GRAMMAR

GRAMMAR

Titles

• Underline or Italicize titles of novels or plays: Wuthering Heights or Wuthering Heights (obviously, if you are writing, you cannot italicize)

• Titles of poems, short stories or articles should be in quotation marks: “Sonnet 138” or “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”

Mixing Homonyms

Try not to confuse the following words:

TO THEIR ITS KNOW

WHOSE

YOUR

TOO THERE IT’S NO WHO’S YOU’RE

TWO THEY’RE Ware Wear Where

Whether

Weather Here Hear Bear Bare

Bee Be Red Read Do Due

Hour Our Are Read Reed Reid

Homonyms cont.

•Their house is over there•My dog, it’s moving its food• It’s its (possessive) bone•My friend, who’s a teacher

too, whose name is Amy, lives in Texas.

Seeming Homonyms

Than (comparing) vs. Then (time)• I am older THAN my brothers.• I am shorter THAN most of the kids in

class.• I went to the store, THEN I went home.• I want to eat dinner THEN do my work.

• Affect (verb) vs. Effect (noun)

• Accept (verb) vs. Except (adjective)

Seeming Homonyms CONTINUED

Affect (verb) vs. Effect (noun)• My parents’ divorce AFFECTED me

negatively.• Walter’s choices AFFECT everyone in

the family.• The/One EFFECT of not doing your

homework is your grade will go down.• There are many negative EFFECTS of

doing drugs.

Seeming Homonyms CONTINUED

Accept (verb) vs. Except (adjective)

• He ACCEPTED my apology.• I hope the school ACCEPTS me.• I hate all eggs EXCEPT hard boiled.• I love all my students EXCEPT that

one boy from my first year of teaching.

Good vs. Well

Good (adjective) is not to be confused with Well (adverb)

• A good job well done.• He is a good man.• I write pretty well.• How did you do on the test? I did well.• How are you feeling? Pretty well.• Have you had a good day? Pretty good.

TENSE

• When you write about literature, you write in PRESENT TENSE; this makes your essay seem more in the moment than as if you were telling a story, e.g.:

• “In Wuthering Heights Catherine is not a very kind woman; she takes advantage of others to make herself happy.”

TENSE CONTINUED

• Additionally, you MUST NOT switch back and forth between tenses in your writing in this class, to do so makes the reader question your control over your writing.

Contractions

• In formal writing, you should avoid contractions

Contraction Formal

can’t becomes cannot

won’t becomes will not

shouldn’t becomes should not

they’re becomes they are

don’t becomes do not

isn’t becomes is not

aren’t becomes are not

it’s becomes it is

Etc., etc., ad infinitum

ITS vs. IT’S

• Since you should not be using contractions, this should not be an issue, but if it is, ITS is a possessive pronoun.

• That means you use ITS when you are saying a thing owns something e.g.:

“I live in a duplex. Unfortunately its roof is about to fall in.”

THAT vs. WHO

When you are describing a PERSON, and are adding more information, please use WHO instead of that:

• Julius Caesar, who is killed by his friends and colleagues, exhibits tyrannical behavior.

SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT

• The subject (what is “doing” the verb) and the verb have to agree, or go together.

• E.g. I eat cake (SVO)• Subjects (always try to put these BEFORE

the verb) include the following:

Singular Plural

1st Person I WE

2nd Person YOU You all

3rd Person He/She/It They

SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT continued

The verbs have to change to match up with the subjects, for example for the verb “walk:”

• I WALK• You WALK• He/She/It WALKS• We WALK• You (all) WALK • They WALK• Notice how the verb “walk” changes for

He/She/It (or in 3rd person singular).

PASSIVE vs. ACTIVE VOICE

• Make sure that when you are writing, your subject is directly DOING the verb rather than being DONE BY the verb

• PASSIVE: The website is updated by me.

• ACTIVE: I update the website.• PASSIVE: Caesar was killed by Brutus. • ACTIVE: Brutus killed Caesar.

I vs. Me

• “I” is the subject, it is always “doing” the verb

• “Me” is the object, it is always “being done” by the verb:

• I am going to the store• She is going with me to the store• Amy and I are going to the store• That present is for Andrew and me

I vs. Me continued

• Break them down to check when you have TWO people:

• Amy and I are going to the store…Amy is going to the store…I am going to the store, therefore: Amy and I

• That present is for Andrew…That present is for me, therefore, that present is for Andrew and me.

I vs. Me continued

Examples:• The party is for Benson and I.• James and me are going to school.• Jeffrey and me are friends.• He was speaking to Jason and I.• Stephen and me are weird.• That idea is perfect for Alex and I.

WHO vs. WHOM

WHO is a subject, meaning it is always DOING the verb e.g.:

• Who is there? • My friend, who is older than me, is

weird.• Heathcliff, who is in love with

Catherine, is a wretched man.

WHO vs. WHOM continued

WHOM is an object, meaning it is always BEING DONE by the verb. Usually you know you need to use whom when you see a preposition e.g.:

• To Whom It May Concern:• For whom did you buy that cake?• With whom did you go to the store No one actually talks like this (except

me sometimes); this is for formal writing

PERSON

• In formal writing, you should avoid writing in 1st person (I/WE)

• In formal writing, you should also avoid writing in 2nd person (You, You all)

• Therefore, you should write in…

THIRD PERSON!!!!!!!!!!

PRONOUNS INCLUDE:• SUBJECT: He/She/It/They• OBJECT: Him/Her/It/Them• POSSESSIVE SUBJECT: His/Her/Its/Their• POSSESSIVE OBJECT His/Hers/Its/Theirs• REFLEXIVE:

Himself/Herself/Itself/Themselves

PRONOUN/ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT

• A pronoun must AGREE with its antecedent (the word or phrase it replaced).

• Just like with Subject/Verb Agreement, if you do not match up your pronouns and antecedents, your writing becomes very confused.

PRONOUN/ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT continued

Try and figure out what is wrong:• Mary is studying biology, a course you

need in order to prepare for medical school.

• Each nation has their own culture and our nation has their own culture too.

• Ashley and Leia cannot find her gloves.• Uncle Arthur sent us a package, but we

never arrived.

PRONOUN/ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT continued

And some more:• Few in the class gave its approval.• Our friends gave Joe and myself a

party.• The story was exciting, but they did

not explain what happened at the end.• When Caesar entered the Senate,

Brutus and the other conspirators began to crowd around. Even so, he did not sense any danger.

SEMI-COLON

• The semi-colon is less final than a period, but calls for more of a pause than a comma.

• The semi-colon separates two clauses, but allows you to show that there is a connection between these two clauses.

• The semi-colon is a good way of combining ideas and avoiding choppiness of many short sentences.

SEMI-COLON continued

Use a semi-colon to join independent clauses that are not already joined by a conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet); for sentences using conjunctions, use a comma.• James celebrated his birthday with a cake, and everyone ate several pieces of it.• James celebrated his birthday with a cake; everyone ate several pieces of it.

SEMI-COLON continued

A semi-colon should not be used between unrelated sentences. The two clauses should be related in meaning and structure.•My favorite dinner begins with a steaming bowl of soup; I wonder why mother is not home yet.•We ate until we could not eat another bite; we were all hungry after our hike.

COLON

• The easiest way to think of a colon is to think of it at an arrow or pointer.

• It tells the reader to look ahead to find out more information about something just read

• NB—the clause before the colon must be an independent clause

COLON continued

• The additional information following a colon may be a list, a quotation (if you do not use “says,” “explains,” or other introductory word), an explanation, etc.

Which is correct?• On the hike we brought: apples, nuts,

and raisins.• The snacks we brought for the hike

were very healthy: apples, nuts, and raisins.

COLON continued

More examples…• Eric watched the gymnast on the

bars: “Your technique is good, but you need more practice.”

• Today, we will discuss a well-known and interesting text: Hamlet.

• The chef concluded her speech with one important thought: she said that fresh ingredients are the best.

FRAGMENTS

• A fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete thought

• Identify the fragments in the following passage:Totally bored with the movie. Shannon

left her seat to get popcorn. She returned a few minutes later and

found Andrew sleeping in his seat. Apparently was also bored. She

nudged him and he awoke with a start.

MORE FRAGMENTS

• Leaving early in the morning.• A bouquet of freshly cut flowers.• Will arrive between one and two.• Wanting to write you.• Seeing my friend at the concert.• If the train is not late.• Because the rain has stopped.• Which hangs on the wall.• Swimming, skiing, or boating on the lake.• In the jar on top of the fridge.

RUN-ONS

A run-on sentence is two or more complete sentences that are not properly joined or separated:

• Darryl sat bolt upright chills of fear ran through his body.• My grandmother loved Wuthering Heights she read it years ago.

RUN-ONS continued

Another type of run-on is a COMMA SPLICE, which is a run-on made up of two independent clauses with only a comma between them:• The animals were not hungry, they had already eaten.• The typical sonnet has fourteen lines, ten syllables make up each line.

RUN-ONS continued

• There are five ways to fix a run-on. The first way is USING END MARKS:

RUN-ON CORRECTION

Do most people like criticism I don’t think so.

Do most people like criticism? I don’t think so.

In 79 A.D. Mount Vesuvius erupted, Pompeii was destroyed.

In 79 A.D. Mount Vesuvius erupted. Pompeii was destroyed.

RUN-ONS continued

• The second way to correct a run-on is USING COMMAS AND CONJUNCTIONS:

RUN-ON CORRECTION

The sky became dark it began to rain.

The sky became dark, and it began to rain.

You may visit the White House, you can tour the museums.

You may visit the White House, or you can tour the museums.

RUN-ONS continued

• The third way is USING A SEMICOLON TO CONNECT TWO CLOSELY RELATED IDEAS:

RUN-ON CORRECTION

The camper wasn’t frightened by the bear he was terrified.

The camper wasn’t frightened by the bear; he was terrified.

Stephanie swims often, water relaxes her.

Stephanie swims often; water relaxes her.

RUN-ONS continued

• The fourth way is FORMING A SIMPLE SENTENCE:

RUN-ON CORRECTION

Ms. McEvoy is the coach of our golf team, she has placed us on a rigorous training program.

Ms. McEvoy, the coach of our golf team, has placed us on a rigorous training program.

Ms. McEvoy often runs with us, her assistant also runs with us.

Ms. McEvoy and her assistant often run with us.

RUN-ONS continued

• The final way to correct a run-on is REWRITE TO FORM COMPLEX SENTENCES:

RUN-ON CORRECTION

Huy helped wash the car, his Dad did most of the work.

Huy helped wash the car although his Dad did most of the work.

Although Huy helped wash the car, his Dad did most of the work.

PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION

• Parallel construction is when you express ideas that go together in a similar way.

• The similar form allows the reader a way to recognize the likeness in what is being expressed.

• The FORM itself reinforces the similarity of ideas.

PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION continuedA familiar example of parallel construction is the Beatitudes:• Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.• Blessed are they who mourn: for they shall be comforted.• Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth.

PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION continued• Which is the example of parallel construction?

Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method.

Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is employed.

PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION continued• Which is the example of parallel construction?

…the French, the Italians, Spanish and Portuguese…

…the French, the Italians, the Spanish and the Portuguese…

PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION continued• Which is the example of parallel construction?

His speech was marked by disagreement with and scorn for his opponent’s position.

His speech was marked by disagreement and scorn for his opponent’s position.

PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION continued• Which is the example of parallel construction?

The ceremony was both long and tedious.

It was both a long ceremony and very tedious.

A time not for words but action.

A time not for words but for action.

You must either grant his request or incur his ill will.

Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will.

BE SURE OF YOURSELF!

Do not use phrases that bring into question whether you know what you are talking about:

• Apparently• It seems• Maybe• Assuming• Perhaps

And please…

• Don’t use the following words when you are writing formally:

 GET/GOT It (is said/thought,

etc.)THINGS

Something Someone Ain’t

REALLY STUFF A LOT

LIKE (unless you’re comparing) Any other obvious slang words

FYI

• Could of, should of, would of, and must of (and any phrases remotely close to these) are not actually used…EVER

• The correct way to say these is could have, should have, would have, and must have

And last but not least…

STAY IN THE STORY

Don’t write about what could have happened, should have happened, or would have happened if the

author/poet/character did something differently. Your job is to analyze what you read and its significance, NOT

create a choose your own adventure book.

SOURCES

PRENTICE HALL GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1987.

Strunk Jr., William, and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan Co., INC, 1979.