Group J

History of History of CommunicationsCommunications

Chapters 27 & 28Chapters 27 & 28

The Wireless WorldThe Wireless World

The Telegraph-The Telegraph- On April 14th 1912 the Titanic crashed into an ice field in

the North Atlantic. The captain determined that they were going to sink quickly and so at 12:15am he ordered his wireless operator to send the distress call.

-“This was simultaneous drama on the high seas, driven by steam power and choreographed by the magic of wireless telegraphy.”

-The world began to get news of the disaster at 1:20am when a wireless station in the Newfoundland picked up the message that the Titanic was sinking. Shortly after, the hundreds of wireless instruments along the Atlantic coast began to transmit.

-The Titanic’s wireless had a range of only 1,500 miles so the signals to Europe had to go first to New York and then across the ocean by cable, but still the news of the situation reached the entire world by morning.

On April 21st, the New York Times commented on the magical power of the telegraphy by saying,

“Last week 745 human lives were saved from perishing by the wireless. Few New Yorkers realize that all through the roar of the big city are constantly speeding messages between people separated by vast distances, and that over housetops and even through the walls of buildings and in the very air one breathes are words, written by electricity.”

-Although the wireless had been used before to save lives at sea, this particular rescue effort was highlighted because so many were aware of the tragedy.

-The wireless made possible to experience many distant events at the same time, which was demonstrated by the sinking of the Titanic, which played a major change in the experience of the present. Prior, information about events that were a significant distance away were reported long after the events occurred, rendering it as history to the individuals who received it.

-The telegraph had been in operation since the 1830’s, but its use was limited to trained operators and confined to transmitting stations. The wireless proliferated source points of electronic communication and it was the telephone that brought it to the masses.

The History of Wireless Telegraphy 1887 Heinrich Hertz produced electromagnetic

waves in a laboratory. 1894 Guglielmo Marconi devised an apparatus to

transmit and receive them. 1897 Marconi went to England and established

the first coast station on the Isle of Wight for communication with ships at sea.

1901 Message was sent across the Atlantic from a special high power transmitter in England and two years later King Edward VII and President Roosevelt exchanged messages over it.

1903 International Congress on Wireless Telegraphy was held in Berlin to regulate their use.

1912 By this time, the wireless was an essential part of the international communication linking land stations and ships at sea in an instantaneous, worldwide network.

The TelephoneThe Telephone

The telephone --invented 1876 --enhanced long distance

personal relationships --business relationships furthered

Public Broadcasts --USA 1879 sermons broadcast over

telephone lines --Zurich 1880 concert broadcast 50 miles --Belgium 1884 concert broadcast as far

at 250 miles --Hungary 1888 news broadcast

o News and entertainment broadcast to 6000 subscribers

--USA 1896 telephones reported presidential election results

Early Radio- Chapter 28 Early Radio- Chapter 28

- In the early 1920’s, American boys and men led - In the early 1920’s, American boys and men led the way in a cultural revolution with the listening of the way in a cultural revolution with the listening of radio in the 1920’sradio in the 1920’s

- It was usually a frustrating and monotonous - It was usually a frustrating and monotonous process as they would move a thin wire (cat process as they would move a thin wire (cat whisker) around a chunk of crystal and hear awhisker) around a chunk of crystal and hear ablend of talking, music, and static – this method was blend of talking, music, and static – this method was usually used by amateurs who did not have much usually used by amateurs who did not have much moneymoney

- Those with more money had sets with 5 tuning - Those with more money had sets with 5 tuning dials – which all had to be set perfectly in order to dials – which all had to be set perfectly in order to tune into particular stationstune into particular stations

usually it was boys who embraced the radio device usually it was boys who embraced the radio device and they were the ones who began to introduce it to and they were the ones who began to introduce it to other family membersother family members

this led to “exploratory listening” which meant that this led to “exploratory listening” which meant that individuals listened to the radio not for community individuals listened to the radio not for community purposes, but for change, to hear many different purposes, but for change, to hear many different messages, to see how far they could get, and tomessages, to see how far they could get, and tohear the strange mixture of static and voiceshear the strange mixture of static and voices

However, they mostly listened to get a more However, they mostly listened to get a more immediate sense of their nationimmediate sense of their nation

So, this tuning into this new idea of radio listening So, this tuning into this new idea of radio listening each night for many hours, was an entirely new each night for many hours, was an entirely new cognitive, emotional, and cultural experiencecognitive, emotional, and cultural experience

- the 1920’s were known as the “boom” years of - the 1920’s were known as the “boom” years of radio, when almost nothing was fixed – this included radio, when almost nothing was fixed – this included the frequencies of stations, financial support, and the frequencies of stations, financial support, and government regulationsgovernment regulations

there were no radio networks, very little advertising, there were no radio networks, very little advertising, and there was no predictable program schedules and there was no predictable program schedules (except for Sunday broadcasts of church services)(except for Sunday broadcasts of church services)

Today, radio broadcasting is supported by Today, radio broadcasting is supported by advertising in order to promote “compulsive advertising in order to promote “compulsive consumerism”consumerism”

“… “…broadcasting is regulated by the Federal broadcasting is regulated by the Federal Communications Commission,Communications Commission,all too often in ways that benefit corporate all too often in ways that benefit corporate consolidation and greed atconsolidation and greed atthe expense of real diversity on, and access to, the the expense of real diversity on, and access to, the airwaves”airwaves”

Many of these models get set in the mid-late 1920’sMany of these models get set in the mid-late 1920’s

Because we have had advertising-supported Because we have had advertising-supported broadcasting for around 70 years, we take it for granted broadcasting for around 70 years, we take it for granted and sometimes people forget that this was very and sometimes people forget that this was very controversial and widely debated during the 1920’scontroversial and widely debated during the 1920’s

It was actually AT&T who established radio advertising in It was actually AT&T who established radio advertising in 1922 on the WEAF station1922 on the WEAF station

During this time of early radio, people did not just walk During this time of early radio, people did not just walk into a store, buy a radio, plug it in and listen to music like into a store, buy a radio, plug it in and listen to music like we do todaywe do today

everyday people had to put it together, learn how to everyday people had to put it together, learn how to listen and how they wanted to listen, and what they listen and how they wanted to listen, and what they wanted to listen to at the same time that stations and wanted to listen to at the same time that stations and networks were deciding what was best tonetworks were deciding what was best tobroadcastbroadcast

There was also a large shift in terms of There was also a large shift in terms of perceptual culture- that involved uncertain perceptual culture- that involved uncertain ideas about manhood and nationhood in ideas about manhood and nationhood in the early1920’sthe early1920’s

It was men and boys – as mentioned It was men and boys – as mentioned previously- who brought this device into the previously- who brought this device into the home and by playing around with the home and by playing around with the device, it allowed them to affirm new forms device, it allowed them to affirm new forms of “masculine mastery”of “masculine mastery”

At the same time, the search for At the same time, the search for nationhood and the reclaiming ofnationhood and the reclaiming of“tribalism” – more specifically “white “tribalism” – more specifically “white tribalism” characterized thetribalism” characterized the1920’s1920’s

--This technology allowed listeners to change their identities This technology allowed listeners to change their identities as individuals and as members of a nation by listening into as individuals and as members of a nation by listening into signs of unity and signs of differencesigns of unity and signs of difference

By the late 1920’s, “chain broadcasting” began to By the late 1920’s, “chain broadcasting” began to centralize radio programming in NYcentralize radio programming in NY

However, during the same time, many independent However, during the same time, many independent stations featured locally produced programs with local stations featured locally produced programs with local talent talent

So, listeners could tune into both and begin to identify with So, listeners could tune into both and begin to identify with shows that sought to capture and represent a “national” shows that sought to capture and represent a “national” culture and those that wanted to defend regional and local culture and those that wanted to defend regional and local cultural authoritycultural authority

Hot debates surrounding centralized broadcasting and Hot debates surrounding centralized broadcasting and local broadcasting during this time began to show how local broadcasting during this time began to show how radio was playing a role as a culturally nationalizing forceradio was playing a role as a culturally nationalizing force

What was considered “listening” went What was considered “listening” went through three distinct butthrough three distinct butoverlapping stages in the 1920’s: overlapping stages in the 1920’s:

1) “DXing” (around 1920-1924): trying to 1) “DXing” (around 1920-1924): trying to tune into has many farawaytune into has many farawaystaions as possiblestaions as possible2) “Music Listening” – also came in around 2) “Music Listening” – also came in around the same time as DXing butthe same time as DXing butwas made popular in 1925 with the was made popular in 1925 with the introduction of improved loudspeakersintroduction of improved loudspeakers3) “Story Listening” – people sat down at the 3) “Story Listening” – people sat down at the same time each week tosame time each week tolisten to the same characters enact comedic listen to the same characters enact comedic or dramatic performancesor dramatic performances(ex. Amos ‘n’ Andy – 1929)(ex. Amos ‘n’ Andy – 1929)

The Rise of Amateur The Rise of Amateur Broadcasters - Part Broadcasters - Part

2 2 Radio was becoming a more and

more popular form of entertainment. An important emergence of the radio was the fraternity of amateur operators

Before 1912 amateur broadcasters were allowed to broadcast whatever they wanted.

After 1912 they were put on After 1912 they were put on reservations of waves less than 200 reservations of waves less than 200 meters.meters.

The amateur fraternity took off between 1906 and 1907

This happened after the discovery that certain crystals, like silicon or Carborumdum, were excellent detectors of radio waves. These crystals were cheap, durable and reliable, making them widely popular.

The main amateurs involved in creating radio, were mainly white-middle class males. It was seen as a hobby.

Since it was a hobby, the cheaper the equipment the better, one component was often too expensive was the headphone set, as a result, telephones began disappearing from public booths.

By 1910 the amateurs on the radio outnumbered all other broadcasters including private wireless companies and the military.

The navy was often interrupted with amateur broadcasts and so they sought to get the amateurs banished from the airwaves.

The crash of the Titanic turned the public and congress against amateur broadcasters. When the wireless operator announced that the ship had hit an iceberg there was an immediate response, amateurs filling the airwaves with questions. This interfered with the rescue mission, and many ships were given false information, like that the Titanic was safe and being towed, which meant some ships did not respond to the distress signal.

Four months after this, the Radio Act of 1912 was passed that all amateurs had to be licensed, and they were forbidden from transmitting on the main commercial waves and the military waves.

Chapter 28 – Part 3Chapter 28 – Part 3 World War 1 – federal government banned all

amateur activity and stations Wanted to prevent interference with government

transmissions Already 15 times as many amateur stations than

other stations combined This amateur broadcast audience formed the core of

DXers DXing – a hobby involving tuning in and identifying

distant stations

1920’s American culture was shifting away from tradition and towards modernity

Most Americans were ambivalent towards these changes

New technologies, shorter hemlines, spread of modernism in art, music and literature were at the forefront of these changes

The speed at which information traveled was increased because of radio

People perceived that listening to radio redefined everyday life

Radio’s rapid growth was something that had never been seen before

The perception that people were abandoning the ways of the past was embodied in the radio boom

Many American’s wanted to cling to and restore life as it had been before, a tension existed.

Violent race riots in St Louis, Chicago and Washington DC, the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, revealed racial fissures in the culture.

Prohibition was an ethnic conflict and an attempt to promote Protestant middle class culture as a means of organizing a disorderly world

Anglo conformity insisted that immigrants abandon their past and embrace Anglo American appearances and behaviors

This clashed with a refusal to assimilate, become homogenized and disappear.

Radio played a central role in delivering and forging a national culture in the 1930’s and 40’s, but it didn’t do it at its conception.

It created an environment that people used to strengthen and celebrate local, ethnic, religious, and class based communities.

DiscussionsDiscussions

Chapter 27 Discussion: --What are some possible other benefits for What are some possible other benefits for

businesses that the telephone helped businesses that the telephone helped provide?provide?

Chapter 28 Discussion: Discussion: --How much influence do you think the --How much influence do you think the

amateur broadcasters had on radio? Do amateur broadcasters had on radio? Do you think that history would have been you think that history would have been different if there had been stricter different if there had been stricter regulations for broadcasters before 1912? regulations for broadcasters before 1912? What if there had never been a radio act? What if there had never been a radio act? How would that have changed history?How would that have changed history?