THE GREAT NORTHSOUTH DIVIDEThe NorthSouth divide is broadly
considered a socio-economic and political divide. The North
consists of the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia,
and Japan. The South is made up of Africa, Latin America and Asia.
The North is home to four of the five permanent members of the
United Nations Security Council and all members of the G8. "The
North" mostly covers the West and the First World, along with much
of the Second World. While the North may be defined as the richer,
more developed region and the South as the poorer, less developed
region, many more factors differentiate between the two global
areas. 95% of the North has enough food and shelter. Similarly, 95%
of the North has a functioning education system. In the South, on
the other hand, only 5% of the population has enough food and
shelter. It lacks appropriate technology, it has no political
stability, the economies are disarticulated, and their foreign
exchange earnings depend on primary product exports. In more
economic terms, the Northwith one quarter of the world
populationcontrols four fifths of the world income. 90% of the
manufacturing industries are owned by and located in the North.
Inversely, the Southwith three quarters of the world populationshas
access to one fifth of the world income. It serves as a source for
raw material, for the North, eager to acquire their own independent
resource basessubjected large portions of the global South to
direct colonial rule between 1850 and 1914. As nations become
economically developed, they may become part of the "North",
regardless of geographical location, while any other nations which
do not qualify for "developed" status are in effect deemed to be
part of the "South."The idea of categorizing countries by their
economic and developmental status began during the Cold War with
the classifications of East and West. The Soviet Union and China
represented the developing East, and the United States and their
allies represented the more developed West. Out of this paradigm of
development surged the division of the First World [the west] and
the Second World [the east] with the even less developed countries
constituting the Third World. As some Second World countries joined
the First World, and others joined the Third World, a new and
simpler classification was needed. The First World became the North
and the Third World became the South. Problems with defining the
divideFollowing the fall of the Eastern Bloc, which was commonly
referred to as the Second World, many of its constituent countries
were reclassified as developing, despite being geographically
northern. At the same time, geographically southern nations
previously considered "developing," such as the East Asian Tigers
or Turkey, have joined the modern First World, but are classified
inconsistently in maps showing the northsouth divide.[citation
needed] Similarly, dependencies of developed nations are also
classified as Southern, although they are part of the developed
world.On an ideological level, some development geographers have
argued that current concentration on the northsouth divide as the
main organizing principle for understanding the world economy has
overlooked the role of inter-imperial conflicts between the United
States, Japan, and Europe.Defining developmentBeing categorized as
part of the North implies development as opposed to belonging to
the South which implies a lack thereof. According to N. Oluwafemi
Mimiko, The South lacks the right technology, it is politically
unstable, their economies are divided, and their foreign exchange
earning depend on primary product exports which come from the
North, and the fluctuation of prices. The little control of imports
and exports condemned the South to obey the imperialist system. The
lack of the South and the development of the North further the
inequality and end up putting the South as a source of raw material
for the developed countries. The north becomes synonymous with
economic development and industrialization while the South
represents the previously colonized countries which are in need of
help in the form of international aid agendas. In order to
understand how this divide occurs, a definition of development
itself is needed.The Dictionary of Human Geography defines
development as processes of social change or [a change] to class
and state projects to transform national economies". This
definition entails an understanding of economic development which
is imperative when trying to understand the northsouth
divide.Economic Development is a measure of progress in a specific
economy. It refers to advancements in technology, a transition from
an economy based largely on agriculture to one based on industry
and an improvement in living standards.Other factors that are
included in the conceptualization of what a developed country is
include life expectancy and the levels of education, poverty and
employment in that country.The NorthInternational Organisations
such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as
well as the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), generally
tend to agree that the group of majorly developed countries
includes the following countries/regions:Countries described as
high-income and advanced economies by the World Bank and
IMFAmericas, Bermuda (UK territory), Canada, United States, Asia
[edit], Hong Kong, Israel, Japan, Macau, Singapore, South Korea,
Taiwan, Europe [edit], Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus,
Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Greece, Germany,
Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Hungary, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania,
Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, United Kingdom, Vatican City, Oceania, Australia, New
Zealand, Brandt LineThe Brandt Line is a visual depiction of the
northsouth divide, proposed by West German Chancellor Willy Brandt
in the 1980s. It encircles the world at a latitude of approximately
30 North, passing between North and Central America, north of
Africa and the Middle East, climbing north over China, Mongolia and
Korea, but dipping south so as to include Australia and New Zealand
in the "Rich North".Digital divideThe global digital divide is
often characterised as corresponding to the northsouth divide;
however, Internet use, and especially broadband access, is now
soaring in Asia compared with other continents. This phenomenon is
partially explained by the ability of many countries in Asia to
bypass older Internet technology and infrastructure, coupled with
booming economies which allow vastly more people to get
online.Development gapThe northsouth divide has more recently been
named the development continuum gap. This places greater emphasis
on closing the evident gap between rich (more economically
developed) and poor (less economically developed) countries. A good
measure of on which side of the gap a country is located is the
Human Development Index (HDI). The nearer this is to 1.0, the
greater is the country's level of development and the further the
country is on its development pathway (closer towards being well
developed), exemplified well by Walter Rostow's model of
development and the Clark Fisher model.Theories explaining the
divideCapitalism - Certain aspects of capitalism (especially
Laissez Faire capitalism) have the potential to lead to inequality,
a potential which it has arguably demonstrated as per a number of
perspectives: the capitalist ideology relies on the constant
motivation to produce capital accumulation. The nature of
capitalism leads those countries with a comparative advantage
(developed) to accumulate capital through dispossession or in other
words to take capital from those less advantaged
(un-developed/developing). This accumulation by dispossession leads
to the unequal development that feeds the northsouth
divide.Globalization - Globalization, or Global Capitalism, as the
leading cause for global inequality: globalization enhances social
and economic gaps between countries, since it requires economies
and societies to adapt in a very rapid manner, and because this
almost never happens in an equal fashion, some nations grow faster
than others. Wealthier/ developed countries exploit poorer/ less
developed countries to a point where less developed societies
become dependent on developed countries for survival. The very
structure and process of globalization perpetuates and reproduces
unequal relationships and opportunities between the North and the
South, it tends to "favor the privileged and further marginalize
the already disadvantaged".Immigration - Uneven immigration
patterns lead to inequality: in the late eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries immigration was very common into areas previously less
populated (North America, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, New
Zealand) from already technologically advanced areas (United
Kingdom, Spain, Portugal). This facilitated an uneven diffusion of
technological practices since only areas with high immigration
levels benefited. Immigration patterns in the twenty-first century
continue to feed this uneven distribution of technological
innovation. People are eager to leave countries in the South in
attempts to better their life standards and get their share in the
perceived prosperity of the North. South and Central Americans want
to live and work in North America. Africans and Southwest Asians
want to live and work in Europe. Southeast Asians want to live and
work in North America and Europe.Closing the divideIt is arguable
from some perspectives that free international trade and unhindered
capital flows across countries could maybe lead to a contraction in
the NorthSouth divide. In this case more equal trade and flow of
capital would allow the possibility for developing countries to
further develop economically. However, when the South called for
New International Economic Order (NIEO) in 1974 to restructure the
global economy, the South demanded more than emergence into the
capitalist market. Their demands included linking prices of
commodity exports to manufactured imports, transferring of
technology from North to South, canceling or rescheduling debts of
Third World, improving representation in economic playersWorld
Bank, UN Security Council, standardizing prices for raw materials,
solving food crisis, and opening up of the Norths market for
manufactured or semi-processed goods of the South. The North did
not accept these demands. Why the North didnt accept these demands
were because they posed some challenged on their own. Specifically,
the South had no leverage over the North, since the South had very
weak industrial bases and divided structures. Another challenge was
that the South was always pursuing the same goals. The biggest
challenge was that countries in the South was the nature of the
leadership within their country. The South had a strong-held
perspective that they had an internal problem that indicated seeds
of corruption and maladministration, bad policies, and political
instability. In order to keep their power and leverage, the North
reiterated their plan to assimilate the South into free
international trade. As some countries in the South experience
rapid development, there is some evidence that those states are
developing high levels of South-South aid. Brazil, in particular,
has been noted for its high levels of aid ($1 billion annually -
ahead of many traditional donors) and the ability to use its own
experiences to provide high levels of expertise and knowledge
transfer. This has been described as a 'global model in waiting'.
The South also suffers from strains of leaders who commit to
foreign interests over the interests of their own countries.
Countries such as Taiwan, South Korea, and Mexico have succeeded in
moving away from the path of poverty to some semblance of
prosperity, but only with the help of strategic relations by the
North, suggesting the North and South need a New National Economic
and Social Order. The South not only suffers from the failure to
govern from its leader, but also theres internal negative economic
policies that show more commitment to foreign interests than their
own individual countries. The United Nations has also established
its role in diminishing the divide between North and South through
its Millennium Development Goals. These goals seek to eradicate
extreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education;
promote gender equality and empower women; reduce child mortality;
improve maternal health; combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other
diseases; ensure environmental sustainability; and develop a global
partnership for development all by the year 2015. Some critical
steps that need to take place in the dialogue between the North and
South in relation to the New World Order is the acknowledgement of
the struggles that the South faces in the global economic system.
The other step is to create a way for the development of the South
to change internal structures for a more interconnectedness with
the global economic order.BARRIERS TO THE FLOW OF INFORMATION AND
GLOBAL INFO FLOW, THE FLIP SIDE
According to recent reports and analytical assessments these
obstacles can be classified into two categories: (i) "evident"
obstacles, curbs and pressures; (ii)"non-evident"
obstaclesEvidentSome barriers to freedom of information are easy to
recognize, among these are :1. physical violence and
intimidation;2. repressive legislation; censorship;3. blacklisting
of journalists; 4. banning of books; 5. monopolies established by
political action;6. bureaucratic obstructions; 7. judicial
obstructions such as closed hearings and contempt of court rules;
8. Parliamentary privileges; and restrictive professional
practices. But the absence of these blatant obstacles does not
always mean that full freedom of information exists. Such vague
wording as "forbidden areas", as "any matter relating to the
security of the Republic", can be open to very narrow or broad
interpretations, the very indefiniteness of which often forces
journalists and editors to apply self censorship constrictions on
their work. Censorship is a widespread practice, sometimes limited
to particular subjects (pornography, obscenity, violence, religious
matters, delicate issues in international relations, foreign
dignitaries, protection of the young, etc.) but often covering
subjects potentially disturbing to the leading elite or groups in
power. Prohibitive censorship may be based on laws", more often on
discretionary powers or even abuses.
Non evidentOther obstacles include:1. economic and social
constraints and pressures; 2. de facto monopolies (public, private,
or transnational)3. inadequate infrastructures4. narrow definitions
of what is news, what should be published, and what issues should
be debated; 5. And a shortage of professional training and
experience. Obstacles of this kind, too, limit the citizen's right
to be informed and should be eliminated. 6. Still other obstacles
can arise from entrenched cultural attitudes and taboos, and from
an unquestioning reverence for authority, whether secular or
religious. Access to news sources, to people, places, documents and
information in general- or even to a country - is a particularly
thorny question. For it is through such administrative measures as
granting of visas, restriction of journalistsmovements, limitations
on persons or offices as contacts for newsmen, withdrawal of
accreditation or expulsion from the country that governments may
heavily restrict the flow of news. There are also very often
discrepancies between the treatment of national journalists and
foreign correspondents. They also arise in areas where there are
private monopolies, concentration of media ownership and formation
of conglomerates. When the public has only a single source of news,
or where various sources have the same general orientation, it is
the monopolist who is in a position to decide what facts will or
will not be presented, what opinions will or will not be conveyed.
Even if the owner of a monopoly does not abuse his power, no single
outlet can present the amount and range of news that multiple
sources make possible. Some ethnic and linguistic minorities suffer
from a restricted flow of information because the established
channels do not supply it in a form that meets their needs and
takes account of their cultural traditions. But seen broadly, the
one-way flow in communication is basically a reflection of the
world's dominant political and economic structures, which tend to
maintain or reinforce the dependence of poorer countries on the
richer.It intimately affects the psychological and social framework
within which men and women lead their lives. Hence, the
quantitative imbalance is also a qualitative imbalance an influence
on the mind which has been described as "conditioningWhile there
are aspects of this imbalance in most parts of the world, its
effect is most marked in developing countries because of the
quality of messages and the difficulty of penetrating into big news
markets, as well as because their general communication capability
is weak.There is a concentration on political affairs, generally
presented in terms of crises, coups and violent conflicts, or at
best the emergence of striking personalities and pronouncements by
elites. Processes of development, affecting and enhancing the lives
of millions of people, are neglected, or are described solely in
their effects on the political scene rather than examined in their
substance.
NWICOInformation was first brought up in the context of a new
international order at a meeting of the non-aligned countries in
Tunis in 1976The gap is growing between minorities who control
communication and the public which is exposed to its impact.Needs
for contact and for the exchange of knowledge and ideas, within
nations and between nations, become ever more imperative; yet
dangers are seen in the power possessed by those with great
technical resources to impose their ideas on others.They want
greater access to the media, both individual and collective. This
aspiration is often thwarted by vested interests and by various
forms of oppression. Thus, it was around 1970 that the concepts
upon which today's international debate is focused first began to
be formulated in clear-cut terms. Criticisms formulated in many
developing countries reiterated by certain socialist countries and
supported by many researchers and journalists in western countries,
start from the observation that certain powerful and
technologically advanced States exploit their advantages to
exercise a form of cultural and ideological domination which
jeopardizes the national identity of other countries. The problems
raised by the one-way information flow.(It has been frequently
stated, in particular, that due to the fact that the content of
information is largely produced by the main developed countries,
the image of the developing countries is frequently false and
distorted. More serious still, according to some vigorous critics,
it is this false image, harmful to their inner balance, which is
presented to the developing countries themselves.) "decolonization
of informationThe non-aligned countries have played a major role in
the evolution of ideas concerning the dependence of the media, the
imbalance in news flows and global communication patterns and the
negative effects of this imbalance. They have advanced the view
that the vast majority of countries are reduced to the state of
passive receivers of information put out by a few centres. This is
how the call for a "new order" as distinct from the "old order" in
the field of communication and information came into being. Thus,
transformations in communications are related to the conceptual
foundations of the new international economic order. In certain
respects, development and communication do follow or are based on
the same principles. It is vital that the present state of
dependence of the developing world, in its economy and its
communications alike - a dependence which both generates ever
greater inequalities and is wasteful of natural (and in particular
non-renewable) material and human resources - be replaced by
relations of interdependence and cooperation between national
systems as they become progressively autonomous and capable of
endogenous development. Cold warThe problem was, however, that once
a radio network had been established it became vulnerable to
outside influences chiefly in two ways. First, on the overt
political level, it became a target in the ideological struggle of
the Cold War. In Africa, for example, the initial broadcasting
services were short-wave systems (i.e. capable of covering larger
distances at the same power as the more expensive medium-wave
systems) inherited from colonial administrations. The pattern of
external penetration can clearly be seen following the BBCs
decision to begin broadcasting to Africa in native languages in
1957, to be followed by Radio Moscow in 1958, the VOA and Radio
Peking in 1959, and Deutsche Welle in 1962.Reliance by newly
established broadcasting systems on foreign programme content led
to accusations that developing nations were still heavily dependent
on the Western powers, rather than independent from them. From the
standpoint of London, Washington and Paris, it was hard to see
their point. There, the flow of information was seen like the flow
of trade; it would flow freely if there was a market for it. On the
receiving end, however, it was noticed that the news agencies only
seemed to report bad news about events in Less Developed Countries
(LDCs). This also applied, of course, to the developed world, but
for the newly independent nations desperate for foreign investment
the proclivity of the news agencies to report mainly on
disasterscoups and earthquakes Proponents of the NWICO argued that
developing countries should be able to report stories using their
own reporters, and cover stories that were of more relevance to
theiraudience.One of the aims of the call for a NWICO was to create
a more positive image ofthe developing world rather than the
perceived Western news medias preoccupation with negative news
events such as warsand disasters (Hachten, 1999, p. 164).Masmoudi
(1979) articulated the concerns of developing countries by
identifying the inequalities that hinderthose countries from
communicating with the rest of the world and from projecting
theircultural and social values to the world.Such imbalances
include: disparities in news and information exchange between
developed and developing countries;monopoly of news and information
distribution channels by major news agencies; inequity in
theallocation of radiofrequencies; dependence of developing
countries on the news media of the West, leading to Western media
imposing their views of the world on developing countries; and the
distortion of news events that concern developing countries
(Masmoudi, 1979, pp. 172-185)That is to say, the proposals covered
far more than content and the direction of flows and extended well
into the organization and control of structures in the sector.4 Ds:
Four cornerstones emerge out of the material; they were referred to
as the four Ds. They represent themes that recur time and again in
the discussions of the new order.1) News flows are castigated as
one-way flows, and measures to ensure a more equitable balance of
news flows between countries are demanded (Democratization). 2) The
one-way flow and misrepresentations are interpreted to reflect a
lack of respect for the countries cultural identities, a matter of
great importance to the non-aligned countries (Decolonization).3)
The monopoly status of transnational corporations in terms of
communications technology is perceive as a threat to national
independence (Demonopolization).4) The vital role of mass media in
the development process is underlined, and the non-aligned
countries join together to demand a more just distribution of
communication resources in the world (Development). Thus, the
demands were broad and fluid and partly overlapping.
Democratization The right of people and individuals to acquire an
objective picture of reality by means of accurate and comprehensive
information as well as to express themselves freely through various
media of culture and communication. The right of every nation to
participate, on the governmental and non-governmental level, in the
international exchange of information under favourable conditions
in a sense of equality, justice and mutual advantage. The
responsibility of various actors in the process of information for
its truthfulness and objectivity as well as for the particular
social objectives to which the information activities are
dedicated. Guarantees for and the necessary protection of
journalists and other factors of information in the performance of
their mission, and the responsibility of journalists in the
performance of this mission. De-colonization The fundamental
principles of international law, notably self-determination,
sovereignty and noninterference. The right of every nation to
protect its national sovereignty and cultural identity. The right
of each country to the observance of its interests, aspirations,
and its political, moral and cultural values (These texts refer to
international law, and some concepts resemble the rhetoric of the
dependence paradigm. In more concrete terms, it has to do with the
assignment of radio frequencies, access to frequencies on
geostationary satellites, and telecommunications infrastructure.)
De-monopolization The third cornerstone refers to another prime
topic of debate in UNESCO of the 1970s, namely, the operations of
transnational corporations: The right of every nation to develop
its own independent information system, in particular by regulating
the activities of transnational corporations. Development The right
of every nation to develop its own independent information system.
The imperative of a more equitable distribution of information
media. Adequate professional training for journalists including
those working in indigenous languages. (consolidate and develop the
infrastructures of information, promote national agencies and POOL,
creation of regional information systems, creation of centres for
the training of journalists in the developing countries, etc)
(from wiki)The New World Information and Communication Order
(NWICO or NWIO) is a term that was coined in a debate over media
representations of the developing world in UNESCO in the late 1970s
and early 1980s. The term was widely used by the MacBride
Commission, a UNESCO panel chaired by Nobel Peace Prize laureate
Sen MacBride, which was charged with creation of a set of
recommendations to make global media representation more equitable.
The MacBride Commission produced a report titled "Many Voices, One
World", which outlined the main philosophical points of the New
World Information Communication Order.The fundamental issues of
imbalances in global communication had been discussed for some
time. The American media scholar Wilbur Schramm noted in 1964 that
the flow of news among nations is thin, that much attention is
given to developed countries and little to less-developed ones,
that important events are ignored and reality is distorted.[1] From
a more radical perspective, Herbert Schiller observed in 1969 that
developing countries had little meaningful input into decisions
about radio frequency allocations for satellites at a key meeting
in Geneva in 1963.[2] Schiller pointed out that many satellites had
military applications. Intelsat which was set up for international
co-operation in satellite communication, was also dominated by the
United States. In the 1970s these and other issues were taken up by
the Non-Aligned Movement and debated within the United Nations and
UNESCO.NWICO grew out of the New International Economic Order of
1974. From 1976-1978, the New World Information and Communication
Order was generally called the shorter New World Information Order
or the New International Information Order. The start of this
discussion is the New World Information and Communication Order
(NWICO) as associated with the United Nations Education, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) starting from the early 1970s.
Mass media concerns began with the meeting of non-aligned nations
in Algiers, 1973; again in Tunis 1976, and later in 1976 at the New
Delhi Ministerial Conference of Non-Aligned Nations. The 'new
order' plan was textually formulated by Tunisia's Information
Minister Mustapha Masmoudi. Masmoudi submitted working paper No. 31
to the MacBride Commission. These proposals of 1978 were titled the
'Mass Media Declaration.' The MacBride Commission at the time was a
16-member body created by UNESCO to study communication
issues.Among those involved in the movement were the Latin American
Institute for the Study of Transnationals (ILET). One of its
co-founders, Juan Somavia was a member of the MacBride Commission.
Another important voice was Mustapha Masmoudi, the Information
Minister for Tunisia. In a Canadian radio program in 1983, Tom
McPhail describes how the issues were pressed within UNESCO in the
mid-1970s when the USA withheld funding to punish the organization
for excluding Israel from a regional group of UNESCO. Some OPEC
countries and a few socialist countries made up the amount of money
and were able to get senior positions within UNESCO. NWICO issues
were then advanced at an important meeting in 1976 held in Costa
Rica.The only woman member of the Commission was Betty Zimmerman,
representing Canada because of the illness of Marshall McLuhan, who
died in 1980. The movement was kept alive through the 1980s by
meetings of the MacBride Round Table on Communication, even though
by then the leadership of UNESCO distanced itself from its
ideas.The UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity of 2005 puts into
effect some of the goals of NWICO, especially with regard to the
unbalanced global flow of mass media. However, this convention was
not supported by the USA, and it does not appear to be as robust as
World Trade Organization agreements that support global trade in
mass media and information.IssuesA wide range of issues were raised
as part of NWICO discussions. Some of these involved long-standing
issues of media coverage of the developing world and unbalanced
flows of media influence. But other issues involved new
technologies with important military and commercial uses. The
developing world was likely to be marginalized by satellite and
computer technologies. The issues included:News reporting on the
developing world that reflects the priorities of news agencies in
London, Paris and New York. Reporting of natural disasters and
military coups rather than the fundamental realities. At the time
four major news agencies controlled over 80% of global news flow.An
unbalanced flow of mass media from the developed world (especially
the United States) to the underdeveloped countries. Everyone
watches American movies and television shows.Advertising agencies
in the developed world have indirect but significant effects on
mass media in the developing countries. Some observers also judged
the messages of these ads to be inappropriate for the Third
World.An unfair division of the radio spectrum. A small number of
developed countries controlled almost 90% of the radio spectrum.
Much of this was for military use.There were similar concerns about
the allocation of the geostationary orbit (parking spots in space)
for satellites. At the time only a small number of developed
countries had satellites and it was not possible for developing
countries to be allocated a space that they might need ten years
later. This might mean eventually getting a space that was more
difficult and more expensive to operate.Satellite broadcasting of
television signals into Third World countries without prior
permission was widely perceived as a threat to national
sovereignty. The UN voted in the early 1970s against such
broadcasts.Use of satellites to collect information on crops and
natural resources in the Third World at a time when most developing
countries lacked the capacity to analyze this data.At the time most
mainframe computers were located in the United States and there
were concerns about the location of databases (such as airline
reservations) and the difficulty of developing countries catching
up with the US lead in computers.The protection of journalists from
violence was raised as an issue for discussion. For example,
journalists were targeted by various military dictatorships in
Latin America in the 1970s. As part of NWICO debates there were
suggestions for study on how to protect journalists and even to
discipline journalists who broke "generally recognized ethical
standards". However, the MacBride Commission specifically came out
against the idea of licensing journalists.Response of the United
StatesThe United States was hostile to NWICO. According to some
analysts, the United States saw these issues simply as barriers to
the free flow of communication and to the interests of American
media corporations. It disagreed with the Macbride report at points
where it questioned the role of the private sector in
communications. It viewed the NWICO as dangerous to freedom of the
press by ultimately putting an organization run by governments at
the head of controlling global media, potentially allowing for
censorship on a large scale. From another perspective, the MacBride
Commission recommendations requiring the licensing of journalists
amounted to prior censorship and ran directly counter to basic US
law on the freedom of expression.There were also accusations of
corruption at the highest level of UNESCO leadership in Paris. The
US eventually withdrew its membership in UNESCO (as did the United
Kingdom and Singapore) at the end of 1984. The matter was
complicated by debates within UNESCO about Israel's archaeological
work in the city of Jerusalem, and about the Apartheid regime in
South Africa. The U.S. rejoined in 2003.
MAC BRIDE COMMISSION The demand of the non-aligned countries for
a new international information order in UNESCO brought tensions to
a head at the organizations General Conference in 1976, where the
formulation of a declaration on mass media topped the agenda. The
International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems,
known as the MacBride Commission, was appointed to study all manner
of problems of communication in the world General Conference
(Nairobi, 1976), representatives of all countries meeting in
Nairobi urged that the study of communication problems in modern
society be pursued in more detailed and systematic fashion and a
synthesis made of them. Some months later, the Director-General
decided to entrust an international commission, with Mr. Sean
MacBride of Ireland as its President, with the task of carrying out
a study of all communication problems in present-day society
Commission's mandate specified the four main lines of inquiry1. to
study the current situation in the fields of communication and
information and to identify problems which call for fresh action at
the national level and a concerted, overall approach at the
international level. The analysis of the state of communication in
the world today, and particularly of information problems as a
whole, should take account of the diversity of socio-economic
conditions and levels and types of development.2. to pay particular
attention to problems relating to the free and balanced flow of
information in the world, as well as the specific needs of
developing countries, in accordance with the decisions of the
General Conference.3. to analyze communication problems, in their
different aspects, within the perspective of the establishment of a
new international economic order and of the measures to be taken to
foster the institution of a "new world information order4. to
define the role which communication might play in making public
opinion aware of the major problems besetting the world, in
sensitizing it to these problems and helping graduallyThe
Commission was chaired by Irish politician, diplomat and Nobel
laureate Sean MacBride.The individuals were chosen on the basis of
personal merits and would represent only themselves.The MacBride
Commission also engaged a number of external scholars and experts
to produce specialized reports on aspects of the Commissions
Work.Commissions final report: Many Voices, One World.
Communication and Society, Today and Tomorrow. Towards a New, More
Just and More Efficient World Information and Communication Order,
which was submitted to UNESCOs Director-General in Spring 1980
Recommendations and suggestions The fifth part of the book,
Conclusions and Recommendations offers some eighty policy
recommendations of problems studied. The 82 Recommendations of the
MacBride Commission Main conclusions a variety of solutions adopted
in different countries - in accordance with diverse traditions,
patterns of social, economic and cultural life, needs and
possibilities. This diversity is valuable and should be respected;
there is no place for the universal application of preconceived
models. The review has also shown that the utmost importance should
be given to eliminating imbalances and disparities in communication
and its structures, and particularly in information flows.
conclusions are founded on the firm conviction that communication
is a basic individual right, as well as a collective one required
by all communities and nations. Freedom of information - and, more
specifically the right to seek, receive and impart information - is
a fundamental human right; indeed, a prerequisite for many others.
it is essential to develop comprehensive national communication
policies linked to overall social, cultural and economic
development objectives. Every country should develop its
communication patterns in accordance with its own conditions, needs
and traditions, thus strengthening its integrity, independence and
self-reliance. The basic considerations which are developed at
length in the body of our Report are intended to provide a
framework for the development of a new information and
communication order. We see its implementation as an on-going
process of change in the nature of relations between and within
nations in the field of communications. Recommendations 1)
Strengthening Independence and Self-reliance Communication be no
longer regarded merely as an incidental service and its development
left to chance. Recognition of its potential warrants the
formulation by all nations, and particularly developing countries,
of comprehensive communication policies linked to overall social,
cultural, economic and political goals Developing countries take
specific measures to establish or develop essential elements of
their communication systems: print media, broadcasting and
telecommunications along with the related training and production
facilities As language embodies the cultural experience of people,
all languages should be adequately developed to serve the complex
and diverse requirements of modern communication. A primary policy
objective should be to make elementary education available to all
and to wipe out illiteracy, supplementing formal schooling systems
with non-formal education and enrichment within appropriate
structures of continuing and distance learning (through radio,
television and correspondence). The communication component in all
development projects should receive adequate financing. So-called
"development support communications" are essential for mobilizing
initiatives and providing information required for action in all
fields of development - agriculture, health and family planning,
education, religion, industry and so on. The educational and
informational use of communication should be given equal priority
with entertainment. Tariffs for news transmission,
telecommunications rates and air mail charges for the dissemination
of news, transport of newspapers, periodicals, books and
audiovisual materials are one of the main obstacles to a free and
balanced flow of information. This situation must be corrected,
especially in the case of developing countries, through a variety
of national and international initiatives The electro-magnetic
spectrum and geostationary orbit, both finite natural resources,
should be more equitably shared as the common property of
mankind.
2) Social Consequences and New Tasks Promotion of dialogue for
development as a central component of both communication and
development policies. Setting up national mechanisms to promote
participation and discussion of social priorities in the
acquisition or extension of new communication technologies. The
concentration of communications technology in a relatively few
developed countries and transnational corporations has led to
virtual monopoly situations in this field. To counteract these
tendencies national and international measures are required, among
them reform of exisiting patent laws and conventions, appropriate
legislation and international agreements. Introduction of
guidelines with respect to advertising content and the values and
attitudes it fosters, in accordance with national standards and
practices. While acknowledging the need of the media for revenues,
ways and means should be considered to reduce the negative effects
that the influence of market and commercial considerations have in
the organization and content of national and international
communication flows. Developed countries should foster exchanges of
technical information on the principle that all countries have
equal rights to full access to available information.
3) Professional Integrity and Standards The importance of the
journalist's mission in the contemporary world demands steps to
enhance his standing in society. As in other professions,
journalists and media organizations serve the public directly and
the public, in turn, is entitled to hold them accountable for their
actions. it appears necessary to develop further effective ways by
which the right to assess mass media performance can be exercised
by the public The press and broadcasters in the industrialized
world should allot more space and time to reporting events in and
background material about foreign countries in general and news
from the developing world in particular. To offset the negative
effects of inaccurate or malicious reporting of international news,
the right of reply and correction should be further considered
4) Democratization of Communication The media should contribute
to promoting the just cause of peoples struggling for freedom and
independence and their right to live in peace and equality without
foreign interference. Censorship or arbitrary control of
information should be abolished. Special attention should be
devoted to obstacles and restrictions which derive from the
concentration of media ownership, public or private, from
commercial influences on the press and broadcasting, or from
private or governmental advertising Attention should be paid to the
communication needs of women. The concerns of children and youth,
national, ethnic, religious, linguistic minorities, people living
in remote areas and the aged and handicapped also deserve
particular consideration.
5) Fostering International Cooperation The progressive
implementation of national and international measures that will
foster the setting up of a new world information and communication
order. International cooperation for the development of
communications be given equal priority with and within other
sectors (e.g. health, agriculture, industry, science, education,
etc.) as information is a basic resource for individual and
collective advancement and for all-round development Particular
efforts should be undertaken to ensure that news about other
developing countries within or outside their region receive more
attention and space in the media. The Member States of UNESCO
should increase their support to the Organization's programme in
this area. Better coordination of the various communication
activities within UNESCO and those throughout the United Nations
System National communication policies should be consistent with
adopted international communication principles and should seek to
create a climate of mutual understanding and peaceful coexistence
among nations. Due attention should be paid to the problems of
peace and disarmament, human rights, development and the creation
of a new communication order. All forms of co-operation among the
media, the professionals and their associations, which contribute
to the better knowledge of other nations and cultures, should be
encouraged and promoted.
UNESCO In 1945,UNESCO was created in order to respond to the
firm belief of nations, forged by two world wars in less than a
generation that political and economic agreements are not enough to
build a lasting peace. Peace must be established on the basis of
humanitys moral and intellectual solidarity In the field of
communication, UNESCO has become a forum where issues can be raised
and discussions pursued in depth. Early 1960s, UNESCO endeavored to
conclude, in cooperation with preeminent professional
organizations, arrangements relating to the international exchange
of news. to increase the developing world's means of expression and
to gather and exchange news, films and various broadcasts for the
mutual benefit of these countries. At the sixteenth session of the
General Conference (1970) that the delegations of several
developing countries referred explicitly to what might be called
the issue of the unequal distribution of the media, asking that
better adapted and balanced international news exchange systems be
organized and stressing the right to cultural identity. At its
eighteenth session in 1974, in order to facilitate communication
between nations and between peoples and to promote a better
understanding of the role played by the media in the implementation
of national development policies and plans, the General Conference
recommended that a first Intergovernmental Conference on
communication policies be organized in Latin America in 1975 and
that a similar intergovernmental conference by prepared and held in
Asia in 1977. San Jose de Costa Rica in July 1976. Kuala Lumpur in
February 1979 UNESCO used the concept of a world information order
rather than an international information order. The change in
wording was made on the initiative of the Western countries, who
wished to make the connection to the demand for a new economic
order less explicit. The word international connotes relations
among nations, whereas world prompts associations to global
cooperation more generally, with concepts like the global village
and world government (Rosenau 1969, Holsti 1967). New International
Information Order in UNESCO brought tensions to a head at the
organizations General Conference in 1976, (Nairobi, 1976), where
the formulation of a declaration on mass media topped the agenda.
International Program for the Development of Communication (IPDC)
It was established in 1980 for promoting the development of mass
media (MSM) by financing projects that meet the following
priorities: promoting media pluralism and freedom of expression;
training in the field of media; development of community media; use
of new technologies in order to ensure greater efficiency of
independent and public media. The IPDC is the only multilateral
forum in the UN system designed to mobilize the international
community to discuss and promote media development in developing
countries. The Programme not only provides support for media
projects but also seeks an accord to secure a healthy environment
for the growth of free and pluralistic media in developing
countries. Promotion of freedom of expression and media pluralism
Encouraging the free flow of information, at international as well
as national levels, promoting its wider and better balanced
dissemination. freedom of expression strengthening communication
capacities in the developing countries are essential to increase
citizens participation in decision-making processes and to assert
their fundamental rights Development of community media:
Community-based media contribute to media pluralism, diversity of
content, and the representation of a societys different groups and
interests. Community media encourage open dialogue and transparency
of administration at local level and offer a voice to the
voiceless. Community radio Human resource development: There are
millions of journalists working in different media and they are
perhaps the most influential knowledge brokers in society. But many
journalists from developing countries lack access to quality
journalism education and training institutions to develop their
skills. In order to address this issue at its roots, UNESCO places
special emphasis on building the institutional capacities of
journalism education institutions, notably through the development
ofcentres of excellence, and on providing training to trainers.
(UNESCOs support for journalism education in Africa, By
disseminating information to citizens, the news media enables
citizen participation in development and strengthens accountability
feedback mechanism) Under UNESCOs The Need for Quality Journalism
Education in Africa: Building Centres of Excellence in
Africainitiative, the most promising journalism education
institutions in Africa identified by UNESCO are being supported to
become centres of excellence in journalism education by improving
staff training, curricula, learning materials, media resource
centres, networks and management skills. Promotion of international
partnership IPDC is the only programme within the UN system aimed
at mobilizing the international community to act together in
support of free, independent and pluralistic media in the
developing countries In accordance with its standard-setting
role,IPDChas developed a comprehensive set ofMedia Development
Indicators (MDIs)aimed at enabling the assessment of media
landscapes at national level. These indicators, that cover all
aspects of media development, are currently being applied in
various countries worldwide to identify their specific needs in
view of guiding the formulation of media-related policies and
improving the targeting of media development efforts.
GLOBAL VILLAGE
Global Village is a term closely associated with Marshall
McLuhan, popularized in his books The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making
of Typographic Man (1962) and Understanding Media (1964). McLuhan
described how the globe has been contracted into a village by
electric technology and the instantaneous movement of information
from every quarter to every point at the same time. In bringing all
social and political functions together in a sudden implosion,
electric speed heightened human awareness of responsibility to an
intense degree.Marshall McLuhan predicted the Internet as an
"extension of consciousness" in The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of
Typographic Man thirty years before its commercialization.The next
medium, whatever it is - it may be the extension of consciousness -
will include television as its content, not as its environment, and
will transform television into an art form. A computer as a
research and communication instrument could enhance retrieval,
obsolesce mass library organization, retrieve the individual's
encyclopedic function and flip into a private line to speedily
tailored data of a saleable kind.Today, the term "Global Village"
can be used to describe the Internet and World Wide Web. On the
Internet, physical distance is even less of a hindrance to the
real-time communicative activities of people, and therefore social
spheres are greatly expanded by the openness of the web and the
ease at which people can search for online communities and interact
with others who share the same interests and concerns. Therefore,
this technology fosters the idea of a conglomerate yet unified
global community. According to McLuhan, the enhanced "electric
speed in bringing all social and political functions together in a
sudden imposion has heightened human awareness of responsibility to
an intense degree." Increased speed of communication and the
ability of people to read about, spread, and react to global news
quickly, forces us to become more involved with one another from
various social groups and countries around the world and to be more
aware of our global responsibilities. Similarly, web-connected
computers enable people to link their web sites together. This new
reality has implications for forming new sociological structures
within the context of culture.From Global Village to Global
TheatreNo chapter in Understanding Media, or later books, contains
the idea that the Global Village and the electronic media create
unified communities. In fact, in an interview with Gerald Stearn,
McLuhan says that it never occurred to him that uniformity and
tranquillity were the properties of the Global Village. McLuhan
argued that the Global Village ensures maximal disagreement on all
points because it creates more discontinuity and division and
diversity under the increase of the village conditions. The Global
Village is far more diverse.After the publication of Understanding
Media, McLuhan starts to use the term Global Theater to emphasise
the changeover from consumer to producer, from acquisition to
involvement, from job holding to role playing, stressing that there
is no more community to clothe the naked specialist.
LOCAL BLOGGERS: VOICES FROM THE GLOBAL VILLAGEFrom Delhi to New
York, there are local bloggers opening their cities up to the
world
There is a rich pile of hyperlocal blogs run by dedicated
volunteers across the country but digital storytelling giving voice
to local people and telling of their relationship with their town
or city in the tradition of the Gentle Author is surprisingly
scarce. It is happening in some locations, however.Every Person in
New YorkJason Polan is sketching every person in New York: on the
train, on the street, in a gallery, from behind. For the last four
years, the artist has roamed the streets with a pen and pad,
sketching passing strangers, mostly without them realising.
Depending on his other artistic commitments, some days he draws a
couple of people; others, he will find 100. He started, he says,
because he wanted a project in which he could interact with fellow
New Yorkers. He encourages people to email him specific details of
where they will be and at what time to increase their chances of
getting drawn. "Ihope that it shows there are a lot of interesting
people here who are doing alot of interesting things," he says. So
far, hehas clocked up an impressive 17,000. Only 8.16million to go
then. His blog ends with a promise: "When the project is completed
we will all have aget-together."The Delhi WallaFive years ago,
Mayank Austen Soofi, "a small-town guy" from Uttar Pradesh, was a
frustrated writer working as a waiter in a five-star hotel in
Delhi. Daily excursions into his new city were his escape; he wrote
about the city to understand it himself and The Delhi Walla blog,
created in his local library, was the result. A celebration of the
food, culture and books of India's capital, it aims to profile 1%
ofDelhi's 11 million population. "Each seems to live in a different
Delhi. To have a fleeting sense of their personal Delhis makes me
appreciate the nuances ofmy Delhi," he says. His approach issimilar
tothe Gentle Authorinthat he eschews negativity and criticism. "I
write without intending to be provocative," he said in an interview
withRediff.com. "I don't like writing bad things about people. No
point." He has starteda reading club called The Delhi Proustians,
written four guidebooks and a new book will be published by Penguin
India later this year. "I think it's the best narrative non-fiction
to have come out of India afterMala Sen'sexcellent India's Bandit
Queen.You see, I don't fake modesty," he says.We Are
CardiffDismayed by the stereotypical portrayal of Cardiff as a city
for hen and stag dos and sporting events, freelance writer Helia
Phoenix and her friends Adam Chard, a designer and photographer,
and Simon Bradwick, a web developer, set up We Are Cardiff in 2010.
Phoenix was inspired by Julie Michelle, the aspiring photographer
behindI Live Here: SF, a blog about local residents ofSan Francisco
(currently in abeyance after Michelle's partner suffered a stroke).
We Are Cardiff tells the stories of ordinary Cardiff folk, from
korfball player Terry Matthews to Dan Allsobrook, an IT consultant
and allotment-lover. Some, such as Englishstudent Alice Paetel,
give paeans of praise to "the nature that surrounds the city so
tightly" while others, such as music producer Lee Marshall, lament
the replacement of "a colony of weird and fascinating shops like a
coral reef" with "another identikit franchise". Most importantly,
says Phoenix, the people who are featured can write their own life
story an antidote to the way that mainstream media interviews are
often spun. We Are Cardiff isnow making a documentarybased on some
of its 60 interviewees. Phoenix is a great admirer of Spitalfields
Life but isnot puzzled why more blogs don't follow its lead. "I'm
not surprised that more people don't do it because it's too
time-consuming," she says.Ventnor BlogA thriving hyperlocal site on
the Isle of Wight has helped promote Mr Caulkhead, a mysterious
character who has been broadcasting fantastic audio shorts about
the island's local dialect. Using a telephone andipadio(free
software enabling people to stream audio via a phone live to the
web), Mr Caulkhead has broadcast hisColloquialismsover the internet
weird words in a thick local accent that are accompanied by an
amusing story illustrating the word's usage. Ventnor Blog also
published his broadcasts alongside illustrations by a local artist.
The result is a warm, witty history that could only ever work
online. Mr Caulkhead had a prolific run of words last winter but
sadly has not broadcast an episode for a year, althoughhe was on
Twitterrecently promising some more words for his adoring
audience.I Live Here: PDXA "love letter to Portland and an
anthology of its residents, neighborhoods and moods", it was also
inspired by ILive Here: SF. Unsurprisingly for a creative city with
such a firm sense of itself, Portland has other blogs depicting the
local community, including one that publishes a photograph (or more
than one) every day:portlandoregondailyphoto.blogspot.comHello
OttawaIn portraits and interviews, Hello Ottawa explores local
people and their relationship to their city. It was created by Anne
Patterson, a community manager and new media strategist living in
the city.
GLOBAL COMMUNICATIONThe study of global communication examines
the continuous flows of information used in transferring ideas
globally. An intricate connection has developed worldwide due to
globalization and the increasing ability to interact on a global
scale. Globalization has led to an increasing ability for
interaction on a global scale through media. Research analyzes the
ways in which the ability of information must now be studied
without stringent relations of receiving and sending of
information.Global communication is a growing discipline within
university Communications departments. Centers like the Center for
Global Communication at the Annenberg School for Communication at
the University of Pennsylvania include this field. Likewise,
academic journals such as the Global Media Journal focus on the
current place of global communication in academia.The study of
global communication has increased dramatically due to changes in
global interactions. Arjun Appadurai claimed that the "central
problem of todays global interactions is the tension between
cultural homogenization and cultural heterogenization".
Homogenization of culture came as American culture globally
influenced others. Global interactions are no longer binary,
affecting multiple parties in multiple locales.
GLOBAL COMMUNICATION AND CULTUREDoes the Development of Global
Communications Inevitably Lead to Cultural Homogenization?The
development of global communications has led to the establishment
of world messenger services such as CNN, a chain of restaurants
globally recognised by their golden Ms, and a worldwide
appreciation for Michael Jackson. But to establish whether these
phenomena are indications of an imminent homogenization of culture,
the evidence of these cultural commodities presence, and their
implications for and influences on local cultures, needs to be
explored. Conversely, there is a suggestion that global
communication technologies may create the opposite, and instead
strengthen local cultures. Nonetheless, both these positions have
developed from the framework of the globalization dialogue, which
itself may need to be questioned to determine whether it reflects
reality, or is purely a Western experience and reminiscent of the
imperial age, and perhaps no longer relevant.Initially, the sheer
massive presence of Western cultural goods throughout the world
makes the case for inevitable cultural homogenization, or more
specifically, Americanization, a probable one. Developments in
global communications have made the exchange of goods and ideas
near instantaneous and unimaginably easy. From the inescapable
presence of McDonalds and Hollywood movie posters, to the Western
clothing brands with social prestige and the World Banks dictation
of plans and patterns of development throughout the world, the
limitless amount of evidence of American-led cultural commodity
domination makes the case for seeing cultural globalization as
Americanization a persuasive one (Tomlinson, 2005: 176). Advocates
of this view usually cite the global presence of the US television
and film industries (Ferguson, 1992: 72) and infer the influence
this media hegemony has on a native culture. Critics of this view
note how it reduces culture to its material goods. It makes a leap
of inference from the simple presence of cultural goods to the
attribution of deeper cultural or ideological effects (Tomlinson,
1999: 84).But if John Streets suggestion that people who regularly
read a paper come increasingly to share its politics, (2001: 108)
is based in fact, then there is reason to believe that the same
could be said of televisions effect on culture. Despite this, it
could be argued that instead of influencing culture, the most media
does is reinforce pre-existing views and values (Street, 2001:
108). That is, people interpret the media through their own
pre-existing value systems. Although often cited as an example of
Americanization, Coca-cola, for example, is attributed with an
array of meanings and uses within particular cultures distinct from
the manufacturers original intention. In Russia, Coke can smooth
skin, in Haiti it can revive the dead, and in Barbados it can turn
copper into silver (Tomlinson, 1999: 84). This shows that the horde
of evidence of global consumption of American commodities is not
necessarily evidence of cultural imperialism and homogenization.
When applied to television, this idea suggests that whatever the
cultural origins of the programme, the audience will interpret them
within the context of their own culture, as media artefacts do not
always result in cultural assimilation (Ferguson, 1992: 72), but
instead only highlight the differences between cultures. But
commercial television and feature films are inventions of American
origin, and thus any television culture, irrespective of its
content and influence, can be viewed as a cultural homogenization
of sorts: that of a television culture. As Don Ayteo of MTV notes,
Weve revolutionized the way Indian kids devote themselves to
leisure Weve created a youth culture where there simply was none
before (Street, 2001: 223). From this perspective, the
globalization of the media can be viewed as a web which enmeshes
and binds in all cultures (Tomlinson, 2005: 176).Alternatively, TV
has not only produced a homogeneous television culture, but has
provided a platform enabling local cultures to strengthen and
diversify. A clear example of this is in Reevess notions of the
Third Cinema and Peoples Theatre, whereby people develop folk and
alternative media opposed to commercial cinemas values, theories,
and stylistic approaches (1993: 235). Thus, the development of
global communications has enabled people to showcase and strengthen
their cultures and traditions, or even to develop a national
identity. The creation of the Internet has made this even more the
case, as individual people are increasingly becoming their own
media force, separate from the dominant institutional order of
communications (Reeves, 1993: 235) and thus less under its
influence. Nonetheless, the Internet is essentially a Western
platform, as it retains Western values of individualism and freedom
of expression. Despite its diverse cultural utilization, the
Internet still encourages a uniform set of ideals. Tunstall even
suggests that it is because of these values that make the imported
media culture so popular (1981: 58). Unpopular characteristics such
as the subservient position of women and caste inequalities in
authentic culture make people embrace the imported culture. This
suggests a gradual cultural homogenization, as, apparently,
everyone wants the same thing. Not only is Tunstall guilty of
presentism and univeralism assuming that his cultures morality is
superior and eternal and universally desired, but he also fails to
recognise other possible factors in Americas media prevalence, such
as its economic strength as an exporter and other countries
economic or other insufficiencies in making their own media.The
simplistic notion of an American-led TV culture also ignores the
pluralisation of cultural production centres around the world
(Tomlinson, 2005: 180). TV Globo in Brazil and the Mexican company
Televisa dominate their own markets as well as export to the rest
of the Hispanic world (Tomlinson, 2005: 180); Egypt exports to the
rest of the Arab world; Indias film industry has audiences
throughout Asia and Africa; and in the Scandinavian markets Sweden
reigns (Tunstall, 1981: 62). In fact, the global audience devotes
80% of its viewing time to domestic, national media and only 20% to
media from outside its borders (Street, 2001: 210). Thus, the
initial assumption by advocates of a cultural homogenization theory
not only overstates the influence of foreign cultural commodities,
but also the prevalence of these commodities, as, in the case of
television, it is home-produced programmes which top the ratings
(Tomlinson, 2005: 180). This suggests that globalization is not the
process of domination necessary for cultural homogenization, but a
decentred network, in which the patterns of distribution of power
are unstable and shifting (Tomlinson, 2005: 185). But this critique
of cultural homogenization ignores Hollywoods influence on these
non-American film industries. According to Street,Nations with
proud traditions of film-making independence like France, England,
Sweden, India, Indonesia and Japan are in fact gradually succumbing
to the irresistible lure of product that is not only predominantly
American but, even when still indigenous, is rooted in the glamour
of the seductive trinity of sex, violence and money, set to a
harmonizing score of American rock and roll (2001: 222).That is to
say, there is an increasing tendency for media around the world to
be put into primarily American packages (Tunstall, 1981: 273).But
is this a case of cultural homogenization, or one of
transculturation and hybridity? The globalization dialogue has led
to the idea that each nation has a single, monolithic culture that
needs to be protected. The GATT (General Agreements of Tariffs and
Trade) rounds are a prime example of this, as they show
globalizations perceived threat of cultural extinction through
their immigration, trade and cultural policies which restrict or
manage the access their citizens have to external sources of media
and culture (Street, 2001: 221). Canada, France and most of
Scandinavia have erected tariff barriers and imposed quotas to
limit the number of foreign television imports, and throughout
recent history states such as Singapore, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and
Iran have all banned satellite dishes to limit outside influence.
This shows that there is, at least, a fear of cultural assimilation
and homogenization among political powers. But most cultures simply
do not correspond to the inorganic Westphalia state system, as they
both transcend borders and can be innumerable within them. Thus, it
is far more appropriate to view global culture as a phenomenon
between rather than within countries. From this perspective,
cultures are hybrids, consisting of components borrowed from one
another, and global communications simply lead to greater cultural
hybridization (Street, 2001: 227). Hip-hop is a music culture
viewed almost entirely as Black American, and more specifically a
part of the urban Black American culture of those living in the
deprived area of the Bronx, New York. In reality, hip-hop is the
product of a complex hybrid mix of Afro-American, Caribbean and
Hispanic musical cultures (Tomlinson, 2005: 182): a hybridization
that could only occur through global communications. With this in
mind, the American influence on the TV and film industries does not
necessarily induce a homogenized global culture, but rather a
diverse hybridity of cultures: a cultural mixing and hybridization
rather than with direct cultural imposition (Tomlinson, 2005:
182).The point of cultural identity as national identity, already
briefly mentioned, is also worth further analysis. Tunstall argues,
The problem of cultural identity is part of a larger problem of
national identity (1981: 57). But in human history, the nation
state is a relatively recent experience, and so it is no surprise
than human interaction through culture predates and does not fit
into these imagined borders. India has nearly 20 languages and an
enormously diverse wealth of religious traditions and cultures. As
John Street asks, Is it realistic to see mass media corporations,
however big, imposing a single culture? (2001: 226) This point also
highlights the North-North, not North-South, nature of the
globalization dialogue (Ferguson, 1992: 73). India and many other
victims of European colonisation throughout Asia and Africa do not
fit into the Western model of synonymous national and cultural
identities. Africa is the continent where national identity is
least strong of all (Tunstall, 1981: 57). That is not to say that
it is culturally weak or more susceptible to cultural imperialism,
as Tunstall suggests, but instead the carving up of the continent
by its colonisers forced its many cultures into borders and
synthetic national identities irrespective of their peoples
realities. Thus, globalization theory, and by extension the theory
of cultural homogenization, might just be another theory through
which the West formulates world history in terms of its own
experience (Tomlinson, 2005: 177). Nonetheless, due to the history
of Western Imperialism, it would be almost perverse to not
recognise the patterns of neo-colonialism in the form of cultural
imperialism here. To the extent that sub-Saharan Africa does
participate in the global media market, they do so within delivery
systems created and maintained by the global [Western] corporations
(Street, 2001: 225), and it is clear that some initiate media
movements and flows, while others are receivers and are effectively
imprisoned by it (Tomlinson, 2005: 177). From this perspective,
global communications are just an extension of neo-colonialism in
the form of cultural imperialism a forerunner to cultural
homogenization.Furthermore, the age of imperialism and colonialism
was partnered with a period of scientific thought inspired by
notions of racial superiority and inferiority. The British model of
imperialism made it possible to scientifically distinguish between
civilized, advanced cultures, and uncivilized, backward cultures.
Linguist Friedrich von Schlegel, for example, believed that
Indo-Germanic languages were superior to the Semitic-African
languages, a reflection of the culture, society and mind of their
speakers (Said, 2003: 98). This shows how Europe constructed its
identity by relegating and confining the non-Europeans to a
secondary racial, cultural status (Tomlinson, 2005: 177). But as
global communications continue to eliminate physical distance,
these cultures are coming into direct proximity with one another,
and the Wests established cultural confidence and certainty is in
decline. From this perspective, the notion of an inevitable
cultural homogenization is just and echo of the Wests colonial
past. And as it is becoming increasingly multi-cultural due
primarily to immigration and undergoing a significant decline in
its cultural power, (Tomlinson, 2005: 185) the image of cultural
homogenization and imperialism that of the domination and
subordination of cultures is becoming increasingly
irrelevant.Nevertheless, the neoliberal nature of globalization and
its tools global communications do maintain the conditions of the
imperialist domination and subordination. Globalization has allowed
wealthy countries to exploit the poorer, by pushing them to
eliminate trade barriers, whilst keeping up their own (Stiglitz,
2002: 6). Although capitalism has no loyalty to its birthplace, and
so provides no guarantees that the geographical patterns of
dominance will continue (Tomlinson, 2005: 187), there are measures
taken by the wealthier, more powerful states to maintain the status
quo. Stiglitz refers to the Uruguay Round a part of the GATT
agreements and its strengthening of intellectual property rights,
stopping developing countries from producing affordable life-saving
drugs, effectively condemning thousands to death (2002: 8). It has
also resulted in dangerous workers exploitation, where
globalization had resulted in poor countries labour force being
forced into low-paid, often dangerous, factory jobs, as their old
jobs become obsolete. This not only highlights the uni-directional
flow of influence, but more broadly, it highlights global
communications influence on the spreading, homogenized culture of
capitalism. Whether the commodities are uniform in flavour or not,
the developments in global communication are producing a
cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every
country (Tomlinson, 1999: 76). The expansionary and imperialist
nature of capitalism, accelerated by developments in global
communications, has brought cultural life in more and more areas
within the grasp of the cash nexus and the logic of capital
circulation (Tomlinson, 2005: 179). This view of globalization and
global communications points to a variety of cultural
homogenization through an overarching culture of capitalism.The
cultural homogenization theory relies largely on Western
conceptions of the world, such as the Westphalia system, as well as
ignoring large parts of the world that are mostly excluded from the
ambit of these communications. Thus, the theory can be seen as a
primarily Western-centric perspective, distorting the reality for
large populations of the globe. It also relies heavily on the idea
of a media presence and influence that are simply not grounded in
hard evidence. It implies that cultures are distinct from one
another, when in reality they are far more interdependent and are
formed through hybridization a process that global communication
developments are accelerating, and thus creating a more diversified
and colourful patchwork of cultures. Initially, the argument of
cultural imperialism suggests that Western dominance is leading to
the Americanization of weaker states, but it also highlights the
imperialistic tones in the cultural homogenization argument, as it
deconstructs 19th century Europes attempt to create cultural
security and certainty by subordinating the cultures of their
colonies, concluding that the cultural homogenization dialogue is
an outdated, irrelevant reverberation of imperialism. Nonetheless,
global communications have increased the spread of capitalism, and
in this respect, it would appear that cultural homogenization is
inevitable in the form of a commodity, capital culture.
DEMOCRATIZATION OF COMMUNICATION(News Article)Time was, we would
get recommendations from trusted institutions. You know the names:
Consumer Reports for products, Lonely Planet for travel, KCRW for
music, the New York Times for all the news thats fit to print, the
list goes on. Their word was sacred, and we the masses were
grateful for their filtering, their curation. If your track wasnt
on heavy rotation on their playlist, so to speak, you werent going
to sell. But as we all know, the Internet changed things. And how.I
thought about this recently as I was planning a trip to Paris and
sought recommendations on things to do, places to eat from a
variety of sources. Between friends, colleagues, peer reviews on
TripAdvisor, New York Times lists, the hotel concierge and travel
sites, I was getting bombarded with tips on how to spend 36 hours
in the City of Light. It was confusing, time-consuming and,
ultimately, overwhelming to parse the recommendations, cross-check
those that seemed promising and book.Its no blinding insight to say
that, with the democratization of communication that the Internet
enabled and the resultant onslaught of data and artifacts created
there is a greater need for filters than ever before. We are
sipping from the proverbial firehose and drowning in the ensuing
deluge. Or, as Clay Shirky put it (by way of JP Rangaswami, who
writes eloquently about the subject), we dont live in an age of
information overload, but of filter failure. Quite so.The notion of
authority and credibility is changing. Previously credibility
inured to institutions and brands. We still revere traditional
arbiters of taste the Michelin guide still makes or breaks many
restaurants. But this is changing. The filters of old are
decreasing in reach, power and authority. Instead, authority is
atomizing to the individual level. Examples abound of individuals
using social platforms such as Twitter and YouTube to broadcast to
a much wider audience. The Amazon star rating is becoming as
important as the NYT Book review.Social recommendations have always
played a big part in our decisions, and this also is changing with
the advent of the social graph. The concept of trusted peers or
filters is expanding to those once or twice removed from our
friends. The prospect of using this social graph to inform our
searches, to be the new PageRank is what underpins the huge
potential of Facebook.At the same time, we as consumers have become
more proactive in seeking filters, in following. Besides email,
Twitter and YouTube, the concept of the follow is central to a new
breed of vertically-oriented sites and feeds: Svpply for products,
8tracks for music (see disclosure), Lyst for fashion, I-Escape for
boutique hotels, Covestor for stocks, food blogs like An American
In London for local restaurants, Jason Hirschorns Media Redefined
feed for my daily run-down of industry news, and so on.But this
also means a splintering of tastes. As we roll our own filters
based on new authorities and new friends and Circles, so there
becomes less overlap in our general tastes. What does this all
mean? Its too early to tell. But, as always, the new filters will
look to institutionalize themselves to cement and project their
authority (Jason Hirschorn will turn his feed into a business,
natch). At the same time, our splintered filters will result in a
self-selecting bias. We naturally gravitate towards filters that
echo our point of view and taste. In public affairs, this leads to
a polarization of the polity. More darkly, as JP writes, There is a
growing risk that you will only be presented with information that
someone else thinks is what you want to see, read or hear.
Accentuating your biases and prejudices. Increasing groupthink.
Narrowing your frame of reference. Whatever the case, there is
enormous value to be created in being the new filter and the
prospect of owning this promises great wealth and power to those
that can do it at scale.Back to my weekend in Paris. After
consulting so many sources, we ultimately just went with the
recommendations of our concierge. He didnt disappoint, but it got
me thinking: it would have been great to have a Quora for Paris a
Q&A site where I could ask where the best Sunday brunch near
the 1st is, with socially filtered answers or, better yet, a
Summify to smartly condense recommendations from institutions and
friends into an easily digested form. That I would pay for.
MEDIA MOGULS The three fundamental forces in the history of the
mass media have been politics, technology and commerce. A media
mogul we define as a person who owns and operates major media
companies, who takes entrepreneurial risks, and who conducts these
media businesses in a personal or eccentric style. use of the term
media mogul indicates a person who largely built up his own media
empire; this entrepreneurial element can include the launching of
new media enterprises, but in practice often consists largely of
buying up, and taking over, existing media companies. This
entrepreneurial and growth aspect distinguishes the mogul from the
crown prince. The crown prince is the second-generation media
entrepreneur, who typically inherits major media properties from
his pioneering father. The inheritor in some cases is not a son,
but a widow, nephew, or other relative. The American press grew
explosively in the late nineteenth century and produced, in men
like Pulitzer and Hearst, the first wave of media moguls. media
moguls political connections and electoral support which lead to
the greatest public controversy. (Rupert Murdochs newspapers were
also highly partisan and belligerent in British national elections
of the 1970s and 1980s; and Murdoch was no less partisan in city,
state and national elections in the US. Axel Springer in West
Germany and Robert Hersant in France were also belligerent
right-wing partisans of the mass circulation Press in a succession
of elections.) Silvio Berlusconi served three times asPrime
Minister of Italyfrom 1994 to 1995, 2001 to 2006 and 2008 to 2011,
led the country almost ten years and seven years as leader of
opposition. Berlusconi's extensive control over the media has been
widely criticised by some analysts. Berlusconi's reported 90%
control of the Italian national media. Berlusconi owns viaMediaset3
of 7 national TV channels Rupert Murdoch Murdoch started by
building an Australian and then a British newspaper empire before
moving to New York; there he began with newspapers before switching
to magazines, a Hollywood production studio and a chain of TV
stations. In 1990 he was the leading newspaper owner in both
Britain and Australia; the only person to own both a major group of
US TV stations and a major Hollywood studio; owner of a massive
circulation US weekly magazine (TV Guide) and five other major
magazines; owner of book publishing interests (the US Harper &
Row and the UK Collins) of truly world significance. (In Britain
the Thatcher government twice waved through major Murdoch newspaper
purchases, although the law appeared to require a reference to the
Monopolies and Mergers Commission.) Murdoch own Star asia in early
90s 20th century fox, wall street journal, harper collins
TRANSNATIONAL NEWS AGENCIESDomination of transnational news
agencies in the world Domination or hegemony is exercised by 5
largest transnational news agencies. AP UPI Rueters AFP ITAR-TAS
(information telegraph agency of russia - telegraph agency of the
soviet union 80% of 15 great news media corporations dominate the
production of radio sets, tv sets and print media sets including
printing devices, radio and tv communication satellite, paper ink
and other elements of mass media technological infrastructure. The
statistics provide the details of disparities that exists, and the
dominance of north in the field of information. Thus making the
south depend on northEg.1 During the british war with argentina,
over their claim on falklands islands, several developing countries
supported the argentinian claim, but their newspapers were
receiving the stories put out by the transnational news agencies,
which were biased in favor of britain. The newspapers in the
developing countries could not afford to send their own
correspondents to cover the war.Eg, 2 The gulf war provides the eg.
of how dependent . for news on the west can destroy the content of
third world media. During the gulf war, India's language dailies
did not have the capacity to cover war events with their own
correspondents. Almost all the newspapers depended upon the news
originating from the western news agencies. The usage of words in
the news dispatches became a form of psychological warfare during
the so called gulf war.CONCENTRATION OF MEDIA
OWNERSHIPConcentration of media ownership (also known as media
consolidation or media convergence) is a process whereby
progressively fewer individuals or organizations control increasing
shares of the mass media. Contemporary research demonstrates
increasing levels of consolidation, with many media industries
already highly concentrated and dominated by a very small number of
firms.Globally, large media conglomerates include Viacom, CBS
Corporation, Time Warner, News Corp, Bertelsmann AG, Sony
Corporation of America, NBCUniversal, Vivendi, Televisa, The Walt
Disney Company, Hearst Corporation, Organizaes Globo and Lagardre
Group.As of 2012, The Walt Disney Company is the largest media
conglomerate in the US, with News Corporation, Time Warner and
Viacom ranking second, third and fourth respectively.In nations
described as authoritarian by most international think-tanks and
NGOs like Human Rights Watch (China, Cuba, Russia), media ownership
is generally something very close to the complete state control
over information in direct or indirect ways (see Gazprom
Media).Media mergers are a result of one media related company
buying another company for control of their resources in order to
increase revenues and viewership. As information and entertainment
become a major part of our culture, media companies have been
creating ways to become more efficient in reaching viewers and
turning a profit. Successful media companies usually buy out other
companies to make them more powerful, profitable, and able to reach
a larger viewing audience. Media Mergers have become more prevalent
in recent years, which has people wondering about the negative
effects that could be caused by media ownership becoming more
concentrated. Such negative effects that could come into play are
lack of competition and diversity as well as biased political
views.Media oligopolyAn oligopoly is when a few firms dominate a
market. When the larger scale media companies buy out the more
smaller-scaled or local companies they become more powerful within
the market. As they continue to eliminate their business
competition through buyouts or forcing them out (because they lack
the resources or finances) the companies left dominate the media
industry and create a media oligopoly.Elimination of net
neutralityNet neutrality is also at stake when media mergers are
occurring. Net neutrality involves a lack of restrictions on
content on the internet, however, with big businesses supporting
campaigns financially they tend to have influence over political
issues, which can translate into their mediums. These big
businesses that also have control over internet usage or the
airwaves could possibly make the content available biased from
their political stand point or they could restrict usage for
conflicting political views, therefore eliminating Net
Neutrality.Debates and issuesConcentration of media ownership is
very frequently seen as a problem of contemporary media and
society. When media ownership is concentrated in one or more of the
ways mentioned above, a number of undesirable consequences follow,
including the following:Commercially driven, ultra-powerful mass
market media is primarily loyal to sponsors, i.e. advertisers and
government rather than to the public interest.Only a few companies
representing the interests of a minority elite control the public
airwavesHealthy, market-based competition is absent, leading to
slower innovation and increased prices.Diversity of viewpointsIt is
important to elaborate upon the issue of media consolidation and
its effect upon the diversity of information reaching a particular
market. Critics of consolidation raise the issue of whether
monopolistic or oligopolistic control of a local media market can
be fully accountable and dependable in serving the public
interest.Freedom of the press and editorial independenceOn the
local end, reporters have often seen their stories refused or
edited beyond recognition. An example would be the repeated refusal
of networks to air "ads" from anti-war advocates to liberal groups
like MoveOn.org, or religious groups like the United Church of
Christ, regardless of factual basis. Journalists and their reports
may be directly sponsored by parties who are the subject of their
journalism leading to repor