April 2012 GRAMMAR III INTERMEDIATE Overview: In level III, there is increased emphasis on coordination and, especially, subordination with adverb clauses. The present perfect and past progressive tenses are introduced, along with related prepositions and adverbs. Students also begin to use real and unreal conditionals, gerunds, and infinitives as well as a greater range of modal verbs. I. ADJECTIVES A. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES 1. Forms and meanings a) Present participle forms (Verb + -ING) John heard that they are going to build an Olympic-sized pool soon. This news has excited John. The news was exciting. b) Past participle forms (Verb + -ED) John heard that they are going to build a n Olympic-sized pool soon. This news has excited John. John was excited. 2. Functions within a sentence a) Before nouns John was happy to hear the exciting news. b) After the verb be The news was exciting. II. ADVERBS A. ADVERBS OF INDEFINITE TIME 1. Forms already, yet, still, anymore, and just 2. Usage notes and examples a. Already is used in an affirmative statement to indicate that an action happened at some point before the present i. Following the verb be The mail is already here. ii. Preceding a verb in the simple present or past tense The mail already came an hour ago. iii. Between an auxiliary verb and a main verb
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GRAMMAR III · Present perfect tense is used in the main clause and simple past tense is used in the subordinate clause. Main Clause Subordinate Clause Sara has been in the cafeteria
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April 2012
GRAMMAR III INTERMEDIATE
Overview: In level III, there is increased emphasis on coordination and, especially,
subordination with adverb clauses. The present perfect and past progressive tenses are
introduced, along with related prepositions and adverbs. Students also begin to use real and
unreal conditionals, gerunds, and infinitives as well as a greater range of modal verbs.
I. ADJECTIVES
A. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES 1. Forms and meanings
a) Present participle forms (Verb + -ING)
John heard that they are going to build an Olympic-sized pool
soon. This news has excited John.
The news was exciting.
b) Past participle forms (Verb + -ED)
John heard that they are going to build a n Olympic-sized pool
soon. This news has excited John.
John was excited.
2. Functions within a sentence
a) Before nouns
John was happy to hear the exciting news.
b) After the verb be
The news was exciting.
II. ADVERBS
A. ADVERBS OF INDEFINITE TIME 1. Forms
already, yet, still, anymore, and just
2. Usage notes and examples
a. Already is used in an affirmative statement to indicate that an action
happened at some point before the present
i. Following the verb be
The mail is already here.
ii. Preceding a verb in the simple present or past tense
The mail already came an hour ago.
iii. Between an auxiliary verb and a main verb
The mail has already arrived.
iv. At the end of a sentence
The mail is here already. The mail came already.
The mail has come already.
b. Yet is used at the end of a negative sentence or question to indicate that
an action has not happened by the present time but that it is expected to
happen in the future
Has the mail come yet? No, the mail hasn't come yet.
c. Still is used in any statement or question to indicate that a situation has
continued to exist from the past to the present time without change
i. In an affirmative statement
(a) Following the verb be
The mailbox is still empty.
(b) Preceding a verb in the simple present or past tense
David complained to the post office, but the
mailman still arrives late.
(c) Between an auxiliary verb and a main verb
David is still waiting for the mailman.
ii. In a negative statement, preceding a negative auxiliary
The mail still hasn't come.
iii. In a question, following the subject
Is David still waiting for the mailman?
d. Anymore is used at the end of a negative statement to
indicate that a situation which existed in the past does not
continue to exist at the present time
David used to wait for the mailman. He doesn't wait for him
anymore.
e. Just is used in an affirmative statement to indicate that an
action was completed a short time before the present
i. Following the verb be
The mailman was just here.
ii. Preceding a verb in the simple present or simple
past tense
The mailman just left a minute ago.
iii. Between an auxiliary verb and a main verb
The mailman has just left.
III. ADVERB CLAUSES
A. TIME CLAUSES
1. FUTURE TENSE a. Conjunctions
after, *as soon as, before, and when
*Only as soon as is new at Level III.
b. Functions
i. When is used to show that the main clause action or event happens at or
around the same time as another future action or event. Sara will go back to school next week. She will eat breakfast in the cafeteria next week.
Sara will eat breakfast in the cafeteria when she goes back to school.
ii. Before is used to show that the main clause action or event happens first
(before another future action or event). First, Sara will eat breakfast. Second, she will go to class.
Sara will eat breakfast before she goes to class.
iii. After is used to show that the main clause action or event happens second
(after another future action or event). First, Sara will eat breakfast. Second, she will go to class.
Sara will go to class after she eats breakfast.
iv. As soon as is used to show that the main clause action or event happens
immediately before another future action or event. First, Sara will eat breakfast. Second, she will go to class.
Sara will go to class as soon as she eats breakfast.
c. Verb tenses
Future tense is used in the main clause and simple present tense is used in the
subordinate clause. Will is the most frequent choice in a sentence with a
future time clause, but be going to may also be used. Sara will eat breakfast in the cafeteria when she goes back to school.
Sara is going to eat breakfast in the cafeteria when she goes back to school.
d. Clause position
The subordinate clause is usually in sentence final position, but it may also be
used in initial position. Sara will eat breakfast in the cafeteria when she goes back to school.
When Sara goes back to school, she will eat breakfast in the cafeteria.
e. Punctuation
When the subordinate clause is in initial position, it is followed by a comma.
When the subordinate clause is in final position, no comma is used. When Sara goes back to school, she will eat breakfast in the cafeteria.
Sara will eat breakfast in the cafeteria when she goes back to school.
f. Pronoun precedence
When the subjects of both clauses are the same, a noun should be used in the first
clause and a pronoun should be used in the second clause. Sara will eat breakfast in the cafeteria when she goes back to school.
When Sara goes back to school, she will eat breakfast in the cafeteria.
2. PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE a. Conjunctions
when and *while
*Only while is new at Level III.
b. Functions
i. When or while are used with a past progressive tense verb to show that a past
action or event was already in progress when the main clause action or event
interrupted it. Either when or while can be used with no change in meaning. In progress: Sara was eating breakfast. Interruption: The bell rang.
The bell rang when/while Sara was eating breakfast.
ii. When is used with a simple past tense verb to show that a past action or event
interrupted another past action or event. While cannot be used in this sense. In progress: Sara was eating her breakfast. Interruption: The bell rang.
Sara was eating her breakfast when the bell rang.
c. Verb tenses
i. To focus on the interruption, simple past is used in the main clause and past
progressive tense is used in the subordinate clause.
Main Clause Subordinate Clause The bell rang while Sara was eating her breakfast.
ii. To focus on the action or event in progress, past progressive tense is used in
the main clause and simple past tense is used in the subordinate clause.
Main Clause Subordinate Clause Sara was eating her breakfast when the bell rang.
(See Future Time Clauses for information about pronoun precedence, clause position, and
punctuation in adverb clauses.)
3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE a. Conjunction
since
b. Function
Since is used to show that an action or event began at a specific time in the past
and continues to the present. When Sara got to school, she immediately went to the cafeteria, and she is still there.
Sara has been in the cafeteria since she got to school.
c. Verb tenses
Present perfect tense is used in the main clause and simple past tense is used in the subordinate clause.
Main Clause Subordinate Clause Sara has been in the cafeteria since she got to school.
(See Future Time Clauses for information about pronoun precedence, clause position, and
punctuation in adverb clauses.)
B. CAUSE AND RESULT CLAUSES
1. EXPECTED OUTCOMES a. Conjunction
because
b. Function Because is used to show that the main clause action or event is the logical or
expected outcome of the subordinate clause. Lucy won ten million dollars in the lottery. She quit her job.
Lucy quit her job because she won ten million dollars in the lottery.
c. Verb tenses
Unlike time clauses, there is no set pattern of verb tenses in sentences with
because-clauses. The tenses in the main clause and the subordinate clause may be
the same or they may be different. Lucy quit her job because she won ten million dollars in the lottery.
Lucy is going to quit her job because she won the lottery.
(See Future Time Clauses for information about pronoun precedence, clause position, and
punctuation in adverb clauses.)
2. UNEXPECTED OUTCOMES a. Conjunctions
although and even though
b. Function
Although and even though are used to show that the main clause action or event
seems illogical or unexpected given another action or event. Lucy won ten million dollars in the lottery. Lucy still goes to work every day.
Lucy goes to work every day although/even though she won the lottery.
c. Verb tenses
Unlike time clauses, there is no set pattern of verb tenses in sentences with
although/even though-clauses. The tenses in the main clause and the subordinate
clause may be the same or they may be different. Lucy kept her job although/even though she won the lottery.
Lucy goes to work every day although/even though she won the lottery.
(See Future Time Clauses for information about pronoun precedence, clause position, and
punctuation in adverb clauses.)
C. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
1. REAL FUTURE CONDITIONALS a. Conjunction
if
b. Function If is used with simple present tense to show that an action or event is possible in
the future, but its occurrence is dependent on another action or event taking place.
Possibility: Clara will go to Bermuda. Condition: Clara has enough money.
Clara will go to Bermuda if she has enough money.
c. Verb tenses
In real future conditional sentences, future tense is used in the main clause and
simple present tense is used in the subordinate clause. Will is the most frequent
choice in a sentence with a future conditional clause, but be going to may also be
used.
Clara will go to Bermuda if she has enough money.
Clara is going to go to Bermuda if she has enough money.
(See Future Time Clauses for information about pronoun precedence, clause position, and
punctuation in adverb clauses.)
2. UNREAL FUTURE CONDITIONALS (LISTENING/SPEAKING) a. Conjunction
if
b. Function If is used with subjunctive tense* to express that an action or event is desirable
but unlikely because the condition precipitating its occurrence is unlikely.
*(See note in Verb tenses.) Desire: Clara would like to go to the moon. Condition: Clara must know how to build a rocket.
Clara would go to the moon if she knew how to build a rocket.
c. Verb tenses
Subjunctive tense* is used in the main clause and would + verb is used in the
subordinate clause. Clara would go to the moon if she knew how to build a rocket.
(*Since these subjunctive forms are identical to simple past tense forms in all
cases except be, at Level III it is recommended that they be taught as simple past
tense verbs, with be as an occasional aberration in formal English, rather than
introducing the concept of subjunctive tense.)
d. Irregularities
In formal written English, were is preferred to was in first and third person, but
was is the preferred form in everyday spoken English. Spoken: Sara would go to the moon if commercial space travel was cheap.
Written: Sara would go to the moon if commercial space travel were cheap.
(See Future Time Clauses for information about pronoun precedence, clause position, and
punctuation in adverb clauses.)
IV. COMPARISONS (Listening/Speaking)
A. COMPARATIVES 1. Adjectives
Jocelyn has a brand-new Jaguar. Caitlin has an old Chevrolet.
Jocelyn’s car is faster than Caitlin’s (car) (is).
Jocelyn’s car is also more expensive than Caitlin’s (car) (is).
2. Adverbs
Jocelyn is a terrible driver. Caitlin is a good driver. Jocelyn drives
faster than Caitlin (does).
Jocelyn also drives more recklessly than Caitlin (does).
3. Nouns
Jocelyn is rich. Caitlin is poor.
Jocelyn has more money than Caitlin (does). Caitlin has less money than
Jocelyn (does).
Jocelyn has many problems. Caitlin has a few problems. Jocelyn has
more problems than Caitlin (does).
Caitlin has fewer problems than Jocelyn (does).
B. EQUATIVES
1. Adjectives
Jocelyn has a brand-new Jaguar. Dinah has a brand-new Ferrari.
Dinah’s car is as fast as Jocelyn’s (car) (is).
Dinah’s car is as expensive as Jocelyn’s (car) (is).
2. Adverbs
Jocelyn is a terrible driver. Dinah is a terrible driver too. Dinah
drives as fast as Jocelyn (does).
Dinah also drives as recklessly as Jocelyn (does).
3. Nouns
Jocelyn is rich. Dinah is rich too.
Dinah has as much money as Jocelyn (does).
Jocelyn has a lot of problems. Dinah has a lot of problems too. Dinah
also has as many problems as Jocelyn (does).
C. SUPERLATIVES
1. Adjectives
Jocelyn has a Jaguar. Caitlin has a Chevrolet. Serena has a Citroen.
Jocelyn’s car is the fastest.
Jocelyn’s car is the most expensive.
2. Adverbs
Jocelyn is a terrible driver. Caitlin is a good driver. Serena is a great
driver. Jocelyn drives the fastest.
Jocelyn also drives the most recklessly.
3. Nouns
Jocelyn is rich. Caitlin is poor. Serena is very poor. Jocelyn has the
most money.
Serena has the least money.
Jocelyn has many problems. Caitlin has a few. Serena has almost
none. Jocelyn has the most problems.
Serena has the fewest problems.
V. COORDINATION
A. SERIES 1. Common conjunctions and their functions in a series
a) Addition
Bobby has a dog and a cat.
b) Choice
Bobby wanted to get a rat or a lizard.
c) Contrast
Bobby’s mother likes cats and dogs but not rats and lizards.
2. Multiple parts of speech commonly connected by conjunctions a)
Nouns
Bobby has a dog and a cat.
b) Adjectives
Bobby has a black and white cat.
c) Verbs
Bobby’s cat sleeps all day and plays all night.
3. Parallelism (NEW)
Incorrect: Bobby’s cat is beautiful and plays.
Correct: Bobby’s cat is beautiful and playful.
4. Punctuation: Comma usage (NEW)
Bobby wanted to get a rat or a lizard. (No commas)
Bobby wanted to get a rat, a snake, or a lizard.
B. SENTENCES 1. Common conjunctions and their functions in sentences
a) Addition
Bobby likes cats, and his mother likes them too.
b) Contrast
Bobby likes snakes, but his mother doesn’t like them.
c) Choice
Will Bobby get a boa constrictor, or will his mother say no?
d) Result (NEW)
Bobby’s mother is afraid of snakes, so Bobby can’t have a boa
constrictor.
e) Unexpected result (NEW)
Bobby’s mother is afraid of snakes, but she bought Bobby a boa
constrictor for his birthday (anyway).
2. Punctuation: conjoined versus non-conjoined sentences
Bobby likes cats and dogs, and his mother likes them too.
Bobby likes cats and dogs. His mother likes them too.
3. Ellipsis and substitution
a) But
Bobby likes snakes, but his mother doesn’t .
Bobby’s mother doesn’t like snakes, but Bobby does.
b) And
(i) Affirmative sentences
Bobby likes snakes, and his sister does too.
Bobby likes snakes, and so does his sister.
(ii) Negative sentences
Bobby doesn’t like rabbits, and his sister doesn’t either.
Bobby doesn’t like rabbits, and neither does his sister.
VI. PREPOSITIONS
A. PREPOSITIONS OF EXTENDED TIME 1. Forms
by, during, for, from ... to, since, and until
2. Usage notes and examples
a. By indicates the end point of a period of time in which an action
may occur at any point
Sharon had to read a whole book by Monday morning.
b. During indicates a period of time in which an action may occur at
any point or a period of time in which an action occurs
continuously
Sharon didn't have time to read the book during the week .
Sharon read her book during lunch.
c. For indicates the specific quantity of time which an action has
taken
It's one o'clock Sunday afternoon. Sharon is reading.
She has been reading for three hours. She has been reading three
hours.
(For may be omitted before a number.)
d. From ... To indicates the times at which an action begins and ends
She read from ten o'clock in the morning to two o'clock in the
afternoon.
e. Since indicates the time at which an action begins
It's one o'clock Sunday afternoon. Sharon is reading.
She has been reading since ten o'clock .
f. Until indicates the time at which an action ends
Sharon read the book until two o'clock in the afternoon.
Also see Adverb Clauses for more about since.
B. PREPOSITIONS OF MEANS 1. By
a) Actions (gerunds)
Harriet found a travel agent by looking in the telephone book.
b) Communication
Harriet’s travel agent sent her an itinerary by fax.
c) Transportation
Harriet decided to go to Houston by plane rather than by train.
2. With
a) Parts of the body
Harriet slit open the ticket envelope with her fingernail.
b) Instruments
Harriet lost the key, so she had to open her suitcase with a nailfile.
C. PREPOSITONS OF PURPOSE 1. In order
Harriet is flying to Houston in order to visit her sister.
Also see Infinitives.
2. For
She has been to Houston for a visit once before.
VII. QUESTIONS
A. TAG QUESTIONS (Listening/Speaking) 1. Affirmative tag questions
A lion lives in Africa, doesn't it?
Expected Response: Yes, it does.
2. Negative tag questions
A lion doesn't live in Asia, does it?
Expected Response: No, it doesn't.
See Verbs for further information about tenses and auxiliaries to be practiced at
Level III.
VIII. VERBALS
A. GERUNDS 1. Rule for forming gerunds (Verb + -ING)
John swims almost every day. He really loves swimming.
2. Functions of gerunds
a) As objects of verbs
(i) Which may only be followed by gerunds
John enjoys swimming.
(ii) Which may be followed by gerunds or infinitives
John loves swimming/to swim.
b) As objects of prepositions
John is fond of swimming.
c) As subjects
Swimming is John’s favorite sport.
d) After the verb go in idiomatic expressions of activity
John goes swimming five days a week.
3. Parallel structure with a series of gerunds
John loves swimming and diving.
B. INFINITIVES 1. Rule for forming infinitives (To + Verb)
John swims almost every day. He wants to swim seven days a week.
2. Functions of infinitives
a) As objects of certain verbs
(i) Which may only be followed by infinitives
John wants to swim every day.
(ii) Which may be followed by infinitives or gerunds
John loves to swim/swimming.
b) As subjects of structures following introductory it
It + Be + Adjective + (For + Indirect Object) + Infinitive
It is impossible (for John) to swim laps when the pool is crowded.
c) As adverbial phrases of purpose
John goes to the gym to swim five times a week.
d) As elements of structures following too
Too + Adjective + (For + Indirect Object) + Infinitive
The swimming pool is sometimes too crowded (for John) to swim