asperafromadarkmalewithrandomorangeandwhitesplotches.Lastly,althoughIamnotawareofanyprovenlinesofhypos,somehypoC. carinata,C. aspera,andC. b. australisarefloatingaroundinprivatecollections.
part,neonatecareisidenticalacrossthegenus,whatvariesisthenumberofbabiesthatwillrequirecare.Candoiacari-nataproducessmalllittersoftwotosixoffspring,whereasC. bibroni and C. aspera produce litters of intermediatesize(3–35)andC. paulsoniandC. superciliosa,with20toupwardsof80and12to50young,respectively,producethelargestlitters.Outliersexist,andasinmostsnakes,littersizeisextremelydependentonthesize,age,andhealthoftheparents. Youcansexmostneonatesimmediatelybylookingforspurs—inmostspeciesofCandoiatheywillbeclearlyevi-dentinmalesandabsentinfemales.Youwillwanttohousethemindividuallyinsmallenclosuresascannibalismhasbeenreported.Sizewilldependon the species,butgenerallya5-gallonaquariumisadequate.Makesureanyholesaretoosmallfortheneonatestoescape.Usingapaper-towelsubstratefacilitatescleaningandensuresthatnowoodchipsordebriswillbeaccidentallyingested.Temperaturesshouldbeafewdegreescoolerduringthedaythanwhatisprovidedforadults,maxingoutaround86°F.Asalways,atemperaturegradientshouldbeprovidedasmuchasispossibleinasmallenclosuresothesnakescanthermoregulate.Humidityshouldbekeptat50–70%,withcagemistingtwotothreetimesaweekanda
waterbowldeepenoughforsoaking.Asmallhideandsomeclimbingbranchescompletetheenclosures,providingneo-nateswithaplaceofsecurityandalocationtowaitforprey. Neonateswillshedtheirskinimmediatelyafterbirth,butyoushouldnotfeedthemforatleasttwoweeks.Atthistime,smallpinkymicecanbeoffered.Mostneonates,especiallyC. b. australis andC. carinata,willrefusethisfirstoffering.Someneonatesmaybetoosmalltocomfortablyeatapinkymouse(C. carinata isbornaboutaslongasapinkyfingerandasthinasapieceofstring).SinceCandoiafeedonlizardsinthewild,geckotailscanbeusedtoinitiatefeeding.Youcouldalsostartthemwithmousetailsorassistedfeedingmethods,butIwouldstronglysuggestthelatteronlyforanexperi-encedkeeper.Afterfeedinggeckotailsfortwocycles(everytwoweeks),nofoodshouldbeofferedforthreeweeksandalizard-scentedpinkymouseshouldthenbeoffered.Thisusuallydoesthetrickinstartingneonatesonmice.Insomecases,neonateswillstillrefusefoodandwillhavetocontinuetobefedwithlizards.Otherhobbyistshavereportedfeedingsuccesseswithearthworms,minnows,andeventunafish. Inhabitinghundredsof islands in theSouthPacific,newspeciesmaybewaitingtobediscovered,thesamewayCandoiaarewaitingtobediscoveredbysnakeenthusiasts.Now,however,isthetimetostartkeepingthemoreinter-estingspecies.Insteadoffollowingthecrowdofpeoplesali-vatingoverBallPythonmorphs,becomeamoreknowledge-ablekeeper.AddaCandoiatoyourcollection.Helpstoptheimportationofanimalsbyaddingcaptive-bredindividualstothehobby.Whoknows,youmayevenfindanewmorph…Hey,that’swhatmadeBallPythonssopopular!
ReferencesConway,J.2009.The Candoia Page: Boas of the South Pacific.<www.kingsnake.
com/candoia/>.
Henderson,R.W.andR.Powell.2007.Thebiologyofboasandpythons:Aret-rospectivelooktothefuture.Appendix(listofspeciesandsubspeciesofcur-rentlyrecognizedboas,pythons,andpotentiallyrelatedtaxa),pp.18–22.In:R.W.HendersonandR.Powell(eds.),Biology of the Boas and Pythons.EagleMountainPublishing,LC,EagleMountain,Utah.
Mattison,C.2007.The New Encyclopedia of Snakes.PrincetonUniversityPress,Princeton,NewJersey.
O’Shea,M.2007.Boas and Pythons of the World.PrincetonUniversityPress,Princeton,NewJersey.