Globalization and Its Impact on the EnvironmentGlobalization has
had far-reaching effects on our lifestyle. It has led to faster
access to technology, improved communication and innovation. Apart
from playing an important role in bringing people of different
cultures together, it has ushered a new era in the economic
prosperity and has opened up vast channels of development. However,
globalization has also created some areas of concern, and prominent
among these is the impact that it has had on the environment.
Globalization has featured extensively in the debates on
environmentalism, and green activists have highlighted its
far-reaching effects. Let us know about the impact of globalization
on our environment.Activists have pointed out that globalization
has led to an increase in the consumption of products, which has
impacted the ecological cycle. Increased consumption leads to an
increase in the production of goods, which in turn puts stress on
the environment. Globalization has also led to an increase in the
transportation of raw materials and food from one place to another.
Earlier, people used to consume locally-grown food, but with
globalization, people consume products that have been developed in
foreign countries. The amount of fuel that is consumed in
transporting these products has led to an increase in the pollution
levels in the environment. It has also led to several other
environmental concerns such as noise pollution and landscape
intrusion. Transportation has also put a strain on the
non-renewable sources of energy, such as gasoline. The gases that
are emitted from the aircraft have led to the depletion of the
ozone layer apart from increasing the greenhouse effect. The
industrial waste that is generated as a result of production has
been laden on ships and dumped in oceans. This has killed many
underwater organisms and has deposited many harmful chemicals in
the ocean. The damage caused to ecosystem from the oil that spilled
from one of the leaking containers of British Petroleum in 2010 is
just one of the examples of the threat globalization poses to the
environment.Due to globalization and industrialization, various
chemicals have been thrown into the soil which have resulted into
the growth of many noxious weeds and plants. This toxic waste has
caused a lot of damage to plants by interfering in their genetic
makeup. It has put pressure on the available land resources. In
various parts of the world, mountains are being cut to make way for
a passing tunnel or a highway. Vast barren lands have been
encroached upon to pave way for new buildings. While humans may
rejoice on the glimmer with these innovations, these can have
long-term effects on the environment. Various studies over the
years, have found that plastic is one of the major toxic
pollutants, as it is a non-biodegradable product. However, plastic
is of immense use when it comes to packaging and preserving goods
that are to be exported. This has led to increased use of plastic,
causing widespread environmental pollution.It has made so many
changes in our lives that reversing it is not possible at all. The
solution lies in developing effective mechanisms that can check the
extent to which it can impact the environment. Researchers are of
the view that the answer to this problem lies in the problem
itself, that is, globalization itself can lend support to building
a better structure which is economically feasible and
environment-friendly. Globalization is about competition, and if
certain privately owned companies can take the lead in being
environment friendly, then it will encourage others to follow
suit.It is important that we put in some efforts to maintain
harmony with the environment. The survival of human race on this
planet is dependent on the environment to such a large extent that
we cannot afford to ignore the consequences of our own actions.
While there is a lot of debate and discussion on this issue, the
need of the hour is to have effective policies in place, and
implementation of those policies. The people that we have chosen to
represent us have the responsibility of ensuring that the extent of
damage on environment is curtailed, if not totally prevented. We
hope this article helped you in understanding globalization and its
impact on the environment and the importance of taking concrete
actions against it.
IMPORTANCE OF RIO DE JANEIRO DECLARATION ON ENVIRONMENTTheUnited
Nations Conference on Environment and Development(UNCED), also
known as theRio Summit,Rio Conference, andEarth
Summit(Portuguese:ECO92[ku novt j doj]), was a majorUnited
Nationsconferenceheld inRio de Janeirofrom 3 to 14 June 1992.In
2012, theUnited Nations Conference on Sustainable Developmentwas
also held in Rio, and is also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio Earth
Summit 2012. It was held from 20 to 22 June.172 governments
participated, with 116 sending their heads of state or
government.[1]Some 2,400 representatives ofnon-governmental
organizations(NGOs) attended, with 17,000 people at the parallel
NGO "Global Forum" (also called Forum Global), who hadConsultative
Status.The issues addressed included: systematic scrutiny of
patterns of production particularly the production of toxic
components, such asleadingasoline, or poisonous waste including
radioactive chemicals alternative sources of energy to replace the
use offossil fuelswhich are linked to globalclimate change new
reliance onpublic transportationsystems in order to reduce vehicle
emissions, congestion in cities and the health problems caused by
polluted air and smoke the growing scarcity ofwaterAn important
achievement was an agreement on theClimate Change Conventionwhich
in turn led to theKyoto Protocol. Another agreement was to "not
carry out any activities on the lands ofindigenous peoplesthat
would causeenvironmental degradationor that would be culturally
inappropriate".TheConvention on Biological Diversitywas opened for
signature at the Earth Summit, and made a start towards
redefinition of measures that did not inherently encourage
destruction of naturalecoregionsand so-calleduneconomic
growth.Twelve cities were also honoured by the Local Government
Honours Award for innovative local environmental programs. These
includedSudburyinCanadafor its ambitious program to rehabilitate
environmental damage from the localminingindustry,Austinin
theUnited Statesfor itsgreen buildingstrategy,
andKitakyshinJapanfor incorporating an international education and
training component into its municipal pollution control
program.ResultsThe Earth Summit resulted in the following
documents: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development[2] Agenda
21[3][4] Forest PrinciplesMoreover, important legally binding
agreements were opened for signature: Convention on Biological
Diversity[5] Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) United
Nations Convention to Combat DesertificationCritics, however, point
out that many of the agreements made in Rio have not been realized
regarding such fundamental issues as fightingpovertyand cleaning up
theenvironment.Green Cross Internationalwas founded to build upon
the work of the Summit.The Rio Declaration on Environment and
DevelopmentTheRio Declaration on Environment and Developmentis a
set of principles that recognize the importance of preserving the
environment and set forth international guidelines for doing
so.They were compiled at the United Nations Conference for
Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and are found
in the report of this conference.The Rio Declaration serves as some
of the standards by which UN Member countries create domestic and
international environmental policies and by which they form
agreements or organizations with one another, as it pertains to the
environment and conservation.Goal:The goal of the Rio Declaration
is to work towards the following objectives;[] establishing a new
and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels
of cooperation among States, key societies and people,Working
towards international agreements which respect the interests of all
and protect the integrity of the global environment and
developmental system,Relevant Clauses[1]Principle 1Human beings are
at the centre of concerns for sustainable development.They are
entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with
naturePrinciple 3The right to development must be fulfilled so as
to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present
and future generations.Principle 6The special situation and needs
of developing countries, particularly the least developed and those
most environmentally vulnerable, shall be given special priority
[]Principle 7States shall cooperate in a spirit of global
partnership to conserve, protect and restore the health and
integrity of the Earths ecosystem [] The developed countries
acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international
pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their
societies place on global environment and of the technologies and
financial resources they command.Principle 8To achieve sustainable
development and a higher quality of life for all people, States
should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production
and consumption and promote appropriate demographic
policies.Principle 10Environmental issues are best handled with the
participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level.At
the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access
to information concerning the environment that is held by public
authorities [] and the opportunity to participate in
decision-making processes[]Principle 11States shall enact effective
environmentallegislation [Principle 13States shall develop national
law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of
pollution and other environmental damage []Principle 14States
should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the
relocation and transfer to other States of any activities and
substances that cause severe environmental degradation or are found
to be harmful to human health.Principle 16[] the polluter should,
in principle, bear thecost of pollution []Principle 22Indigenous
people and their communities and other local communities have a
vital role in environmental management and development because of
their knowledge and traditional practices.States should recognize
and duly support their identity, culture and interests and enable
their effective participation in the achievement of sustainable
development.Principle 23The environment and natural resources of
people under oppression, domination and occupation shall be
protected.Principle 25Peace, development and environmental
protectionare interdependent and indivisible.
IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CALAMITIES AND ITS IMPACT ON
SOCIETIESIntroductionNatural disasters are caused by
hydro-meteorological, climatological, geophysical and biological
phenomena which adversely impact on the natural and built
environment of affected regions. Their effects in terms of victims
and material damage exceed the capacity for self-recovery of local
communities, making external assistance necessary (vide
GUHA-SAPIRet al., 2012; NOY, 2010; ALCNTARA-AYALA, 2002, p.
109-110).The World Bank & United Nations report (2010) states
that disasters expose the cumulative effects of decisions
(individual and collective) previously taken in terms of land
management (including unregulated growth of urban areas),
construction techniques, implementation of sanitation
infrastructure and low investment in educational programs, poverty
reduction and social integration, among others. Such decisions
combined with high intensity natural events (e.g. floods,
landslides, storms and earthquakes) provoke an array of
socioeconomic and environmental impacts.A trans-disciplinary
approach to the underlying concept of natural disasters suggests
that they are characterized by naturally occurring events whose
consequences are often aggravated by man-made actions which surpass
the capacity of man's built infrastructure to contain. They result
in tragic disturbances in the social and environmental sphere
together with socioeconomic impacts of extreme severity, such as
high levels of material damage, the loss of life and means of
subsistence for affected communities, and the spread of infectious
diseasesidue to the degradation of sanitary conditions. They are
consequently responsible for a series of adverse environmental and
socio-economic impacts due to the way they cause disturbances (or
imbalances) in theenvironmental(CHINOet al., 2011; McENTIRE, 2001;
ADRIANTO & MATSUDA, 2002),economic(DAVISet al., 2012; FREITASet
al., 2012; LOAYZAet al2012; NOY & VU, 2010; UN, 1999) and
social (GUHA-SAPIRet al., 2012; TAKAHASHIet al., 2012; O'BRIENet
al., 2006; YODMANI, 2001) aspects of sustainability.In the last two
decades many studies have consistently presented forecasts and
demonstrations of an increase in the frequency and intensity of
natural disasters (e.g. hurricanes, floods, droughts and associated
forest fires, earthquakes, tornadoes, among others), above all
those related to climate factors (videGUHA-SAPIRet al., 2012; IPCC,
2007; VINKet al., 1998) and the relation between natural disasters
and the macro-economic indicators of different countries
(SCHUMACHER & STROBL, 2011; LOAYZAet al. 2012; NOY, 2010).This
issue has taken on particular importance as the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) report states that one of the
consequences of global warming is the likely increase in the
frequency and intensity of extreme climatic events (above all in
tropical regions), which together with disasters caused by
geophysical factors (e.g. earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic
eruptions) comprise a strong threat to developing countries (NAUDE,
2010; IFRC, 2003, 2010; O'BRIENet al., 2006). As is well known,
these countries have low resilience in face of disasters (EBEKES
& COMBES, 2013; CUARESMA, 2010; WORLD BANK & UNITED
NATIONS, 2010).Natural disasters, even when they are classified as
small or moderate (DATARet al., 2013), are responsible for adverse
socio-economic and environmental impacts (GUHA-SAPIRet al., 2012),
particularly in underdeveloped regions (or regions in development)
(TOYA & SKIDMORE, 2007; WORLD BANK & UNITED NATIONS, 2010).
This is due to both a lack of preventive action plans and resources
and to low resilience, inherent to low levels of social
capitalii(videTOYA & SKIDMORE, 2007, p. 20-21; JACOBI &
MONTEIRO, 2006, p. 27; ALCNTARA-AYALA, 2002, p. 108), which
contribute to the prolongation of the adverse effects on the
environment and society. This prolonged duration causes a greater
spatial dispersal of environmental impacts where natural agents
(e.g. water, wind) transport the problem beyond its source and
aggravate socio-economic impacts by disturbing economic activity
(e.g. agriculture, trade, tourism) and increasing social
vulnerability.As an example of the influence of social capital it
is worth emphasizing Alcntara-Ayala (2002, p.108) who argues that
one of the causes of natural disasters in poor or developing
countries is:...related to the historical development of these
countries, where the economic, social, political and cultural
conditions are poor and consequently lead to increased
vulnerability to natural disasters (economic, social, political and
cultural vulnerability) [our translation].This paper addresses
natural disasters whose origin and scale are not limited to natural
causes, in other words where the causes and the effects are also
closely related to demographic and industrial growth, something
inherent to the socio-economic growth of contemporary societies.
The industrial and demographic growth, which encompasses the
combined effects of population in a biological sense and the
effects of production-consumption in a technological sense
(ALVINO-BORBA & MATA-LIMA, 2011; WETZEL, 1996), is normally
associated to an increase in density whether in terms of population
or infrastructure (built environment), where both factors have
aspects and impacts (environmental and socio-economic) which
contribute to an increase in the scale of natural disasters and to
the worsening of vulnerabilities of affected communities.It is
important to stress that in accordance to the ISO 14001 norm:
(i)environmental aspectis the element of an organization's
activities, products and services which may interact with the
environment; while (ii)environmental impactis any change to the
environment, adverse or beneficial, which is a result, fully or
partly, of environmental aspects of the organization.In this
context, the environmental aspect is related to the cause of the
problem or to an environmental improvement, while the environmental
impact is related to the effect of the problem or to an
environmental improvement. Therefore, environmental aspects should
be identified based on the following factors (vide, e.g., MARAZZAet
al.2010; UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE, 2000): (i) social inclusion;
(ii) economic development; (iii) use of resources; (iv) transport;
(v) environmental and ecological protection.The aspects addressed
above are a list of variables which must be considered in the
production of development programs and the implementation of
disaster prevention plans. Sustainable development, as is well
known, must address environmental, social and economic aspects in a
transversal and balanced way, always using the best available
technology to achieve stated objectives, as presented inFigure
1.The sustainability triangle allows us to leave aside many
considerations which have been widely addressed in previously
published studies, such as that of MAUERHOFER (2008, p.
498).Natural DisastersOrigin and occurrenceNatural disasters are
generally classified as having hydrological, meteorological,
climatic, geophysical or biological causes/origins (GUHA-SAPIRet
al., 2012). In this paper natural disasters caused by hydrological
and meteorological phenomena will be grouped in one category
denominated hydro-meteorologic, and will not include disasters with
a biological origin (these are less common), as presented inTable
1.Figure 2(modified from GUHA-SAPIR et al., 2012, p. 3) shows the
global occurrence of natural disasters from 1990 to 2011 and their
respective victims.The approach taken in terms of addressing
natural disasters is separated into four (4) disaster paradigms
(cf.FRERKS et al., 2011, p. 106):
Hazard-Risk-Vulnerability-Resilience.Table 2is a descriptive
summary of these paradigms where a distinction is made for those
disasters where, in terms of intervention plans, an effort is made
to reduce () and increase ().}Environmental and socio-economic
aspects of disastersEnvironmental aspectThe environmental aspect
(stricto sensu) of natural disasters has been widely addressed in
the specialized technical bibliography (vide, e.g., SRINIVAS &
NAKAGAWA, 2008, p. 6; AERTS & BOTZEN, 2011) and a summary is
presented inTable 3.This section aims to highlight the strong
relationship of interdependence which exists between protection and
conservation of bio-physical factors (e.g. land, water, atmosphere,
fauna and flora) and socio-economic development. The growth in the
development of rural tourismiii(HAVEN-TANG & JONES, 2012) which
essentially exploits activities inherent to rural regions is an
example which underlines this affirmation (HAVEN-TANG & JONES,
2012; SRINIVAS & NAKAGAWA, 2008). On the other hand, it is
known that natural disasters are closely related to coastal zones
(YASUHARA et al., 2012; COSTANZA & FARLEY, 2007), fundamental
elements in providing a competitive advantage to seasonal summer
tourism in developing countries (in Africa, Latin America and
Asia).Table 3synthesizes the environmental aspects of a man-made
nature which exacerbate natural disasters. The table highlights a
number of conspicuous examples of environmental aspects (causes of
impacts) connected to engineering mega-projects which are likely to
cause large-scale population movements, among many other
significant negative environmental impacts with a wide variety of
consequences. These projects are usually supported by viability
studies which point to the generation of multiple positive
socio-economic externalities for the regions where they are
implemented, such as economic growth resulting from the
revitalization of existing activities, the creation of new
investment opportunities and, above all, employment for the local
population (vide, e.g., MATA-LIMA, 2009).Table 3helps to clarify
the assertions made by other authors (TOYA & SKIDMORE, 2007, p.
20; ALCNTARA-AYALA, 2002, p. 108; YODMANI, 2001, p. 2) that natural
disasters are not extreme phenomena exclusively caused by nature.
Indeed, given that vulnerability is a determining factor in the
impact of disasters it can be argued that the development model
adopted by the human race also significantly contributes to
disasters taking place.Socio-economic aspectThe growth in
socio-economic aspects of disasters has shown an increase
(videFigure 3) due to the direct impacts on vulnerable communities.
These often conceal environmental impacts and therefore are
deserving of special attention on the part of agents, politicians
and researchers who are responsible for finding solutions to
mitigate their effects.Loayza et al. (2012, p. 1317) recently
stressed that natural disasters cause significant economic and
physical damage whose effects can spread beyond the immediate
locality. They also observed that the impact of disasters on
economic growth is not always negative and that developing
countries are more vulnerable to these disasters as more sectors
are affected. This is intrinsically related to the heightened
degree of vulnerability and the low resistance of these countries.
The WORLD BANK & UNITED NATIONS (2010) draws attention to the
fact that in underdeveloped regions economic growth rarely occurs
after natural disasters as the intensity of the negative effects
depends on the structure of the economy. Moreover, it is known that
regions with low social capital also have weak economic structures
and experience difficulties in securing adequate resources to
address the problems caused by disasters.It is also important to
account for the following peculiarities of socio-economic aspects:
Remittances significantly mitigate the impacts of natural disasters
in terms of the number of victims in developing countries,
accounting for between 8% and 17% of Gross National Product (GNP)
(cf. EBEKE & COMBES, 2013); As natural disasters affect the
poorest countries more than others, the most vulnerable and
marginalized populations have to deal with the most serious
consequences (FREITASet al., 2012; IFRC, 2003, 2010).Table 4is a
good illustration of how the vulnerability of poor regions
contributes to a significant increase in the negative impacts of
natural disasters. Furthermore, based on data from theCenter for
Research on the Epidemiology of Disaster(CRED), globally there are
more deaths from disasters and higher economic costs as time
progresses, as O'BRIENet al. (2006) emphasizes; The increase in the
number of disasters and their consequences is related to an
increase in the vulnerability of communities throughout the world
as a result of the development model adopted. The increase of
vulnerability is not uniform, as there are significant variations
between regions, nations, provinces, cities, communities,
socio-economic classes, castes and even gender (cf. YODMANI, 2001);
Urban areas benefit from having better physical infrastructure
(e.g. hospitals, civil protection services, sanitation systems and
other logistics) and administrative support systems (e.g. emergency
plans); indeed, prevention and intervention plans are more likely
to exist in urban areas (IFRC, 2010). However, the fact that the
largest cities in the world are in poor and developing countries -
such as So Paulo, whose problems are highlighted by JACOBI &
MONTEIRO (2006, p. 32-33) and which is located in a country where
hydro-meteorological disasters predominate - makes the scenario
extremely worrying as these cities lack the above mentioned
infrastructure.Management of environmental and socio-economic
impacts associated to natural disastersIn the previous sections we
concentrated on establishing a relation between the environmental
aspects and impacts of the most common natural disasters (e.g.
floods, landslides), demonstrating the interdependence between the
social, economic and environmental aspects of sustainability. This
approach aims to make clear the complicit relationship between
these three aspects of sustainability and the four disaster
paradigms as a starting point in order to draw up and implement a
management plan for preventing disasters. This effort is
fundamental, as already mentioned, since reducing vulnerability
depends on systematically tackling the complex interactions between
inherent physical, environmental and social factors (vide, e.g.,
INGRAM et al.2006).Preventive managementThough it is not humanly
possible to adopt measures to eliminate the extreme phenomena which
cause natural disasters, preventive planning is vital in mitigating
impacts on socio-economic and environmental systems, particularly
those which are the most vulnerable, as a way of increasing the
degree of resilience of local communities. In this context it is
worth stressing the words of McENTIRE (2001, p. 189): "The central
argument to be made is that vulnerability is, or should be, the key
concept for disaster scholarship and reduction". This concern
reflects the final recommendation of theWorld Summit on Sustainable
Development(WSSD) which emphasizes the need for an integrated
approach to include vulnerability, risk evaluation and disaster
management by focusing on the prevention and mitigation of impacts
(UNISDR, 2003; WORLD BANK & UNITED NATIONS, 2010).The
management approach should be flexible and preventive, adopting the
following stages. It is important to emphasize that often efficient
preventive management may require cross-border cooperation (e.g.
involving a number of countries) in cases where the scale and
nature of the disaster demand it (e.g. floods in shared water
basins, forest fires in border areas).Identifying environmental
aspects and impacts is fundamental in managing risks, and this
should be the first step in a risk management study. This first
stage is calledestablishment of contextas Pojasek's flowchart shows
(2008, p.97) inFigure 4.
It is clear thatestablishment of contextis of paramount
importance in evaluating the degree of severity of impacts, in that
these are more pronounced (and socially visible) when dealing with
urban and populous regions where a considerable amount of
infrastructure is built in risk zones, drastically affecting
socio-economic aspects. As risk analysis is essentially based on
the probability of a given event occurring and the degree of
severity of the resulting consequences (vide, e.g., KORTENHAUS E
KAISER, 2009; TOPUZet al., 2011), it is evident that the local
bio-physical and socio-economic context must be assigned a
determining role in the contextualization and evaluation of the
risk.Summary and recommendationsThe answer to the question
contained in the title (what makes the difference?) can be found,
above all, in social capital, as this has a determining influence
as a factor of vulnerability given that the developed nations (e.g.
Japan, USA) - despite having significantly fewer victims of natural
disasters - are no less affected by extreme phenomena (e.g.
hydro-meteorological) capable of provoking disasters than the
poorest nations, as underlined by other authors (e.g. GUHAet al.,
2012; KAHN, 2005).The following aspects which play a key role in
the mitigation of natural disasters should be emphasized: Natural
disasters should be approached from a trans-disciplinary
perspective as their prevention and mitigation requires
technical-scientific cooperation between different areas of
science, engineering, economics, health, social studies and law. In
addition, stakeholder participation (e.g. local community) is
asine-qua-nonin reducing their socio-economic and environmental
impacts. Vulnerability must be dealt with by increasing the social
capital of communities which are located in regions of heightened
risk of disasters. This can be achieved through education/training
and by fostering citizenship which advocates participation in
collective actions; reducing isolation by creating networks which
encourage contact and exchange of experiences between different
communities with concerns in common in terms of the risk management
of disasters; among other actions aiming at building social
capital. Natural disasters in developing countries cause impacts,
particularly in terms of the degradation of health (DATARet al.,
2013), due to diseases related to a worsening of environmental
sanitation conditions, as Takahashi,et al.(2012) has emphasized;
Globally, greater attention and more proactive intervention is
necessary (in terms of prevention planning) on the part of
governments and NGOs, as set out by the World Bank & United
Nations (2010); There needs to be investment and natural disaster
prevention subsidies as well as authorities and organizations who
are directly responsible for preventing disasters, as this can
significantly reduce the number of victims and extent of material
damage; Lessons must be learnt from disasters and the post-disaster
period should be an opportunity to implement good practices in
terms of land use and integrating flexible measures instead of
rushing to rebuild on a huge scale which, in some cases, may
increase the vulnerability of local communities to future
events.Among aspects which help to mitigate disasters, social
capital is fundamental in creating the conditions to reduce
vulnerability, and consequently, the dependency of communities (or
nations) on external initiatives.This is because social capital is
paramount in creating the necessary social, economic and political
structures (including cooperation and inclusion in international
networks) to foster socio-economic development based on an agreed
path of sustainable development. This in turn contributes to a
reduction of the level of risk communities are exposed
to.Furthermore, it is important to stress that an analysis of the
spatial-temporal evolution of the data on disasters shows that
nations which have a higher gross national product (GDP), a more
educated population, more social and political freedom providing
the conditions for effective and active citizenship, and a more
comprehensive financial system suffer fewer losses when extreme
phenomena occur which provoke natural disasters (vide, e.g., OXLEY,
2013; TOYA & SKIDMORE, 2007).In terms of preventing natural
disasters it is extremely important to create an appropriate
context involving pro-active measures where community adaptation to
climate changes and to reducing exposure to risk leads to both a
reduction in vulnerability and, consequently, a reduction in the
scale of the socio-economic impacts which are evident today in
poverty-stricken regions where disasters occur.INDIAN GOVERNMENT
INITIATIVES FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENTIndia is emerging both
as an economic powerhouse and a global environmental leader. As
India's economy charges ahead, the country needs to produce more
energy to provide a better life for its people, many of whom live
in rural areas and are very poor. At the same time, India has
recognized that tackling climate change is in its own national
interests. The nation is taking concrete measures to constrain its
own emissions and to protect its people from climatic
disruptions.NRDC's India Initiative on Climate Change and Clean
Energy, launched in 2009, works with partners in India to help
build a low-carbon, sustainable economy.Our work in India involves
four interrelated projects, which build on decades of NRDC's
experience confronting environmental challenges in the United
States and around the world.NRDC Photos from India on
FlickrEnhancing U.S.-India Cooperation on Climate ChangeIndia is
already a major greenhouse gas emitter and key player in the
international climate arena. Cooperation between India and the
United States on climate change and clean energy is improving
significantly. This growing relationship holds tremendous promise
for the economies of both countries and could serve as a model for
enhanced global efforts to respond to the climate crisis. NRDC is
working with key policymakers in both nations to substantially
increase bilateral cooperation on climate change and clean energy.
In the United States, we are providing information and analysis to
government officials, media, and the public about the efforts India
is making to address climate change. In India, we do the same for
U.S. climate change legislation, policies and programs. Our efforts
are increasing awareness and understanding in both nations about
the other's climate change actions.Increasing Building
EfficiencyBuildings already account for more than 30 percent of
India's electricity use, and two-thirds of the buildings that will
exist in India by 2030 have yet to be built. NRDC is partnering
with Indian groups to share our efficiency expertise on buildings
and appliances, with the goal of creating efficiency solutions for
the Indian context. In Hyderabad, a major high-tech center, we are
working on the ground with city officials, technical experts, real
estate groups, universities and banks to increase building
efficiency by implementing India's Energy Conservation Building
Code (ECBC). We are also engaging with energy experts to increase
efficiency in India's booming consumer appliance market by
improving standards, testing, and harmonization -- making sure
companies sell their most efficient products in all countries --
for appliances such as televisions, air conditioners and
lighting.Preparing for Public Health Impacts of Climate ChangeHeat
waves, floods, and infectious disease outbreaks are just some of
the public health threats in India that could by exacerbated by
climate change. Communities need the ability to assess their own
climate-related public health risks and put effective adaptation
measures into place. NRDC is working on the ground with a premier
Indian health organization to develop a climate-health preparedness
plan in a major Indian city, focused on preventing heat-related
deaths and illnesses. We are working to assess the vulnerabilities
of local communities to extreme heat events and to develop
municipal strategies for preparing and responding to climate
emergencies.Strengthening Environmental GovernanceIndia is working
to bolster its institutional capacity to implement and enforce
existing environmental laws through efforts that include the new
National Green Tribunal and proposals to improve environmental
compliance. Compliance with environmental laws is critical to
constraining emissions. NRDC is working with India's environmental
groups and government officials to assist in these critical efforts
by sharing best practices to improve compliance, based on NRDC's
experience in the United States and elsewhere. We are engaging with
civil society groups and community organizations to better
understand the effects of India's rapid development on the
environment and share comparative strategies for reducing air and
water pollution and protecting public health.
Environment1. Website of Ministry of Environment and ForestsTop
of Form
Bottom of FormThe Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is
the nodal agency in the administrative structure of the Central
Government for planning, promotion, co-ordination and overseeing
the implementation of India's environmental and forestry policies
and programmes. Information on project clearances and rules and
regulation related to pollution, environmental protection, wildlife
etc. is provided. Users can get to know about actions and reports
related to climate change and biodiversity conservation.
Information about major initiatives such as Compensatory
Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA),
National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) and National Ganga River
Basin Authority (NGRBA) is given. Details about the fellowships and
awards by the MoEF are also available.2. Website of Central
Pollution Control BoardTop of FormBottom of FormThe Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) provides technical services to the
Ministry of Environment and Forests. The CPCB also promotes
cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the states
by prevention, control and abatement of water pollution. Get
details of environmental standards, programmes, projects, etc. Find
information on the boards functions such as preparing manuals,
maintain guidelines and organising trainings. Users can get details
of the members of the board, organisational structure, CPCB team,
zonal offices, etc. Downloadable forms are also available.3. List
of ENVIS Centres by Environment Information SystemTop of
FormAwesomeBottom of FormA list of ENVIS Centres is provided by the
Environment Information System (ENVIS). Users can can get details
related to ENVIS centres, their address, subjetc area, sub- network
area and contact details. Users can search for various ENVIS
centres by entering first or last name of the Centre. Link to
discussion forum is also available.4. Legislations on Environment,
Forests and WildlifeTop of FormBottom of FormYou can find the
legislation related to the environment, forests and wildlife
protection provided by the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
Users can find Acts and Rules pertaining to water pollution, air
pollution, environment protection, public liability insurance,
animal welfare etc.5. Website of Ministry of Earth SciencesTop of
Form
Bottom of FormTop of FormBottom of FormMinistry of Earth
Sciences (MoES) looks after atmospheric sciences, ocean science and
technology and seismology in an integrated manner. Details of
programmes of Ministry of Earth Sciences like Antarctic expeditions
and polar science, Ocean observation and information services, etc
is available. Users can download application format for seminars,
symposia, workshop, conference, etc. Know about Prithvi Vigyan
Mantralay Maulik Pustak Lekhan Yojana. Users can access important
links like INDO-Korean Partnership, Tsunami Report, NCAOR, CMLRE,
NCMRWF, etc. Citizen charters, reports, circulars, vacancy circular
are also available for users.6. Website of National Green
TribunalTop of FormBottom of FormUsers can get information about
the National Green Tribunal and its various functions to protect
the environment in the country. Detailed information on the
jurisdiction of the tribunal, judicial members, expert members and
chairpersons etc. is provided. One can also access the daily cause
lists, orders, and judgements etc.7. Environment protection by
Bhakra Beas Management BoardTop of FormBottom of FormUsers can find
information about environment protection by the Bhakra Beas
Management Board with details about the dams, hydropower and green
power, environment management and the BBMB projects. One can also
get information about the generation of power from water, supply of
clean water for irrigation and drinking and maintenance of
ecological balance etc.8. Website of Department of Environment of
Tamil NaduTop of FormBottom of FormThe Department of Environment
(DoE) of Tamil Nadu is the nodal Agency for planning, promotion,
coordination and overseeing the implementation of all the aspects
of environment other than those dealt with Tamil Nadu Pollution
Control Board. Users can find information related to environment
policies, schemes, programmes, environment clearance, legislation,
treaties, etc. Details about environmental awards and projects are
also given.9. Information on National Environment Appellate
AuthorityTop of FormBottom of FormThe National Environment
Appellate Authority (NEAA) was set up by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests to address cases in which environment
clearances are required in certain restricted areas. Users can get
details related to the Authority, its functions, act, etc.10.
Website of Environment Department of West BengalTop of FormBottom
of FormThe Environment Department of West Bengal undertakes
responsibilities for the betterment of the environment and ecology,
prevention and control of pollution of air, water and land,
co-ordination between Departments and Agencies of the state and the
union government concerned with policies and schemes relating to
environment. Users can find details related to water quality
report, air quality report, environmental clearance, West Bengal
State Action Plan on Climate Change, etc. Details about the
department, its activities, associations, legislation, industrial
sitting policy, achievements, etc. are also available.11. Website
of Environmental Information System of AssamTop of FormBottom of
FormEnvironmental Information System (ENVIS) provides environmental
information to decision makers, policy planners, scientists,
engineers, research workers, etc. in Assam. Information related to
bio-diversity, water resources, demography, hazards and
geographical profile of the state is given. Users can get details
related to land resources, energy, agriculture, health, tourism,
soild waste, etc. Information about Parivesh Bijnan Abhidhan, Assam
forest policy, environmental NGOs, ENVIS state centres, etc. is
also available.12. Website of Department of Environment and Forest
of Arunachal PradeshTop of FormBottom of FormDepartment of
Environment and Forest of Arunachal Pradesh is responsible for
forest management and maintenance of ecological and environment
security in the state. Information about organizational chart,
forest statistics, reports, notifications, etc. is given. Users can
get details related to wildlife, flora and fauna, protected areas,
tourism, etc.13. Environment Protection Training and Research
Institute of Andhra PradeshTop of FormBottom of FormThe Environment
Protection Training and Research Institute (EPTRI) is involved in
various activities covering environmental issues such as protected
areas, biodiversity, urban agglomeration, environmental awareness,
research, etc. Users can get details related to EPTRI services,
projects, training programmes, research, etc. Information about
career, tenders, Right to Information act (RTI), enviornment
reports, etc. is also available.14. Compensatory Afforestation Fund
Management and Planning AuthorityTop of FormBottom of FormGet
information about the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management
and Planning Authority. Users can get information related to
account openings, establishment guidelines, meetings, financial
statements and annual plans etc.15. Information on National River
Conservation PlanTop of FormBottom of FormThe National River
Conservation Plan (NRCP) by the Ministry of Environment and Forests
(MoEF) aims at preventing pollution of rivers and improving water
quality. Users can access information on specific action plans for
various rivers, details of sewage treatment plants, water quality
monitoring and implementing agencies.16. Information about
Department of Environment of ChandigarhTop of FormBottom of FormThe
Department of Environment of Chandigarh is responsible for creating
environment education and awareness amongst all sections of society
and to frame policies or guidelines to concerned authorities to
prohibit the degradation of environment. Users can obtain
information on environment education training, institutional
support, public participation, research and development, protection
and conservation of resources, etc. Details related to national
green corps and ENVIS (Environment Information System) Centre are
also available.17. Website of Indian Meteorological SocietyTop of
FormBottom of FormDetailed information about the Indian
Meteorological Society is provided. Information about the IMS's
organization structure, activities and constitution is provided.
Users can also access information pertaining to the Council, recent
events, memberships and weather observation etc. Membership form is
also available for enrollment.18. Website of Ocean Science and
Technology CellTop of FormBottom of FormDetailed information about
the Ocean Science and Technology Cell is provided. Information
related to the thrust areas in which the cell is working,
infrastructure, projects and management board is given. Details of
funding support, people and events are available.19. Website of
National Institute of Ocean TechnologyTop of FormBottom of FormGet
information about the National Institute of Ocean Technology. Users
can access detailed information about the coastal and environment
engineering, marine sensor system, marine science, ocean
electronics etc. is available. Details of operational programmes
are available. Ocean watch is also provided for cruise schedule and
vessel request.20. Website of National Centre for Antarctic and
Ocean ResearchTop of FormBottom of FormWaste Minimisation Circle
(WMC) programme of National Productivity Council (NPC) provides
information on waste and emission minimisation and recycling of
waste. Information on initiatives taken on pollution prevention and
training package, environmental management and environmental
pollutants from industry etc. is available. Details regarding Waste
Minimisation Council Facilitators are also vailable. Users can find
presentation slides and video on waste minimisation in pulp and
paper, etc. Get information on case exercises, case studies, poster
gallery, WMC achievements, structure, policy, information sources,
newsletter, poster gallery etc. Contact details are also
available.21. Website of National Clean Development Mechanism
AuthorityTop of Form
The Bretton Woods Institutions and the
Environment:Organizational Learning within the World Bank and
theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF)International organizations are
important actors of global governance. This is especially true for
theWorld Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Since
their foundation at the Bretton Woodsconference in 1944, the
spheres of competences of these international economic
organizations havebeen growing. Thus, the World Bank and the IMF
are today not only influential actors in the fields ofeconomic
development but also in adjoining policy fields, such as
environmental policy. That theWord Bank and, to a lesser degree,
the IMF are also responsible for the issue of
environmentalprotection can be explained with the fact that their
structural adjustment programs hadand often stillhavesevere
consequences for the environment. For example, the World Bank was
vehementlycriticized by environmental non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) in the 1980s for having financedprojects in
Latin America or Southeast Asia, e.g., in Brazil and Indonesia,
that had disastrous effectson the environment [13]. The member
states of the Bretton Woods institutions have reacted to thepublic
pressure and requested the bureaucracies of both international
organizations to addressenvironmental issues more
adequately.Subsequently, both international organizations have
started to turn towards the issues ofenvironmental protection. In
our article, we will analyze if the reactions of the World Banks
and theIMFs bureaucracies to their principals demands qualify as
organizational learning. An organizationallearning approach allows
us to analyze whether changes occur merely as compliance with
externaldemands or as a result of internal organizational
reflection triggered by external demands. Herewith,international
organizations can be assessed as superficial or profound learners
according to theirresponses to external demands that can range from
pure obedience to conscious implementation.Further, we will ask
which factors helped or hindered the organizational learning of
internationalbureaucracies. Thus, we want to contribute to the
research strand of organizational learning in two ways:(1)
theoretically, we want to introduce a model of organizational
learning that allows us to assesswhether changes occur on a rather
formal institutional level or if external demands to
integrateenvironment requirements change international
organizations guiding assumptions and beliefs.In our model, we
distinguish between compliant and non-compliant learning and assume
thatorganizations can learn even if they do not comply with an
external demand. We argue that(international) organizations can
deliberately decide to resist an external demand and pressureif an
(international) organization is convinced that its present
organizational beliefs are superiorand should not be undermined and
weakened. Furthermore, our theoretical framework oforganizational
learning allows us to assess whether organizational changes are a
result ofobedience or conviction;(2) empirically, we concentrate on
international organizations and their bureaucracies, which
moststudies on organizational learning seem to have disregarded so
far (see for exeptions, [4,5]).Thus, we open the organizational
learning debate for international organizations whichdespitesharing
some similaritiesdiffer in many ways from individual-based
organizations as theirmembers are both individuals in international
bureaucracies and states as formal membersaccording to
international law [6]. This distinction allows us to show how
organizational learningtakes place within international
organizations, namely at the level of international
bureaucracies.The Banks Environmental Reform of 1987 and Its Meager
ResultsIn view of the criticism of some of the member states and of
environmental NGOs concerningWorld Bank-financed ecological
disasters in Brazil, India, and Indonesia ([73], p. 306), the
newpresident of the World Bank, Barber Conable (19861991), admitted
in 1987 that the Bank had beena part of the problem in the past and
announced environmental reforms ([73], p. 306). Thus, theBank
increased its environmental staff and established a central
environment department. Further, itannounced new environmental
policies and launched environmental action plans to review and
addressenvironmental problems in the most vulnerable developing
countries. Also, the Bank increased lendingfor environmentally
beneficial projects ([73], p. 306; [74], p. 103). At that time,
tropical deforestationwas the most urgent crisis in the developing
world. Hence, Conable committed the Bank to drasticallyincrease its
forestry lending ([73], p. 309). Furthermore, Conable championed an
independent studythat, in 1992, confirmed earlier criticisms ([3],
p. 30).In addition, binding environmental safeguards were
introduced in 1987 to provide guidance for staffin identifying and
preparing projects and to promote sustainable development in client
countries ([75], p. 22);see for the establishment of the Bank's
safeguard policy [76]). The safeguard policies were put in placeto
prevent or mitigate adverse impacts of its projects on people and
the environment ([77], p. xiii).Thus, decisions on granting
projects were bound to obligatory environmental guidelines defining
aminimum standard of protection for projects financed by the World
Bank. Therewith, alsoenvironmental impact assessments of projects
became mandatory ([66], p. 234, 247; [74], pp. 112115).Thus, the
Banks official approach shifted from business as usual to do no
harm ([67], p. 539).However, the adoption of the safeguard policies
did not prevent the Banks involvement inenvironmentally
controversial projects ([74], p. 102, see also [76], pp. 6476). The
staff praised thesafeguard policies as a milestone in the World
Banks environmental turnaround, but realized thatmore needs to be
done to reinforce borrower compliance ([74], p. 113). Similarly,
the BanksOperations Evaluation Department (OED), an independent
unit within the Bank that reports directly tothe executive board,
detected that safeguard procedures were not always implemented
wholeheartedlyby the World Bank project staff ([74], p. 113). The
OED was established in 1973, in 2006 it wasrenamed Independent
Evaluation Group (IEG) ([74], p. 127).In this time period, from the
mid-1980s until the mid-1990s, the Banks bureaucracy learned
fromits errors of the past and thus introduced several
environmental reforms. Therewith, the officialapproach shifted from
business as usual to do no harm. However, only the espoused theory
changedand we can, again, observe single-loop learning: the reform
announced by the Bank president did notalter the daily practices of
the administration. Thus, the independent OED had to notice that
theenvironmental safeguards were not implemented wholeheartedly by
the staff. This illustrates that thetheory-in-use of the
administration remained unchanged. That the administration complied
only partlywith the environmental demands posed by the member
states can be explained with its independentculture and agendas for
action ([22], p. 705).Even though the environmental reform of 1987
can be regarded as a small step in the rightdirection, it neither
satisfied environmental NGOs nor the executive board ([1], p. 260).
According toNielson and Tierney ([1], p. 259), it failed to alter
core Bank practice. Likewise, Rich ([73], p. 308)observes a green
rhetoric that hides a reality that is largely unchanged. This can
be exemplified withthe Banks failed tropical forestry action plan
that appeared mainly to be a plan to promotetraditional,
export-oriented timber industry investment camouflaged by small
components forenvironmental purposes ([73], p. 310). Further, the
announced involvement of NGOs was noteffectively put in practice
([73], p. 324).According to Rich ([73], p. 317), there were several
institutional considerations that prevented theBank from
implementing the reforms in a meaningful way. For example, the
Banks environmentaleffectiveness had been undermined by the senior
management that at several occasions overruled thedemands of the
environmental staff. Furthermore, qualified personnel to conduct
the environmentalassessments was lacking, and the environmental
department was not effectively integrated into theadministrative
level of the Bank ([1], p. 260). In addition to these internal
constraints, also theborrowing countries from the developing world
like Brazil, India, and Indonesia, and their executivedirectors
opposed the Banks attempt to incorporate greater environmental
conditionality ([73], p. 320).3.4. Renewed Efforts to Incorporate
the Environment under Wolfensohns Presidency and
beyond(19952007)Also in the third time period (19952007), only the
Banks espoused theory had changed; thus,single-loop learning is at
hand. The Banks official approach changed from do no harm to
promotingthe good, and the bureaucracy of the Bank strengthened its
efforts on environmental integration.President Wolfensohn
(19952005) reacted to the external criticism and started to hire
qualifiedenvironmental staff. Most importantly, also the internal
monitoring and evaluation procedures werestrengthened to better
control the secretariat and to ensure compliance with the
environmentalsafeguard policies. While the Bank under Wolfensohns
leadership had announced that the integrationof the environment is
essential to reach the Banks development goals, the administration
regarded thisofficial reorientation towards environmental
protection as merely a rhetorical policy statement. Thestaffs
reluctant behavior towards environmental requirements illustrates
that the theory-in-use did notchange. In the following, we will
describe this process in further detail.Already since the UN
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro
in1992, the World Bank has strengthened its commitment to the
environment ([78], p. 1). In themid-1990s, the Banks executive
board decided to incorporate the environment into the Bankssectoral
programs (e.g., transport), and the Banks bureaucracy was required
to ensure that all Bankactivities take environmental concerns into
account ([78], p. 6). The Bank emphasized that at thebeginning of
the 1990s its do no harm approach of the 1980s has turned into a
proactive agendaaimed at promoting good today ([78], p. 22).
Consequently, the number of staff was increased andthe type of
staff hired by the Bank changed in so far as more environmental
economists and engineersas well as biologists were employed. Hence,
the executive board could be more certain that the Bankstaff had
the ability to analyze environmental impacts of projects ([1], p.
263).Further, the Bank reacted to the broad and continuous
criticism of its activities by improving themonitoring and
evaluation procedures ([1], p. 260; [75], p. 13). Most of all, the
secretariats autonomywas seen as problematic ([74], p. 118). To
better control the secretariat, the executive boardestablished an
independent inspection panel in 1993 to hear complaints from groups
that were directlyaffected by World Bank projects ([66], pp.
233237). External actors may use the inspection procedureto verify
whether a project is in consistency with the binding safeguards of
the Bank ([66], p. 235).The inspection panel has a further effect:
Because external actors bring outside information to theinspection
panel and thus the executive board [], board members found it much
easier to getinformation about the likely impacts of Bank projects
before the projects were implemented ([1], p. 263).Like the binding
environmental safeguards, the inspection panel was initiated to
restrain thesecretariats room for maneuver ([66], p. 233) and
welcomed by scholars [79].In addition, it was decided in 1994 that
each project with a potential environmental impact wasassigned an
environmental project manager who assessed the environmental impact
and had to send anevaluation report to the executive board ([1], p.
264). In 1997, the Bank regrouped ten operationalpolicies as
specific safeguard policies (six environmental, two social, and two
legal policies) and put inplace administrative procedures to
support compliance with the safeguard policies ([71], p. 3).
Toprovide additional oversight of safeguards quality in Bank
projects, the Bank created a separatequality and assurance
compliance unit in 1999 ([77], p. xiv). However, a report of
several NGOs ([80], p. 1)showed that the Banks environmental,
health and safety guidelines for mining in some cases [] donot even
meet the mining industrys best practices standards.Besides this
restructuring, the Wolfensohn presidency was shaped by a
rationalization that hasindirectly weakened the implementation of
environmental objectives. In 1996, decision powers weretransferred
to country directors. As a result, environmental safeguards have
been applied with varyingvigor across World Bank operations, and it
depended on regional teams in the borrowing countries inhow far the
environmental impacts of Bank projects were monitored ([74], p.
126; cf., [67], p. 540).Not all staff members insisted on strict
compliance with the safeguard policies; according to an
investigationof the inspection panel some regarded them simply as
idealized policy statements ([81], p. 23).Also the Banks evaluation
department complained that environmental protection was not
fullyinstitutionalized at the whole administration and detected
several institutional problems with theintegration of environmental
concerns. Therefore, the OED required serious institutional changes
fromthe administration that actually poured into the first
environmental strategy of the World Bankpublished in 2001 [82].
Consequently, the environmental strategy addressed some significant
problemsthe Bank had had with environmental mainstreaming. Central
to this environmental strategy is theunderstanding that if we want
development to succeed environment cannot be afterthought ([75], p.
7).Adm. Sci. 2013, 3 183First of all, the strategy paper criticized
that the environment had only been the concern of a
small,specialized group ([75], p. 3). In this context, it was
queried that Bank professionals often sawenvironmental issues as a
self-standing agenda and not as an element of their core tasks of
supportingdevelopment and poverty reduction ([75], p. 311). The
safeguard system was seen as an essential toolfor integrating
environmental concerns into development policies, programs, and
projects. Therefore, itwas planned to improve the quality and
consistency of the application of safeguard policies ([75], p.
25).To enhance its record on environmental integration, some
further institutional changes were seen asessential, like
establishing clear lines of responsibility and incentives
throughout the organization. Inthis context, the training of
environmental as well as non-environmental staff had been announced
andgreen awards were promised as incentives for non-environmental
specialists in order to mainstreamenvironment into their
operations. In addition, the Banks incentive system rewarded
outputsthepreparation and approval of investment projectswhile the
supervision and evaluation of projectswere disregarded ([74], p.
126).Even though president Wolfensohn was identified as a trigger
for positives changes ([74], p. 129)and also Greenpeace [83]
admitted that the World Bank under Wolfensohns leadership has
started tounderstand environmental issues the Banks activities
under Wolfensohns leadership were criticizedby environmental NGOs.
For example, Greenpeace [83] regretted that [t]here is a huge gap
betweenthe rhetoric and goodwill of current World Bank President
James Wolfensohn, and the organisationsBoard of Governors where the
real power lies with the donor countries finance ministers. In
addition,the WWF [84] in 2004 noticed that oil and coal projects
funded by the Bank were not contributing tothe institutions mission
of poverty alleviation but were, in fact, creating more
environmental, socialand economic problems for the countries they
are supposed to benefit. The Banks focus on fossil fuelprojects was
also criticized by Friends of the Earth in 2006 [85].Although a
number of reforms to green the Bank had been implemented [85], also
the Banksinternal evaluation showed that environmental
mainstreaming in the World Bank was ratherdisappointing. Thus, the
evaluation department was skeptical on environmental integration at
thebeginning of the 2000s and reiterated its criticism that
environmental concerns were not integrated intothe Banks core
objectives and country strategies ([67], p. 542). According to the
internal evaluationreports, the slow rate of environmental
mainstreaming can be explained with the fact that the Banksstaff
did not prioritize environmental sustainability and continued not
to see environmental as integralto their operations ([67], p. 543).
In a similar vein, Weaver argues that while the World Bank
wasactive in trying to green its image, changes in the real
operational practices of the Bank were lessvisible ([86], p. 504),
and also Nielson et al. [87] notice that [c]hanging core values and
beliefs aboutthe importance of environmental [] outcomes has been
slow. However, even if the observedchanges were rather minor and
the staffs views concerning environmental protection did not seem
tohave changed, we argue that the Banks efforts at least meet the
requirements of single-loop learning.3.5. The Safeguard Policies as
the Banks Cornerstone to Protect the Environment (20082012)Still
today, the evaluations of the World Banks activities on the issues
of environmental protectionare rather mixed. Even though some
environmental NGOs and Banks shareholders point to severalpositive
developments (e.g., the Banks improved engagement concerning the
integration ofAdm. Sci. 2013, 3 184environmental aspects into large
infrastructure projects [88], its work on the issue of climate
changeand climate change adaptation in least developed countries
[8991]), the Bank gets criticized for notmeeting all environmental
requirements and even for doing severe harm to the environment.For
example, the WWF [92] in 2012 criticized the Banks financing for
fossil fuels, the single biggestsource of CO2 emissions and Friends
of the Earth even argues that the World Bank asa carbon-intense
lender and promoter of deforestation [] has far more experience
causing climatechange than preventing it ([93], p. 12). In a
similar vein, scholars point out that the Banks
overallenvironmental record is mixed ([74], p. 131) and that its
sustainable development identity is neitherfixed nor stable ([76],
p. 58).Nevertheless, we argue that the example of the Banks
safeguard policiesthat officially havebecome the cornerstone of the
Banks efforts to protect people and environment ([71], p.
2)showsthat there is at least some evidence of double-loop learning
within the World Bank. In this case, thechanged attitude of the
Banks bureaucracy towards the safeguard policies and its renewed
andstrengthened activities on the issueinduced by the Independent
Evaluation Group (IEG, seeabove)seem to qualify as double-loop
learning. In the following, we will shed some light on thismore
recent development that could be decisive for the Banks future
environmental performance.In 2008, the environmental performance of
the World Bank from 19902007 was evaluated by theIEG. On the one
hand, the evaluation group noted that the Bank has made progress
since 1990 as anadvocate for the environment ([94], p. 1). On the
other hand, the IEG remarked that the Bank had notbeen able to
integrate environmental stewardship sufficiently into its
operations ([95], p. iii).Consequently, the IEG demanded that
environmental sustainability must become a core part of theWorld
Bank Groups strategic directions ([95], p. iii).
NGOS AND THEIR IMPACT ON GLOBAL POLICIESMedium-sized wealthy
states middle powers and global civil society networks are
increasingly joining forces to influence the global policy agenda
on issues of international law, justice, humanitarianism and
development. These middle powerNGO coalitions use the comparative
advantages of both state and nonstate actors in synergistic
partnerships. States represent the coalitions' interests in
international negotiations and conferences, provide donor funding
and offer diplomatic support. For their part, NGOs gather
on-the-ground research, provide technical expertise, lobby
governments, mobilise public opinion and generate media publicity.
This article uses the case of the campaign to ban cluster
munitions, culminating in the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions,
to examine the organisation, efforts and impact of such middle
powerNGO coalitions.Policy Implications In a globalised and
privatised world, global policy making requires a mastery of
'network diplomacy' the negotiation of a wide range of
relationships with state, NGO and commercial actors. Within this
context, coalitions between middle power states and international
NGOs are becoming increasingly influential in the creation of
international law and humanitarian norms. Within this context,
coalitions between middle power states and international NGOs are
becoming increasingly influential in the creation of international
law and humanitarian norms. These coalitions are most effective
when they create strong linkages and partnerships between these
states and civil society actors at all levels (officials,
parliamentarians, politicians, etc.) based on their comparative
advantages. Since these coalitions lack significant coercive hard
military and economic power they are more likely to succeed in
their global policy goals when they reframe the debate, gather and
publicise credible data, shift the burden of proof and use both
backroom and public media persuasion. NGOs contribute most to such
coalitions when they are able to present a unified front across a
diverse range of civil society actors, when they are inclusive of
and driven by those directly affected by the problem they are
seeking to address and when they maintain some independence from
their government and other donors. The Role of NGOs in Modern
Societies. Increasingly, the existence of NGOs is proving to be a
necessity rather than a luxury in societies throughout the modern
world. I believe that the history of the 20th century persuasively
demonstrated the inabilityof the welfare state and free enterprise
to create just and sustainable societies. Prompted by the
inadequacies of the state and the market, citizens across the globe
have developed organizations of civil society NGOs to help address
a wide variety of social needs. I believe that NGOs have three
primary roles in advancing modern societies.First, NGOs
provideopportunity for the self-organization of society.NGOs enable
citizens to work together voluntarily to promote social values and
civic goals which are important to them.They promote local
initiative and problem-solving.Through their work in a broad array
of fields environment, health, poverty alleviation, culture &
the arts, education, etc. NGOs reflect the diversity of society
itself.They are established and sustained by individuals working
collectively in their communities. By empowering citizens and
promoting change at the grass roots, NGOs both represent and
advance the pluralism and diversity that are characteristic of
vibrant and successful modern societies. Second, NGOspreserve a
unique and essential space between the for-profit sector and
government. Clearly private enterprise is efficient at producing
goods andprivatewealth.Government is best when it focuses on
providing and managingpublicgoods.The nonprofit, nongovernmental
sector helps fulfill thecommongood.A vibrant third sector provides
a fulcrum for balancing the state and the free market.This middle
ground is an essential arena for promoting additional checks and
balances in society.Only independent organizations can serve as
watchdogs of both government and business. At the same time, NGOs
can build creative and productive partnerships across and among the
three sectors partnerships that draw on the unique strengths of
each to advance the common good. Finally, NGOsenable
experimentation and social changeby taking on challenges that that
the public and private sectors simply cant or wont.Civil society
organizations are able to take risks that are economically
unacceptable to business and politically unacceptable to
government. In modern societies across the globe, countless
innovations pioneered by NGOs have subsequently been adopted as
government policy.Numerous models of service delivery that are
considered best practice today were devised, tested, and improved
over many years of experimentation by NGOs.In addition, NGO
advocacy campaigns induce reluctant governments to adopt policy
reforms and force improvements in business practices. As
modernizing economies increasingly shift to free markets and
private enterprise, they often experience a decline in social
cohesion and an increase in economic and social inequity. In these
circumstances the nongovernmental sector has proven to be an
essential mitigating force that helps create a healthier balance
between the potential excesses of capitalism and the inefficiencies
and limited resources of the state. This has certainly been the
case in my own country. V. Reflections on the US experience Indeed,
a vibrant civil society is deeply entwined in the history and
traditions of the US.Writing in 1831, the young French politician
Alexis de Tocqueville first documented what was then a distinctly
American tradition of civil society when he wrote that Americans of
all ages, all stages of life, and all types of disposition are
forever forming associations.In America, Tocqueville found a
society of joiners and a rich mosaic of clubs, associations, and
organizations organized and managed through volunteerism,
individual leadership, and collective effort. Throughout U.S.
history, NGOs have played a powerful role - growing out of our
values of participation, engagement, and responsibility.Civil
society has provided a means through which Americans are able to
reconcile two distinctively American social traits:our fervent
individualism and our equally passionate communalism.The impact has
been profound. In a book published three years ago, Claire Gaudiani
(the former president of ConnecticutCollege) argues that, if it
hadnt been for the work of the nonprofit sector in the United
States, our country would not enjoy the high standard of living we
now know. Citizen generosity in the form of philanthropy and
citizen engagement through NGOs, she says, have created an
environment where private enterprise could flourish without
destroying the social fabric of our society. One might think that
the United States, with its economic success, high standard of
living and robust nongovernmental sector has concluded its journey
toward being a balanced, healthy, modern society. This is clearly
not the case, as the recent hurricanes on our Gulf coast have
tragically demonstrated.In the wake of these devastating storms,
all three sectors of our society have been sorely tested and found
deficient.But it is also true that the human suffering caused by
these storms would have been far worse without the huge outpouring
of generosity from the American public and the quick response of
NGOs. The vital importance of the nonprofit sector is certainly not
an exclusively American experience. There are powerful examples of
how the nonprofit sector contributes to healthy and efficient
societies throughout the world.As an American living in Prague and
working throughout Central and Eastern Europe in the 1990s, I
observed with great admiration how NGOs helped transform and
modernize their countries.The same has occurred in South Africa, in
Brazil in fact, in countries on every continent. According to data
compiled by researchers at JohnsHopkinsUniversitythe civil society
sector in 36 countries for which they have assembled data
represents a $1.3 trillion industry.If the civil society sector
were a separate national economy, it would be the worlds seventh
largest, slightly smaller than France and larger than Italy in
GDP.Organizations of civil society employ 45.5 million people, or
almost one out of every twenty employable people in the world.The
data from Johns Hopkins demonstrates that civil society is a
significant presence in nearly every country and region. VI. Role
of NGOs in increasingly interdependent world We live in an age of
growing global interdependence.There have been many clear benefits
in economic terms, in the spread of information and knowledge, and
in the deeper connections of what has been called planetary
society.But we also now face a set of profound global threats to
human security and prosperity; and to the sustainability of our
planet from the spread of deadly weapons to the spread of deadly
disease; from global warming, to the persistence of pernicious
poverty.These problems are not contained by national borders and
even the largest and most powerful countries increasingly find they
are unable to address these challenges without the help of what we
now call the international community. I think one of the most
promising aspects of global interdependence is the rapid
development and growing importance, of global or transnational
civil society.Economic globalization has far outpaced political
globalization as we have yet to devise effective and democratic
institutions and processes of global governance. Global civil
society is helping to fill this critical vacuum, providing the
means through which citizens can influence the forces that are so
profoundly shaping our world.Trans-national NGOs are promoting
equity in global trade regimes, protecting our planets ecosystems,
and contributing to the development of a global social safety net.
Examples of the impact of global civil society abound - The
international ban on the use of landmines was ushered in by a
dedicated group of international NGOs Much of the progress made on
combating the spread of HIV/AIDS can be attributed to civil
society. And, if we are to save our planet from global warming, I
am certain NGOs will help lead the way. As globalization proceeds
and the world becomes increasingly interdependent, the decisions of
global civil society groups have increasing significance in our
daily lives. They give expression to citizen concerns, hold
governments and multi-national corporations accountable, promote
community, address unmet needs, and improve the quality of life. In
doing so, they promote both political stability and economic
prosperity.Global civil society is making globalization more
equitable, inclusive, and sustainable.
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