Gransfors Ancient Axe Book

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ANCIENT NORTHERN EUROPEAN AXESGRNSFORS BRUK

Project Management and Text: Lovisa BrnbyLayout: Roman Pixell, Karmatic Experience Group

Translation from Swedish: Rosemary Hollis

Illustrations: Natella Nikolaevna Eremina-EnanderPhotography: Lars Enander page 4, Olga Nielsen page 17 (upper picture)

and Svanthe Harstrm pages 2, 3, &17 (lower picture)Pictures of the Bayeux Tapestry are taken from Mogen Ruds book:Bayeuxtapeten - om slaget vid Hastings 1066, Tidens Publishing 1994

Printed in Sweden by Joma Tryck AB, Ljungby

ISBN 91-972266-4-5 Grnsfors Bruks AB 2005

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Knowledge of past practice in the ownarea of work is essential for developingand changing a company. At Grnsfors

Bruks we manufacture axes. The designof an axe is based on knowledge of axesaccumulated over many generations.

At Grns-forsBruks,

we take itupon our-selves notonly toproduce

axes ofhigh qua-

lity but also to sustain and spread know-ledge about axes. This concerns both themanufacture of axes as well as the uses,handling and history of different axes.The motivation for this stems partly fromour conviction that a continual building

up of knowledge and skills is a prerequisitefor the harmonious development of Grns-fors Bruks and partly from our passionate

interest in axes.

A small part of Grnsfors Bruks productionconsists of the forging of a series of replicasofAncient Northern European Axes. Thebooklet you are holding in your hand,like the reproduction of ancient axes, is aneffort to pass on a part of what we have lear-ned from others. By spreading knowledgeabout axes we hope to create an interestingexchange of information.

We would like to thank all of our axefriends - including those of you who wehave never met - who have helped us inthe past and who hopefully will continue tohelp us expand our knowledge of axes in thefuture.

Gabriel Brnby, Grnsfors Bruks AB

Grnsfors Bruks Learning From Times Gone By

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During the latter part of the 20th cen-tury, the use of axes declined rapidly. This

was due to the invention of the chain

saw and other technical innovations usedin areas such as forestry, the constructionindustry and energy production. Conse-quently, axe lore also decreased. Know-ledge was lost not only within a dwind-ling group of users, but also among axemanufacturers and axe traders.

A consequence of Grnsfors Bruks wideknowledge of axes and the forging ofaxes is that the company has become

standard setting within the axe industry.An example of this is the eliminationof unnecessary and resource-hungry, insome cases environmentally harmful pro-duction processes. This development hasbeen welcomed from an environmentalperspective by axe users and by otheraxe manufacturers, the result being thata number of competitors have tried toimitate Grnsfors Bruks axes. Plagiarismis perhaps the best testimonial a productcan receive, but an original remains fore-

ver an original.

The axe is still regarded as a useful tool intodays society, even though it is used lessand axe lore has decreased considerably.

Axes are still used and will continue to beused in the foreseeable future. This is whyit is important that knowledge is revived,recorded and passed on.

Axe Lore Knowledge to MaintainThe axe has been developed over manythousands of years. Knowing about the cul-ture and social history of the axe provides

us with a better understanding of the designand function of axes used today.

Grnsfors Bruks, which is situated in thenorthern part of the Swedish province ofHlsingland, has taken this particular aspectto heart, and axe lore manifests itself in anumber of ways. For instance, through thetradition of axe manufacturing; the actualmanufacture of axes today; the GrnsforsAxe Museum, the network made up of

discerning axe enthusiasts

at home and abroad, as wellas documentation of know-

ledge. Past knowledgehas been researched,

applied, documented andlearned by the smiths so thatold knowledge is blended

with modern techniques indifferent areas.

Illustrations by N.N. Eremina-Enanderfrom the book, Klassiskt Jrnsmide, inwhich the axe- smith, L . Enander, demon-strates how different ancient axes are

forged.

The smiths tools

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2

3

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Axes have been around for thousands ofyears and seen from an historical perspec-tive may have been the most important

tool used by man. Primarily, the axe hasbeen used as a utility tool, but it has alsoserved as a weapon and as a cult artefactto symbolise status and power. For manyyears, stone, bronze and copper were themost important materials used to makeaxes.

When iron extraction first began inEurope around 500 BC, iron became thepredominant material for axe production.The art of iron extraction and use of iron

brought about great economic and socialchanges. Agricultural work was intensi-fied, which led to an increase in the popu-lation and a greater need for new equip-ment and better tools. The axe becamea precondition for both development andsurvival.

A major problem for the smiths inthose days seems to have been theuneven quality of iron, with regard

to its properties and carbon content.Eventually, however, progress led tothe refinement of iron into steel thatcould be hardened which resulted in abetter end product. But, it took untilthe 20th century before steel could beproduced industrially thus ensuring aneven quality and carbon content.

Scandinavian smiths were influencedby craftsmanship in Europe during thetime of the Great Migration, when

both smiths and axes travelled betweendifferent countries and regions. Inspite of this, regional characteristicsof axes and broad-axes can be seen.For instance, some of the shapes ofaxes, which are typical for the Nordiccountries, were developed at this time.

Development of The Iron Axe

findings indicate that they were not onlyused as axes, but also as chisels and woodchisels.

In Scandinavia, socketed axes were in useuntil about the year 600. But, findingsat burial places in Jmtland and Hrjeda-len suggest that this type of axe was incommon use in these areas up until theViking era.

The earliest iron axes were the so-calledsocketed axes. These were forged into a

wedge shape from thepoll to the cutting

edge. These axes did not have an eye-but rather the handle was fastened intoa socket, which accounts for the name.This type of axe was a legacy from earliersocketed axes cast in bronze.

Socketed axes had a variety of uses: some

The head of the socketed axe was forged into a wedge-shape, and the handle fastened into a socket.

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During the7th century,iron axes withoval handle

eyesbecamecommon inSweden. Theoval-shaped axe eye was a technicalimprovement, since the handle was firmlyfixed and could not twist in the hole.

These handle-eyed axes were also forgedinto a wedge-shape, and had two exten-

ded lugs on each side of the eye below theaxe-head. The lugs, which we now call ears,enable the axe-head to get a firm grip on theshaft. This type of axe is called the two-luggedaxe. During this period, the so-calledfour-lugged axeswere also developed. These axes

were quite common in Norway and Iceland.

From the 11th century, axes were producedwith a so-called handle-socket. At this time,axe blades were often larger and of a moreeven width. The thin-bladed combat axe also

became common in the Nordiccountries during this period.

Today, there are very few handlespreserved from the early Iron

Age, although the type of woodwas probably the same as thatused during the late Middle

Ages and up until our time,i.e. beech, birch, ash, and witchelm. Axe handles were normallystraight, but during the Viking

Age curved handles were sometimesfound on carving axes, for instance, toachieve a better balance. The handles on thefelling axes probably remained straight untilthe end of the 19th century when Ameri-can- style axes with curved handles becamecommon even in Europe.

The handle-eyed axes had two orfour lugs and were forged into asingle wedge-shaped piece. Above isa two-lugged axe and to the left anexample of a type of four-lugged axe.

The socket and the blade were forgedseparately before being welded together.

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The Axe As An Everyday Tool The Utility Axe

*The Bayeux Tapestry is approximately 70 meters in length (231 feet). It is embroidered in clear colours with scenesthat depict the preparations for battle and the Battle of Hastings, 1066. The tapestry, woven in the 11th century, ispreserved in the town of Bayeux in the west of France.**Skiftesverksystemetdenotes a type of house-building technique characterized by horizontal planks placed one ontop of the other.***Clinker-builtis a term used in boat building. In wooden boats, external planks overlap downwards.

Parts of The Bayeux Tapestry* illus-trate that the axe was frequently usedas a utility tool for felling trees andboat construction.

During the Iron Age, the axe was prima-rily one of the most important tools usedfor cultivation. The axe enabled man to

transform the natural landscape into cul-tivated land, and in many ways providedone of the basic conditions for the buil-ding up of society and culture.

The early iron axes can bedivided into the followinggroups: hatchets, felling axes,and later battle axes, of whichhatchets and chopping axesbecame the most common

utility tools. The wedge-shaped axe from the time ofthe Great Migration was deve-loped into a typical utility axe.

The hatchets had short hand-les and the axe head seldom weighedmore than 600 grams. Because of its size,

the hatchet was an ideal tool to use forcarving since it only required the use ofone hand to work with it. The felling axes

were larger, heavier, and weighed between800-1200 grams. These were used mainlyfor felling trees and timber to providematerial for housing and building boats.

The basic hatchets and chopping axeswere later developed into new types ofaxes such as splitting axes and broad axes,

which came to the Northern countriesfrom Middle and Western Europe duringthe 7th century. The broad axe was usedmostly for hewing timber and squaring

logs and planks. This meant the broadaxe was of great importance in the cons-truction of Viking buildings (skiftesverk-

hus)** and clinker-built boats***, bothof which came into production in thelatter part of the 7th century. This formof construction was particularly common

during the Viking Age.

In the first place, the earlysocketed and handle-eyedaxes were popular tools usedfor chopping and wood-

work. However, the mostcommon utility axes also hadto serve as weapons untilspecial axes more suitable forbattle were developed.

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The Axe As A Weapon The Battle Axe

The battle axe was frequently usedin great battles, which can be clearly

seen in the Bayeux Tapestrys depictionof the Battle of Hastings, 1066.

The Viking Age was between 800 and1050 AD in the Northern countries.

When the Vikings went into battle, the

axe was an important weapon. It is some-times difficult to separate the axes that

were used in battle from craftsmens axesbecause duringthe early yearsthese hand axes

were at times alsoused in battle.

It would bequite wrongto describe the

smiths crafts-manship duringthe Viking Ageas primitive. Onthe contrary, themethods used toproduce axes and other tools were well-developed. The axes were often distinctly

wedge-shaped, functional and had a

balanced feel to them.Gradually, the Nordic smiths developed aspecific type of axe more suitable for battle.

This axe became the predecessor for thefuture development of axes used in battle.The battle axeshad wide edges and thin

blades and were often attached to a longhandle by four lugs above and below theeye. In addition, the long curved blade was

equipped with an accentuated steel edge.These thin-bladed battle axes were keptintentionally lightweight and the axe head

seldom weighed more than 500 grams.The relatively slow development of thebattle axe is probably due to its initial

unpopularity as a weapon. People feltmore at home using traditional weaponssuch as spears and swords, and at the

same time asso-ciated the axewith the tradi-tional work ofthe craftsman.

Production ofthe thin-bladedbattle axe

began in the10th century,and during theViking Agethese weaponsbecame the

height of fashion. In all probability, axeswere used in battles in Northern Europelong after the Viking Age had ended.

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The Cult Axe A Symbol of Power and Status

The battle axe as a symbol of power and status isillustrated clearly in several scenes on the BayeuxTapestry. The picture shows Harald, who later becameKing of England, being offered the crown in the year1066. He holds in his hand a characteristic battle axeas a manifestation of his power.

The axe has been a cult accessory anda symbol of power in many culturessince prehistoric times: in China, the Inca

Empire, and Ancient Greece to name afew. That the axe was regarded as anobject that possessed power and instilledfear was especially plain in ancient times.

As an emblem of authority and the powerto administer punishment, Roman offi-cials wore a so-calledfasceswhich consis-ted of a bundle of rods bound togetheraround an axe with the blade projecting.The same symbol is found today on thecoat of arms for the Swedish police andmilitary police, the emblems of which

show a bundle of rods with a projectingaxe-blade.

During the Stone Age and Bronze Age,the axe was regarded as a cult accesoryin Northern Europe, and remained sothroughout the Iron Age and Viking Ageup to present time.

During the Viking Age, the battle axe wasregarded primarily as a symbol of statusand dignity in Northern Europe, which was

most apparent in Norway and Iceland. Thethin-bladed, four-lugged battle axe appearedon ceremonial occasions where it became asymbol of power and status for its owner.These axes were often elegantly decorated

with, for instance, silver thread inlaid in themetal, and shaped both to please as well as toshow the prosperity of their owner.

The battle axe acquired a particularly promi-nent role in Norway, since it was King Olavthe Saints attribute. King Olav the Saint of

Norway, who reigned during the latter partof the Viking Age, later became Norwegianpatron saint.

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Replicas are forged by hand at GrnsforsBruks by the axe-smiths Lars Enander(LE)*, Claudia Kowalek (CK) and Ulrika

Stridsberg (US). Lars is a fourth genera-tion smith who for many years has had aspecial interest in the work of Viking Agesmiths. He has been commissioned byvarious museums to forge replicas of ironfindings from archaeological excavations.

The Old Northern European Axesin thisseries are based on original axes from theIron Age and the Viking Age. The origi-nals can be found at different museums.The design and final shaping of replicas is

adapted so that it corresponds as far as ispossible to the original.

From a social historical point of view,these replicas are useful because the qua-lity of design means that we can actuallytry out some of the types of axes used byour ancestors.

In the production process, the smithforges the replicas by handshaping theglowing iron, heated to 1200 degrees

Celsius by pounding it with hammers orsledgehammers. The smiths knowledgeand craftsmanship is vital in this process.Not only should the replica resemblethe original as closely as possible but itshould also fulfil the demands for qualityexpected of a utility tooltoday. (Thereplicas are probably of better qualitythan the originals ever were).

After forging, the replicas made at Grns-fors Bruks are sharpened, tempered,

annealed, and finally simply made hand-les are attached. Replicas are not kept instock but are made to order.

Replicas of Ancient Axes

After forging, theedge of the axe is

sharpened

The smith, LarsEnander, heating

iron in the furnace.

*In co-operation with Karl-Gunnar Norn, LarsEnander has also written two textbooks on forging:

Jrnsmidesboken and also Klassiskt jrnsmide, Nielsen& Norn publishing, 2001. Lars holds classes in theart of forging on a regular basis at Grnsfors Bruks.

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Two-Lugged Chopping Axe

A Swedish axe developed during the 7th centuryand first used on the island of Gotland and incentral parts of Sweden. The two lugs below the eye

give the axe its characteristic look. The edge is shortand straight.

The chopping axe is thought to have been usedprimarily for felling trees as well as for timbering

when building houses and boats. Axes with a shortedge, about 7 cm long and weighing about 1 kg hadbeen used for felling and lopping trees right up intothe 20th century.

This replica, forged by hand, is based on an 11thcentury axe discovered at Mstermyr on Gotland.The axe was found lying in a carpenters toolbox,

which indicates that it belonged to a versatile crafts-man. The original axe is exhibited at the Museum ofNational Antiquities in Stockholm.

Straight handle, 75 cmLength of edge, 7 cm

Weight including handle approx., 1.3 kg

Two-Lugged Beard Axe(Broad Axe)

A Swedish axe developed during the 7th century.The broad axe originally came to the Nordic countries

from Western and Central Europe and was subse-quently developed into two basic axe types: the two-lugged and the four-lugged. The two-lugged broad axe is characte-rised by two lugs below the eye and was often quite big and heavy.It had a short handle and a long extended edge.

The beard axe was used primarily as a tool for woodwork and forcutting and smoothing planks, for example. This type of axe wasan essential tool used for boat building and in the construction ofViking buildings (skiftesverkhus) which were built using horizontalplanks.

This replica, forged by hand, is based on an 11th century axefound in Gothem on the island of Gotland. The original axe isexhibited at the Museum of National Antiquities in Stockholm.


Weight including handle approx., 1.6 kg

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Four-Lugged Chopping Axe

A Norwegian axe from the 7th century which wasdeveloped into a western Scandinavian type. It is

characterised by its four eye-lugs: two above andtwo below the eye. The axe has a relatively wide,curved edge.

Archaeological findings indicate that this type ofaxe probably formed part of peoples personalequipment. It was used both as a hatchet and as a

working axe, but also as a weapon in battle beforethe actual battle axe was developed.

This replica, forged by hand, is based on an axedating back to the 9th century, and was found

in Skne in the southern part of Sweden. Theoriginal axe is exhibited at the Museum Kulturenin Lund.


Weight including handle approx. 1 kg

Battle Axe

This style of axe was developed in the Nordiccountries during the 10th century. It is characte-

rised by its four eye-lugs: two above and twobelow the eye. The axe has a wide, thin bladewith a long curved blade with its accentuatedsteel edge.

The battle axe was common in the Nordiccountries during the Viking Age and was consi-dered the height of fashion. The axe was prima-rily used in battle, but also signified the powerand dignity of its owner.

This replica, forged by hand, is based on an

axe used during the Viking Age. The original isexhibited at Jmtlands Lns Museum in ster-sund.


Weight including handle, approx. 1.2 kg.

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Gutter Adze

A Scandinavian style axe similar to theregular adze apart from its edge which is

shaped differently. This adze is characteri-sed by its sharply concave, bowl-shapededge. The gutter adze was mainly used tohollow out timber, which this particulartype of edge made possible.

This replica, forged by hand, is based onseveral originals.

Curved handle, 65 cmCurved edge, approx. 8 cm


Adze

A Scandinavian style axe from the VikingAge characterised by its transverse edge. The

adze, or tvryxaas it was also called, was atype of axe with a wide range of uses suchas in carpentry and as a cutting tool used tomake boat frames.

This replica, forged by hand, is based onseveraloriginals.

Straight handle, 65 cmStraight edge, 7 cm

Weight including handle, approx. 1.3 kg

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Broad Axe

A Danish style axe from the 11th century,although the original type is in all proba-

bility much older. The axe is characterisedby its long extended edge and its curvedhandle.

The broad axe was first and foremost atool used for woodworking, such as incutting and smoothing planks for houseand boat construction.

This replica, forged by hand, is based onan original from the 11th century. Theoriginal axe is on display at the Viking

Museum in Roskilde, Denmark.

Curved handle, 50 cmLength of edge, 37 cm


Bearded Axe With Eye-Socket

A northern European axe dating from the earlypart of the 12th century. Axes with eye-sockets

made their breakthrough in the early Middle Agesin Europe. A characteristic of this axe is the long,sturdy eye-socket, and also its wide edge.

The bearded axe with its eye-socket was developedfrom the two-lugged axe type and was used fortimbering and splitting logs. It was probably alsoused for carpentry.

This replica, forged by hand, is based on a numberof similar axe types from the early Middle Ages.

Straight handle, 60 cm,Length of edge, 12 cm,


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The Axe Museum

Sidan 27

Greta Arwidsson och Gsta Berg:The Mstermyr FindLarsson Publishing Company, 1999

Lars Enander and K.G. Norn:JrnsmidesbokenNielsen & Norn publishing, 1998

Lars Enander and K.G. Norn:Klassiskt JrnsmideNielsen & Norn publishing, 2001

John Haywood:Historical Atlas of the VikingsPenguin books, 1995

Lars Holmblad and J. Leonardsson:Vikingarnas vrdMuseum of National Antiquities, 2001

Tomas Johansson:Forntida teknikICA publishing, 1993

Susan M. Margeson:VikingDorling Kindersley Ltd., 1994

Karl L. Mrkved:Oksa som skogsverktoyReprinted from the yearbook, TheNorwegian Forestry Museum, 1961-1962

Carin Orrling:VikingarThe Swedish Institute, 1997

Mogens Rud:Bayeuxtapeten - om slaget vid Hastings1066Tidens publishing, 1994

G. Steinsland and P. Meulengracht:Mnniskor och makt i Vikingarnas vrdOrdfront publishing, 1998

Hkan Strotz:Yxans utveckling frn stenldern framtill i dag.Thesis written at Skogshgskolan inUme, 1994

The exibition Vikingarheld at theMuseum of National Antiquities inStockholm, Autumn 2001

Grnsfors Axe Museum

References and Bibliography

Adjacent to Grnsfors Bruks is the Grns-fors Axe Museum. The museums collec-tion consists of approximately 2000 axes,

both old and new, mostly from Sweden.

The exhibition includes everything fromearly iron axes and replicas of old modelsto brand new industrially manufacturedaxes. Besides the many axes displayed,

extensive information is also available.This museum is not run for profit. The

collection came about thanks to the manygifts received and voluntary work.

The Axe Museum incombination with the

ongoing production ofaxes at Grnsfors Bruks

form the basis of ourholistic approach - an

approach that provides

an understanding of thecultural background and

social history of the axe.

The museum is situatedat Grnsfors Bruks Axe

forge between Hudiksvall

and Sundsvall, 10 kmfrom the E4 highway, on the road between

Gnarp and Bergsj. The museum is almostalways open.

Phone Sweden: +46 652 71090

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Grnsfors Bruks has manufactured axes since 1902. In addition to thebook ofAncient Northern European Axes, Grnsfors Bruks also publishesThe Axe Book, translated into four languages, and also the book: Yxa meddubbelegg(Double-Bit Axes) in co-operation with The Swedish Axe Thro-wing Society. The Axe Book can be ordered through: www.gransfors.com

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Gransfors Ancient Axe Book

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