Grammar

INTRODUCTION

At the core of every language is the system of regular patterns which make up the grammatical system of that language. It is this system that enables speakers to create an infinite variety of utterances, in speech or in writing, which express the meanings they wish to communicate. One of the wonders of human language is precisely this capacity for “rule-governed creativity”: although the system of rules itself is limited, there is no limit to the number of sentences that it can create or, therefore, to the number of meanings that it can convey.

The present book deals with the verb trying to unravel some important aspects.The Verb is that part of speech by means of which we make an assertion or ask a

question: "The wind is blowing. Is the wind blowing?"(G, Curme,"English Grammar")G. Galateanu and E. Comisel (“Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz scolar") give

the following definition: the Verb is a major part of speech which must be defined according to three criteria: the semantic criterion, the morphological criterion and the syntactic criterion.

From the semantic point of view the class of verbs includes words expressing action or states perceived as processes.

From the morphological point of view, the Verb displays the grammatical categories of person and number and also the grammatical categories of tense, mood, aspect and voice which do not characterize any part of speech.

From the syntactic point of view, the Verb (the finite) discharges the syntactic function of predicate.

A) From the point of view of composition and derivation Verbs may be divided into:

a) Simple Verbs: go, come, get etc.b) Compound verbs: to blackmail etc.c) Complex Verbs /Phrasal Verbs: to put off, to go on etc.d) Verbal phrases: to take a walk, to come to light, to kill time etc.

B) According to the function within the verb place (lexical meaning or content), Verbs may be divided into:

1. Full Verbs From the morphological point of view this class of verbs (called "ordinary"

Verbs by some linguists such as Thomson and Martinet) can be divided into regular and irregular verbs. R. Quirk ('A Grammar of Contemporary English") finds five forms for the regular English verb: the BASE , the -s Form , the Past, the -ING PARTICIPLE , and the -ED PARTICIPLE . Regular lexical verbs have the same -ed inflection for both the past and the past participle ("cal1ed"). Irregular lexical verbs vary from three (put, puts ,putting) to eight (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been)

2. Auxiliary verbs According to G. Galateanu and L. Levitchi, we have to mention three smaller groups of verbs: Copulative Verbs, Auxiliary Verbs , Semi-Auxiliary (Modal Verbs).The so-called ”Copulative Verbs" are represented by the verb "be" and according to the traditional grammar there are other verbs that belong to this group : appear , seem , look , turn , become , get , grow, remain , stay. e.g. He seems ill.

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3. Semi-Auxiliary (Modal) Verbs The modal verbs are never used as main verbs .The modal verbs: can, may ,must, should , would are a group of heterogeneous nature because some of them were originally the Past Tense of the Indicative /Subjunctive Mood.

There are certain formal characteristics:a) they are uninflected (all persons have the same form ,they do not get -s )b) the interrogative and negative pattern is made without the auxiliary "do"c) there are gaps in the tense-aspect-mood system : no forms of infinitive and no-ing formsd) they have incomplete predication

There are certain semantic characteristics these items make up a system specialized for expressing the speaker's attitude towards the action; they are polysemantic verbs, each modal verb has at least two meanings.

The Category of Person and NumberThe English verb has only one formal indicator to mark these categories, namely the-s for the 3'd person" singular Indicative Mood Present Tense (Modal Verbs do not get -s for the 3'" person singular).

The Category of MoodThe verb category of mood serves to express the way in which the speaker considers the action .By means of this category, the speaker can present the action in two ways:

as being real, factual, existing in fact (in reality). as being non-factual, hypothetical, possible, probable, necessary , desirable.

The problem concerning the number of moods is not solved because moods can be studiedfrom the point of their meaning and from the point of view of the forms. There are twocriteria :l.Traditional grammars speak of four finite moods : the Indicative , the Subjunctive , the Conditional, the Imperative.2.Moderm grammars speak of only two finite moods :the Indicative and the Subjunctive . The Conditional is interpreted as being a subtype of the Subjonctive .

Grammar learning is not an end in itself, but an indispensable means for the acquisition of the foreign language. Without understanding the value of theoretical grammar, its contribution to linguistic culture and to the development of important faculties of thinking, we can’t comprehend the role of grammar learning in the practical acquisition of the language. Learning a second language means first of all acquiring the basic patterns of the language. Learning grammar means learning the basic morpho-syntactical patterns of the language up to the point of productive mastery, i.e. until they become a set of habits for active use.

Theory and practice should be combined in order to help students understand English grammar . In fact learning a foreign language gives the learner the ability to step inside the mind and context of other cultures. Without the ability to communicate and understand a culture on its own terms, true access to that culture is barred.

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CHAPTER I

MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. The following verbs are called modal verbs: shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must ought to and dare.

These verbs have some common characteristics:

they don’t have Long infinitives they don’t have –ing forms they don’t have forms for all the tenses they are followed by Short infinitives they are uninflectedthe interrogative is formed by inversion

MAY

Use :May is used to express:

formal pemissione.g. May I go out ? Yes, you may . He may come here.

You may go now. possibility

e.g. It may rain in the afternoon .

May in wishes and hopes May is used in formal expressions of wishes and hopes. May often comes at the beginning of the sentence. May God bless you! May you both be very happy! May the devil take him!

Might is used : to express permission connected to the past

e.g. I understood that he might go out of the room whenever he wanted . to express present/future/past possibility .

e.g. Your cousin might be in the garden. Granny might arrive on Tuesday. The foreigner thought he might find the way to the museum by himself.

May and might both express possibility or uncertainty. May is more common in formal language.e.g. The peace conference may find a solution to the problem

May/might as well

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This describes the only thing left to do, something which the speaker is not enthusiastic about.e.g . Nobody else is going to turn up now for the lesson, so you may as well gohome.There is an idiomatic expression with try, using may for present reference, and might for past reference.e.g. Try as I might, I could not pass my driving test.(This means although I tried hard, 1 could not pass my driving test.

May versus Can

Both can and may can be used to talk about possibility. But there is some difference between them.

Can is used to talk about theoretical possibility. May is used to talk about factual possibility.

The road may be blocked due to the procession. (Factual possibility.) Any road can be blocked. (Theoretical possibility - It is possible to block any road.) There may be a strike next week. (It is possible that there will be a strike next week.) Strikes can happen any time. (It is possible for strikes to happen any time.) If you drive carelessly, you may have an accident. (Factual possibility) Accidents can happen any time. (Theoretical possibility) When we talk about possibility, could often means the same as may or might. You may/might/could be right.

CAN

Use:

to talk about theoretical possibility - to say that situations and events are possible theoretically. Glass can be blown. (It is theoretically possible to blow glass.) Wars can break out any time. (It is theoretically possible for wars to break out any time.)Smoking can cause cancer. Noise can be quite a problem when you are living in a city.

we do not use can to talk about future probability – to say that something will happen in future. We express this idea with may or might.It may rain this evening. (NOT It can rain …)

Might expresses a less definite possibility than may. Could is also used with the same value. It could rain this evening. (= It might rain this evening.)

to talk about possibility Can is often used in questions and negatives to talk about the logical possibility that something is true. There is the doorbell? Who can it be? We use could, may or might in affirmative clauses, not can. Where is John? He could/may/might be in the garden. (NOT He can be in the garden.)

to talk about ability 4

We can use can to talk about present or general ability – to say that we are capable of doing something. I can speak 10 languages. She can cook well. If you are not satisfied with this product, you can send it back. or talk about ability during a specific event To be able to can often be used with similar meanings. He is able to support her. (= He can support her.) They were able to catch the thief. (= They could catch the thief.)

we do not use can to talk about future ability. Instead, we use will be able to or other words.

Someday scientists will be able to find a cure for cancer. (NOT Someday scientists will can find a cure for cancer.)

to ask for or give permission – informal English You can go out and play after you have finished your homework.You can park on either side of the road here.Can I go to the movies, mom?

We can also use could to ask for permission. It is a more polite form of can. Could I speak to Mr. John, please? Could I have look at your newspaper? Cannot is used to refuse permission. Can I go to the movies, mom? No, you can’t.

to make requests and offers Can is used in polite requests and offers of help . Can you give me a lift to school? Could is a more polite way of making requests and offers. Could you help me with my homework? Could you lend me some money?

COULD

Use :

to talk about past ability in general Could is often used to say that somebody was able to do something in the past. However, could refers to the past only when the context makes the time clear. My father could walk without help when he was 95. When we were children, we could watch TV whenever we wanted to. Could not (also couldn't) shows past inability. She spoke in such a low voice that most of us could not hear her. We do not normally use could to say that somebody managed to do something on one occasion. But with certain verbs like see, hear, taste, feel, smell, understand, remember etc., could can be used for particular occasions as well. Suddenly I could hear a loud noise.

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I could smell something burning. to make polite requests or offers

Could is often used to make a request or offer sound more polite. Could I have a glass of water, please? Could you help me with these bags?

to express possibility or uncertainty You could get a better job if you spoke English. (=You would be able to get a better job if you spoke English.) You could do it if you tried hard. (=You would be able to do it…) If only I had some working capital, I could start a new business. (=…I would be able to start a new business.) The structure could have + past participle can be used to criticize people for not doing things. It can also be used to talk about past events that did not happen. I have been waiting since morning - you could have said that you weren't coming. Why did you drive so carelessly? You could have killed yourself.

MUST

Must indicates that it is necessary or very important that something happens. If you say that you must do something, you mean that you have a definite intention to do something in future. I must get my hair cut. I must stop smoking. Usage :

to express that something is certain or highly possible. If A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, then A must be bigger than C. There is the doorbell. That must be the postman. In questions we use can to express certainty, not must. Somebody is knocking at the door. Who can it be? (NOT Who must it be?) In negative clauses we generally use cannot/can’t to say that something is certainly not the case. It can’t be your mother. She is in New York. However, mustn’t is normal in question tags. It must be nice to be a bird, mustn’t it?

to express necessity Must is often used in affirmative sentences to say what is necessary, and to give strong advice and orders to ourselves and other people. We must get up early and start on our way.

Must not or mustn’t is used to say that things should not be done, or tell people not to do things. You must not open this parcel until Christmas day. You must not lie. Must and have to can be used to express that something is probable. Have to is more common in American English. He must be mad to do this. (OR He has to be mad to do this.You must be joking. (You have got to be joking.) 1. Must and have to can both be used to talk about necessity. We must/have to build up a strong army to defend the country. 2. Both must and have to can be used to talk about obligation. In American English have to is the normal form .British English often makes a distinction between them:

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must is used mostly to talk about the feelings and wishes of the speaker and hearer.

have (got) to is used mostly to talk about obligations that come from ‘outside’ external obligations – for example from laws, regulations, agreements and other people’s orders.

I must stop smoking. (= I want to stop smoking.) I have to stop smoking. (= Doctor has asked me to stop smoking.) You really must go to church next Sunday. (I am telling you to.) Catholics have to go to church on Sundays. (Their religion tells them to.) 3. Had to is used to talk about past obligation. Must is used with the perfect infinitive (have + past participle) to express certainty about the past. Mary isn’t in her office. She had to go home. (= It was necessary for her to go home.) Mary isn’t in her office. She must have gone home. (= It seems certain that she has gone home.) 4. Must not and do not have to/ have not got to have quite different meanings. Must not is used to tell people not to do things; do not have to/ have not got to is used to say that there is no obligation. You must not tell him. (= Don’t tell him.) You don’t have to tell him. (= You can if you like but it is not necessary.)

WILL

When “will” is used in the first person it can express willingness, a promise, a threat, determination.

I will help you. I will be there in your wedding.

Will/ won't can be used emphatically to tell someone of the speaker'sintention or to forbid an action, in response to a will expression.

e.g.I won’t make such a mistake again. I will not allow him to go. I will not miss this opportunity.

WOULD

We use would :

to make polite offers and requests Would is often used in polite requests and offers. It is a softer, less definite form of will. Would you mind moving a bit? Would you mind sharing a room? I would like to meet the manager.

would can also be used to express an opinion in a more polite way without being forceful.

This is not what we would expect from a professional service. to talk about past habits

Would can be used to talk about past events that happened often or always. He would always bring us nice gifts without telling why. The old man would recline in a corner and sleep most of the time.

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After dinner we would sit in a common room and chat for a while. would is often used to suggest that what happens is expected because it is typical,

especially of a person's behaviour. She would always trust the wrong the person. Ann rang to say that she was too busy to come.' 'She would - she always has an excuse.'

to talk about willingness and determination He said he would try his best to help me. (Willingness) He would bet on that horse, though I asked him not to. (Determination) She would have her own way.

wouldn't shows unwillingness. I asked him to move his car, but he said he wouldn't.

to talk about imaginary situations Would is sometimes used to refer to a situation that you can imagine happening. I would hate to miss the show. I would go myself but I am too busy. It would have been quite boring to sit through the entire speech.

Would versus Used to

both would and used to can refer to repeated actions and events in the past. She would/used to always carry an umbrella. Used to can refer to past states; would cannot. I used to have an old Rolls Royce. (NOT I would have …)

Would rather would rather expresses choice or preference.

She would rather die than marry him. They would rather go to jail than pay the fine.

Would versus Will would is a softer, less definite form of will. It is used in polite requests and offers.

I would like to meet him. would can act as the past of will in indirect speech.

She said, ‘I will not live here anymore.’ She said that she would not live there anymore.

SHALL

When “shall” is used in the second or third person it has the force of a command, a promise, determination, certainty. Shall can be used with all persons to emphasize something which the speaker feels is certain to happen or wants to happen.

e.g. I shall definitely give up smoking this year.

We shall win! (shall is stressed in this sentence).

Similarly, shall is used in formal rules and regulations.

e.g. No player shall knowingly pick up or move the ball of another player. You shall not go out without my permission. He shall get my help.

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She shall be punished for his mistake. He shall apologize for his behavior. No man shall take this way .

SHOULD

Use: to express obligation

Should is often used to talk about duty or obligation. It can also be used to say or ask what the correct or best thing to do is. You should tell the truth. If you are not feeling well, you should consult a doctor. There should be an investigation into the cause of the accident.Should is not as strong as must.

in questions, should is used to ask for advice or instructions.It is rather cold here. Should I turn the heating on? What should we do now? Should I seek his opinion? Should we talk to him?

to express probability You should find this grammar book helpful. He should be here soon – he left home at six. ‘Granny will be staying with us for a couple of months.’ ‘That should be nice.’ Mount Everest should be visible from Tiger Hill if the sky is clear. Should have + past participle

the structure should have + past participle can be used to talk about past events which did not happen.

I should have sent the money this morning, but I forgot. This structure can also be used to talk about past events which may or may not have happened. They should have reached home by now. It is 10 o’clock.

we can use should not have + past participle to refer to unwanted or unnecessary things that happened.

You shouldn’t have said things like that to her. It is very kind of you, but you shouldn’t have bothered. Should versus Would

In British English, both would and should can be used after first person pronouns (I and we). There is no difference in meaning. I would/should like some sweets before I go to bed. We would/should be happy to receive them at the airport.

1. Should after why Should can be used after why to suggest surprise. Why should anyone want to buy something so useless? Why shouldn’t she buy it if she can afford it?

I don’t see why we should have to pay for your mistakes. 2. Should in subordinate clauses . Should can be used after certain adjectives expressing personal judgments and reactions. Examples are: odd, strange, sad, unfair etc.

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It is strange that she should find old men attractive. It is odd that she should want to trust him again. It is unfair that she should have died so young. This also happens after adjectives and nouns(necessary, important, essential, vital, eager etc ) expressing the importance of an action. It is important that the meeting should be a success. It is necessary that she should be told. 3. Should can used after so that, in order that, for fear that, in case and lest to show the purpose of an action. He took an umbrella so that he shouldn’t get wet. He ran lest he should miss the train. He took his umbrella in case it should rain. 4. Should in conditional clauses Should is used in conditional clauses expressing possibilities, suppositions etc. If he should come, ask him to wait. Should it rain, there will be no picnic today.“If he should come” indicates less likelihood of his coming than if he comes. The sentence means something like this: There is not much chance of his coming. But if he turns up, ask him to wait.

OUGHT TO

Use : ought to expresses moral obligation .

You ought to respect our parents.We ought to help the poor.You ought to love your country, ought not you? (NOT…ought not you to.) Ought is rarely used in questions and negatives; should is generally used instead.

ought to expresses duty, necessity.. It is often used to advise people – to tell them that they have a duty to do things. The meaning is similar to should

You ought to attend office regularly. (Duty)We ought to buy some furniture. (Necessity)Ought is not as forceful as must.

Ought to have + past participle When ought refers to past time, it is followed by the perfect infinitive. This structure can be used to talk about things which were supposed to happen but did not. I ought to have written to my parents, but I forgot. You ought to have invited her to your party. This structure can also be used to make guesses. It is ten o’clock. He ought to have reached home. “Ought not to have” can be used to talk about things that happened unnecessarily. We ought not to have wasted so much time over it. We have done things that we ought not to have done. We have left undone things that we ought to have done.

NEED

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1. Need may be a full verb and may be followed by a direct object .My brother needs a new pair of shoes.In this case, need behaves like a common, normal verb and the interrogative and negative are made up with the help of “do” and “did”.Did she need her umbrella ?

2. Need is a modal auxiliary , meaning “to have to “.Need she get up early ? Yes, she must.Absence of necessity and obligation is expressed with the help of “didn’t need to “ and “needn’t have + Past Participle”. There is a slight difference between the two constructions. The first one shows that the action was not necessary and it was not performed while the second construction expresses that the action was not necessary but it was, nevertheless, performed.I didn’t need to knock at the door since it was open (so,I didn’t ).I needn’t have knocked at the door since, in this way, I awoke the baby( but I knocked ).

DARE

When this verb is used in the affirmative sentences, it is an ordinary,normal verb. She dares to invite me there. But when it occurs in interrogative and negative sentences, it may be conjugated :a) either like a normal verb :Does he dare to come ?b) or like a modal verb “Dare he come ?Daresay/dare say is used with the first person singular only , having two meanings “I daresay= I supposeMy brother has not arrived yet, but I daresay he will come soon.I daresay = I accept what you say.Young man :”I am a member of this club”The door keeper : “I daresay you are, however you must show me your identity card.“How dare(d) you/he/she/they ? expresses indignation .How dare you interrupt me ?

GRAMMAR PRACTICE

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1. Choose the sentence A or B that is closest in meaning to the sentence given.

a ) It's possible that we'll know the answers tomorrow....

A We may know the answers tomorrow.B We should know the answers tomorrow.

b) I don't think you should ring him now. It's rather late….A You might not ring him now. It's rather late.

B You'd better not ring him now. It's rather late.

c) You needn't come if you don't want toA You won't come if you don't want to.

B You don't have to come if you don't want to.

d) I think it's wrong for you to work so hardA You don't have to work so hard.B You shouldn't work so hard.

e) Perhaps these are the keysA These might be the keys.B These must be the keys.

f} It would be wrong for us to lock the cat in the house for a week……

A. We'd better not lock the cat in the house for a week,B We can't lock the cat in the house for a week.

g) It's possible that the decision will te announced next week…..

A The decision might be announced next week.B The decision will be announced next week.

h) Although I try hard, I can never solve The Times' crosswordA Try as I may, 1 can never solve 'The Times' crossword.B Try as J can, I may never solve The Times'

crossword.

i) I know. Why don't we go out to eat instead…? A I know. We must go out to eat instead

B I know. We could go out to eat instead.

2. Fill in the blanks with the required modal verbs :

1. I__________ be at the meeting by 10:00. I will probably__________ take a taxi if I wantto be on time.2. You__________ submit the application if it has not been completely filled out. Check thatthe name, address, and background information are correct. If the form is not accurate andcomplete, you will be rejected and you will__________ reapply at a later date.3. Tina: Look at these flowers - they're beautiful! But, there's no card. Who could have sentthem?

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Stephanie: It__________ have been David. He's the only one who would send you flowers.4. You__________ forget to pay the rent tomorrow. The landlord is very strict about payingon time.5. You__________ be so rude! Why don't you try saying "please" once in a while.6. If you are over 18 in California, you__________ take a driver training course to get adriver's license. You can have a friend or a family member teach you instead. But remember,you__________ still get your permit before you start practicing.7. You__________ be rich to be a success. Some of the most successful people I know haven'tgot a penny to their name.8. Ed: My car broke down in Death Valley last week. I__________ have it towed more than ahundred miles to the nearest mechanic.Lilly: That__________ have cost a fortune!9. While hiking in Alaska, you__________ keep an eye out for bears. If you see one, you__________ approach it. They are beautiful animals; however, they are wild and unpredictable in nature. You__________ be afraid of them, but educating yourself about the dangers canhelp keep you safe.10. I__________ go to work tomorrow because it is Memorial Day. The best thing about aday off from work is that I__________ get up at 6:00; I can sleep in till noon if I want to.11. Yesterday, I__________ cram all day for my French final. I didn't get to sleep until aftermidnight.12. Nate : Oh no! I completely forgot we were supposed to pick Jenny up at the airport.

Barbara: She__________ still be sitting there waiting for us. 13. Ingrid received a scholarship to Yale University which will cover 100% of the tuition. She __________ worry at all about the increasing cost of education. 14. When I was a child my grandmother was continually correcting our manners. She alwaysused to say, "One__________ eat with one's mouth open." Or, she would correct us by saying,"One__________ rest one's elbows on the table." And every time I wanted to leave the table,she would say, "One__________ ask to be excused."15. I've redone this math problem at least twenty times, but my answer is wrong according tothe answer key. The answer in the book__________ be wrong!

3. Fill in the blanks with modal verbs :

1. Nancy said you didn't need to buy her anything for her birthday, but I really think you __________ at least get her some flowers or a nice bottle of wine.

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2. Debbie said she was really busy this week, but I think she__________ show up at the partyif she doesn't have to work overtime on Friday.3. Nina said she would come over right after work, so she__________ be here by 6:00.4. Oh my God, he's unconscious. Don't move him - he__________ have internal injuries.Somebody call an ambulance.5. You__________ be kidding! That can't be true.6. Dan: Where's the remote control? I want to change the channel.Fiona: I don't know. It__________ be under the couch. Or, perhaps I absent-mindedly took itinto the kitchen. I'll check in there.7. For most people, learning a language is a challenging undertaking. Experts agree that tomake the most of your language learning experience, you__________ practice the languageregularly and push yourself to maintain old vocabulary while acquiring new words andexpressions.8. New research suggests that exercise can reduce the chance of heart disease as well ascancer. That's why I told my father that he__________ start walking once a day.9. We should invite Sally and her husband to come to the picnic on Saturday. We haven't seenthem in weeks, and they__________ really enjoy a nice day at the beach.10. Tim: While I was a student, I spent a year and a half studying Pygmy culture in the CentralAfrican Republic. My research focused on unique aspects of the their social structure andreligion.Simona: That__________ have been absolutely fascinating!11. We had better call Tony to see if he's at home before we go over to his house. He__________ be there and we don't want to drive all the way over there for nothing. 12. At first, my boss didn't want to hire Sam. But, because I had previously worked with Sam,I told my boss that he__________ take another look at his resume and reconsider him for theposition.13. You__________ worry so much. It doesn't do you any good. Either you get the job, or youdon't. If you don't, just apply for another one. Eventually, you will find work.14. I would love to go on the cruise to Tahiti with Robin and Michelle. But such a luxurious trip__________ cost a fortune. I doubt I could afford something like that.

4. Correct the sentences:

1I won't be in the country when you two aregetting married.

2How much longer do you think that noise willbe going on?

3I don't mind I shall be able to join you until 8.30. 4Shall I look OK if I wear this?5You shall have to put two first-class stamps on

my envelope.6I think a weekend away would be a good idea.

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7Presumably we would be laughed at if we tried itin public.

8If he maintains his current rate of progress, heshould sail through the exam.

9Looking like that, he should compareunfavourably with the other candidates.

10 According to statistics, smokers shouldn't live as long as non-smokers.

5. Rephrase the following sentences. Do not change the word given.

1 Just recently, there has been a need for us toreduce, our spending.cutJust recently we ............ on our spending.

2 Why have I never met your partner?introduceYou really..............to your partner.

3 There is growing pressure on the government tobreak their promise on health spending.backThe government may find.................. on theirpromise on health spending.

4 I didn't take a difficult job because it would have meantdoing a 50-hour week.putI didn't take the job because I would.....................in 50hours a week.

5 You don't need to take out this insurance.underYou............to take out this insurance.

6 I wouldn't have thought there's much chance ofthe package being here before Friday.doubtI............here before Friday.

7 I don't think we could expect that much of him.askingI think............much of him.

8 I suppose it's possible that she will break theworld record at the next meeting.conceivablyI suppose.............break the world record at thenext meeting.

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6. Tick (/) the sentences in which the speakers are optimistic about :

1I must confess that I have a few reservations concerningthe ultimate success of the project.

2I have my doubts as to the wisdom of going aheadwith such a project.

3There's every chance that the doubts beingexpressed about the project will be unfounded.

4The odds are against such a project getting off theground.

5It's odds on that the project will fall flat on itsface.

6I do believe that, contrary to public opinion, theproject has every chance of success,

7There's no way this project is going to see the light of day, I assure you..

7. Complete the second sentence so that It has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between three and eight words, including the word given.

1. The only explanation for him being so late is that there was a lot of traffic.heldHe............or he wouldn't be so late.

2. They think It's more than likely, the comet will be visible to the naked eye.distinctThey think................the comet will be visible to the naked eye.3. It's not impossible that the looming crisis won’t ever actually materialize .

boundsIt's not beyond..............the looming crisis won't ever actually materialize.

4. You can't escape your responsibilities so easily, you know.wriggle

You can't.............your responsibilities so easily, you know,5. Nobody is forcing you to take up the offer.

obligationYou are............. take up the offer.

6. You can't just tell people what to do.lay

You can't just..............to people,7. You don't have to have the leather seating if you don't want to.

optionalLeather seating..............extra.

8. Only people who have, been given authority are allowed in.restricted

Entry............personnel.CHAPTER II

THE CONDITIONAL CLAUSE16

There is a variety of types of conditional sentences in English; they are used to talk about possible or imaginary situations. A "Condition" is a "situation or circumstance".For example: If a certain condition is true, then a particular result happens.There are four basic conditionals:

Zero Conditional First Conditional

Second Conditional

Third Conditional

Zero Conditional: Certainty

The Zero conditional is used for things that are always true as long as the condition is met.

IF Condition Result Situation

  present simple present simple  

If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils. Fact - universal

  present simple present simple  

If I drink coffee, I get a headache. fact- personal

In these examples, the result will always occur if the condition is met, so the time is not important. First Conditional: A real possibility in the future.

A First Conditional sentence is one connecting two future actions, where one must take place before the second is possible. Take a student who wants to go to university but hasn't got the results of their exams yet. They cannot go to university until they have received their results. In the case of a good student who is expected to get good grades, then there is a good possibility of achieving the marks required to get to university, so the following sentence could be used:

IF Condition Result

  present simple WILL + base verb

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If she gets good grades, she will go to university.

We are talking about the future, but we use a present tense for the condition and will for the result. In this case, the person is sure about going to university. We can use other modal verbs in the result part of the sentence:

IF Condition Result Possibility

Ifshe gets good grades,

she will go to university.

If the condition is met, then she definitely will go

Ifhe gets good grades,

he may go to university.

He is not sure about going to university.

Ifshe gets good grades,

she should go to university.

The speaker is expressing his or her opinion, giving advice.

Ifhe gets good grades,

he can go to university.

This means that it is possible.

Ifshe gets good grades,

she could go to university.

This means that it is possible, but not that likely.

Ifhe gets good grades,

he might go to university.

This means that it is possible, but not that likely.

We can also use different present forms in the condition part of the sentence:

IF Condition Reason for tense Result

  present simple an action in the future  

If I see her,  I'll ask her about it.

  present progressive an unfinished present action  

Ifthey are still working,

  I'll go home.

  present progressive a future arrangement  

If they are going,   I'll stay at home.

  present perfect a finished action related to now  

Ifyou have finished your meal,

 I'll clear away the plates.

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  WILL + base verb making an agreement WILL + base verb

Ifyou will work late today,

 I will let you have Friday off.

  WILL + base verbexpressing displeasure because someone insists on doing something

WILL + base verb

Ifyou will drive too fast,

 the police will stop you.

Second Conditional: Imaginary Present or Unlikely Future

The Second Conditional can be used used to talk about imaginary present situations, where we are imagining something different from what is really the case. We can also use it to talk about things in the future that are unlikely to happen, as the condition is unlikely to be met. We use the past tense in the condition part and would for the result.

IF Condition Time Result Possibility

  past simple presentWOULD + base verb

impossible

If I had the time,

 I would learn Italian.

I don't have the time, so I'm not going to learn Italian.

  past simple futureWOULD + base verb

unlikely

IfI won the lottery

 I would travel around the world.

There's a very small chance of winning the lottery, so the trip is unlikely

We can use other modal verbs in the past tense in the result part of the sentence:

IF Condition Result Certainty

  past simple WOULD + base verb

If I had the time,

I would learn Italian.

Although unlikely to happen, the speaker is sure that they would do it given the opportunity.

If I had more time,

I might learn Spanish.

Although unlikely to happen, it is only a possibility anyway.

If I had more time,

I should learn some more about IT.

Although unlikely to happen, the speaker is saying that it would be a good idea, but is not committed to it.

If I had more time

I could learn Hindi. Although unlikely to happen, it is only a possibility anyway.

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With the verb to be, there are two forms that can be used with I, he, she & it:

IF Condition Result

I, he, she, it Were  

If I were you, I'd marry her.

I, he, she, it Was  

If I was you, I'd marry her.

Third Conditional: Imaginary Past

The third conditional is used when we are talking about the past and imagining something different from what actually happened :

Condition Result What actually happened

  Past Perfect WOULD HAVE + Past Participle  

If I had known, I would have helped. I didn't know and didn't help.

IF Condition Result Certainty

  past perfect WOULD HAVE+ past participle

If I had known, I would have helped. Although this didn't happen, the speaker is sure about the result.

If I had known, I could have helped. Although this didn't happen, the result is only a possibility.

If I had known, I might have helped. Although this didn't happen, the result is only a possibility.

If you had known,

you should have helped.

Although this didn't happen, it is only a good suggestion or piece of advice.

Other ways of making a conditional sentence

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1 Supposing, otherwise Supposing or suppose can replace if, mainly in everyday speech.

Supposing you won the football pool, what would you do ? Otherwise means 'or if not'. It can go at the beginning or end of the sentence.If you hadn’t given us directions, we wouldn't have found the house.Thanks for your directions to the house. We wouldn't have found it otherwise.

2 But forThis can replace if not. It is used in formal language, and must be followed by a noun form.

If you hadn't helped us, we would have been in trouble.But for your help, we would have been in trouble.

3 If so/If notThese can refer to a sentence understood but not stated.

There is a possibility that Jack will be late. If so, I will take his place.

4 Colloquial omission of “if”An imperative can be used instead of an if instead of an if clause in everyday speech. Sit down, and I'll make you a cup of tea. (If you sit down...)

5 If and adjectivesIn expressions such as if it is necesary/possible, it is possible to omit the verb be. If interested, apply within. If necessary, take a taxi

6 Formally if can mean although, usually as if + adjectiveThe room was well-furnished, if a little badly decorated.

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GRAMMAR PRACTICE

1. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses:

1 If I had a typewriter I (type) it myself.2 If I (know) his address I'd give it to you.3 He (look) a lot better if he shaved more often.4 If you (play) for lower stakes you wouldn't lose so much.5 If he worked more slowly he (not make) so many mistakes.6 I shouldn't drink that wine if I (be) you.7 More tourists would come to this country if it (have) a better

climate.8 If I were sent to prison you (visit) me?9 If someone (give) you a helicopter what would you do with it?

10I (buy) shares in that company if I had some money.11If he (clean) his windscreen he'd be able to see where he was going.12If you drove your car into the river you (be able) to get out?13If you (not belong) to a union you couldn't get a job.14If I (win) a big prize in a lottery I'd give up my job.15What you (do) if you found a burglar in your house?16I could tell you what this means if I (know) Greek.17If everybody (give) £1 we would have enough.18He might get fat if he (stop) smoking.19If he knew that it was dangerous he (not come).20If you (see) someone drowning what would you do?21I (be) ruined if I bought her everything she asked for.22If you slept under a mosquito net you (not be) bitten so often.23I could get a job easily if I (have) a degree.24If she (do) her hair differently she might look quite nice.25If we had more rain our crops (grow) faster.26The whole machine would fall to pieces if you (remove) that screw.27I (keep) a horse if I could afford it.28I'd go and see him more often if he (live) on a bus route.29If they (ban) the sale of alcohol at football matches there might be

less violence.30 I (offer) to help if I thought I'd be any use.31 What would you do if the lift (get) stuck between two floors?32If you (paint) the walls white the room would be much brighter.33 If you (change) your job would it affect your pension?31If you knew you had only six weeks to live how you (spend) those

six weeks?32 You wouldn't have so much trouble with your car if you (have) it

serviced regularly.33 I'd climb over the wall if there (not be) so much broken glass on top

of it.

2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses:

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1 If I had known that you were in hospital I (visit) you.2 The ground was very soft. But for that, my horse (win).3 If you (arrive) ten minutes earlier you would have got a seat.4 You would have seen my garden at its best if you (be) here last

week.5 But for his quickness I (be) killed.6 I shouldn't have believed it if I (not see) it with my own eyes.7 If he had slipped he (fall) 500 metres.8 If he had asked you, you (accept)?9 If I (had) a map 1 would have been all right.

10If I (know) that you were coming I'd have baked a cake.11I (offer) to help him if I had realized that he was ill.12If you had left that wasp alone it (not sting) you.13If I (realize) what a bad driver you were 1 wouldn't have come with

you.14If I had realized that the traffic lights were red I (stop).15But for the fog we (reach) our destination ages ago.16If you had told me that he never paid his debts I (not lend) him the

money.17If you (not sneeze) he wouldn't have known that we were there.18If you (put) some mustard in the sandwiches they would have tasted

better.19The hens (not get) into the house if you had shut the door.20If he had known that the river was dangerous he (not try) to swim

across it.21If you (speak) more slowly he might have understood you.22If he had known the whole story he (not be) so angry.23I shouldn't have eaten it if I (know) that there was ginger in it.24If I (try) again I think that I would have succeeded.25You (not get) into trouble if you had obeyed my instructions.26If you hadn't been in such a hurry you (not put) sugar into the sauce

instead of salt.27If I (be) ready when he called he would have taken me with him.28She had a headache; otherwise she (come) with us.29If she had listened to my directions she (not turn) down the wrong

street.30If you (look) at the engine for a moment you would have seen what

was missing.31Rome (be captured) by her enemies if the geese hadn't cackled.32He would have been arrested if he (try) to leave the country.33I (take) a taxi if I had realized that it was such a long way.34You (save) me a lot of trouble if you had told me where you were

going. 35 They would have forced their way into the house if I (not call) forhelp. 36 If he had put out his pipe before putting it in his pocket he (not burn)a hole in his coat. 37 If he were in he (answer) the phone. 38 The ship would have run aground if the pilot (make) one mistake. 39 I shouldn't have taken your umbrella if I (know) that it was the onlyone you had.

3. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses:

1 If you (find) a skeleton in the cellar don't mention it to anyone.2 If you pass your examination we (have) a celebration.3 What (happen) if I press this button?

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4 I should have voted for her if I (have) a vote then.5 If you go to Paris where you (stay)?1 If someone offered to buy you one of those rings, which you

(choose)?6 The flight may be cancelled if the fog (get) thick.7 If the milkman (come) tell him to leave two pints.8 Someone (sit) on your glasses if you leave them there.

10You would play better bridge if you (not talk) so much.11What I (do) if I hear the burglar alarm?12If you (read) the instructions carefully you wouldn't have answered

the wrong question.13I could repair the roof myself if I (have) a long ladder.14Unless they turn that radio off I (go) mad.15If you were made redundant what you (do)?16We'll have a long way to walk if we (run) out of petrol here.17If you shake that bottle of port it (not be) fit to drink.18I'll probably get lost unless he (come) with me.19You (not have) so many accidents if you drove more slowly.20If you (wear) a false beard nobody would have recognized you.21If she (leave) the fish there the car will get it.22Unless they leave a lamp beside that hole in the road somebody (fall)

into it.23You'll get pneumonia if you (not change) your wet clothes.24If I had known that you couldn't eat octopus I (not buy) it.25If they (hang) that picture lower people would be able to see it.26She (be able) to walk faster if her shoes hadn't such high heels.27I (bring) you some beer if I had known that you were thirsty.28If you had touched that electric cable you (be) electrocuted.29If the story hadn't been true the newspaper (not print) it.30I (not buy) things on the installment system if I were you.31Dial 999 if you (want) Police, Ambulance, or Fire Brigade.32You (not be) any use to me unless you learn to type.33If anyone attacked me, my dog (jump) at his throat.

4. Finish these sentences, paying attention to the use of tenses:

1 If he had taken my advice . . .2 If you ate less . . .3 We'll send for the doctor if ...4 If she practised more . . .5 If there isn't enough wine in that bottle . . .6 If you had checked the petrol before we started . . .7 This clock wouldn't have run down if ...8 Try on the blue one if ...9 If these gates are locked . . .

10 If we leave before breakfast . . .11If the river rises any higher . . .12 Her life might have been saved if ...13 If the volcano starts erupting . . .14 The grass would look better if ...15 Unless it is a nice day . . .16 If you don't put enough stamps on a letter, the person who

gets it . . .17 He would lend it to you if ...18 Unless this hotel gets another cook . . .19 If the storm becomes worse . . .20 If your uncle sees you . . .21If you tried to climb it without a guide . . .22If you didn't shake the camera so much, your photographs .23I'd have brought my coat . . .24If ( = as) you don't like the picture . . .25He would have given her diamonds if . . .

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26If you had asked his permission . . .27If the fire had been noticed earlier . . .28If you had any sense . . .29You would have been angry if ...30If he had put the flowers into water at once . . .31I should have ordered more coal if ...32If you leave the gate open . . .33You will have to go to the dentist i f . . .34He would have been drowned i f . . .35If I'd had a car . . .36If Tom rings while I'm out . . .

5. Decide whether each sentence is grammatically possible or not :

1. If you haven't received a letter yet, you haven't got the job?2. If it isn't for David, we are missing the bus.3. If it's raining, we go to the pub on the corner instead.4. If you didn't lend us the money, we would have gone to the bank.5. If you should happen to change your mind, drop me a line.6. If it wasn't for the rain, we would have been home by now.7. If you will drive so fast, no wonder the police keep stopping

you.If I knew you were coming, I would have met you at the airport.

8. But for you helped us, we would have taken much longer.9. If jack joins the team, I'm leaving right now .

6. Write the correct form of the verbs in blanks:

1. If the question (be) difficult, we can ask the teacher.2. Lee will go to the Disneyland if he (save) enough money.3. If I (buy) a lottery ticket, I might win the lottery. 4. My friend usually walks to school if he (have) enough time.5. If the movie (start) at eight, we will be late!6. We can go water-skiing if Jeff’s boat (have) gas.7. The class will have party if the students all (pass) their tests.8. If there (be) milk in the refrigerator, I’ll have milk with my cake.9. If my sister (eat) all of the cake, I will get angry.10. My mother always punishes my sister if she (tell) a lie.

7. Practice inversion in the if-clause:

1. If I were you I would make a little more effort to save some money. Were……………………………………………………….2.If they had known the truth, they wouldn’t have been so upset. Had………………………………………………………….3. If you should happen to be in town, call on us. Should……………………………………………………...4. If I were you, I’d take up German lessons. Were………………………………………………………..

5. If the tourists need further information, they can ask the receptionist. Should……………………………………………………...6. If the weather is fine, we shall go swimming. Should……………………………………………………...7. If someone had phoned the police earlier, the thief would have been caught.

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Had…………………………………………………………8. If you had been more careful, you wouldn’t have lost your credit card.

Had………………………………………………………...9. If you had told me about your debt, I could have helped you. Had…………………………………………………………10.If you change your mind, we’ll go together to the party. Should……………………………………………………..

8. Practice the structural conversion:

1. If she were a successful actress, she would be often interviewed.Were…………………………………………………..

2. Suppose you lost an erring while walking in the park, what would you do?If………………………………………………………

3. If the taxi had come on time, we wouldn’t miss the flight.Had……………………………………………………

4. Suppose your boyfriend gave you some flowers, what would tell him?If………………………………………………………

5. If I hadn’t been for my teacher’s help, I wouldn’t have finished the paper.But for………………………………………………...

6. Since he hadn’t studied much, he didn’t pass the entrance examination.If………………………………………………………

7. Children had better take their parents’ advice.Children……………………………………………….

8. If you don’t go on a strict diet, you won’t loose weight.Unless you…………………………………………….

9. If they hadn’t stolen the car, they wouldn’t be in trouble now.

9. Put the verbs in the brackets into the right tense:

1. If I go to London, I (see) the Houses of Parliament and the Town Bridge.2. Many employees would be fired if that factory (close) down.3. If the weather is fine The Browns (spend) the weekend in the mountains.4. If you (not like) tennis, you will find the match boring.5. If Susan (be) offered that job in a pub, she would take it.6. If the bus (arrive) on time, I (meet) my friend at the bus-station.7. The cat (scratch Mother gave me that pen. She (be) very upset if I lose it.8. If there (be) enough snow tomorrow, we (make) a huge snowman.9. If I (buy) a lottery ticket, I (could win) the lottery.10. If Ben (give) somebody his word, he keep it.11. If you (call) me, I (come). -supposition12. If more mad cows (be found) many hitchers (lose) their jobs.13. If the Stock Exchange (crash), people (lose) their money.14. If guns (be abolished) we (feel) much safer.15. If I (win) the lottery, I (go) on vacation to Paris.16. If I (know) before that Athens was such a beautiful place, I (spend) two weeks

there.

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17. If computers had existed 500 years ago, we (have) Shakespeare’s file.18. If I (not invest) all my money in shares, I (be) a poor man now.19. ) you if you pull its tail.20. If they sold their old cottage they (not get) a lot of money for it.

10. Rewrite the following sentences using unless:

1. If the students don’t write their homework, they will get bad marks.2. If we don’t hurry, we’ll miss the train.3. If I don’t take my umbrella, I’ll get wet.4. If it isn’t fine tomorrow, we won’t go for a ride.5. If the employer doesn’t give him a pay rise, he will resign.6. If he hadn’t got bad news, he wouldn’t be so upset.7. He wouldn’t have gone to the party if they hadn’t invited him.8. She could become a famous singer if she took music lessons.9. They wouldn’t invest their money if they weren’t sure about the profit.10. I wouldn’t have invited you at the cinema if I had seen the film before.

11. Put the verb in brackets into the right tense:

It’s the middle of January: New Year’s resolutions are wobbling; the weather is depressing; and you’re probably too broken to go anywhere until payday, which cannot come fast enough. If that (1)(sound) like you, it (2)(be) the perfect time to plan for a brighter future, by setting up a regular savings plan. The January blues (3)(chase) away if you (4)(think) of a holiday in the sun or a new wardrobe of spring clothes.

Most people’s biggest financial regret at the end of a year is that if they (5)(save) enough, they (6)(afford) buying new properties or spending vacation at the seaside. If people (7)(not open) more savings accounts, less money (8)(be stashed).

The independent financial advisers network IFA Promotion has worked out that if one (9)(cut) back the going for a drink after work two evenings a week, he (10)(can save) 260 a year. If this sum (11)(be invested) wisely, it (12)(bring) you a nice profit.

12. Match the two columns:

1. We are only prepared to accept your offer…………………2. I should be very much obliged……………………………..3. If there is any way in which we may help……………….…4. If I can be of any further help………………………..……..5. If you have any suggestion to make.……………….………6. Had your invitation reached me a little earlier….……….…7. If this suggestion meets your approval…………………….8. If this magazine is of interests to you………………………9. If reprints are available………………………………….…10. I should be very glad to know………………………….…

a) if you could let me have fell details of…

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b) please do not hesitate to write to us.c) kindly write to us at once.d) I should have been happy to come to your country.e) you will reduce the price.f) I shall appreciate it immediately.g) kindly let us know.h) would you be so kind as to send us a few copies.i) please send back to us the enclosed reader card. j) if you can provide us with information about.

CHAPTER III

PASSIVE VOICE

Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses have "active forms" and "passive forms.” Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action.The verbs which can accept the passive voice are transitive verbs and some prepositional verbs such as: to account for, to attend to, to look at, to look after, to send for, to speak to, etc.There are some transitive verbs which cannot accept the passive voice such as: to have, to hold, to possess, to resemble, etc.The passive of an active tense is formed by putting the verb “to be” into the same tense as the active verb and adding the past participle of the active verb. The subject of the active verb becomes the “agent” of the passive verb.In colloquial English “get” is sometimes used instead of “be”.e.g. The eggs got (=were) broken

Active Form

In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.

[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]

Examples:

The teacher teaches the students

Passive Form

In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that :

the thing receiving the action is more important and should be emphasized. if you do not know who is doing the action

if you do not want to mention who is doing the action.

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[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]

Examples: The students are taught by the teacher

Active versus Passive

  Active Passive

Simple Present

Once a week, Tom cleans the house.

Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom.

Present Continuous

Right now, Sarah is writing the letter.

Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah.

Simple Past Sam repaired the car. The car was repaired by Sam.

Past Continuous

The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store.

The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store.

Present Perfect

Many tourists have visited that castle.

That castle has been visited by many tourists.

Present Perfect Continuous

Recently, John has been doing the work.

Recently, the work has been being done by John.

Past Perfect George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license.

Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license.

Past Perfect Continuous

Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris.

The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris.

Simple FutureWILL

Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM.

The work will be finished by 5:00 PM.

Simple FutureBE GOING TO

Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.

A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight.

Future ContinuousWILL

At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John.

Future At 8:00 PM tonight, John is At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are

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ContinuousBE GOING TO

going to be washing the dishes. going to be being washed by John.

Future PerfectWILL

They will have completed the project before the deadline.

The project will have been completed before the deadline.

Future PerfectBE GOING TO

They are going to have completed the project before the deadline.

The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.

Future Perfect ContinuousWILL

The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.

The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.

Future Perfect ContinuousBE GOING TO

The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.

The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.

Used to Jerry used to pay the bills. The bills used to be paid by Jerry.

Would Always

My mother would always make the pies.

The pies would always be made by my mother.

Future in the PastWOULD

I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM.

I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.

Future in the PastWAS GOING TO

I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.

I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight.

Agent and instrument

The person who performs an action in a passive sentence is called the agent, and it is introduced by “by” The agent may or may not be mentioned.

My purse was found by one of the cleaners.A new road has been built ..

An object which causes something to happen is called an instrument and it is introduced by “with”.

He was hit on the head with a hammer.

A. Unknown agent The agent is not mentioned if unknown.

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My work has been taken. In this case, there is no point in adding an agent: 'by somebody'.

B. Generalised agent If the subject Is 'people in general' or 'you' the agent is not mentioned.

Bicycles are widely used in the city instead of public transport.

C. Obvious agent If the agent is obvious or has already been referred to, it is not mentioned. Linda has been arrested! (we assume by the police) The company agreed to our request and a new car park was opened.

D. Unimportant agent If the agent is not important to the meaning of the sentence it is not mentioned.I was advised to obtain a visa in advance.

Verbs with two objects

Verbs which have two objects can be made passive in two ways.I was handed a note.A note was handed to me. Other common verbs of this type are: bring, give, (end, pass, pay, promise, sell, send, show, tell .

Verbs with object and complementSome verbs have a noun or adjective which describes their object.We elected Jim class representative.Everyone considered him a failure.When these are made passive, the complement goes directly after the verb,Jim was elected class representative.He was considered a failure .

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GRAMMAR PRACTICE

1. Fill in the sentences with the correct form of the passive:

1 Please wait in the lounge while your room ________(clean).2 From next week, you ________ (expect) to arrive at work on time.3 Too much money ________ (spend) last year on personal expenses.4 Most of the pollution in city centers ________ (cause) by traffic jams.5 Around £500,000 ________ (steal) from a bank in London this afternoon.6 Next year over 2,000,000 mobile phones ________ (make) in China.7 Kill Bill ________ (direct) by Quentin Tarantino.

7III

2. Complete the jokes by putting the verbs in brackets in the correct passive:

1. A teacher asked her class to write an essay about a football match. A minute later all the students were writing except one boy. The teacher looked at his paper. It said, “The game ………………….. (stop) in the first minute by rain.”

2. “Why …………..the tennis player ………….(give) a cigarette lighter at the end of the competition?” “I don’t know” “Because he had lost all his matches”

3. “Mum, do all fairy tales begin with <Once upon a time>?” “No, darling. Some start with : < Sorry I’m so late, darling, I ……………… (detain) at the office>”

3. Complete these jokes by putting the verbs given in the correct perfect passive form:

1. “Why are you putting a bandage over your pay cheque?”

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“Because my salary ………just…………. (cut)”2. A man went to a hospital for a new brain. He was given a choice between two

brains – an engineer’s for 30,000 $ or a politician’s for 600,000 $.“Does that mean the politician’s brain is much better?”“ Not exactly, said the doctor. The politician’s brain ……never ……..(use).

3. “I …………………..(ask) to get married hundreds of times.”“ Oh! Who by?”“My parents”

4. A man was visiting his friend in hospital.“ You ………………..(miss) by everybody at the factory.”“ That’s nice”“Yes. Yesterday the boss came to me and said:<What’s happened to what’s-his-name?>”

4. Rewrite the sentences, putting the verbs in the passive

1. We clean the garages every day.The garages………………………2. We check every car engine very carefully.Every car engine…………………………3. We export this computer to 70 different countries.This computer…………………………………4. They send 2 million books to America every year. million books…………………………..5. The machine wraps the bread automatically.The bread……………………….6. The police arrested 200 people.200 people…………………………7 We opened the factory at 9 o’clock.The factory…………………………..8. They posted all the letters yesterday.All the letters…………………………9. They paid a lot of money to do the job.A lot of money……………………10. Fortunately, they didn’t damage the machinery.Fortunately, the machinery………………………..

5. Underline any uses of the agent which are unnecessary.

1. My jewellery has been stolen by a thief!2. It has been decided by the authorities that Wednesday will be a schoolholiday.3. Harry was pushed over by someone standing next to him in the queue.4. The goods are transported by rail to our warehouse in the Midlands.5. I was told by someone that you have a vacancy for a computer operator.6. Sue has been picked by the selectors for the national event.7. The letter was sent by post on the 21 of October.8. The larger portrait was painted by a little-known artist,9. It has been agreed by everyone that no smoking should he allowed.10. As I arrived at the conference a note was handed to me by one of the

33

delegates.

6. Put each verb in brackets into an appropriate passive verb form

1. As our new furniture....................................(deliver) on Mondaymorning I'll have to stay at home to check that it

........................................ (not/damage) during transit.2. The new Alhambra hatchback, which in this country

........................................(sell) under the name'Challenger'.

................... (fit) with electric windows as standard.3 .For the past few days I...................................(work) in Jack's office, as

my own office.....................................(redecorate).4 It ........................................(announce) that the proposed new office

block.......................................(now/not/build) because of the currenteconomic situation.

5. A major new deposit of oil.................................. (discover) in theNorth Sea. It......................................(think) to be nearly twice the sizeof the largest existing field.

6. Pictures of the surface of the planet Venus{receive) yesterday from the space probe 'Explorer' which(launch) last year

7. A large sum.................................... (raise) for the Fund by a recentcharity concert but the target of £250,000..............................(still/not/reach).

8. No decision......................................(make) about any futureappointment until all suitable candidates (interview).

7. Rewrite each sentence in a more formal style so that it contains a passive form of the word given in capitals :

The police are grilling Harry down at the station. QUESTION

They've found the remains of an old Roman v i l l a nearby.

DISCOVER

34

You'll get a rise in salary after six months.

RISK

35

They stopped playing the match after half an hour

ABANDON

36

They stopped traffic from using the centre.

HAN

They took Chris to court for dangerous driving PROSECUTE

8. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable active or passive verb form :

According to our information, you ………………………………….(ask)(2)........................................(answer) a telephone survey last month, as aresult of which your name (3).................................(enter) in theholiday draw. Now our computer (4)...............................(choose) yourname, so you and your family (5)................................. (invite) to spenda week in a European destination of your choice. This offer(6)........................................ (make) on the condition that you attend aspecial promotions day with other lucky families in your region who(7).............................. (offer) a similar deal. You{8)........................................(ask) to attend on any Saturday next month atthe Royal Hotel, Manchester. If you (9)..............................(interest) inattending and taking up this offer, please (10)...................................(detach) the slip below and return it to us as soon as possible.

9. Put the following into the passive voice. The agent should not be mentioned except in numbers 11 and 28.

1 You should open the wine about three hours before you use it.2 Previous climbers had cut steps in the ice.3 Somebody had cleaned my shoes and brushed my suit.4 We use this room only on special occasions.5 You must not hammer nails into the walls without permission.6 In some districts farmers use pigs to find truffles.7 Someone switched on a light and opened the door.8 Somebody had slashed the picture with a knife.9 They are pulling down the old theatre.10 Why didn't they mend the roof before it fell in?11 The mob broke all the shop windows in recent riots.10 The librarian said that they were starting a new system because

people were not returning books.11 The police asked each of us about his movements on the night of the

crime.14 Someone will serve refreshments.15 People must not leave bicycles in the hall.16 Members may keep books for three weeks. After that they must

return them.17 The burglars had cut an enormous hole in the steel door.18 I've bought a harp. They are delivering it this afternoon. (Do not

change the first sentence.)19Someone has already told him to report for duty at six.20They rang the church bells as a flood warning.21No one can do anything unless someone gives us more information.22People are spending far more money on food now than they spent

ten years ago.23The organizers will exhibit the paintings till the end of the month.24They will say nothing more about the matter if someone returns the

stolen gun.25It is high time someone told him to stop behaving like a child.26A thief stole my dog and brought him back only when I offered £20

reward for him.27The judge gave him two weeks in which to pay the fine.28They make these artificial flowers of silk.

10. Put the following into the passive, mentioning the agent where necessary.They gave her a clock.She was given a clock.

The gerund after certain verbs is replaced in the passive by should be + past participle:

They advised employing part-time workers.They advised that part-time workers should be employed.

1 They feed the seals at the zoo twice a day.2 Who wrote it?3 Compare clothes which we have washed with clothes which any

other laundry has washed.4 He expected us to offer him the job.5 They showed her the easiest way to do it.6 Lightning struck the old oak.7 Titian couldn't have painted it as people didn't wear that style of

dress till after his death.8 A jellyfish stung her.9 The author has written a special edition for children.

10 Judges used to carry sweet herbs as a protection against jail-fever.11 What did he write it with? ~

He wrote it with a match stick dipped in blood.12 An uneasy silence succeeded the shot.13 Did the idea interest you?14 The lawyer gave him the details of his uncle's will.15 Beavers make these dams.16 They used to start these engines by hand. Now they start them by

electricity.17 Most people opposed this.18 Students are doing a lot of the work.19 The Prime Minister was to have opened the dry dock.20 They recommended opening new factories in the depressed area.

(Use should.)21 The closure of the workshops will make a lot of men redundant.22 Anyone with the smallest intelligence could understand these

instructions.23 We will not admit children under sixteen.24 Boys of sixteen to eighteen are to man this training ship.25 A rainstorm flooded the gypsies' camp.26 The howling of wolves kept him awake all night.27 They suggested making the tests easier. (Use should.)28 Children couldn't have done all this damage.

11. Turn the following sentences into the active voice. Where no agent is mentioned one must be supplied.

1. This speed limit is to be introduced gradually.2. The runways are being lengthened at all the main airports.3. It is now 6 a.m. and at most of the hospitals in the country patients

are being wakened with cups of tea.4. Byron is said to have lived on vinegar and potatoes.5. By tradition, any sturgeon that are caught by British ships must be

offered to the Queen.6. This notice has been altered.7. The owners went away last March and since then their houseboat

has been used continuously by squatters. (Use a continuous tense andomit continuously.)

8. The damaged ship was being towed into harbour when the tow-linebroke.

9. Have a lift put in and then you won't have to climb up all thesestairs.

10. Last year a profit of two million pounds was made in the first sixmonths but this was cancelled by a loss of seventeen million poundswhich was made in the second six months.

11. Evening dress will be worn.12. The ship was put into quarantine and passengers and crew were

forbidden to land.13. Someone will have to be found to take her place.14. He was made to surrender his passport.15. This rumour must have been started by our opponents.16. My paintings are to be exhibited for the first time by New Arts

Gallery.17. This scientific theory has now been proved to be false.18. The car which was blown over the cliff yesterday is to be salvaged

today.19.The house where the dead man was found is being guarded by the

police to prevent it from being entered and the evidence interferedwith.

20. Why wasn't the car either locked or put into the garage?21. It is being said that too little money is being spent by the

government on roads.22. Your money could be put to good use instead of being left idle in the

bank.23. For a long time the earth was believed to be flat.24. Carrier pigeons are said to have been used by early Egyptian and

Greek sailors.

CHAPTER IV

THE INFINITIVE

The INFINITIVE form of a verb is the form which follows “to”:     

to ask  to believe 

to cry  to go

to protect 

to sing  to talk  to wish

Infinitives with “to” are referred to specifically as TO-INFINITIVES, in order to distinguish them from BARE INFINITIVES, in which “to: is absent:

To-infinitive Bare infinitive

Help me to open the gate Help me open the gate

OTHER FORMS

The infinitive can have the following forms:

1. The Present InfinitiveExamples:to go, to swim

2. The Perfect Infinitive

to have + past participle

For example: to have broken, to have seen, to have saved.This form is most commonly found in Type 3 conditional sentences, using the conditional perfect.

Examples:

a. If I had known you were coming I would have baked a cake.b. Someone must have broken the window and climbed in.c. I would like to have seen the Taj Mahal when I was in India.

d. He pretended to have seen the film.e. If I'd seen the ball I would have caught it.

3. The Continuous Infinitive

to be + present participle

For example: to be swimming, to be joking, to be waiting

Examples:

f. I'd really like to be swimming in a nice cool pool right now. You must be joking! g. I happened to be waiting for the bus when the accident happened.

4. The Perfect Continuous Infinitive

to have been + present participle

Examples: to have been crying, to have been waiting, to have been painting

Examples:

a. The woman seemed to have been crying. b. You must have been waiting for hours! c. He pretended to have been painting all day.

5. The Passive Infinitive

to be + past participle

For example: to be given, to be shut, to be opened

Examples: a) I am expecting to be given a pay-rise next month.

Regarding the present infinitive, there are situations where the "to" is omitted.

Examples :

a) He claimed to be an expert. b) I managed to reach the top of the hill. c) Don't pretend that you know the answer.

She failed to explain the problem clearly. The customs man demanded to search our luggage.

I can't afford to go out tonight.

The Infinitive without “to” is used : after modal verbs ;

She can speak English . after verbs of perception : to see, to hear, to make, to let.

She saw me leave the room . after the expressions : had best, had better, had/would rather , had/would sooner ,

cannot but, need hardly .She had best admit her fault.

The Infinitive with “to” is used in expressions like Ac + Infinitive and N + Infinitive .

Acusative + Infinitive is used :

after verbs of perception : to hear, to feel, to notice, to perceive, to see, to watch and after to let, to have ( to experience, to cause ), to have known .

I saw her shut the door . after verbs expressing volition : to want , to desire, to forbid, to intend, to demand, to

wishI want them to understand. after verbs expressing mental activities : to believe, to consider, to expect , to imagine,

to know, to suppose, to trust etc.She imagined him to be right. after verbs expressing permission or command : to allow, to command, to compel, to

force, to oblige, to order, to permit .She allowed us to sit down .

. The Nominative + Infinitive is used :

after verbs in the Passive Voice : to believe, to expect, to feel, to find, to hear, to imagine, to know, to notice, to suppose etc.

Jane was known to be a great painter. with the following verbs in the Active Voice : to appear, to chance, to happen, to turn

out etc. with such constructions : to be lucky / unlucky / unfortunate /to be certain/ positive/,

to be likely.

The Infinitive can have the following functions:

1. it can be used as the subject of the verb.

Examples: To swim is good for health. To eat too much makes one fat. To go for walk early in the morning is advised by the doctors. To read means to grow.

2..it can be used as the object of the verb.

Examples: I forget to tell you an important matter. All of you begin to work. The doctor has come to check you up for blood-pressure.

GRAMMAR PRACTICE

1. Insert “to” where necessary before the infinitives in brackets.

1. You ought(go) today. It may (rain) tomorrow.2. You needn't (say) anything. Just nod your head and he will understand.3. I want (see) the house where our president was born.4. He made her (repeat) the message.5. May I (use) your phone?6. You needn't (ask) for permission; you can (use) it whenever you like.7. If you want (get) there before dark you should (start) at once.8. I couldn't (remember) his address.9. You'll be able (do) it yourself when you are older.10. Would you like (go) now or shall we (wait) till the end?11. They won't let us (leave) the Customs shed till our luggage has been

examined.12. How dare you (open) my letters!13. He didn't dare (argue) with his boss.14. I used (smoke) forty cigarettes a day.15. Will you help me (move) the bookcase?16. He wouldn't let my baby (play) with his gold watch.17. They refused (accept) the bribe.18. He is expected (arrive) in a few days.19. Please let me (know) your decision as soon as possible.20. He made us (wait) for hours.21. Could you (tell) me the time, please?22. We must (send) him a telegram.23. I let him (go) early as he wanted (meet) his wife.24. Where would you like (have) lunch?25. You seem (know) this area very well. 26. Yes, I used (live) here.27. The kidnappers told the parents (not inform) the police, and the

parents didn't dare (disobey).28. Need I (come)? I'd much rather (stay) at home.29. You can (take) a horse to water but you can't (make) him (drink).

(proverb)30. I'm sorry (disappoint) you but I can't (let) you (have) any more

money till the end of the month.31. We could (go) to a concert, unless you'd prefer (visit) a museum.32. You can (leave) your dog with us if you don't (want) (take) him with

you.33. He used (live) in a caravan.

2. Insert to where necessary before the infinitives in brackets. (In some of the

sentences a present participle could be used instead of an infinitive.

1. It is easy (be) wise after the event.2. Do you (wish) (make) a complaint?3. We don't (want) anybody (know) that we are here.4. If you can't (remember) his number you'd better (look) it up.5. I want her (learn) Esperanto; I think everybody ought to (know) it.6. He is said (be) the best surgeon in the country.7. Visitors are asked (not feed) the animals.8. Could I (see) Mr. Pitt, please? 9. I'm afraid Mr. Pitt isn't in. Would you like (speak) to his secretary?10. It's better (travel) hopefully than (arrive), (proverb)11. He should (know) how (use) the film projector, but if he doesn't you

had better (show) him.12. He was made (sign) a paper admitting his guilt.13. I heard the door (open) and saw a shadow (move) across the floor.14. He tried (make) me (believe) that he was my stepbrother.15. As we seem (have missed) the train we may as well (go) back to the

house.16. I felt the house (shake) with the explosion.17. He told me (try) (come) early.18. Before he let us (go) he made us (promise) (not tell) anyone what we

had seen.19. Would you (like) (come) in my car?

No, thanks, I'd rather (walk).20. I advised him (ask) the bus conductor (tell) him where (get) off.21. It is better (put) your money in a bank than (keep) it under your bed

in an old stocking.22. He doesn't even bother (read) letters, let alone (answer) them.23. The bank robbers made the cashier (show) them how (open) the safe.24. If you knew he was wrong, why didn't you (say) something? 25. I didn't like (say) anything because he always gets angry if you contradict him.

26. It's better (be) sure than sorry.27. What do you (want) me (tell) him? 28. Tell him that any time he cares (call) I shall be delighted (discuss) the matter with

him.29. Did you remember (give) him the money? 30. No, I didn't, I still have it in my pocket; but I'll (see) him tonight and I promise (not

forget) this time.31. I saw the driver (open) his window and (throw) a box into the

bushes.32. That is far too heavy for one person (carry); let me (help) you.33. I was afraid (pick) up the revolver as I don't know how (handle)

firearms.34. I saw the plane (crash) into the hill and (burst) into flames.35. There is nothing (do) but (wait) till somebody comes (let) us out.36. He heard a cock (crow) in a neighbouring village.37. You may as well (tell) us the truth. It will (be) easy (check) your

story.

38. The American said he had seen nine presidents (come) and (go). He must (be) a very old man.

39. It is up to you (learn) the laws of your own country.40. Would you rather (be) more stupid than you look or (look) more

stupid than you are?

3. Replace the group of words in italics by an infinitive or an infinitive construction.

Example: It is important that he should understand this. It is important for him to understand this. He was the first man who arrived. He was the first man to arrive.

1. The captain was the last man who left the ship.2. He got to the top and was very disappointed when he found that

someone else had reached it first.3. Would you be very kind and lend me your umbrella?4. There are a lot of sheets that need mending.5. I was astonished when I heard that he had left the country.6. It is better that he should hear it from you.7. I was rude to him, which was stupid. (It was stupid . . .)8. He put his hand into his pocket and was astonished when he found

that his wallet wasn't there. He rushed into the burning house, which was very brave of him. (Itwas very brave . . .)

9. I can't go to the party; I have nothing that I can wear.10. It is expected that he will broadcast a statement tonight. (He is

expected . . .)11. He was the only one who realized the danger.12. It is said that the earth was originally part of the sun. (The earth . . .)13. I want a kitchen where (= in which) I can cook.14. He reached the station exhausted and was very disappointed when he

learnt that the train had just left.15. Haven't you anything with which you could open it?16. It seems that the crime was committed by a left-handed man. (The

crime seems . . . Use perfect infinitive passive.)17. Is it likely that he will arrive before six? (Is he . . .)18. I was on the point of leaving the house when the phone rang.19. This is the plan: someone will meet you at the station . . . (You . . .

(be met) at the station)20. She is anxious that they should have every possible advantage.21. It is said that he was a brilliant scientist. (He is said . . .)22. The strikers decided that the strike should continue.23. Would you be very kind and translate this for me?24. It is advisable that we should leave the house separately.25. You signed the document without reading it, which was very stupid.

(It was stupid . . .)26. It is said that she has a frightful temper. (She . . .)27. He was the first man who swam the Channel.

28. They believe that he is honest. (He . . .)29. It appears that he was killed with a blunt instrument. (He appears . . .

Use passive infinitive.)30. He took out his spare wheel and was very disappointed when he

discovered that that tyre was also punctured.

4. Use the perfect infinitive of the verb in italics with the appropriate auxiliary verb. Phrases in bold type should not be repeated, but their meaning should be expressed by the auxiliary + perfect infinitive.

It is possible that he telephoned while we were out.He may have telephoned while we were out.You (thank) him for his present but you didn't.You should have thanked him for his present.

1. It is possible that a child broke the window.2. You carried it yourself, which was not necessary.3. I've had a toothache for two days.

You (go) to the dentist when it started.4. There (be) motor-cycle races on the sands but as it is so wet they

have been cancelled.5. As I was standing in the hall your dog bit me. 6. It (not be) my dog; he was with me all day. It (be) my brother's dog.7. I feel terribly ill today. 8. You (not eat) those mushrooms yesterday. Mushrooms don't agree with you.9. I wonder why he didn't answer?

Possibly he didn’t understand the question.10. I gave him a tip, which was not necessary.11. The prisoner(escape) this way, for here are his footprints.12. You lied to him, which was wrong.13. I didn't recognize the voice at the other end of the line. 14. It (be) my elder sister; she is often at home at that time. It (not be) my youngest

sister as she is abroad.15. Someone (cook) a meal here lately; the stove is still hot.16. I've brought my own sandwiches. 17. You (not bring) them. I have enough for two.18. The burglar went straight to the safe although it was hidden behind a picture.19. Someone (tell) him where it was.20. The president (unveil) the statue, but he is ill so his wife is doing it

instead.21. The plane is late; I wonder what has happened?-

Possibly it was delayed by fog.22. I have never met him. 23. You (meet) him; he lives next door to you.24. I (do) it. (It was my duty to do it, but I didn't.)25. He (not catch) the 9.20 train because he didn't leave home till 9.25.26. I opened it, which was unnecessary.27. The police were here while we were out.

Someone (betray) us.28. I drove at 80 miles an hour, which was wrong.29. When I was your age I (climb) that mountain, (but I didn't).30. If a policeman had seen me climbing through your window he (ask)

me what I was doing.31. He said that censorship of news was ridiculous and it (abolish) years

ago. (passive verb)32. You boiled so many eggs; but there are only four of us.33. She (play) the chief part in the film, but she quarreled with the

director, so he engaged someone else.34. This poem (be) written by Keats, but I am not certain.35. He (take) off his hat in the theatre, (but he didn't).36. People used to walk twenty miles to do their shopping.

They (have) a lot of energy in those days.37. One day he went for a walk up a mountain and never came back. 38. He (fall) over a precipice.39. I just pressed lightly on the pane and my hand went through.

The glass (be) very thin.40. You translated it into French, which wasn't necessary.41. You looked at the new moon through glass. It is most unlucky.42. I realized that my house was on fire.

That (be) a terrible moment43. I saw a ghost last night.

You (not see) a ghost; there aren't any ghosts. You (dream) it.

5. Use the perfect infinitive of the verb in italics with the appropriate auxiliary verb. Phrases in bold type should not be repeated, but their meaning should be expressed by the auxiliary + perfect infinitive. Put the second verb into the perfect infinitive and the first into an appropriate tense.

This palace (say) (build) in three years.This palace is said to have been built in three years.

1. You repeated it, which was unnecessary.2. There (seem) (be) a fight here. Everything is smashed to bits.3. We (set) out today, but the weather is so bad that we decided to postpone our start

till tomorrow.4. I thought they were mushrooms. 5. You (not eat) them unless you were sure. They (be) poisonous.6. He learnt the language in six months. He (work) very hard.7. I brought my umbrella, which was unnecessary.8. I (like) (bathe) but there wasn't time.9. I've forgotten the address. I (write) it down (but I didn't).10. If I'd known your house was so cold I (not come).11. You (tell) me you were going camping! If I'd known I (go) with you. 12. But it rained all the time. You (not like) that, would you?

13. Who gave you my address? 14. I don't remember. It (be) Tom. It (not be) Tom; he doesn't know it.15. You bought flowers but we have plenty in the garden.16. After two years of his teaching she knew absolutely nothing. 17. He (not be) a good teacher.18. My sister has just come back from abroad. She (seem) (enjoy) her trip

very much. 19. Life (be) very uncomfortable in the Stone Age.20. You (stand) still when you were being photographed, (but you

didn't).21. I (go) to a foreign university but the war prevented it.22. I (like) (photograph) it but I had no more film.23. There (be) a bad accident here. Look at all the broken glass.24. It is possible that prehistoric cave drawings were connected with

religion.25. I have been driving for 20 years. 26. You (not drive) for 20 years. You are only 30 now.27. It (take) years to dig the Suez Canal.28. He walked past me without speaking. 29. He (not recognize) you. He is very short-sighted.30. I (like) (go) to the match but the tickets were all sold.31. He says he saw you at the theatre yesterday.

He (not see) me. I wasn't there.32. This picture may be a fake; on the other hand it (be) painted by one

of the Dutch masters.33. It is possible that the fire in the ship was started by a bomb.34. She walked 300 miles, carrying her child.

She (have) great courage.35. It is possible that he (read) it in the papers. 36. He (not read) it. He can't read. Someone (tell) him.37. I told them to meet me under the clock but they didn't turn up.

Perhaps they were waiting under the wrong clock. There are two in the station.

38. He told me his name was Johnson. You (mishear) him. His name is Jones.

39. I said that I couldn't find my pen and he said that perhaps somebody40. had borrowed it.41. I (like) (ask) a question but I was sitting so far back that I didn't

think I'd be heard.42. There (be) a fort here at one time. You can see where the foundations were.43. The dinosaur (be said) (be) rather a stupid animal.44. She (marry) my brother but she was killed in a plane crash a month

before the wedding date.

6. Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into one sentence using

too/enough with infinitive.Example :

It is very cold. We can't go out.It is too cold for us to go out. He is strong. He can carry it.He is strong enough to carry it.

1. It is very cold. We can't bathe.2. Would you be very kind and answer this letter by return?3. I am rather old. I can't wear that kind of hat.4. The ladder wasn't very long. It didn't reach the window.5. He hadn't much money. He couldn't live on it. (Omit it.)6. He was furious. He couldn't speak.7. The fire isn't very hot. It won't boil a kettle.8. Tom was very foolish. He told lies to the police.9. You are quite thin. You could slip between the bars.10. He is very ill. He can't eat anything.11. Our new car is very wide. It won't get through those gates.12. The floor wasn't strong. We couldn't dance on it. (Omit it.)13. I was terrified. I couldn't move.14. The bull isn't big. He couldn't harm you.15. The coffee isn't strong. It won't keep us awake.16. The river is deep. We can't wade it. (Omit it.) He is lazy. He won't get up early.17. He won't get up early so he never catches the fast train.18. Would you be very good and forward my letters while I am away?19. The ice is quite thick. We can walk on it. (Omit it.)20. He was very drunk. He couldn't answer my question.21. It is very cold. We can't have breakfast in the garden.22. He was extremely rash. He set off up the mountain in a thick fog.23. We aren't very high. We can't see the summit.24. You aren't very old. You can't understand these things.25. He was very snobbish. He wouldn't talk to any of us.26. The package is very thick. I can't push it through the letterbox.

(Omit it.)27. She was very mean. She never gave to charity.28. He is very impatient. He never listens to anyone.29. I was very tired. I couldn't walk any further.30. It's not very dark. We can't see the stars clearly.31. It was very hot. You could fry an egg on the pavement.32. The oranges were very bitter. We couldn't eat them. (Omit them.)33. Would you be very kind and turn down the radio a little?34. He is very selfish. He wouldn't put himself out for anyone35. You are very young. You can't have a front-door key.

7. In each of the following pairs of sentences an infinitive used in the first sentence

is repeated in the second. Read the sentences, expressing this second infinitive by “to” only.

Where the second infinitive has an object, this word/phrase must be omitted.

Example: Why didn't you tell me the truth the first time? I meant to tell you the truth but I was too frightened. I meant to but I was too frightened .

1. I want you two to apologize to each other. Well, 1 am willing to apologize if he apologizes first.2. Did you reserve seats on the train?

No, I tried to reserve them but they had all been booked already.3. Did you answer the letter?

No, I intended to answer it but I'm afraid I forgot4. Why didn't you hit him?

I was afraid to hit him.5. I'd love to spend a night in a haunted room.

I'd hate to spend a night in a haunted room.6. Why didn't you ask your father for the money?

I didn't like to ask him.7. Did you get a chance to fly the aeroplane yourself?

No, I wanted to fly it but the pilot wouldn't let me.8. Why doesn't he punish his boys when they disobey him?

He often threatens to punish them but he never actually does so.9. Why didn't he repair the car himself?

He wasn't able to repair it.10. I used to drink whisky with my meals.

I used to drink whisky with my meals also but I don't now.11. Did you buy sausages?

No, I meant to buy them but I forgot.12. Why doesn't he try again?

He doesn't want to try again.13. You should visit the Prado when you are in Madrid.

Yes, I intend to visit it.14. Why doesn't he play games?

His mother doesn't want him to play games.15. You ought to stop work now.

Yes, I am just going to stop.16. Why do some jockeys carry extra weights?

They are obliged to carry them by the regulations.17. Did he help you?

No, I asked him to help me but he said he hadn't time.18. You should have thanked her before you left.

I meant to thank her but when I was going I couldn't find her anywhere.19. Why did she put parsley in the soup? I told her to put it in.20. Why didn't he report it to the police?

He was afraid to report it. He didn't think they'd believe him.21. Why did he drive so fast?

He had to drive fast; otherwise he'd have missed his train.22. You used to like rice pudding.

Yes, I know I used to like it but I don't now.23. Why didn't you buy the car?

I was advised not to buy it.24. I hope the children won't go near the water.

I warned them not to go near it.25. Why are we trying to get planning permission? 26. We have to get planning permission. It is the law.

I meant to work hard. 27. I know you meant to work hard but you didn't.

Do the boys tidy their own rooms? 28. They are supposed to tidy them but they don't always.

Why didn't he call the police. 29. He wasn't able to call them. His telephone line had been cut.30. Why did you move your car?

The policeman told me to move it.31. Why did you bring your mother-in-law? I particularly asked you not

to bring her.

CHAPTER V

THE GERUND

The Gerund is an “-ing” form that has both substantival and verbal characteristics. Taking into account the substantival characteristics of the Gerund, it must be shown that :

it can have a plural form it can be preceded by a genitive or a possessive adjective it may have a genitive form it can be preceded by the definite or indefinite article it may modify a noun

If we consider the verbal characteristics of the Gerund , we must underline that :

It may have tense and voice :Present : Mary’s coming here is unexpected.Perfect :Your having said that pleased your parents.

Active : He likes sending letters. Passive : She insisted on being sent at once

It may have an indirect/direct/prepositional object and adverbial modifiers .

Ex: He is fond of telling jokes. I denied giving her that pencil. All night she avoided telling about the accident. Jack is used to driving fast.

USE:

1. Phrasal verbs followed by Gerund :

to go onto keep onto give upto put off etc.

Ex: Father gave up smoking a long time ago.

2. Expressions (be/get + adj./Past Part.) followed by Gerund:

be (get) accustomed to be interested inbe angry about be prepared forbe bored with be responsible forbe capable of be tired ofbe committed to be (get) used tobe excited about be worried about etc.

Ex: We were excited about going to the seaside.

3. After the following expressions:

can’t help, to be looking forward to

to be worth can’t standto be looking forward to it’s no use to feel like etc.

4. Verbs followed by Gerund:

acknowledgeo

detest mindadmit discuss object toadvise dislike postponeanticipate dream about practiceappreciate enjoy put offavoid escape quitcannot bear evade recallcannot help favor recommendcannot resist finish regretcomplain about give up resentconsider have trouble resistconsist of imagine riskcontemplate include suggestdefer from insist on talk aboutdelay keep (on) toleratedeny mention understand

Ex:

After being stopped by the police, George admitted having consumed two pints of beer.

We anticipated having difficulty finding candidates with the right qualifications.

We do appreciate your taking time from your busy schedule to come to Hungary.

He tried to avoid meeting her.

5. Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive, or both. If both are possible, then there is usually a difference in meaning:

+Inf. help, make, let

+ inf. with to

agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, choose, dare, decide, demand, deserve, expect, fail, grow, happen, hasten, help, hope, hurry, learn, long, make (passive), manage, neglect, offer, pay, plan, pledge, pretend, promise, refuse, resolve, seek, seem, struggle, swear, threaten, vow, want, wish

+ Gerund appreciate, avoid, burst out, can’t stand, contemplate, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, fancy, feel like, finish, give up, involve, it’s no good/use, keep on, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practice , put off, resent, risk, spend/waste time, suggest, want

+ inf. or gerund

hear, see, watch

+ inf. with to or gerund

attempt, begin, can’t bear, continue, forget, go on, hate, intend, love, mean, plan, prefer, propose, regret, remember, start, stop, try

+ object + inf. with to or gerund

admit, allow, consider, forbid, imagine, permit, require

+ object + to advise, assist, beg, bribe, command, dare, employ, enable, encourage, instruct, invite, lead, order, persuade, select, send, teach, tell, train, urge, warn

+ that + clause

admit, advise, agree, appear, appreciate, arrange, decide, demand, deny, expect, fancy, forget, happen, hope, intend, learn, mean, mention, order, persuade, plan, pledge, pretend, promise, propose, regret, remember, resent, resolve, seem, suggest, swear, teach, tell, threaten, vow, warn, wish

Gerund can have the following functions:

1.A gerund is used as the subject of a verb.

Examples:

• Walking alone is what he likes the most.

• Buying vegetables in that market is a difficult affair.

• Following others is not advisable.

You can easily see that the subjects in all these sentences are in gerund forms.

2. A gerund is used as an object of a verb.

Examples:

• Begin reading the book.

• I like going for a walk.

3. A gerund is used as a prepositional object:

Examples:

• My neighbor is good at breeding dogs.

• I am fond of eating sweets.

• Before entering the room, please remove your foot-wear.

GRAMMAR PRACTICE

1. Put the verbs in brackets into the gerund:

1. He gave up (gamble2. Try to avoid (make) him angry.3. Stop (argue) and start (work).4. As a result of (listen) at keyholes he learnt many facts which he had no

hesitation in (use) to his own advantage.5. The children prefer (watch) TV to (read).6. I am against (make) any complaints.7. It's no use (cry) over spilt milk, (proverb)8. I suggest (hold) another meeting next week.9. He finished (speak) and sat down.10. He was fined for (drive) without lights.11. It is difficult to get used to (eat) with chopsticks.12. If you can't turn the key try (put) some oil in the lock.13. He lost no time in (get) down to work.14. You can't make an omelette without (break) eggs, (proverb)15. We are looking forward to (read) your new book.16. They escaped by (slide) down ropes made of blankets.17. They don't allow (smoke) in here.18. He is thinking of (leave) his job and (go) to America.19. After (read) this article you will give up (smoke).20. If you put your money into that business you risk (lose) every penny.21. Imagine (live) with someone who never stops (talk).22. Is there anything here worth (buy)?23. He was accused of (leak) classified information to the press.24. You'd better consult your lawyer before (decide) to buy the

property.25. I don't enjoy (go) to the dentist.26. Would you mind (put) your pet snake somewhere else?27. The hostages were rescued without a shot (be) fired.28. By (work) day and night he succeeded in (finish) the job in time.29. He has a scheme for (make) grass grow in winter.30. I don't feel like (work); what about (go) to a disco instead?31. Would you mind (write) your name and address on the back of the

cheque?32. I hate (borrow) money.33. He was furious at (be) mistaken for an escaped convict.34. After (talk) for ten minutes I succeeded in (convince) him that there

was no danger.35. I remember (read) a review of that book and (think) I'd like to get it.

2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form (gerund or infinitive):

1. He hates (answer) the phone, and very often just lets it (ring). 2. If you go on (let) your dog (chase) cars he'll end by (be) run over.

3. I prefer (drive) to (be driven).4. I advise you (start) (look) for a flat at once.5. Would you mind (lend) me £5? I forgot (cash) a cheque.6. (Lie) on this beach is much more pleasant than (sit) in the office.7. She likes her children (go) to the dentist every six months.8. By (neglect) (take) ordinary precautions he endangered the life of his

crew.9. An instructor is coming (show) us how (use) the aqualung.10. I have no intention of (go) to that film; 11. I couldn't bear (see) my favourite actress in such a dreadful part.12. I suggest (telephone) the hospitals before (ask) the police (look) for him.13. After (hear) the conditions I decided (not enter) for the competition.14. Some people seem (have) a passion for (write) to the newspapers.15. He expects me (answer) by return but I have no intention of (reply)

at all.16. I tried (explain) to him but he refused (listen) and went on (grumble).17. By (offer) enormous wages he is persuading men (leave) their

present jobs and (work) for him.18. He postponed (make) a decision till it was too late (do) anything.19. Imagine (have) (get up) at five a.m. every day!20. Try (forget ) it; it isn't worth (worry) about.21. There is no point in (remain) in a dangerous place if you can't do

anything (help) the people who have (stay) there.22. The horse won't be well enough (run) in tomorrow's race. He doesn't seem (have

recovered) from his long journey. At first I enjoyed (listen) to him but after a while I got tired of (hear) the same story again and again.

23. It is usually easier (learn) a subject by (read) books than by (listen) tolectures.

24. It wouldn't be safe (start) down now; we'll have (wait) till the mistclears.

25. After (discuss) the matter for an hour the committee adjournedwithout (have reached) any decision.

26. It's not much use (have) a bicycle if you don't know how (ride) it.27. He didn't dare (leave) the house because he was afraid of (meet)

someone who might (recognize) him.28. I distinctly remember (pay) him. I gave him £2.29. Did you remember (give) him the key of the safe?

No, I didn't. I'll go and do it now.30. Please forgive me for (interrupt) you but would you mind (repeat)

that last sentence? 31 . I know my hair wants (cut) but I never have time (go) to the hairdresser's.

32. He made a lot of money by (buy) tickets in advance and (sell) themfor twice the price on the day of the match.

33. She rushed out of the room without (give) me a chance (explain).34. He keeps (ask) me the time and I keep (tell) him (buy) himself a

watch.35. He has a theory that it is possible (tell) the time in daylight by (look)

into a cat's eyes.36. I'd hate (be) beside a volcano when it started (erupt).

3. Put the verbs in brackets into gerund or infinitive:

1. I ride sometimes. Would you like (come) with me next time?2. Most people prefer (spend) money to (earn) it.3. I resented (be) unjustly accused and asked him (apologize).4. It isn't good for children (eat) too many sweets.5. I didn't feel like (work) so I suggested (spend) the day in the garden.6. Why do you keep (look) back? Are you afraid of (be) followed?7. Do you remember (post) the letter? 8. Yes, I do; I posted it in the letter-box near my gate.9. Did you remember (lock) the door? 10. No, I didn't. I'd better (go) back and (do) it now.11. You still have a lot (learn) if you'll forgive my (say) so.12. It's no use (try) (interrupt) him. You'll have (wait) till he stops (talk).13. I'm for (do) nothing till the police arrive. They don't like you (move)

anything when a crime has been committed.14. He didn't like (leave) the children alone in the house but he had no

alternative as he had (go) out to work.15. Why didn't you drink it? 16. I didn't like (drink) it as I didn't know what it was.17. I'm very sorry for (be) late. It was good of you (wait) for me.18. I keep (try) (make) mayonnaise but I never succeed.

Try (add) the yolk of a hard-boiled egg.19. Do you feel like (go) to a film or would you rather (stay) at home?20. She told me (look) through her correspondence and (take) out any

letters that you had written her. I didn't like (look) through someoneelse's letters but I had (do) as she said.

21. He took to (get up) early and (walk) noisily about the house.22. I liked (listen) to folk music much better than (listen) to pop.23. The car began (make) an extraordinary noise so I stopped (see) what

it was.24. You'll never regret (do) a kind action.25. He decided (put) broken glass on top of his wall (prevent) boys

(climb) over it.26. He annoyed me very much by (take) the piece of cake that I was

keeping (eat) after my supper.27. He kept (ring) up and (ask) for an explanation and she didn't know

what (do) about him.28. We got tired of (wait) for the weather (clear) and finally decided (set)

out in the rain.29. He made me (repeat) his instructions (make) sure that I understood

what I was (do) after he had gone.30. I suggest (leave) the car here and (send) a breakdown van (tow) it to

the garage.31. She apologized for (borrow) my sewing-machine without (ask)

permission and promised never (do) it again.32. I didn't mean (offend) anyone but somehow I succeeded in (annoy)

them all.33. She claimed (be able) (tell) the future by (gaze) into her crystal ball.34. He never thinks of (get) out of your way; he expects you (walk)

round him.

35. You don't need (ask) his permission every time you want (leave) theroom.

36. The police accused him of (set) fire to the building but he denied(have been) in the area on the night of the fire.

37. I left my door open. Why didn't you walk in? I didn't like (go) in when you weren't there.

38. It's much better (go) to a hairdresser than (try) (save) time by (cut)your own hair.

39. I'd rather (earn) my living by (scrub) floors than (make) money by(blackmail) people.

40. I used (ride) a lot but I haven't had a chance (do) any since (come)here.

CHAPTER VI

THE PARTICIPLE

There are two participle in English: the Present Participle(ending in – ing) and the Past Participle(ending in – ed or having special form for irregular verbs).

Form:

present participle an exciting race

past participle excited people

We use the participle in order to:

1 to shorten relative clauses

2 to make one sentence out of two

3 after verbs of "perception" (e.g. see, watch, hear, listen to, smell, feel)

4 after verbs of "rest" and "movement" (e.g. run, go, come, stay, stand, lie, sit)

5 after the verb have

6 instead of a subordinate clause

Examples:

1The cars which are produced in Japan are nice.The cars produced in Japan are nice.

2I saw the man. He came to the shop.I saw the man coming to the shop.

3 I saw the car coming round the corner.

4 The girl sat sleeping on the sofa.

5 I have my clothes washed.

6When they went to Texas they expected a better job.Going to Texas they expected a better job.

Present participle

The present participle is often used when we want to express an active action. In English we add - ing to the infinitive of the verb.

Use of the present participle:

Progressive/Continuous tense

He is reading a book.

He was reading a book.

GerundReading books is fun.

He likes reading books.

Participle

Look at the reading boy.

He came reading around the corner.

He sat reading in the corner.

I saw him reading .

Past participle

Use of the past participle:

Perfect tensesHe has forgotten the pencil.

He had forgotten the pencil.

Passive voiceA house is built .

A house was built .

Participle

Look at the washed car.

The car washed yesterday is blue.

He had his car washed .

The Present Participle has the following characteristics:

It can be modified by an adverb. Ex: She is playing now It can have a direct object. Ex : Mother is making a cake. It can have an indirect object .Ex: You are giving me very good advice

We use Present Participle :

to talk about an earlier action

The present participle can be used to talk about an earlier action, or one of the actions of the same subject.

Seeing the snake, the man ran away.Finding none in the class, the teacher became angry.Entering the room, we found the child sleeping.

in the appositive position

The present participle can be used in the appositive position.

The woman, quivering and trembling, ran away.

as an adverb modifying an adjective

It is freezing cold.She was dripping wet.

in absolute phrases

The participles are used in absolute phrases with a noun or pronoun going before them:

God willing, we shall meet again.The sea being rough, they abandoned the journey.

Each of these absolute phrases can be transformed into a subordinate clause:

If God is willing, we shall meet again.As the sea was rough, they abandoned the journey.

We use Past participle

to form the perfect tenses

The past participle is used to form the perfect tenses.

They have arrived. (Present perfect)They have been invited. (Present perfect – passive)They had left . (Past perfect)They will have returned . (Future perfect)

as an adjective

The past participle can be used as an adjective in all the positions and functions as a typical adjective.

She swept away the fallen leaves.A burnt child dreads fire.He wore a torn shirt.

In this case the past participles are used as adjectives before the nouns they qualify.

as part of the predicate

The past participle can be used as part of the predicate after copular verbs such as : be, seem, look, appear etc.

The woman looked distressed.She seemed surprised.He was left stranded.

in the appositive position

The past participle can be used in the appositive position.

Dejected he left the room.

as an adverb

The past participle can be used as an adverb modifying an adjective.

I am dead tired.He was dead drunk.

to express an earlier action of the same subject

Deceived by his friends, he killed himself.Terrified, they fled from the scene.

Participle constructions are more common in written English.

GRAMMAR PRACTICE

1. Join each of the following pairs of sentences, using either a present participle, a past participle or a perfect participle:

Example:

He got off his horse. He began searching for something on theground.Getting off his horse, he began searching. . .I had seen photographs of the place. I had no desire to go there.Having seen photographs of the place, I had no desire . . .The speaker refused to continue. He was infuriated by theinterruptions.Infuriated by the interruptions, the speaker refused . . .

1. She became tired of my complaints about the programme. Sheturned it off.

2. He found no one at home. He left the house in a bad temper.3. She hoped to find the will. She searched everywhere.4. The criminal removed all traces of his crime. He left the building.5. He realized that he had missed the last train. He began to walk.6. He was exhausted by his work. He threw himself on his bed.7. He had spent all his money. He decided to go home and ask his

father for a job.8. He escaped from prison. He looked for a place where he could get

food.9. She didn't want to hear the story again. She had heard it all before.10. They found the money. They began quarrelling about how to

divide it.11. She entered the room suddenly. She found them smoking.12. I turned on the light. I was astonished at what I saw.13. We visited the museum. We decided to have lunch in the park.14. He offered to show us the way home. He thought we were lost.15. He found his revolver. He loaded it. He sat down facing the door.16. She asked me to help her. She realized that she couldn't move it

alone.17. He fed the dog. He sat down to his own dinner.18. He addressed the congregation. He said he was sorry to see how few

of them had been able to come.19. He thought he must have made a mistake somewhere. He went

through his calculations again.20. I have looked through the fashion magazines. I realize that my

clothes are hopelessly out of date.21. The tree had fallen across the road. It had been uprooted by the

gale.22. People were sleeping in the next room. They were wakened by the

sound of breaking glass.

23. I knew that the murderer was still at large. I was extremelyreluctant to open the door.

24. He stole the silver. He looked for a place to hide it.25. We were soaked to the skin. We eventually reached the station.26. I sat in the front row. I used opera glasses. I saw everything

beautifully.27. One evening you will be sitting by the fire. You will remember this

day.28. I didn't like to sit down. I knew that there were ants in the grass.29. She believed that she could trust him absolutely. She gave him a

blank cheque.30. Slates were ripped off by the gale. They fell on people passing

below.31. The lion found his cage door open. He saw no sign of his keeper. He

left the cage and walked slowly towards the zoo entrance.32. The government once tried to tax people according to the size of

their houses. They put a tax on windows.33. I had heard that the caves were dangerous. I didn't like to go any

further without a light.34. She wore extremely fashionable clothes. She was surrounded by

photographers and pressmen. She swept up to the microphone.35. I knew that he was poor. I offered to pay his fare.

2. Put the verbs in brackets into a correct form. You may use – ing forms, the gerund and the participle:

1. The snow kept (fall) and the workmen grew tired of (try) (keep) theroads clear.

2. He offered (lend) me the money. I didn't like (take) it but I had noalternative.

3. What was in the letter? 4. I don't know. I didn't like (open) it as it wasn't addressed to me.5. Do you remember (read) about it? 6. No, at that time I was too young (read) newspapers.7. Did you remember (book) seats for the theatre tomorrow?

Yes, I have the tickets here. Would you like (keep) them? I aminclined (lose) theatre tickets.

8. Try (avoid) (be) late. He hates (be) kept (wait).9. I didn't know how (get) to your house so I stopped (ask) the way.10. I wish my refrigerator would stop (make) that horrible noise. You

can't hear anyone (speak).11. This book tells you how (win) at games without actually (cheat).12. The gunman began (fire). He felt a bullet (graze) his cheek.13. He heard the clock (strike) six and knew that it was time for him

(get) up.14. I can hear the bell (ring) but nobody seems (be coming) (open) the

door.15. Did you advise him (go) to the police? 16. No, I didn't like (give) any advice on such a difficult matter.

17. He wanted (put) my chameleon on a tartan rug and (watch) it(change) colour.

18. It is easy (see) animals on the road in daylight but sometimes atnight it is very difficult (avoid) (hit) them.

19. The fire seems (be) out. 20. It can't be quite out. I can hear the wood (crackle).21. l8 I caught him (climb) over my wall. I asked him (explain) but he22. refused (say) anything, so in the end I had (let) him (go).23. When at last I succeeded in (convince) him that I wanted (get) home24. quickly he put his foot on the accelerator and I felt the car (leap)25. forward. 26. I'm not used to (drive) on the left. 27. When you see everyone else (do) it you'll find it quite easy (do)28. yourself. 29. It is pleasant (sit) by the fire at night and (hear) the wind (howl)30. outside. 31. There was no way of (get) out of the building except by (climb) down32. a rope and Ann was too terrified (do) this. 33. We heard the engines (roar) as the plane began (move) and we saw34. the people on the ground (wave) good-bye.35. It's no good (write) to him; he never answers letters. The only thing36. (do) is (go) and (see) him. 37. Why did you go all round the field instead of (walk) across it? 38. I didn't like (cross) it because of the bull. I never see a bull without39. (think) that it wants (chase) me.40. The people in the flat below seem (be having) a party. You can hear

the champagne corks (thud) against their ceiling.41. I don't like (get) bills but when I do get them I like (pay) them

promptly.42. Ask him (come) in. Don't keep him (stand) at the door.43. The boys next door used (like) (make) and (fly) model aeroplanes,

but they seem to have stopped (do) that now.44. I knew I wasn't the first (arrive), for I saw smoke (rise) from the

chimney.45. We watched the men (saw) the tree and as we were walking away

heard it (fall) with a tremendous crash.46. I hate (see) a child (cry).47. We watched the children (jump) from a window and (fall) into a

blanket held by the people below.48. It is very unpleasant (wake) up and (hear) the rain (beat) on the

windows.49. He saw the lorry (begin) (roll) forwards but he was too far away (do)

anything (stop) it.50. There are people who can't help (laugh) when they see someone

(slip) on a banana skin.51. When the painter felt the ladder (begin) (slip) he grabbed the gutter

(save) himself from (fall).

3. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct forms. You should use: participle, gerund and infinitive.

1. 'I was lonely at first,' the old man admitted, 'but after a time I got used to (live) alone and even got (like) it.'

2. Before trains were invented people used (travel) on horseback or in stage coaches. It used (take) a stage coach three days (go) from London to Bath.

3. I meant (buy) an evening paper but I didn't see anyone (sell) them.4. Tom: I want (catch) the 7 a.m. train tomorrow.5. Ann: But that means (get) up at 6.00; and you're not very good at (get) up early, are

you?6. He accepted the cut in salary without complaint because he was afraid (complain). He

was afraid of (lose) his job.7. She remembers part of her childhood quite clearly. She remembers (go) to school for

the first time and (be) frightened and (put) 10110x2311k her finger in her mouth. And she remembers her teacher (tell) her (take) it out.

8. Did you remember (lock) the car? 9. No, I didn't. I'd better (go) back and (do) it now.10. No, I didn't move the bomb. I was afraid (touch) it; I was afraid of (be) blown to

pieces!11. Next time we go (house-hunt), remember (ask) the agent for clear directions. I wasted

hours (look) for the last house.12. Tom: Let's (go) for a swim.13. Ann: I'm not particularly keen on (swim). What about (go) for a drive instead?14. The hunters expected (be paid) by the foot for the snakes they caught. This meant

(take) the snakes out of the sack and (measure) them. They seemed (expect) me (do) it; but I wasn't particularly anxious (be) the first (die) of snakebite.

15. After (spend) two days (argue) about where to go for their holidays, they decided (not go) anywhere.

16. He is talking about (give) up his job and (go) (live) in the country.17. I was just about (leave) the office when the phone rang. It was my wife; she wanted

me (call) at the butcher's on my way home.18. He said, 'I'm terribly sorry to (keep) you (wait).'19. I said, 'It doesn't matter at all,' but he went on (apologize) for nearly five minutes!20. The lecturer began by (tell) us where the island was, and went on (talk) about its

history.21. My father thinks I am not capable of (earn) my own living, but I mean (show) him

that he is wrong.22. Tom: I can't get my car (start) on cold mornings.23. Jack: Have you tried (fill) the radiator with hot water? That sometimes helps.24. Did he manage (carry) the trunk upstairs? 25. No, he didn't. He isn't strong enough (move) it, let alone (carry) it upstairs.26. Jack: Don't forget (take) a hacksaw with you.27. Ann: What's a hacksaw? And why should I (take) one with me?28. Jack: It's a tool for (cut) metal. You see, Tom is bound (get) into trouble for (take)

photographs of the wrong things, and you'll be arrested with him. With a hacksaw you'll be able (saw) through the bars of your cell and (escape).

29. Peter: Wouldn't it be better (ask) Tom (leave) his camera at home? Jack: It would be no good (ask) Tom (do) that. It would be like (ask) a woman (travel) without a

handbag.30. I've got the loaf; now I'm looking for a bread knife (cut) it with. 31. I saw Paul (sharpen) a pencil with the bread knife a minute ago.32. We stopped once (buy) petrol and then we stopped again (ask) someone the way.33. When I caught them (cheat) me, I stopped (buy) petrol there and started (deal) with

your garage instead.34. Do you feel like (dine) out or would you rather (have) dinner at home? 35. I'd like (go) out. I always enjoy (have) dinner in a restaurant.36. Your hair needs (cut). You'd better (have) it done tomorrow-unless you'd like me

(have) a go at it for you.37. I tried (convince) him that I was perfectly capable of (manage) on my own, but he

insisted on (help) me.38. Jack: I don't mind (travel) by bus, but I hate (stand) in queues.39. Tom: I don't care for (queue) either; and you waste so much time (wait) for buses. I

think it's better (go) by tube, or taxi.40. He took to (follow) me about and (criticize) my work till I threatened (hit) him.41. I have (stay) here; I'm on duty. But you needn't (wait); you're free (go) whenever you

like.42. In Animal Farm the old pig urged the animals (rebel) against man but he warned them

(not adopt) man's habits.43. There is no point in (arrive) half an hour early. We'd only have (wait). 44. I don't mind (wait). It's better (be) too early than too late.45. I always try (come) in quietly but they always hear me (go) upstairs. It's impossible

(climb) an old wooden staircase at night without (make) a noise.46. If you agree (work) for me I'll see about (get) you a work permit.47. We'd better (start) early. We don't want (risk) (get) caught in a traffic jam.48. He suggested (call) a meeting and (let) the workers (decide) the matter themselves.

4. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct forms. A participle, gerund or infinitive ( long/short infinitive ) is required:

     1.          We suggested (sleep) in hotels but the children were anxious (camp) out.     2.          Paul: Would you like (come) to a lecture on Wagner tonight? Ann: No, thanks. I like (listen) to music but I don't like (listen) to people (talk) about it.     3.          If you want the milkman (leave) you milk in the morning, remember (put) a milk bottle outside your door.     4.          They let us park motorcycles here but they won't allow us (park) cars.     5.          They don't allow (smoke) in the auditorium; they don't want (risk) (set) it on fire, but you can (smoke) in the foyer during the interval.     6.          Mr. Shaw is very busy (write) his memoirs. He is far too busy (receive) callers (he is so busy that he can't receive callers), so you'd better just (go) away.     7.          What about (buy) double quantities of everything today? That will save (shop) again later in the week.     8.          The inspector asked (see) my ticket and when I wasn't able (find) it he made me (buy) another. He probably suspected you of (try) (travel) without one.     9.          Would you like me (turn) down the radio a bit? -No, it's all right. I'm used to (work) with the radio on.  10.          One of the gang suggested (take) the body out to sea, (drop) it overboard and

(pretend) that it had been an accident.  11.          I want the boy (grow) up hating violence but his father keeps (buy) him guns and swords. It's almost impossible (prevent) boys (play) soldiers.  12.          Would you children mind (keep) quiet for a moment? I'm trying (fill) in a form. It's no use (ask) children (keep) quiet. They can't help (make) a noise.  13.          I'm thinking of (go) to Oxford tomorrow on my motorbike. Would you like (come)? No, thanks. I want (go) Oxford, but I'd rather (go) by train. I loathe (travel) by road.  14.          Let's (go) (fish) today. There's a nice wind. What about (come) with us, Ann? No, thanks. I'm very willing (cut) sandwiches for you but I've no intention of (waste) the afternoon (sit) in a boat (watch) you two (fish).  15.          He resented (be) asked (wait). He expected the minister (see) him at once.  16.          The police have put up a railing here (prevent) people (rush) out of the station and (dash) straight across the road.  17.          All day long we saw the trees (toss) in the wind and heard the waves (crash) against the rocks.  18.          I didn't mean (eat) anything but the cakes looked so good that I couldn't resist (try) one.  19.          Do you feel like (walk) there or shall we (take) a bus? I'd rather (go) by bus. Besides, it'll take ages (get) there on foot.  20.          All right. When would you like (start)? In a few minutes? Oh, let's wait till it stops (rain); otherwise we'll get soaked (walk) to the bus station.  21.          The old miser spent all his time (count) his money and (think) up new hiding-places. He kept (move) it about because he was terrified of (be robbed). He used (get) up at night sometimes (make) sure it was still there.  22.          Jack suggested (let) one flat and (keep) the other for myself. But Tom advised me (sell) the whole house.  23.          The child used (lean) on the gate (watch) the people (go) to work in the mornings and (come) home in the evenings. And he used to hear them (shout) greetings to each other and (talk) loudly.  24.          He soon got (know) most of them and even managed (learn) the greetings. Then they began (greet) him too on their way to work and sometimes would stop (talk) to him on their way home.  25.          He succeeded in (untie) himself, (climb) out of the window and (crawl) along a narrow ledge to the window of the next room.  26.          Did you have any trouble (find) the house? No, but I had a lot of difficulty (get) in. Nobody seemed (know) where the key was.  27.          Bill couldn't bear (see) anyone (sit) round idly. Whenever he found rne (relax) or (read) he would (produce) a job which, he said, had (be) done at once. I wasted a morning (perform) his ridiculous tasks and spent the rest of the weekend (keep) out of his way.   28.          After (spend) a week in the cottage, he decided that he didn't really enjoy (live) in the country and began (think) of an excuse for (sell) the cottage and (return) to London.   29.          It's no use (argue) with him. You might as well (argue) with a stone wall. He is incapable of (see) anyone else's point of view.  30.          I'm delighted (hear) that you can come on Saturday. We are all looking forward to (see) you. Remember (bring) your rubber boots.  31.          He has been charged with (receive) and (sell) stolen goods. He has admitted (receive) but denies (sell) them. The fact is that he hasn't had time (sell) them yet.   32.          He noticed the helicopter (hover) over the field. Then, to astonishment, he saw a

rope ladder (be) thrown out and three men (climb) down it. He watched them (run) across the field and out through a gate. Later he saw a car with four men in it (come) out of the lane (lead) to the field.  33.          He admitted that it was possible that the car happened (be passing) and that the three men persuaded the driver (give) them a lift; but he throught it much more likely that they had arranged for the car (pick) them up and that the driver had been waiting in the lane for the helicopter (drop) them.  34.          What about (have) a picnic in Piccadilly Circus? What an extraordinary place (have) a picnic! Fancy (sit) there with the traffic (swirl) round you and the pigeons (take) bites out of your sandwiches!  35.          Would you mind (write) your address on the back of the cheque and (show) us some proof of your identity?  36.          Let's (swim) across. I'm not really dressed for (swim). What's wrong with (go) round by the bridge?

CONCLUSIONS

Language has evolved in the history of man's development as the principal means by which an individual is able to convey information, thoughts, and ideas to one or many of his associates and as the chief means by which he/she in turn receives information, thoughts, and ideas from the others .Communication occurs when a meaningful signal passes from a sender, who originates it, to a receiver who understands it. The best source of usage information is the community in which each individual lives. The community is the laboratory for the objective observation of English as it is actually used by all kinds of people-

It is known that language teaching methods come and go, and we cannot speak about the failure of any particular set of techniques because sometimes, the same techniques reappear in the next method.

By grammar" it is meant the series of rules or generalizations that is intended to describe the target language .There is more diversity in the language teaching field today than there was twenty-five years ago. The science of language teaching couldn't demonstrate the superiority of one methodology or another cause teaching is a combination of science and art; the teacher's choices are like those of artists who have full pallets of paint from which they can be choose a little of each colour ; so, teachers have the freedom to be creative .

The new English textbooks focus on global education, embracing several universal goals: to help students understand the ways of thinking, the values and the problems of other peoples, to develop cross-cultural awareness, to enable students to analyze and suggest measures for using and sharing the earth's resources , to make students aware of the choices they can make in order to consider themeselves better. Learners are supposed to get involved in all the above mentioned topics of discussion by competent teachers who know how to properly use role playing: advertising leaflets, maps, pictures, gestures, dramatization, so that they could teach grammar items in a very pleasant way. Students sadly refuse to be taught grammar in an academic way

It is true that some restricted kinds of communication are possible without grammar. In some situations, for example, we can communicate through gestures or through phrases learnt from a phrase-book. As soon as we move beyond this rudimentary level, however, grammar becomes the essential basis for communication. This position was summed up in strong terms by David Wilkins:

The notion that an individual can develop anything other than a rudimentary communication ability without an extensive mastery of the grammatical system is absurd (David Wilkins in the journal Applied Linguistics, 1981).

So, the more thoroughly a learner masters the grammatical system of the language, the more effectively he or she can use this language for communication.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books :

1. Badescu, A.- ,,Gramatica limbii engleze", Editura Stiintifica , Bucuresti,1963

2. Curme, G.- "English Grammar", Barnes and Noble Books, New York

3. Comisel, E, / Edison ,R.-"Time to Talk", Editura Spiru Haret, 1995

4. Galateanu, G./Comisel, E.-,,Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz scolar", Editura Didactica si Pedagogica, Bucuresti,1983

5. Galateanu, G.- ,,Sinteze de gramatica engleza,", Editura Albatros, Bucuresti,1987

6. Leech, J.- "Meaning of the English Verb"', Longman, London,1969

7. Murar, I.- ,,The English Verb", Editura Universitaria,Craiova,2004

8. Palmer, F.-"The English Verb", Longman, London, 1976

9. Paidos, C.-“English Grammar”, Editura Polirom,2001

10. Pawlowska, B.,Kempinski, Z- “Teste de limba engleza', Editura Teora, l997

11. Quirk, R.-“ A Grammar of Conternporary English", Longman, 1972/1976

12. Side, R. & Wellman Guy, “Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced and Proficiency”, Longman, 2000.

13. Thomson. A. J. & Martinet. A V. “ A Practical English Grammar", Fourth Edition, Oxford University,1986

14. Michael Vince, Peter Sunderland - “ Advanced Language Practice “, Macmillan, 2003

15. Walton, R.-"Advanced English C.A.E.", Longman, 1999

Sites :

www.english-for-students.com www.didactic.rowww. scribd .com www.edb.gov.hkwww.freewebs.com www.englisch-hilfen.dewww.englishlanguageguide.com