increase the levels of GNSS accuracy and integrity in aviationmission-essential and safety-critical applications The reviewcovered all existing approaches including Satellite BasedAugmentation Systems (SBAS) Ground Based AugmentationSystems (GBAS) Aircraft Based Augmentation Systems (ABAS)Receiver-Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) and multi-sensor data fusion Suitable mathematical models were presentedaddressing the main sources of GNSS data degradation or loss inflight including antenna obscuration geometric accuracydegradation fading multipath and Doppler shift Some casestudies were also presented investigating the synergies attainablefrom the online integration of ABAS with SBAS and GBAS witha special focus on integrity augmentation features Finally thepotential of integrating SBAS-GBAS-ABAS with existing UAScooperative and non-cooperative SAA architectures wasinvestigated It was concluded that this integration leads to anIntegrity Augmented SAA (IAS) solution that is well suited for avariety of mission-essential and safety-critical aviationapplications Therefore the integration of SBASGBASABAS isa clear opportunity for future research towards the development ofa Space-Ground-Avionics Augmentation Network (SGAAN)suitable for manned and unmanned aircraft applications and for avariety of mission-essential and safety-critical GNSS operationaltasks including flight test precision approach and automaticlanding
Future GNSS research in the aviation context will concentrate onthe following main areas
Evaluate the potential of GNSS integrity augmentationtechniques to enhance the performance of next generationCommunication Navigation and SurveillanceAir TrafficManagement (CNSATM) decision support tools forPerformanceIntent Based Operations (PBOIBO) and 4DTmanagement
Investigate the potential of GNSS integrity augmentationtechniques to enhance the performance of Next GenerationFlight Management Systems (NG-FMSs) for manned andunmanned aircraft This will require an evolution of currentFMS architectures introducing suitable integrity monitoringand augmentation functionalities for 4-DimensionalTrajectory (4DT) planning and update throughout all flightphases
Evaluate the potential of introducing ionospheric scintillationmodels in the GNSS integrity augmentation systems Inparticular future research should focus on possible missionplanning implementations useful when flying over regionsaffected by intense scintillation andor in times of predictedhigh scintillation
Further investigate the potential of GNSS integrityaugmentation techniques to support trusted autonomoussystem applications by addressing other navigationcommunication and surveillance systems in the CNS+Acontext
Investigate the potential of integrity augmentation techniquesto enhance GNSS performance in aircraft surface operations
Investigate the potential of GNSS augmentation concepts tosupport aviation forensic applications (ie accident andincident investigation)
Investigate the potential synergies attainable by theemployment of GNSS integrity augmentation systems inurban canyons as well as to provide persistent navigation insparse and denied environments
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[2] P Daly GLONASS Approaches Full Operational Capability (FOC)Proceedings of the 8th International Technical Meeting of the SatelliteDivision of The Institute of Navigation (ION GPS 1995) Palm SpringsCA September 1995 pp 1021-1030
[3] D M Thomis ldquoGlobal Positioning System ndash A Modification to theBaseline Satellite Constellation for Improved Geometric PerformancerdquoUS Air Force Institute of Technology 1984
[4] G M Siouris ldquoAerospace Avionics Systemsrdquo Academic Press SanDiego CA (USA) 1993
[5] A Leick ldquoGPS Satellite Surveyingrdquo Third Edition John Wiley and SonsNew York 2003
[6] V Ashkenazi ldquoPrinciples of GPS and Observablesrdquo Lecture NotesIESSG University of Nottingham 1995
[7] G Seeber ldquoSatellite Geodesyrdquo Second Edition Walter de Gruyter EditorBerlin (Germany) New York (USA) 2003
[8] S Gleason and D Gebre-Egziabher (Editors) ldquoGNSS Applications andMethodsrdquo GNSS Technology and Application Series Artech HouseNorwood MA (USA) 2009
[9] V Ashkenazi T Moore and JM Westrop ldquoCombining Pseudo-rangeand Phase for Dynamic GPSrdquo Paper presented at the InternationalSymposium on Kinematic Systems in Geodesy Surveying and RemoteSensing London (UK) 1990
[10] V Ashkenazi T Moore G Ffoulkes-Jones S Whalley and M AquinoldquoHigh Precision GPS Positioning by Fiducial Techniqueslrdquo GlobalPositioning System An Overview Bock Y Leppard N EdsInternational Association of Geodesy Symposia Vol 102 Springer NewYork (USA) 1990
[11] T Moore ldquoGPS Orbit Determination and Fiducial Networksrdquo LectureNotes IESSG University of Nottingham (UK) 1996
[12] JFG Monico V Ashkenazi and T Moore ldquoHigh Precision GPSNetwork with Precise Ephemerides and Earth Body Tide Modelrdquo RevistaBrasileira de Geofisica Vol 15 N 2 pp 155-160 1997
[13] A H Dodson ldquoPropagation Effects on GPS Measurementsrdquo LectureNotes IESSG University of Nottingham (UK) 1997
[14] R Giffard ldquoEstimation of GPS Ionospheric Delay Using Ll Code andCarrier Phase Observablesrdquo In Proceedings of the 31st Annual PreciseTime and Time Interval (PTTI) Meeting Dana Point CA (USA) 1999
[15] J A Klobuchar ldquoDesign and Characteristics of the GPS IonosphericTime Delay Algorithm for Single Frequency Usersrdquo In Proceedings ofthe IEEE Position Location and Navigation Symposium Las Vegas NV(USA) 1986
[16] J Saastamoinen ldquoAtmospheric correction for the troposphere andstratosphere in radio ranging satellitesrdquo The Use of Artificial Satellitesfor Geodesy Henriksen S Mancini A Chovitz B Eds AmericanGeophysical Union Washington WA USA 1972
[17] J Saastamoinen ldquoContribution of the theory of atmospheric refractionrdquoBulletin Geacuteodesique Vol 107 pp 13ndash34 1973
[18] H Hopfield ldquoTwo-quartic Tropospheric Refractivity Profile forCorrecting Satellite Datardquo Journal of Geophysical Research Vol 74Oceans and Atmospheres pp 4487ndash4499 1969
[19] H Hopfield ldquoTropospheric effect on electro-magnetically measuredrange prediction from surface weather datardquo Radio Science Vol 6 Issue3 pp 357ndash367 1971
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[21] C Chao ldquoA model for Tropospheric Calibration from Daily Surface andRadiosonde Balloon Measurementsrdquo Technical Memorandum JetPropulsion Laboratory (JPL) Pasadena CA USA pp 350ndash391 1972
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[23] T Herring ldquoModeling atmospheric delays in the analysis of spacegeodetic datardquo In Proceedings of Refraction of Transatmospheric Signalsin Geodesy De Munck J Spoelstra T Eds Netherlands GeodeticCommission Publications on Geodesy The Hague Netherlands Volume36 pp 157ndash164 1992
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[25] J Boehm B Werl and H Schuh ldquoTroposphere Mapping Functions forGPS and Very Long Baseline Interferometry from European Centre forMedium-Range Weather Forecasts Operational Analysis Datardquo Journalof Geophysical Research Solid Earth Vol 111 Issue B2 2006
[26] G Seeber ldquoSatellite Geodesyrdquo Second Edition Walter de Gruyter EditorBerlin (Germany) New York (USA) 2003
[27] JS Subirana JM Zornoza and M Hernaacutendez-Pajares ldquoMultipathrdquoEuropean Space Agency (ESA) Navipedia ndash GNSS Measurements andData Processing 2011 Available online athttpwwwnavipedianetindexphpMultipath cite_ref-1 Accessed on20042017
[28] A J Van Dierendonck P Fenton and T Ford ldquoTheory and Performanceof Narrow Correlator Spacing in GPS Receiverrdquo NAVIGATIONJournal of the Institute of Navigation vol 39 no 3 pp 265-284 1992
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[30] PC Fenton and J Jones ldquoThe Theory and Performance of NovAtel IncrsquosVision Correlatorrdquo In Proceedings of the 2005 ION GNSS ConferenceLong Beach CA (USA) 2005
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[34] ICAO ldquoPerformance Based Operations Manualrdquo Document No 9613AN937 Third Edition 2008
[35] US DoTDoD ldquoUS Federal Radionavigation Planrdquo United StatesDepartment of Defence Department of Transport Doc DoT-VNTSC-RITA-08-02DoD-46505 2008
[36] RTCA ldquoMinimum Operational Performance Standards for GPSGBASAirborne Equipmentrdquo Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics(RTCA) Inc Special Committee No 159 Document RTCA DO-253CWashington DC (USA) 2008
[37] CAA ldquoGPS Integrity and Potential Impact on Aviation Safetyrdquo CAASafety Regulation Group Paper 200309 2003
[38] ICAO ldquoStandards and Recommended Practices (SAPRs) Volume 1 ndashAnnex 10 (Including Amendments 1-81)rdquo Issue 6 2006
[39] ICAO ldquoGBAS CAT IIIII Development Baseline SARPsrdquo Draftproposed changes to Annex 10 Volume I as agreed at the 17 ndash 28 May2010 meeting of the ICAO Navigation Systems Panel (NSP) 2010Available online at httpwwwicaointsafetyairnavigationdocumentsgnss_cat_ii_iiipdf
[40] RTCA ldquoMinimum Aviation System Performance Standards (MASPS) forthe Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)rdquo Radio TechnicalCommission for Aeronautics (RTCA) Inc Special Committee No 159Document RTCA DO-245A Washington DC (USA) 2004
[41] RTCA ldquoMinimum Operational Performance Standards for GlobalPositioning SystemWide Area Augmentation Systems AirborneEquipmentrdquo Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA) IncSpecial Committee No 159 Document RTCA DO-229D WashingtonDC (USA) 2006
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[44] R Sabatini ldquoExperimental Investigation of Differential GPS for FlightTest of High Performance Aircraftrdquo University of Rome ndash ldquoLa SapienzardquoSchool of Aerospace Engineering Thesis submitted in partial fulfilmentfor the degree of Doctor of Engineering in Atronautics 2005
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the Design of Satellite Services and Systemsrdquo InternationalTelecommunication Union (ITU) Recommendation ITU-R P531-12 (PSeries ndash Radiowave propagation) 2013
[48] W B Davenport and W L Root ldquoAn Introduction to the Theory of
Random Signals and Noiserdquo Wiley-IEEE Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-
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[52] M S Braasch ldquoOn the characterization of multipath errors in satellite-based precision approach and landing systemsrdquo PhD Thesis College ofEngineering and Technology Ohio University (USA) 1992httpetdohiolinkeduviewcgiBraasch20Michaelpdfohiou1173748635 Accessed 10 May 2012
[53] R Sabatini T Moore and C Hill ldquoA New Avionics Based GNSSIntegrity Augmentation System Part 1 ndash Fundamentalsrdquo Journal ofNavigation Vol 66 No 3 pp 363-383 2013
[54] R Sabatini T Moore and C Hill ldquoA New Avionics Based GNSSIntegrity Augmentation System Part 2 ndash Integrity Flagsrdquo Journal ofNavigation Vol 66 No 4 pp 511-522 2013
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[73] P J Teunissen ldquoTowards a Unified Theory of GNSS AmbiguityResolutionrdquo Journal of Global Positioning Systems vol 2 no 1 pp 1-12 2003
[74] H Shaowei ldquoAmbiguity Recovery for Long‐Range GPS KinematicPositioningrdquo Navigation vol 44 no 2 pp 257-266 1997
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[76] S Verhagen ldquoImproved performance of Multi-Carrier AmbiguityResolution based on the LAMBDA methodrdquo In Proceedings of Navitec2006 ESA-ESTEC Noordwijk (The Netherlands) 2006
[77] H Liu Z Chen W Ye and H Wang ldquoGNSS Carrier Phase AmbiguityResolution based on Integrity Restriction in Ambiguity DomainrdquoAdvances in Space Research vol 53 issue 8 pp 1207ndash1218 2014
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[79] A Keith ldquoUsing Wide Area Differential GPS to Improve Total SystemError for Precision Flight Operationsrdquo PhD Thesis Stanford University(USA) 2000
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[82] T Moore ldquoAn Introduction to Differential GPSrdquo Lecture Notes IESSGUniversity of Nottingham (UK) 1996
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[84] K Zhang F Wu S Wu C Rizos C Roberts L Ge T Yan C GordiniA Kealy M Hale P Ramm H Asmussen D Kinlyside and PHarcombe ldquoSparse or dense Challenges of Australian Network RTKrdquoProceedings of International Global Navigation Satellite Systems SocietySymposium (IGNSS2006) Surfers Paradise (Australia) July 2006
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[97] O Montenbruck P Steigenberger L Prange Z Deng Q Zhao FPerosanz et al ldquoThe Multi-GNSS Experiment (MGEX) of theInternational GNSS Service (IGS) ndash Achievements Prospects andChallengesrdquo Advances in Space Research vol 59 pp 1671-1697 2017
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[102]R Kapoor S Ramasamy A Gardi and R Sabatini ldquoUAV NavigationUsing Signals of Opportunity in Urban Environments An Overview ofExisting Methodsrdquo Energy Procedia vol 110 pp 377-383 2017 DOI101016jegypro201703156
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[108]A Noureldin A El-Shafie and M Bayoumi ldquoGPSINS Integrationutilizing Dynamic Neural Networks for Vehicular NavigationrdquoInformation Fusion vol 12 pp 48-57 2011
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[110]US DoDDoTDoHS ldquoFederal Radionavigation Plan ndash 2012rdquo UnitedStates Department of Defence Department of Transport and Departmentof Homeland Security - National Technical Information ServicesSpringfield VA (USA) 22181 Doc DOT-VNTSC-RITA-08-02DoD-465005 2012
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[115]FAA ldquoSatellite Navigation - Ground Based Augmentation System(GBAS)rdquo US Federal Aviation Administration Website SectionDedicated to Navigation ProgramsGNSShttpwwwfaagovaboutoffice_orgheadquarters_officesatoservice_unitstechopsnavservicesgnsslaas Vested on 24th March 2016
[116]ICAO ldquoGuide for Ground Based Augmentation SystemsImplementationrdquo International Civil Aviation Organisation 2013
[117]J E Angus ldquoRAIM with Multiple Faultsrdquo NAVIGATION Journal ofthe Institute of Navigation vol 53 no 4 2006
[118]T Walter P Enge J Blanch and B Pervan ldquoWorldwide VerticalGuidance of Aircraft Based on Modernized GPS and New IntegrityAugmentationsrdquo Proceedings of the IEEE Vol 96 No 12 2008
[119]A Ene J Blanch and J D Powell ldquoFault Detection and Elimination forGALILEO-GPS Vertical Guidancerdquo Proceedings of the Institute ofNavigation National Technical Meeting San Diego CA (USA) 2007
[120]J Blanch A Ene T Walter and P Enge ldquoAn Optimized MultipleHypothesis RAIM Algorithm for Vertical Guidancerdquo In Proceedings ofION GNSS 2007 2007
[121]H Kuusniemi and T Jokitalo ldquoIndoor and Week Signal NavigationrdquoChapter 12 in ldquoGNSS Applications and Methodsrdquo S Gleason and DGebre-Egziabher Artech House pp 306-324 2009
[122]T Murphy R Friedman J Booth P Geren N Molloy B Clark andJ Burns ldquoProgram for the Investigation of Airborne Multipath ErrorsrdquoProceeding of the ION National Technical Meeting (NTM) 2004 SanDiego CA (USA) 2004
[123]FAA ldquoGEAS - GNSS Evolutionary Architecture Studyrdquo GEAS Phase Indash Panel Report 2008
[124]FAA ldquoGEAS - GNSS Evolutionary Architecture Studyrdquo GEAS Phase IIndash Panel Report 2010
[125]Y Jiang and J Wang ldquoA-RAIM and R-RAIM Performance using theClassic and MHSS Methodsrdquo The Journal of Navigation vol 67 pp 49-61 2014 DOI 101017S0373463313000507
[126]F Van Graas and A Soloviev ldquoPrecise Velocity Estimation Using aStand-Alone GPS Receiverrdquo Navigation vol 51 issue 4 pp 283ndash2922004
[127]W Ding and J Wang Precise velocity estimation with a stand-alone GPSreceiverrdquo Journal of Navigation vol 64 issue 2 pp 311ndash325 2011
[128]K L Van Dyke ldquoRAIM Availability for Supplemental GPS NavigationrdquoNavigation Journal of The Institute of Navigation vol 39 no4 pp 429-443 1992
[129]Y C Lee ldquoRAIM Availability for GPS Augmented with BarometricAltimeter Aiding and Clock Coastingrdquo Navigation Journal of theInstitute of Navigation vol 40 no2 pp 179-198 1993
[130]P Misra E Bayliss R LaFrey M Pratt and J F Mclellan ldquoReceiverAutonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) of GPS and GLONASSrdquoNavigation Journal of The Institute of Navigation vol 40 no1 pp 87-104 1993
[131]J Sang K Kubik and Y Feng ldquoReceiver Autonomous IntegrityMonitoring (RAIM) in Civil Aviation Use of GPS as a Sole Means ofNavigationrdquo In Proceedings of Satellite Navigation Technology 1995 andBeyond Brisbane June 1995
[132]T Walter and P Enge ldquoWeighted RAIM for Precision Approachrdquo InProceedings of the 8th International Technical Meeting of the SatelliteDivision of the Institute of Navigation Palm Springs CA (USA) 1995
[133]R G Brown ldquoA Baseline GPS RAIM Scheme and a Note on theEquivalence of Three RAIM Methodsrdquo Journal of the Institute ofNavigation vol 39 no 3 1992
[134]T Huiqi H Li W Zhang and M Lu ldquoA Recursive ReceiverAutonomous Integrity Monitoring (Recursive-RAIM) Technique forGNSS Anti-Spoofingrdquo In Proceedings of the 2015 InternationalTechnical Meeting of The Institute of Navigation California (USA) pp738 ndash 744 January 2015
[135]EU-US Cooperation on Satellite Navigation Working Group C-ARAIMTechnical Subgroup ARAIM Technical Subgroup Milestone 1 Report2012 httpeceuropaeuenterprisenewsroomcf_getdocumentcfmdoc_id=7793
[136]Y C Lee ldquoAnalysis of Range and Position Comparison Methods as aMeans to Provide GPS Integrity in the User Receiverrdquo In Proceedings ofthe Annual Meeting of the Institute of Navigation pp 1-4 Seattle WA(USA) June 1986
[137]B W Parkinson and P Axelrad ldquoAutonomous GPS Integrity Monitoringusing the Pseudorange Residualrdquo Navigation (Washington) vol 35 pp255-274 1988 httpdxdoiorg101002j2161-42961988tb00955x
[138]M A Sturza and A K Brown ldquoComparison of Fixed and VariableThreshold RAIM Algorithmsrdquo Proceedings of the 3rd InternationalTechnical Meeting of the Institute of Navigation Satellite Division IONGPS-90 (Colorado Springs CO) pp 437-443 September 1990
[139]R G Brown and P Y C Hwang ldquoGPS Failure Detection byAutonomous Means within the Cockpitrdquo In Proceedings of the AnnualMeeting of the Institute of Navigation Seattle pp 5-12 June 1986httpdxdoiorg101002j2161-42961986tb01485x
[140]R G Brown ldquoReceiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoringrdquo In B WParkinson and J J Spilker (Eds) Chapter 5 in Global Positioning SystemTheory and Applications Volume 2 AIAA Inc Washington DC (USA)pp 143-165 1996
[141]M Joerger F C Chan and B Pervan ldquoSolution Separation versusResidual-Based RAIMrdquo NAVIGATION vol 61 issue 4 pp 273ndash2912014
[142]J Blanch A Ene T Walter and P Enge ldquoAn Optimized MultipleHypothesis RAIM Algorithm for Vertical Guidancerdquo ION GNSS 2007Fort Worth TX 2007
[143]R Sabatini T Moore C Hill A Gardi S Ramasamy and M GilgienldquoTrajectory Optimisation for Avionics-Based GNSS IntegrityAugmentation Systemsrdquo Proceedings of the 35th AIAAIEEE DigitalAvionics Systems Conference (DASC2016) Sacramento CA (USA)September 2016
[144]R Sabatini T Moore and C Hill ldquoAvionics-Based GNSS IntegrityAugmentation Synergies with SBAS and GBAS for Unmanned AircraftApplicationsrdquo Proceedings of the 35th AIAAIEEE Digital AvionicsSystems Conference (DASC2016) Sacramento CA (USA) September2016
[145]L Rodriguez R Sabatini A Gardi and S Ramasamy ldquoA Novel Systemfor Non-Cooperative UAV Sense-and-Avoidrdquo In Proceedings ofEuropean Navigation Conference 2013 Vienna (Austria) 2013
[146]S Ramasamy R Sabatini and A Gardi ldquoLIDAR Obstacle Warning andAvoidance System for Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Sense-and-AvoidrdquoAerospace Science and Technology Elsevier vol 55 pp 344ndash358 2016DOI 101016jast201605020
[147]S Ramasamy R Sabatini and A Gardi ldquoA Unified Approach toSeparation Assurance and Collision Avoidance for Flight ManagementSystemsrdquo Proceedings of the 35th AIAAIEEE Digital Avionics SystemsConference (DASC2016) Sacramento CA (USA) September 2016
[148]R Sabatini T Moore and C Hill ldquoAvionics Based GNSS IntegrityAugmentation for Mission- and Safety-Critical Applicationsrdquo Inproceedings of the 25th International Technical Meeting of the SatelliteDivision of the Institute of Navigation ION GNSS-2012 NashvilleTennessee (USA) September 2012 URLhttpwwwionorgpublicationsabstractcfmarticleID=10288
[149]R Sabatini T Moore C Hill and S Ramasamy ldquoInvestigation of GNSSIntegrity Augmentation Synergies with Unmanned Aircraft SystemsSense-and-Avoidrdquo In Proceedings of SAE AeroTech Congress 2015Technical Paper 2015-01-2456 Seattle WA (USA) September 2015DOI 1042712015-01-2456
[150]R Sabatini T Moore and C Hill ldquoAvionics-Based GNSS IntegrityAugmentation for Unmanned Aerial Systems Sense-and-Avoidrdquo InProceedings of the 27th International Technical Meeting of the SatelliteDivision of the Institute of Navigation ION GNSS+ 2014 Tampa Florida(USA) September 2014 URLhttpmionorgabstractcfmpaperID=1811
[151]J Owen ldquoA Review of the Interference Resistance of SPS GPS Receiversfor Aviationrdquo Journal of Navigation PB - Blackwell Publishing LtdDOI 101002j2161-42961993tb02307x 1993
[152] JR Rufa and EM Atkins ldquoUnmanned Aircraft System Navigation inthe Urban Environment A Systems Analysisrdquo Journal of AerospaceInformation Systems 2016