Global Advocate

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July/August 2011

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ii July/August 2011 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate July/August 2011 1

12 Liming Materials For Aquaculture Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.

14 Shrimp Sampling Method Improves Stocking Process Andrew J. Ray, M.S.; Jeffrey M. Lotz, Ph.D.; Jeffrey F. Brunson, M.S.; John W. Leffler, Ph.D.

16 Oyster Output Affected By Environmental Features Of Farm Site Darien D. Mizuta, Nelson Silveira Júnior, Christine E. Fischer, Daniel Lemos

19 Uncharted Waters: Kenya Takes Dramatic Leap In Aquaculture Jeff Hino

22 India’s Fish Feed Industry – Growing Sector Can Support Aquaculture Diversity, Development P. E. Vijay Anand, Ph.D.; Michael C. Cremer, Ph.D.

26 Tilapia Farming Faces Expansion Issues In Thailand Ram C. Bhujel, Ph.D.; Mark Woollard

30 Working With Fish – Limit Zoonotic Diseases Through Prevention Stephen A. Smith, DVM, Ph.D.

34 Bacterial Diseases Cause Granulomas In Fish – Varied Staining Methods Identify Pathogens Wes A. Baumgartner, DVM, Dipl. ACVP; John Hawke, Ph.D.

37 Boston Session Examines ‘What Fish Eat’ Kelly Coleman

40 American Fisheries Society Calls For Immediate-Release Fish Sedatives James Bowker, M.S.; Jesse Trushenski, Ph.D.

42 Potassium Diformate Doesn’t Affect Shrimp Growth, Survival; Reduces Nutrient Digestibility Dong-Fang Deng, Ph.D.; Zhi Yong Ju, Ph.D.; Warren G. Dominy, Ph.D.; Peter J. Bechtel, Ph.D.; Scott Smiley, Ph.D.

46 Common Off-Flavors In Channel Catfish Following Partial Pond Harvest Kevin K. Schrader, Ph.D.; Craig S. Tucker, Ph.D.

50 U.S. Catfish Industry Production Shifts Continue James A. Steeby, Ph.D.

52 Survey Examines Perceived Barriers, Strategies For U.S. Aquaculture Development Saba Siddiki; Christopher M. Weible, Ph.D.

55 Figures Confirm: Chilean Salmon Is Back Jorge Diaz Salinas

56 Off-Flavors In Aquacultured Products – Part II: Environmental, Endogenous Factors George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.

58 Diversification Of The Aquaculture Sector – Seaweed Cultivation, Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture, Integrated Sequential Biorefineries Dr. T. Chopin, Dr. A. Neori, Dr. A. Buschmann; Dr. S. Pang, M. Sawhney

61 Shrimp Disruptions Continue, Supply Delays Expected Whole Salmon, Fillet Imports To U.S. Down Whole Tilapia Stay Low, Costa Rica Fillets Drop Pangasius Imports Grow As Replacement Costs Rise Paul Brown, Jr.; Janice Brown; Angel Rubio

DEPARTMENTSFrom The Director 2 From The Editor 3 GAA Activities 5Industry News 85Advocate Advertisers 88

65 Testing Finds Resistance To WSSV In Shrimp From Panamanian Breeding Program Jorge Cuéllar-Anjel; Roberto Chamorro; Brenda White-Noble; Paul Schofield; Donald V. Lightner, Ph.D.

67 Norweigian Salmon Smolt Farms Embracing RAS To Raise Production Asbjørn Drengstig, Yngve Ulgenes, Helge Liltved, Asbjørn Bergheim

70 New Techniques, Peptide Treatments Aid Intensive Shrimp Farm In Ecuador Mark Rottman

72 Single-Cell Detritus: Fermented Bioenriched Feed For Marine Larvae Dr. S. Felix, P. Pradeepa

74 Novel Soy Proteins, Oils Replace Fishmeal To Achieve FIFO Under 1:1 In Amberjack Jennica Lowell, M.S.; Neil Anthony Sims, M.S.; Tom Clemente, Ph.D.

76 Photo-Based Color Evaluation Can Enhance Catfish Fillet Quality David Cline

78 Nitrifier Product Improves Nitrification In RAS David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.; David J. Drahos

80 Essential Oils Increase Weight Gain In Channel Catfish Brian C. Peterson, Ph.D.; Brian G. Bosworth, Ph.D.; Monica L. Wood; Menghe H. Li, Ph.D.; Ruben Beltran, M.S.

83 Labomar Study Defines Optimal Dietary Lipid, Energy Content For Fat Content Alberto J. P. Nunes, Ph.D.; Ricardo C. C. Pinto, M.S., Marcelo V. C. Sá, Ph.D.

On the cover: Nutrition research has led to reduced fishmeal use in diets for amberjack and other emerging species. Photo courtesy of Kona Blue Water Farms.

Page 65Shrimp Resist WSSVIn a recent challenge test, resistance to WSSV was shown in shrimp supplied by the Camaronera de Coclé, S.A. L. vannamei genetics program.

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Page 19Kenya Backs Aquaculture Kenya’s officials are counting on aquaculture to relieve pressure on fisheries and supply a more sustain-able source of protein – and cash – for Kenyans.

july/august 2011

2 July/August 2011 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate July/August 2011 3

from the editor

In 20 years, per-capita seafood consumption is expected to rise to about 20 kg annually. Many of us have an even more ambitious goal: to double seafood production in a decade. With capture fisheries unlikely to increase yields, additional seafood pro-duction to keep pace with a rapidly growing human population can only come from aquaculture.

We have to expand aquaculture production to new areas and new species, but we also have to become more efficient producers. Land-based agriculture is a great example of increased production based on improved technol-ogy. Today, one agrifarmer can grow enough food to support about 155 people, up from 73 people in 1970 and 19 people in 1940.

To boost aquaculture output, we must face and overcome a number of challenges, some of which include uncertain production costs for fuel and volatile feed ingredients, and competition for common resources like land, water, fishmeal, fish oil and, with the advent of the new biofuels industry, grain. Increased protectionism and antidumping actions, and new commerce regulations are additional challenges.

And let’s not forget issues like seafood safety, traceability, animal welfare, sustain-ability and social and environmental challenges. Biosecurity and health management to deal with old and emerging diseases. Growing competition from other human activities for expansion to new inland or offshore areas. Species introductions, domestication, product price volatility and uncertainty. And there are other concerns: production inef-ficiencies, undefined investment funding sources and limited official support in some regions.

If we are to successfully face these industry challenges, we need new technologies as well as greater performance from existing ones to improve production efficiency and sustainability. Our industry must become more “industrialized,” to produce more with less – and faster, better and more safely.

On the technical side, one key goal should be continuous reduction of the time needed to reach market size. In this regard, the poultry industry provides a valuable blueprint to follow that offers many benefits.

Shorter production cycles mean better survival and feed conversion, lower energy and labor costs, more turnovers per growing season, more effective use of production infrastructure and overall maximized production and financial performance. The tools to accomplish shorter cycles are already available, and we know what to do with them.

Domestication and breeding for faster growth and better performance, and develop-ment of lines resistant to specific pathogens and optimized for specific environments and growing conditions. Improved aquafeed formulations, manufacturing and feeding practices; production systems that provide safe and stable conditions that maximize pro-ductivity; and standardized management protocols that provide increased control over production systems.

Let me again bring you the wise words of the great ocean explorer Jacques Cousteau, who in 1973 told us: “With earth’s burgeoning human population to feed, we must turn to the sea with understanding and new technology. … We need to farm it as we farm the land.”

Thank you for your support and please let us know how we can best serve our industry.

Sincerely,

Darryl E. Jory

Darryl E. Jory, Ph.D.Editor, Development Manager

Global Aquaculture [email protected]

GLOBAL AQUACULTUREALLIANCE

The Global Aquaculture Al li ance is an in-ternational non-profit, non-gov ernmental association whose mission is to further en vi-ron men tally responsible aqua culture to meet world food needs. Our members are produc-ers, pro cessors, marketers and retailers of sea-food prod ucts worldwide. All aqua culturists in all sectors are welcome in the organization.

OFFICERSGeorge Chamberlain, President

Bill Herzig, Vice PresidentOle Norgaard, SecretaryLee Bloom, Treasurer

Wally Stevens, Executive Director

BOARD OF DIRECTORSBert Bachmann

Lee BloomRittirong Boonmechote

George ChamberlainShah Faiez

John GaliherBill HerzigRay JonesAlex Ko

Jordan MazzettaDomingo Moreira

Sergio NatesOle Norgaard John Peppel

John SchrammIain Shone

Wally Stevens

EDITORDARRYL JORY

[email protected]

PRODUCTION STAFFMAGAZINE MANAGER

JANET [email protected]

ASSISTANT EDITORDAVID WOLFE

[email protected]

GRAPHIC DESIGNERLORRAINE JENNEMANN

[email protected]

HOME OFFICE5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3ASt. Louis, Missouri 63129 USATelephone: +1-314-293-5500

FAX: +1-314-293-5525E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.gaalliance.org

All contents copyright © 2011Global Aquaculture Alliance.Global Aquaculture Advocate

is printed in the USA.ISSN 1540-8906

FOUNDING MEMBERS

Agribrands International Inc.Agromarina de Panama, S.A.

Alicorp S.A. – NicovitaAqualma – Unima Group

Aquatec/CamanorAsociación Nacional de Acuicultores de ColombiaAsociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras

Associação Brasileira de Criadores de CamarãoBangladesh Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance

Belize Aquaculture, Ltd.Delta Blue Aquaculture

Bluepoints Co., Inc.Cámara Nacional de Acuacultura

Camaronera de Cocle, S.A.Cargill Animal NutritionContinental Grain Co.

C.P. Aquaculture Business GroupDarden Restaurants

Deli Group, EcuadorDeli Group, HondurasDiamante del Mar S.A.

Eastern Fish Co.El Rosario, S.A.

Empacadora Nacional, C.A.Empress International, Ltd.

Expack Seafood, Inc.Expalsa – Exportadora de Almientos S.A.

FCE Agricultural Research and Management, Inc.

Fishery Products InternationalIndia Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance

Indian Ocean Aquaculture GroupINVE Aquaculture, N.V.

King & Prince Seafood Corp.Long John Silver’s, Inc.

Lu-Mar Lobster & Shrimp Co.Lyons Seafoods Ltd.

Maritech S.A. de C.V.Meridian Aquatic Technology Systems, LLC

MonsantoMorrison International, S.A.

National Food InstituteNational Prawn Co.

Ocean Garden Products, Inc.Overseas Seafood Operations, SAM

Preferred Freezer ServicesProductora Semillal, S.A.

Promarisco, S.A.Red Chamber Co.Rich-SeaPak Corp.

Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A.Sanders Brine Shrimp Co., L.C.

Sea Farms GroupSeprofin Mexico

Shrimp News InternationalSociedad Nacional de Galapagos

Standard Seafood de Venezuela C.A.Super Shrimp Group

Tampa Maid Foods, Inc.U.S. Foodservice

Zeigler Brothers, Inc.

from the director

Progress With Pride

Keeping Pace In The RaceFor More Seafood

Wally StevensExecutive Director

Global Aquaculture [email protected]

It takes a team to keep all these activities going – and I’m justly proud of ours.

As this edition of the magazine is going to press, we have just received a unanimous vote of approval for the Best Aquaculture Practices for salmon farms from the 12 members of the Standards Oversight Committee (SOC). With the standards’ final approval by the Global Aquaculture Alliance board, the BAP program will have taken a major step for-ward in the journey toward sustainability with BAP’s first standards for ocean-based aquaculture.

What a great piece of work by the varied profes-sionals on the salmon technical committee. Led by Dr. John Forster, they had to con-sider – and then reconsider – a whole range of factors that contribute to responsible fish production. They not only examined guidelines for feed inputs, therapeutant use, worker safety and food safety, but also topics unique to net pen culture, especially influ-ences on the ecosystems that surround the farm facilities.

After initial reviews of the committee standards and recommendations for various improvements, the members of the SOC then considered the many ideas received dur-ing the public comment phase of the stan-dards. More discussion followed. More changes were made. And consensus was achieved. BAP training and final documen-tation for salmon audits are now in process.

GAA is also rolling along in its plan-ning for GOAL 2011. The GOAL pro-gram is being finalized with an exciting new component. With funding from the World Bank, the Responsible Aquaculture Foundation is working with Wageningen Univer-sity on a study of disease issues related to salmon, shrimp and Pangasius. An initial com-ponent of the study program – a report on Chile’s response to ISA – will be presented during GOAL 2011.

It takes a team to keep all these activities going – and I’m justly proud of ours. Bill and Betty More and their associates in the BAP administrative office have

helped prepare hundreds of facilities around the world prepare for certification. Peter Redmond continues his recruitment of marketplace endorsers of the BAP program, while Dan Lee shepherds the standards development process with the SOC.

Editor Darryl Jory works with David Wolfe to collect and edit content for the Global Aquaculture Advocate, while Lorraine Jennemann assembles the layouts for print every other month. Susan Chamberlain, magazine manager, will soon be returning to her other career with the Ride on St. Louis non-profit. We appreciate everything she has done for the magazine and GAA – and welcome Janet Vogel as her replacement.

Jim Heerin and Jeff Fort are still coordinating a smooth integration of the BAP administrative operations into GAA. And Jeff Peterson and Ken Corpron are disseminat-ing the BAP message and setting up training in responsible aquaculture around the world.

Sally Krueger and Rebekah Hempen – whose current focus is on GOAL planning and accounting support – just plain hold the GAA office together. And, of course, George Chamberlain does too many things to list!

At the Global Aquaculture Alliance, it’s really the people who make the difference. I am proud of the accomplishments of our team.

Sincerely,

Wally Stevens


GOVERNING MEMBERSABC Research Corp.AIS Aqua Foods, Inc.

Al Fulk National Co., Ltd.Alicorp S.A. – Nicovita

Alfesca H.F.Aqua Bounty Technologies

Blue ArchipelagoCapitol Risk Concepts, Ltd.

CargillChang International, Inc.

Chicken of the Sea/ Empress International

Darden RestaurantsDelta Blue Aquaculture

Eastern Fish Co.Fenway Partners LLC

Fishery Products International, Inc.Grobest USA Inc.

Integrated Aquaculture InternationalKing & Prince Seafood Corp.

Lyons Seafoods Ltd. Maloney Seafood Corp.

Mazzetta Co., LLCMorey’s Seafood International

National Fish and Seafood, Inc.Pescanova USA

Preferred Freezer ServicesQVD

Red Chamber Co.Rich Product Corp.

Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A.Sea Port Products Corp.

Seafood Exchange of FloridaSeafood Solutions

SeajoyThai Union Group

Trace RegisterTropical Aquaculture Products, Inc.

Urner Barry Publications, Inc.

SUSTAINING MEMBERSAkin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld LLP

Anova Food, Inc.Aquatec Industrial Pecuaria Ltd.

Blue Ridge AquacultureCamanchaca

Contessa Food Products, Inc.Cooke Aquaculture Inc.Cumbrian Seafoods Ltd.

Diversified Business CommunicationsDSM

Fega Marikultura P.T. Findus Group

Fortune Fish Co.H & N Foods International, Inc.

Harbor Seafood, Inc.Ipswich Shellfish Co., Inc.

Maritime Products InternationalMt. Cook Alpine Salmon

Orca Bay SeafoodsPacific Supreme Co.

PanaPesca USA Corp.PFS Logistics

Santa Monica SeafoodSealord Group Ltd.

Seattle Fish Co.Seattle Fish Co. of N.M.Shianlin Frozen Foods

Slade Gorton & Co., Inc.

Solae, LLCSouthFresh Aquaculture

Stavis Seafoods, Inc.The Fishin’ Company

United Seafood Enterprises, L.P.Western Edge Inc.

ASSOCIATION MEMBERSAll China Federation of Industry

and Commerce Aquatic ProductionChamber of Commerce

American Feed Industry Association Associação Brasileira de Criadoresde

CamarãoAustralian Prawn Farmers Association

Bangladesh Shrimp and Fish FoundationChina Aquatic Products Processing

and Marketing Association Fats and Proteins Research

Foundation, Inc.Indiana Soybean Alliance

International Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organisation

Malaysian Shrimp Industry Association

National Fisheries InstituteNational Renderers Association Prince Edward Island Seafood

Processors Association Salmon of the Americas

SalmonChile Seafood Importers

and Processors Alliance U.S. Soybean Export Council World Aquaculture Society

World Renderers Organization

JOIN THE WORLD’S LEADING AQUACULTURE ORGANIzATION

Global Aquaculture AllianceFeeding the World Through Responsible Aquaculture

St. Louis, Missouri, USA – www.gaalliance.org – +1-314-293-5500

global aquaculture

Aquaculture is the future of the world’s seafood supply. Be part of it by joining the Global Aquaculture Alliance, the leading standards-setting organization for farmed seafood.

Access science-based information on efficient aqua-culture management. Connect with other responsible companies and reach your social responsibility goals.

Improve sales by adopting GAA’s Best Aquaculture Practices certification for aquaculture facilities.

Annual dues start at U.S. $150 and include a subscrip-tion to the Global Aquaculture Advocate magazine, GAA e-newsletters, event discounts and other bene-fits. Visit www.gaalliance.org or contact the GAA office for details.

®

gaa activities

GOAL Program To Address Growth-Related Aquaculture Issues

The GOAL 2011 aquaculture seafood conference – sched-uled for November 6-9 in Santiago, Chile -- will present inter-pretations of key data on seafood supplies and market trends in fish and shrimp aquaculture. Consistent with the GOAL theme, “Double in a Decade – Responsibly,” speakers from the produc-tion and retail sectors, governments and NGOs will also address ways the aquaculture sector can quickly increase production sus-tainably to meet the demands of the rapidly growing middle class in Asia and elsewhere.

Investor SessionThe rapidly rising demand for seafood driven by the bur-

geoning middle class can only be met by aquaculture. But how will this major growth be financed? And how will global seafood markets shift?

GOAL 2011 will examine these and other questions during its November 8 session on global aquaculture investment. Gorjan Nikolik, a senior associate for commodities, farming and animal protein with Rabobank International, will begin, followed by a panel discussion on aquaculture investment featuring experts from the worlds of private investing, banking and aquaculture. A new tool to help connect seafood pros with investment sources to sup-port expansion and further development will also be presented.

Chile And ISAAnother important topic on the GOAL 2011 program

agenda – especially to those involved in aquaculture in the host country – is Chile’s recovery from the impacts of an infectious salmon anemia (ISA) outbreak. After its salmon-farming indus-try lost output and major market share to the disease, it had to rethink policies and rework infrastructure. Aquaculture consul-tant Adolfo Alvial will explain the results of a survey that exam-ined the impacts of ISA and how they were addressed.

His presentation will report on the first phase of a new World Bank-funded project by the Responsible Aquaculture Foundation and Wageningen University that is studying disease issues related to salmon, shrimp and Pangasius farming.

Topics And TrendsOther program sessions will address Fish 2030 and new

technologies that will help aquaculturists expand production. In addition to GOAL’s updates on supply and demand trends for

main farmed seafood species, attendees will hear presentations on feed, energy and other subjects. “Lunch and learn” sessions have also been added to the GOAL 2011 program.

ToursGOAL 2011 will offer a selection of touring opportunities

before, during and after the conference. The outings will include options to visit aquaculture facilities in northern and southern Chile, and other destinations in tours from half a day to five days in duration. Organized by Adolfo Alvial Consultancies or Desti-nation Management Chile, these tours will be led by bilingual hosts and generally start from the Grand Hyatt in Santiago.

Go cycling in Santiago, discover the Colchagua Wine Route or take in Torres del Paine in Patagonia. Descriptions of these tours – which feature varied elements of Chile, the country at “the end of the world” – are posted on the GAA website at www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-tours.php. This page also includes a link to excellent local and regional travel advice pro-vided by Chile’s Department of Fisheries.

Registration AvailableGOAL 2011 is open to aquaculture and seafood producers,

processors, marketers, retailers, investors around the world. To participate, register online or download a printable form at www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-registration.php. GAA offers an early registration discount of up to U.S. $300 per person. Global Aquaculture Alliance members receive additional dis-counts for registration fees. All GOAL registrations will be reviewed by the conference committee before approval.

Grand Hyatt HotelGOAL 2011 will convene at the Grand Hyatt Santiago, a

five-star luxury hotel with a resort feel. Located in the exclusive Las Condes district, it offers easy access to the city center, nearby golfing and mall shopping. The Grand Hyatt will provide free in-room Internet service and daily breakfast buffet for con-ference attendees.

GOAL participants must make room reservations directly with the hotel. A form can be downloaded at www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-hotel.php.

GOAL host city Santiago is Chile’s capital and national commerce center.

GOAL 2011 will include options to tour sea-based salmon farms and other aquaculture facilities.

Photo by Mario Mendoza, Technopress.


BAP Adds Thai Union As Four-Star Company

SGS Joins Best Aquaculture Practices Auditing TeamThe Best Aquaculture Practices program has added SGS to its

international team of auditing bodies. In a service agreement between BAP and SGS, the independent contractor will perform facility inspections and certification audits for aquaculture farms, hatcheries, processing plants and feed mills that apply for BAP certification.

SGS is the world’s leading inspection, verification, testing and certification company. SGS is recognized as the global benchmark for quality and integrity. With more than 64,000 employees, SGS operates a network of over 1,250 offices and laboratories around the world.

“We are very pleased to work with an auditing organization with such worldwide capacity and capabilities as SGS,” BAP

Executive Director Jim Heerin said, “particularly as the Global Aquaculture Alliance is preparing to announce the completion of new standards.”

SGS auditors will receive training and authorization from BAP regarding the certification standards before carrying out audits.

SGS joins Global Trust Certification, NSF International and John Bean Technologies, Ltd./Food Audits International as an ISO 65-accredited certification body designated to perform BAP audits. The use of ISO 65 inspectorates allows BAP certification to comply with Global Food Safety Initiative benchmarking and other international standards requirements.

Best Aquaculture Practices has gained Thai Union Group as its largest “four-star” aquaculture operation. Thai Union, whose widely recognized retail brands include Chicken of the Sea, Sea-lect and John West, is a leading producer and exporter of frozen and canned seafood.

“Thai Union’s extensive aquaculture ventures were already operating with sustainability in mind, and this will help bring even more responsibly produced shrimp and seafood to tables across the globe,” said GAA President George Chamberlain.

With their May 19 certification, Thai Union’s feed mills in Muang, Samutsakhon; and Ranod, Songkhla, Thailand, became the latest additions to the list of over 400 BAP-certified facili-ties. Thai Union has also achieved BAP certification for over two dozen shrimp farms in Thailand. The Thai Union Hatchery Co. in Ampher Takuatung, Phang-nga, Thailand, distributes

white shrimp postlarvae to farmers.Much of the group’s seafood output is processed by the Thai

Union Seafood Co., Ltd. plant in Amphur Singhanakorn, Song-khla, Thailand. With the expansion of its cooked shrimp pro-duction facilities, it expects to increase sales of shrimp products in Japan, Europe and other potential markets. Thai Union Fro-zen Products Public Co., Ltd. in Ampher Muang, Samutsakorn, Thailand, also processes shrimp harvested from Thai Union’s certified farms.

“The BAP four-star status fits well with Thai Union’s sus-tainability initiatives and core beliefs,” said Rittirong Boonme-chote, managing director of Thai Union Frozen Products and president of Thai Union Feedmill. “This status allows us to pro-vide the best possible product to our customers and will help us achieve sustainability through the whole supply chain.”

BAP Reps Meet With Indian FarmersBest Aquaculture Practices Director of Quality Control Jeff

Peterson and Asia and Pacific Regional Coordinator Ken Cor-pron met with representatives of processing plants, hatcheries and farmer groups in India in mid-May to discuss implementa-tion of the BAP standards for group farms.

“The response was very enthusiastic,” Peterson said. “The ongoing transition from P. monodon to L. vannamei culture is resulting in production levels not seen in years. Processing and farmers groups are positioning themselves for a dramatic increase in production that appears to be coming very soon.”

The Indian government has implemented two programs to bolster the white shrimp sector. Farms are required to install

BAP Asia coordina-tor Ken Corpron discussed the imple-mentation of certi-fication standards for group farms with farmers in India.

GAA, APCC Expand Cooperative AgreementThe Global Aquaculture Alliance and All China Federation

of Industry and Commerce Aquatic Production Chamber of Commerce (APCC) have expanded a cooperative agreement between the two groups regarding advancing sustainable aqua-culture in China and other countries.

In a May ceremony in Wuhan, China, GAA and APCC agreed to collaborate on the proposed United States Food and Drug Administration HACCP training programs in support of appropriate Chinese government departments.

The parties will provide personnel and facilities for the train-ing and encourage further training to address issues of sustain-ability as encompassed in the Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) certification program. They agree to present a proposed plan and budgets for this expanded training to funding agencies.

APCC and GAA will also jointly advocate for producers and major retail and foodservice businesses in China to support sus-tainable aquaculture practices as addressed in the BAP standards.

APCC President Li Zhong (left) and GAA Executive Director Wally Stevens ceremoniously shook hands to expand an agree-ment between the two groups.

Alliance Completes BAP Salmon Farm Standards

The Global Aquaculture Alliance has expanded the Best Aquaculture Practices certification program with the completion of BAP standards for salmon farms.

“This is another big step forward for BAP,” GAA Executive Director Wally Stevens said. “With the salmon standards com-ing on line, the program now covers another very important spe-

cies via international guidelines that protect the environment, worker rights and animal welfare, while also addressing food safety and traceability.”

The BAP standards for salmon farms apply to the cage and net pen production of salmon and rainbow trout. They join BAP’s standards for shrimp, tilapia, Pangasius and channel cat-fish. The BAP program also includes standards for feed mills, hatcheries and processing plants. Over 700,000 mt of seafood are processed under the BAP program annually.

BAP is now open to salmon farmers and processors, and is working with certification bodies to develop auditor guidelines for the new standards. An August BAP auditor course in Ireland will emphasize the salmon standards.

The BAP Standards Oversight Committee (SOC), whose members represent a balance of stakeholders from industry, NGOs and academia, unanimously approved the standards for implementation. The salmon standards were initially drafted by a technical committee under the chairmanship of aquaculture scientist and consultant John Forster. The standards were then redrafted following input from the public review process, final-ized and approved by the SOC and GAA board.

The standards can be viewed at www.gaalliance.org/ cmsAdmin/uploads/BAP-SalmonF-611.pdf. Public comments and responses are also available at www.gaalliance.org/bap/ comments.php.

BAP’s new standards apply to the cage production of salmon and trout.

Global Alliance At World Aquaculture 2011

The Global Aquaculture Alliance actively participated in the June 6-10 annual meeting of the World Aquaculture Society in Natal, Brazil. The event had a registration of over 3,000 participants.

GAA President George Chamberlain delivered a talk in the

shrimp session of World Aquaculture 2011 – “Can We Double in a Decade, Responsibly?” – in which he reviewed the high-lights of GOAL 2010. He discussed such topics as shifting global economic power and the rising new middle class, and their impacts on global seafood demand. By 2030, 66% of the world’s middle class will live in the Asia Pacific region, he said.

India and China are driving the growth in the global middle class, and China is becoming a net importer of seafood. The global demand for seafood is projected to be between 138 and 159 mmt by 2025, so aquaculture production will need to be 74 to 100 mmt by 2025 – an increase of 42 or 92% from 2008 levels.

Chamberlain also discussed the production of major species, the impacts of technology on the aquaculture business and the extraordinary gains made by shrimp farmers in Thailand due to genetic and hatchery improvements. Finally, he reviewed aqua-culture from a U.S. foodservice perspective and explained the Walmart commitment to seafood produced under GAA’s Best Aquaculture Practices program.

GAA also participated in the trade show, where Global Aquaculture Advocate Manager Susan Chamberlain distributed literature at the GAA booth and answered questions about the organization’s mission and activities.

George Chamberlain (center) greets visitors at the GAA booth in Natal.


GOAL 2011November 6-9, 2011Grand Hyatt SantiagoSantiago, Chile

Global Outlook For Aquaculture Leadership 2011Join the Global Aquaculture Alliance and fellow seafood leadersat “The End of the World” for GAA’s annual aquaculture seafood meeting.

Double In A Decade – Responsibly

Photo courtesy of Armin Ramírez.

Tours The GOAL 2011 schedule will include options to tour aqua-culture farms and other destinations. Additional information will be posted as available.

Register OnlineGOAL 2011 is a by-invitation meeting open to aquaculture and seafood producers, processors, marketers, retailers and others associated with fish and shellfish farming world-wide. To request an invitation, visit www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/. All GOAL registrations will be reviewed by the conference committee before approval.

Register early to enjoy early-bird discounts. GAA corporate members receive additional discounts. Visit the “Join GAA” page at www.gaalliance.org/joingaa.php for mem-bership benefits and details.

Global Aquaculture AllianceGOAL 2011 is organized by the Global Aquaculture Alliance, an international non-profit trade association dedicated to advancing responsible aquaculture. GAA is the leading standards-setting organization for farmed seafood. Through its Best Aquaculture Prac-tices standards, Global Aquaculture Advocate maga-zine, website and meetings, GAA helps aquacultur-ists raise wholesome and healthy seafood products. It also represents aquaculture by promoting effective, coordinated regulatory and trade policies.

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Photo by Mario Mendoza, Technopress.

global aquaculture

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GAA Names Janet Vogel New Advocate Manager

The Global Aquaculture Alliance has named Janet Vogel as its new manager for the Global Aquaculture Advocate magazine. Vogel will coor-dinate advertising sales, production and distribution for “The Global Magazine for Farmed Seafood.”

“I look forward to representing GAA in its leadership role of stan-dard setting for farmed seafood,” Vogel said. “One of my goals is to further expand the readership of the Advocate to reach more seafood buy-ers in both the retail and foodservice market segments.

“Suppliers and buyers can count on the Advocate as the lead-ing source of information on farmed seafood sustainability and food safety, and stay informed on the future of aquaculture.”

With nearly 30 years of experience in the seafood industry, Vogel is a former marketing and sales manager for Ocean Gar-den Products, Inc., where she helped establish a new sales terri-tory and increased seafood sales in the United States, Europe and Asia. She also developed foodservice chain program sales and expanded distributor customer sales for Rubicon Resources, LLC., and recently provided regional sales management and business development for C.P. Food Products, Inc., Pescanova-Ladex and CapitalSea.

Vogel takes over from Advocate Manager Susan Chamberlain, who led the magazine’s return to six annual print issues and expanded electronic advertising options to include quick-response (Q.R.) codes and other media. Chamberlain is pursuing other opportunities in the non-profit sector.

For advertising information or to place ads in the Advocate, contact Vogel at +1-314-293-5500 or [email protected].

Janet Vogel

Advertise In the Global Aquaculture Advocate.

Reach readers across the globe. We offer competitive rates and...

GAA corporate members save 15-30%!

Contact Marketing Manager Janet Vogel

at 314-293-5500 or [email protected]

to take advantage of special rates for multiple insertions, too.

Reach the Leaders... water-holding reservoirs and effluent treatment systems to control the quality of water entering and leaving farms. India has also improved its National Residue Control Program to prescreen all farm harvests for the presence of non-approved antibiotics.

While in Chennai, Peterson and Corpron also attended the National Workshop on Scaling Up the Shrimp BMP Program at the Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture.

Through the Marine Products Export Development Author-ity-sponsored National Center for Sustainable Aquaculture pro-gram, India has made strides in the formation of small-scale shrimp farmer groups called societies.

The groups are working toward adopting best management practices, including pond preparation procedures, biosecurity measures, feed and water quality management, disease manage-ment and traceability. Production results at small farms appear to be improving dramatically as a result.

Since many of these measures also play a significant role in BAP certification, farms that participate in such programs already satisfy a significant part of the BAP requirements. The Global Aquaculture Alliance and BAP are exploring means by which to help the small farm groups achieve certification.

BAP Reps Meet.... (Continued from page 7.)

Jory Addresses Trends, Technology In China, Mexico, Panama Talks

Darryl Jory, GAA’s editor and development manager, repre-sented the Global Aquaculture Alliance at several events in recent weeks. During the International Symposium on Tilapia in Aqua-culture in Shanghai, China, he presented “Best Aquaculture Prac-tices Standards for the Tilapia Industry: Certification for Greater Sustainability.” Among his key points were a discussion of sea-food certification, how the Best Aquaculture Practices tilapia standards were developed and are applied, and the increasing importance certification and traceability have in the global sea-food industry.

Jory then presented “Sustainable Aquaculture Development and Technology” during a May workshop on tilapia culture in Tepic, Nayarit, Mexico, organized by the Mexican Trust Funds for Rural Development. Among his main points were the need for increased seafood production in coming decades and sustainability in the aquaculture production systems that will provide it. It will be key to transition to an industrial perspective and accompanying technologies to improve profitability and sustainability, Jory said.

He then attended the May 11-13 Panama Shrimp 2011 Con-gress and Trade Show, where he emphasized the need for more technology and an industrial, certifiable approach to aquaculture in the coming decades in a talk on the sustainable development of finfish aquaculture.

Finally, Jory attended a tilapia workshop in Veracruz, Mexico, sponsored by the Mexican aquafeed company Vimifos. In a pre-sentation, he described tilapia culture in Asia and suggested aqua-culture in Mexico could become more competitive through the implementation of emerging genetics and growout technology. He also emphasized the rising roles certification and traceability have in the global seafood industry.


NOV. 1-5

Pre-Conference Tours • Tours available: Colchagua Wine District (2 days), Torres del Paine (5 days)

NOV. 6 Registration, Welcome Reception • Welcome Reception: Grand Hyatt Hotel Pool – 7-10 p.m.• Tours available: Portillo (8 hours), Viña del Mar/Valparaiso (8 hours)

Santiago, Concha y Toro Winery and La Cachimba Bike Tour (3.5-4 hours each) See www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-tours.php for tour details and registration

NOV. 7 Production Sessions – George Chamberlain, Facilitator• Global aquaculture statistics (main cultured species)

Fish: Ragnar Tveteras, University of Stavanger – Norway• Fish 2030 summary: World Bank• Chile’s Recovery From ISA: Adolfo Alvial, Adolfo Alvial Consultancies – Chile• Innovative technologies related to doubling production• Lunch is complimentary with presentation (TBD)• Tours available: Santiago, Concha y Toro Winery and La Cachimba Bike Tour (3.5-4 hours each)

See www,gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-tours.php for tour details and registration

NOV. 8 Issues and Answers – Jeff Fort, Facilitator• Global aquaculture investment

Keynote: Gorjan Nikolik, Rabobank International – The Netherlands Panel discussion with representatives of private investors, World Bank and other banks, aquaculture facilities

• Feed and energy• New technologies • Lunch is complimentary with presentation (TBD)• Gala Reception/Dinner – Castillo Hidalgo (buses depart the Grand Hyatt Hotel @ 7 p.m.)

NOV. 9 Marketing Sessions – Peter Redmond, Facilitator

• Global aquaculture markets: retail, foodservice, quick-serve• Emphasis will be on salmon• Tours available: Santiago, Concha y Toro Winery or La Cachimba Bike Tour (3.5-4 hours each)

Aquaculture in Pacific Patagonia (4 days), Emerging Aquaculture (4 days) See www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-tours.php for tour details and registrations

Plan Now For ChangeAs speakers at GOAL 2010 confirmed, the aquaculture industry is changing fast. Global markets are shifting, and the world’s rising mid-dle class is demanding exponentially more seafood. Attend Global Outlook for Aquaculture Leadership (GOAL) 2011 and gain strategic insights to help your business succeed in this changing environment.

Organized by the Global Aquaculture Alliance, GOAL 2011 will com-bine targeted information on aquaculture production and marketing with unequaled opportunities to network and expand your business horizons.

Key QuestionsExamine the facts and explore solutions to unfolding issues during the half-day program sessions at GOAL 2011. Facing growing demand, how will existing seafood facilities generate more product? Will new culture areas be developed? Will advances in technology once again come to our rescue? How will this major growth be financed? And how can all of this be accomplished responsibly? Find answers at GOAL 2011 in Santiago.

Register Now!GOAL 2011 is open to aquaculture and seafood producers, processors, mar-keters, retailers, investors and others associated with fish and shellfish farming worldwide. Register online or download a printable form at www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-registration.php. Register now to enjoy early-bird discounts up to U.S. $300 per person!

Grand Hyatt HotelGOAL 2011 will convene at the Grand Hyatt Santiago, an “in-town” five-star lux-ury hotel with a resort feel. Located in the exclusive Las Condes district, it offers easy access to the city center, top-notch golfing and mall shopping. The Grand Hyatt will provide free in-room Internet service and daily breakfast buffet for conference attendees.

Reserve your room now for reduced rates and best availability. A form can be downloaded at www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-hotel.php.

Chile: “The End of the World”The GOAL conference series is making its first stop in the Southern Hemisphere this year. GOAL 2011 will highlight the host country, Chile, a diverse land whose aquaculture industry is transforming itself with a move toward greater sustainability.

To enhance your visit, GOAL 2011 will include options to tour aquaculture facilities and other destinations. A selection of tours has been prepared by Adolfo Alvial Consultancies and Destination Management Chile S.A., with separate payment arrangements.

Aquaculture in Pacific Patagonia Tour (4 days)See salmon and mussel farming, as well as new aquaculture opportuni-ties under development in the Patagonian region of Chile. Based at an exceptional hotel in Puerto Varas, this tour features visits to a salmon hatchery and smolt facilities, salmon farm and value-added processing plant. In addition, see mussel farms and an aquaculture research institution. These activities will be complemented with short trips to natural and cultural attractions in the region.

Emerging Aquaculture In Northern Chile Tour (4 days)Based in the colonial city of La Serena, this tour emphasizes flatfish, abalone and scallop farming, as well as new developments like yellowtail kingfish and native fish in northern Chile. Visit aquaculture diversification centers and farming operations in Coquimbo and Tongoy, as well as the Valley of the Stars and La Serena’s and Coquimbo’s coastlines and handcraft markets.

For those with less time, half-day tours include trips to the Concha y Toro Winery, one of Chile’s most traditional wineries, and the La Cachimba Bike Tour of Sanitago. If you have a full day, consider the Porti-llo Tour into the Andean region or travel to the port of Valparaíso and “Garden City” of Viña del Mar. A two-day tour of the Colchagua Wine District and five-day tour of the Torres del Paine in southern Chile’s Patago-

nia are also available before GOAL 2011 convenes. See further details and fees for tours on the GAA website at www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-tours.php.


Limestone is the most common raw material for making liming materials. Ordinary limestone is a relatively soft rock consisting of a mixture of calcium carbonate and a lesser amount of magne-sium carbonate. Limestone containing only calcium carbonate is called calcite, while limestone with a calcium carbonate: magnesium carbonate ratio of exactly 1:1 is referred to as dolomite. These two minerals are fairly rare.

Limestone that is mostly calcium car-bonate usually is called calcitic limestone, and limestone that has nearly equal pro-portions of calcium carbonate and mag-nesium carbonate often is considered dolomitic limestone by manufacturers of

liming materials. Limestone may be clas-sified based on its calcium and magne-sium concentrations (Table 1).

Agricultural LimestoneAgricultural limestone is produced by

finely pulverizing limestone in a rock crusher. This product also can be made from chalk and marl. Marl consists of (calcium and magnesium carbonates deposited in lakes that often are mixed with clay and seashells. Finely ground agricultural limestone dissolves more quickly and completely than coarsely ground limestone. Effects on total alka-linity concentrations in pond waters after applications of agricultural limestones with different particle fineness are illus-trated in Figure 1.

The fineness value of agricultural limestone is based on its particle size dis-tribution. The solubilities of limestone particles of different sizes can be used to assign a characteristic efficiency value to each size class of particles. These effi-ciency values are used with the particle

size distribution of individual samples to obtain the samples’ fineness values.

A sample that completely passes a No. 140 screen – with no particles larger than 106 µ in diameter – has a fineness value of 100%. Samples with coarser par-ticles have lower fineness values. Agricul-tural limestone with a fineness value of 80% will dissolve only 80% as well as one with a fineness rating of 100%. Assuming two liming materials have equal abilities to neutralize acidity, it requires 1.25 kg of a material with a fineness rating of 80% to equal 1 kg of a material with a fineness rating of 100%.

Neutralizing ValuesThe neutralizing value compares the

acid-neutralizing capacity of a sample of liming material to that of a pure calcium carbonate standard. A product with a neutralizing value of 85% can neutralize 85% as much acid as an equal quantity of calcium carbonate that has a neutralizing value of 100%.

It is important to point out that dolo-mitic limestone has a maximum possible neutralizing value of 109%. However, there usually is no benefit in using dolo-mitic agricultural limestone – which often is more expensive than others – over ordi-nary agricultural limestone with neutral-

Liming materials should be spread uniformly over pond bottoms to disinfect them bewteen crops.

Liming Materials For Aquaculture

Summary:Liming materials neutralize acidity and increase pH in pond bottom soil and water. They also react with carbon dioxide to form bicarbonate and release calcium and magnesium, increasing both alkalinity and hardness concen-trations in water. Liming materi-als should be spread as uniformly as possible over pond bottoms to disinfect them between crops or spread over the entire water sur-face of ponds. Fertilizers should not be applied for a week follow-ing liming.

Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures

Auburn University Auburn, Alabama 36849 USA

[email protected]

production

izing value near 100%.

Other Liming MaterialsLimestone or one of the alternative

sources of calcium and magnesium car-bonates mentioned above can be burned in a kiln at high temperature to drive off carbon dioxide, leaving a residue of cal-cium and magnesium oxides called burnt lime. When treated with water, burnt lime reacts to yield calcium or magnesium hydroxides or hydrated lime.

Burnt and hydrated lime made from pure calcite have neutralizing values of 179 and 135%, respectively, while the neutralizing values would be 200 and 147%, respectively, for burnt lime and hydrated lime made from pure dolomite. However, lime usually is made from ordi-nary limestone or one of the alternative raw materials.

The raw material may not be com-pletely burned, and the product can adsorb water during storage. Thus, the composition of burnt or hydrated lime often is not known exactly, and it is help-ful to know the neutralizing value. It also is useful to know the fineness of the lime.

ApplicationLiming rates, traditionally expressed in

terms of calcium carbonate, typically range 1,000-3,000 kg/ha. An agricultural lime-stone with a neutralizing value of 85% would have to be applied at 1,176 kg/ha to be equivalent to 1,000 kg/ha of calcium carbonate. The application rate also can be adjusted for fineness value. Suppose the product with 85% neutralizing value has a fineness value of 80%. The application rate adjusted for both neutralizing and fineness values would be 1,470 kg/ha.

Because of its higher neutralizing value, lime is used at lower application rates than agricultural limestone. Never-theless, even at low application rates, lime can raise water pH to 12 or more. Agricul-tural limestone, on the other hand, does not cause pH to rise above about 8.5.

In ponds containing fish or shrimp, lime should not be applied at more than 50 kg/ha to avoid excessively high pH. The greatest use of lime is for disinfec-tion of bottom soils in empty ponds between crops by applying 1,000 kg/ha or more in a single treatment to raise pH to 12 or above and kill unwanted organisms.

In many instances, information on neutralizing and fineness values of liming products is not available. A common practice in traditional agriculture is to apply 50% more liming material than the recommended lime requirement in order to compensate for low neutralizing value, fineness value or both. This approach also can be used in aquaculture.

All types of liming materials react similarly to neutralize acidity and increase pH in bottom soil and water. They also react with carbon dioxide to form bicar-bonate and release calcium and magne-sium, increasing both total alkalinity and total hardness concentrations in water.

Liming materials are at best sparingly soluble, and they should be spread as uni-formly as possible over pond bottoms between crops or spread over the entire water surface of ponds. Liming materials also react to bind phosphorus when ini-tially applied to ponds. Thus, fertilizers should not be applied for about a week following liming.

Finely Ground Limestone

Coarsely Ground Limestone

F M A M J J A S O N D J F

MonthFigure 1. Effects on alkalinity of finely ground and coarsely ground agricultural limestone.

50

40

30

20

10

0Alk

alin

ity (

mg/

L a

s ca

lciu

m c

arb

on

ate

Type Calcium (%) Magnesium (%)

Pure calciteCalcitic limestonePure dolomiteDolomitic limestoneOrdinary limestone

40.038.0-40.0

21.7< 20.3

0< 1.213.2

> 12.0

Table 1. Calcium and magnesium concentrations of different types of limestone.

Other compositions


production

Accurate estimation of the number of shrimp in a culture unit is critical for managers to administer appropriate feed rations and predict harvest size. If the population is underestimated, the animals will be underfed, leading to poor growth. If the system is overfed due to an overes-timation of the population, unnecessary nutrients can cause oxygen depletion and toxic inorganic nitrogen accumulation, in addition to significant economic losses caused by wasted feed.

To estimate the population size of a growout system, an accurate approximation of the number of shrimp stocked must first

be made. One of the advantages to operat-ing a nursery prior to the growout cycle is that the number of shrimp can be reas-sessed between the two stages. The mean weight of multiple groups of shrimp is commonly used to determine the quantity of shrimp, by weight, needed to stock at a particular density. However, knowing the number of samples needed to overcome nursery size variability and arrive at a statis-tically sound approximation of the weight needed can substantially increase accuracy.

Shrimp Sampling MethodTo arrive at an accurate estimate of

shrimp weight, a statistics-based sequen-tial sampling method is routinely used at the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory in Mississippi, USA, and the Waddell Mariculture Center in South Carolina, USA. Groups of animals from all areas of the nursery are collected, and care is taken to avoid crowding animals in nets.

Approximately 200 animals are included in each sample. Samples are then carefully weighed, and the exact numbers of shrimp are counted. The sample weight and number of shrimp in each sample are recorded in an electronic spreadsheet. The formulas used to calcu-late each subsequent value are prepro-grammed into the spreadsheet before

sampling begins. A completed example spreadsheet file is depicted in Table 1.

From the number of shrimp in each sample and the weight of that sample, a shrimp per gram value is calculated. In the following column, a cumulative mean shrimp per gram value is calculated with each new sample. From that, standard deviation and standard error values are calculated as in equation 1 in Figure 1. The standard error value is used in equa-tion 2 to calculate the confidence bound (C.B.). The C.B. is then divided by the latest cumulative mean value to deter-mine whether the limits of the C.B. are within 5% of the mean.

The t-value used in equation 2 (Fig-ure 1) to calculate the C.B. comes from a table of t-distributions typically found in statistics books. The value needed is from a two-tale t-distribution where α = 0.05. The t-value used depends on the number of samples weighed, where degrees of freedom = N-1. The t-values are pre-sented in Table 2.

When at least 10 samples have been measured, and the C.B.:mean ratio is 0.05 or less, that latest cumulative mean value is accepted. Shrimp can then be stocked by weight using equation 3 (Figure 1), with the accuracy of the number of shrimp stocked within 5% (Figure 2). For exam-ple, using the data in Table 1, if a system manager would like to stock 50,000 ani-mals from the sampled nursery, 39,001.6 g of shrimp (50,000/1.282) are needed.

Size Variability, Stocking Density

To assess whether variation in shrimp size at the end of a nursery phase can be attributed to nursery stocking density, the

Calculations based on multiple samples of 200 shrimp taken at the nursery stage can lead to more accurate stocking in the growout phase.

Shrimp Sampling Method Improves Stocking Process

Summary:Accurate estimates of shrimp populations and size variability can help managers make informed decisions that reduce feeding costs and improve system performance. The mean weight of multiple groups of shrimp is commonly used to determine the quantity of shrimp needed to stock at a par-ticular density. However, knowing the number of samples needed to overcome nursery size variability can substantially increase accuracy.

Andrew J. Ray, M.S.University of Southern MississippiGulf Coast Research Laboratory703 East Beach DriveOcean Springs, Mississippi 39564 [email protected]

Jeffrey M. Lotz, Ph.D.University of Southern MississippiGulf Coast Research Laboratory

Jeffrey F. Brunson, M.S.John W. Leffler, Ph.D.South Carolina Department of Natural ResourcesWaddell Mariculture CenterBluffton, South Carolina, USA

authors examined data from 15 recent nurs-ery harvests at the Waddell Mariculture Center. They compared the coefficient of variation in the size of shrimp at the time of nursery harvest to the original stocking density of those respective nurseries.

Using regression analysis, it was determined that stocking density was a strong predictor of the coefficient of vari-ation in shrimp weight. This finding implies that with higher stocking density comes greater size variability when nurs-eries are harvested.

PerspectivesBy sampling a nursery system in the

manner described, the statistical confi-dence bounds around the mean shrimp weight are monitored closely as samples are collected. This allows a system man-ager to arrive at a point in sampling where 95% confidence bounds around the mean are established.

This project demonstrated that the amount of variation in shrimp size can be a product of the nursery stocking density. This may be an important consideration in determining the number of shrimp that should be stocked into a nursery system.

Stocking shrimp of uniform size reduces the initial variability of growout systems. It should be evaluated whether this reduction in variability results in a decrease of size variability at the end of the production cycle.

SampleNumber

Weight(g)

Number of Shrimp Shrimp/g

CumulativeMean

Shrimp/gStandardDeviation

StandardError

ConfidenceBound

ConfidenceBound

CB/Mean

123456789101112131415

215.6202.6200.1206.8204.1200.0205.3201.8203.4207.2214.9206.2202.7203.5217.4

277270274200258252226262283306287267251260291

1.2851.3331.3690.9671.2641.2601.1011.2981.3911.4771.3361.2951.2381.2781.339

1.3091.3291.2381.2441.2461.2261.2351.2521.2751.2801.2811.2781.2781.282

0.0340.0420.1840.1600.1430.1420.1340.1360.1460.1400.1340.1280.1230.120

0.0240.0240.0920.0720.0580.0540.0470.0450.0460.0420.0390.0360.0330.031

0.3040.1050.2930.1990.1500.1310.1120.1040.1050.0940.0850.0780.0710.066

0.2320.0790.2370.1600.1210.1070.0910.0830.0820.0730.0660.0610.0560.052

Table 1. Typical organization for a spreadsheet used to monitor confidence bounds around the mean.

Degrees of Freedom

T-Value (two-tale, α = 0.05)

123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930

12.7064.3033.1822.7762.5712.4472.3652.3062.2622.2282.2012.1792.1602.1452.1322.1202.1102.1012.0932.0862.0802.0742.0692.0642.0602.0562.0522.0482.0452.042

Table 2. αT-values used to calculate confidence bounds with equation 2.

Figure 2. The standard error and confidence bound/mean ratio values from Table 1 change with sequential sampling. As the ratio converges toward the desired level of probability, the mean shrimp weight falls with-in the confidence bound.

Sam

ple

Val

ue

s

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

00.5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Sample Number

ConfidenceBound:MeanStandard Error

Equation 1 Standard =Error

Equation 2 Confidence =

Standard ErrorBound * T-Value

Equation 3 DesiredShrimp Weight

=

Standard Deviation Number of Samples

Shrimp StockedMean Shrimp/g

Figure 1. Error and confidence equations.

Article Submissions

Contact Editor Darryl Jory for author guidelines.

E-mail: [email protected]

Telephone: +1-407-376-1478Fax: +1-419-844-1638


Oyster production at a marine farm depends largely on three factors: oyster genetics, culture management and the environ-ment. Although bivalve aquaculture is extremely dependent on the environmental features, most of the management procedures used by mariculture farms rely on previous understanding of the environmental characteristics of the farming site.

The effects of short-term changes in the farming environ-ment are reflected in oyster harvests, so by understanding this relationship, it may be possible to improve farming management and output prediction. In order to do so, a study was developed joining commercial farming know-how with environmental assessment.

Oyster Farm StudyThe collaborative study focused on the characterization of

production data for Pacific cupped oysters, Crassostrea gigas, at the Atlântico Sul Marine Farm and further analysis in relation to events in the South Bay of Santa Catarina Island, where the farm is located in southern Brazil. The farm continually carries out self-initiated environmental studies and embraces partner-ships with scientific projects to increase production and contrib-ute to scientific development and improvements in mariculture in Brazil.

Four crops – years 2005-2006, 2006-2007, 2007-2008 and 2008-2009 – were studied. Three phases of oyster production were separately analyzed for each crop: seed to juvenile (phase 1), juvenile to adult (phase 2) and adult to marketable size (phase 3).

Production DataThe mean culture time per crop in this region was approxi-

Aquaculture of filter-feeding bivalve mollusks involves the fruitful conversion of marine organic matter into premium protein. Assessment of the environmental carrying ca-pacity for bivalve culture is essential to assist farming development and yield predictions.

Oyster Output Affected By Environmental Features Of Farm Site

production

Summary:In a study at a marine farm in southern Brazil, manage-ment data for Pacific cupped oyster culture were as-sessed to characterize yearly production in relation to the environmental parameters at the farming site. High water temperatures generally related to lower survival of the oysters for the first two phases of culture. High chlorophyll concentrations helped minimize the nega-tive effects of high temperatures and shortened culture time by providing additional food.

Darien D. MizutaFisheries and Environmental Aquaculture LaboratoryKyoto UniversityKyoto, Japan

Nelson Silveira JúniorChristine E. FischerAtlântico Sul Marine FarmFlorianópolis, Brazil

Daniel LemosAquaculture LaboratoryOceanographic InstituteUniversity of São PauloPraça do Oceanográfico 191São Paulo, [email protected]

CropSeed

StockedJuveniles Produced

Adults Produced

MarketableOysters

Survival (%) Time (months)

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3 Final

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3 Final

2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009

1,227,964 1,896,435 2,148,680 913,980

526,300 604,800 788,200 611,100

461,520 481,680 785,520 536,760

341,988 367,931 588,564 394,410

42.8 31.8 36.6 66.8

87.6 79.6 99.6 87.8

74.1 76.3 74.9 73.4

27.8 19.4 27.3 43.1

8656

7866

1312810

18171315

Phase 1 = seed to juvenile. Phase 2 = juvenile to adult. Phase 3 = adult to marketable size.

Table 1. Production and survival of oysters of different class sizes.

mately 16 months from initial seed stocking. Juvenile oysters grew to over 30 mm in size in 30 to 240 days after stocking. Adult oys-ters over 50 mm and marketable animals over 70 mm were regu-larly sorted after 60 to 450, and 150 to 510 days after seed stock-ing, respectively. The intermediate culture phase of juvenile to adult had the highest survival, followed by final growout. Due to the fragility of the smaller oysters, juveniles had the lowest survival rates. The mean final survival was around 30%.

Periods of El Niño bring high water temperatures to the South Bay of Santa Catarina Island. The water may only be cooled when a cold front occurs in the region. Since high water temperatures are related to lower survival of the farmed oysters, survival during periods of more intense El Niño were the lowest registered (32% in phase 1 and 70% in phase 2), whereas periods of more intense La Niña were characterized by higher survival percentages. See the values for phases 2 and 3 of the 2007-2008 and 2008-2009 crops in Table 1.

A regression analysis between total crop survival and culture phase survival indicated a significant correlation between the

survival of early-stage oysters and the final production of the crop, indicating the importance of successful seeding and early culture.

Environmental Influences There was a relationship for the first two phases of culture

between high temperatures and lower survivals, save the cases in which high chlorophyll concentrations helped minimize the neg-ative effects of high temperatures. In fact, the chlorophyll a con-centration had an important effect on the phase duration in all the crops. In general, the higher the food availability (assessed by chlorophyll concentration), the shorter the culture phase.

The maximum mean values of sea surface temperature obtained in March justified the 2005-2006 crop’s good final sur-vival (similar to the 2007/2008 crop, whose culture period had better chlorophyll a values because of its late initial seeding in April), whereas all other crops were initially stocked in March, a less favorable period with generally warmer water conditions.

Seawater chlorophyll a concentrations after the passage of cold fronts did not show a fixed pattern. For example, from March 2005 until mid-2007, cold fronts did not greatly increase chlorophyll concentrations. The period between July 2006 and February 2007, however, saw an El Niño event. From August 2007 to June 2008, a period of La Niña occurrence, the cold front events increased the chlorophyll concentrations in the bay.

Periods of El Niño favor the upwelling of nutrient-rich South Atlantic central water to the south of Santa Catarina Island, but the upwelling does not always happen because some-times the water does not reach the surface. In order for the water to enter the bay, it may be necessary for a cold front to combine with the upwelling event to push the waters into the bay.

On the other hand, in periods of La Niña, predominantly southerly winds spread the Plata plume northward and into the bay without any other event. The uncertainty of the first described process of water entrance to the bay may be the reason the chlorophyll levels did not increase during this period.

Perspectives Although the management and real conditions of a commer-

cial bivalve farm depend on various aspects, including market demand, study of the environmental conditions at each farming site is necessary to keep the long-term success of the activity based on possible short-term climate variability.

In the future, the choice of more suitable species for the local climate or stocking seed during the colder months might be alternatives to maintain the mariculture production in Santa Catarina. The present survey was helpful, but showed that more studies will be necessary in order to mitigate and find adaptive strategies that provide tools for further effective, responsible decision making for the industry.

Management of oyster lanterns at a marine farm in the South Bay of Santa Catarina Island, Brazil.


Like many countries attempting to navigate the world’s cur-rent financial doldrums, Kenya recently launched an economic stimulus program. But Kenya’s approach includes a bold move to help the country’s small-scale farmers literally dig themselves out of poverty – by excavating tens of thousands of holes in the ground. Fish ponds, that is.

In a move that generated both enthusiasm and caution, the stimulus program has spent U.S. $16 million since January 2010 to increase the country’s aquaculture production 15-fold.

Aquaculture StimulusCrafted in late 2009 by government fisheries officials,

researchers and educators, the two-phased aquaculture compo-

nent of the stimulus package is ambitious. Phase 1, begun in January of 2010, ramped up Kenya’s aquaculture output several notches by funding the construc-tion of 28,000 fish ponds, boosting farm fish production from 1,000 mt in 2008 to an estimated 8,000 mt in 2010 and 15,000 mt in 2012.

Phase 2 of the stimulus program began at the end of 2010 with an addi-tional U.S. $37.5 million of dedicated funds for the aquaculture sector and a promise to increase the number of fish ponds to 48,000 countrywide. This is rapid growth for a country with only 7,500 ponds before the stimulus.

Food And CashFor Kenya’s fisheries officials, it’s not so much about how

many fish are produced as who produces them. Officials see these new ponds as homes for millions of tilapia, catfish and ornamental fish that can put food on the table and money in the pockets of some of the country’s poorest farmers.

“I’m proud to say that fish farming has made me what I am today,” said George Ambuli, chairman of a successful fish-farm-ing cooperative in a small village near Lake Victoria. “I eat fish, I have a cell phone in my pocket, and I am paying the school fees for my 9-year-old daughter – all with my fish money.”

Historically the freshwater capture fish industry of Lake Vic-toria and other lakes has been a modest but important source of jobs and food security for Kenya. But government officials worry about the steady decline in natural fish stocks and the increasing demand for fish. They are counting on aquaculture to relieve the pressure on these overstretched fisheries and supply a more sus-tainable source of protein – and cash – for Kenyans.

Historical PartnershipA key partner in Kenya’s increasing reliance on aquaculture is

Kenya’s farmers are building fish ponds in huge numbers in response to the country’s pro-aquaculture economic stimulus program. Photo by Ford Evans, AquaFish CRSP.

Uncharted Waters: Kenya TakesDramatic Leap In Aquaculture

production

Summary:As Kenya’s government officials worry about declines in natural fish stocks and the increasing demand for fish, they are counting on aquaculture to relieve the pressure on overstretched fisheries and supply a more sustainable source of protein – and cash – for Kenyans. A massive economic stimulus program that encourages the construction of aquaculture ponds is backed by farm-level training that includes direction on business-related concerns.

Jeff HinoLifelong Learning LeaderOregon State University Extended Campus & ExtensionExperiment Station Communications4943 The Valley LibraryCorvallis, Oregon 97331 [email protected]

For Kenya’s fisheries officials, it’s not so much about how many fish are produced as who produces them.


the Aquaculture & Fisheries Collaborative Research Support Program (AquaFish CRSP) funded by the United States Agency for International Development. AquaFish CRSP has been help-ing transform aquaculture in Kenya since 1997.

Dr. Charles Ngugi of Kenyatta University, the in-country investigator for CRSP, has been a key player in getting informa-tion to the farmers through on-the-ground training. “Aquacul-ture in Kenya is a unique example that the rest of Africa can borrow from,” he said. “We have a close relationship among research, education and extension.”

CRSP has championed on-farm trials and workshop training to deliver information directly to the farmers in ways the farmers can understand and use. Ngugi credits CRSP with training farmers not only in the management of ponds and fish, but also providing them with tools critical for their financial success, including accurate record keeping, enterprise budgeting and methods of obtaining credit.

Got Fish?If you have a pond, you need fish, and Kenya’s new pond

owners are looking to the government to supply them. In less than a year, the demand for fingerlings in Kenya grew from 1 million to a whopping 28 million. Demand is outstripping sup-ply, with many farmers still waiting for their new ponds to be stocked. To solve the problem, the government is leaning heavily on private industry.

Enos Mac’Were is the soft-spoken aquaculture manager at Dominion Farms, a large, diversified private farm in western Kenya. Mac’Were, whose master’s degree thesis work at Moi University was funded through CRSP, has felt the pressure from the demands created by the economic stimulus program. He said the government asked his company to raise its original commit-ment of half a million fingerlings a month to 2 million fish monthly.

Observers agree the government must go beyond the private sector to supply sufficient numbers of these critical juvenile fish. In response, the Department of Fisheries has identified over 30 hatcheries that could be revamped to meet the demand.

Other IssuesThe enormous leap in fish farming brought on by the eco-

nomic stimulus program has presented other challenges, as well. Fisheries officials admittedly were not well prepared when the full three years’ worth of aquaculture stimulus money came all at once.

“We were going into uncharted waters and didn’t anticipate some of the things we’re facing now,” said Kenya Director of Fisheries Godfrey Monor. In the rush to spend the money, fish ponds were not always well thought out, and more than a few were built in inappropriate locations.

The sudden enthusiasm for aquaculture had another unex-pected side effect. “Everyone is jumping on the boat,” Monor said. “For each farmer funded by the stimulus program, there are three ponds being put up by non-funded farmers. They are all looking to us for guidance and help.”

Turf To SurfThe success of Kenyan aquaculture ultimately depends on

consumer demand for fish. In a country that loves its nyami choma, a roasted meat barbecue, it’s not easy to move the popu-lation from turf to surf.

“We had cultural challenges in some communities that were not fish eaters,” Monor said. “But we’ve overcome that by the sensitization of the farmers and with communication.”

Although the perception persists that farmed fish are not as good as wild-caught fish, Monor is confident that in time, 50% of the fish consumed in Kenya will be farm-grown. Market research has revealed Kenyans’ preference for attractive, plate-sized tilapia fit for one serving.

Fisheries officials plan to put additional marketing structures into place. Extension officers now regularly include a value-added component in their training workshops, encouraging farmers to gut, scale and dry their tilapia for market. Meanwhile, the government is building 80 small refrigeration centers around Kenya to encourage small farmers to move beyond their neigh-borhood markets.

Training Is KeyGovernment officials, aquaculture researchers and fisheries

extension officers all agree that the explosive growth of aqua-culture in Kenya requires a massive surge in training programs for these new fish farmers. Government involvement in the program is set to phase out over the next 18 months, and this could leave some farmers stranded if they rely totally on the government stimulus money and don’t master the art of fish farming.

“Pond construction is easy – it’s the management that’s criti-cal,” said Wilson Maina, acting director of aquaculture in Kenya. The key, Maina said, is to go beyond pond construction and train new pond owners in pond management and marketing.

To meet this super-sized training challenge, the Kenyan gov-ernment will continue to build on the work done by CRSP. Fisheries Director Monor noted that many of those who authored the aquaculture stimulus component were educated with CRSP support, and newly funded ponds are being con-structed under the supervision of AquaFish CRSP-trained fish-eries officers.

Rising Tide Lifts All BoatsTwo underprivileged groups, Kenya’s women and young

people, are prospering under the new aquaculture initiative. While fish ponds continue to be owned almost exclusively by men, women are increasingly involved in all phases of fish farm-ing, including feeding, fertilization, predator control and value-added post-production techniques.

“Women have started to play a very big economic role, because they know how to work together as a group,” African Union program leader Gitonga said. Women also now predomi-nate in the processing and marketing sectors.

Kenya’s vastly underemployed youths are also reaping bene-fits. They actually do the pond construction and are empowered with the knowledge, providing practical expertise in the exten-sion service.

In affecting a broad spectrum of the country’s economy and its people, the economic stimulus program is changing the land-scape of aquaculture in Kenya.

“We are really moving forward, and nothing will hold us back,” Monor said. “This program will be a success, and if you come here next year, you’ll see a big difference in aquaculture in this country.”

The key is to go beyond pond construc-tion and train new pond owners in pond management and marketing.

Women such as this street vendor selling dried tilapia on the outskirts of Lake Victoria are empowered in Kenya’s new aquaculture. Photo by Victor Motari, Kenyatta University.

Under pressure to produce massive numbers of fingerlings, Dominion Farms Aquaculture Manager Enos Mac’Were inspects his ponds.

In affecting a broad spectrum of the country’s economy and its people, the economic stimulus program is changing the landscape of aquaculture in Kenya.

22 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate

tually, this results in premature harvests, if not total crop failure.

Advantages, DisadvantagesThe advantages of biofloc technology include very high bios-

ecurity. To date, white spot syndrome virus has not been a factor in the systems. Production and carrying capacity are typically 5 to 10% higher than in typical culture systems, with zero water exchange. Shrimp grow larger and reflect feed-conversion rations between 1.0 to 1.3. Production costs can be 15 to 20% lower.

The disadvantages include high energy inputs for aerators. Power failures over an hour in duration can be critical. Biofloc ponds must be lined. The more advanced technology also demands a greater need to properly train technicians.

Growing InterestDue to success stories in Indonesia and the United States,

many shrimp farmers are interested in biofloc technology. The Indonesia Department of Fisheries and shrimp associations are arranging a three-day training workshop on biofloc in Indonesia. Dr. Yoram Avnimelech was invited to lead the workshop in April.

In China, a number of shrimp farmers are also interested. Their fully HDPE-lined, plastic-covered shrimp growout ponds with high-density culture are ideal for the technology. The author is currently advising shrimp farms with HDPE-lined intensive culture ponds in Central America on biofloc systems. A group from Brazil is running commercial biofloc trials.

Malaysia is currently initiating a 1,000-ha integrated inten-sive shrimp-farming project at Setiu, Terengganu by Blue Archipelago. The company also plans to use the technology.

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Aquaculture production of shrimp and fish in India was expected to reach 3.4 mmt in 2010. This combined production depended on approximately 852,000 mt of aquaculture feeds – a comparatively low feed usage. A great portion of the Indian fish-farming industry makes limited use of modern feeds, providing vast potential for the Indian feed sector to grow in the future based on aquaculture.

Technology TransitionThe feed industries for shrimp and fish are quite different

from each other from the perspectives of modernization, com-mercialization and scientific considerations. While the shrimp feed sector is more evolved, and its products are comparable to

those offered internationally, the feeds used for fish are still evolving.

The advancement of India’s shrimp feed sector is due to its compliance with international benchmarks and references, and the support it received when it began in the late 1980s and early ’90s. The fish feed industry’s lag behind can be primar-ily attributed to the very nature of the Indian fish-farming system.

While the multi-species carp-farming system has undergone a number of adaptions and currently relies on only two carp species, it has extensively relied on fertilizers and low-cost feed ingredients like rice bran for a long time. The pro-ductivity of such a system is complex to understand and manage.

The value of manufactured feed was not well understood, and farmers as well as feed companies were pessimistic regarding the cost effectiveness of commercial feed. However, once the value was demonstrated, the industry developed rapidly, and fish farming in India is moving quickly on to modernization.

Fish Feed IndustryUntil recently, India was an insignificant player in the global fish

feed sector due to its reliance on traditional feeding based on a few nutritionally poor agriculture by-products and the use of animal manure for plankton production. Assuming a feed-conversion ratio (FOR) of 4, an estimated 12.6 mmt of ingredients were used for the 3.15 mmt of farmed freshwater fish produced in the country.

American Soybean Association-International Marketing (ASA-IM) decided in 2003 to create a niche for better aquacul-ture feeds, linking the development to an array of better aquacul-ture practices to grow fish. Initial work focused on commercial feeding demonstrations that showed economic returns to the industry. Stakeholders and potential entrepreneurs were also exposed to feed-based technologies in practice elsewhere in Asia.

As a result of these efforts and excellent participation by pri-vate companies and entrepreneurs in the fish-farming sector,

India has emerged as a significant producer of extruded and sinking aquafeeds. Further use of the feeds in the country can help expand the aquaculture industry.

India’s Fish Feed IndustryGrowing Sector Can Support Aquaculture Diversity, Development

production

Summary:The Indian fish-farming industry makes limited use of modern feeds, providing potential for the feed sector to grow. Currently, commercial feeds are predominantly used for Pangasius farming, followed by a rising popu-larity in carp culture. India’s growing ability to produce floating feeds and sinking pellets for fish can support new aquaculture systems and help develop species diversity, improve marketing opportunities and increase domestic consumption.

P. E. Vijay Anand, Ph.D.Technical DirectorAsia Subcontinent Aquaculture ProgramAmerican Soybean Association- International MarketingNew Delhi, [email protected]

Michael C. Cremer, Ph.D.Global Aquaculture Technical DirectorAmerican Soybean Association- International MarketingU.S. Soybean Export CouncilChesterfield, Missouri, USA

India has emerged as a significant producer of soy-based extruded, floating feeds, as well as sinking pellets for fish. The industry has invested in imported extrusion machinery to pro-duce the floating fish feeds.

There are currently seven feed mill operations (Table 1) with an installed monthly capacity close to 36,000 mt, which will likely expand to 86,000 mt by late 2011 or early 2012. This major expansion will have to find a larger user base to which it can sell feed products.

Feed UseFeeds are extruded using 3- to 6-mm dies and have 28 to

32% protein and 3 to 6% fat content. All feeds are presently used for growout systems at fish farms, and are not yet popular in nursery and juvenile-rearing facilities.

Incorporated at levels from 35 to 45%, soybean meal is the main source of protein in the formulations. Other ingredients include rice bran, broken rice, wheat bran, wheat flour, corn glu-ten meal and copra meal. Phosphorus, vitamins and trace min-eral premixes are also widely used.

Most of these feeds are sold in the state of Andhra Pradesh, the largest farmed fish producer in the country. However, mod-ern technologies are spreading to other regions in India. Feeds are predominantly used for Pangasius farming, followed by a growing popularity in carp culture.

ASA-IM estimated that India will have an annual milling capacity for extruded feed of 1 to 1.2 mmt by 2012. With this

quantity of feed and an FCR of 1.2, about 1 mmt of freshwater fish could be raised in India.

The greater availability of feeds in India can also pave the way for two underutilized aquaculture systems – inland produc-tion and marine cages. In addition, the feed-based systems should help develop species diversity, improve marketing oppor-tunities and popularize the processed fish for domestic utiliza-tion in the country.

Recommendations For Feed IndustryFeed is only a part of the aquaculture value chain. Although

India is currently in a good position with respect to fish feed production capacity and quality, a few challenges need to be

Company

Annual Capacity2010 (mt)

Projected Annual Capacity

2011 (mt)

Indian Broiler GroupAnanda FeedsUno FeedsGrowel FeedsKwality FeedsC. P. FeedsRudra Techno FeedsMulpuri FeedsNexus FeedsDeepak Nexgen FeedsTotal

228,00030,00030,00060,00069,00030,00060,000

–––

507,000

216,00060,00060,00090,00060,000

––

90,00080,00060,000716,000

Table 1. Installed capacity of India’s extrusion feed mills.

India is moving from traditional feeding practices based on agriculture by-products and the use of animal manure for plankton production to applications of commercial feeds.


addressed within the aquaculture value chain, which in turn has a bearing on the feed industry.

Species Diversification India relies on a very narrow range of fish species – only two broad

categories are used for farming. Carps have been farmed for many years, and Pangasius has become popular recently. Many other endemic species could be brought into commercial production.

Speedy introduction of tilapia would revolutionize the fish industry in India, as it has done worldwide. Such introductions can deliver more good-quality fish, especially those with fewer intramuscular bones. Species diversification would lead to more feed utilization and further investments in the feed-milling sector.

Hatchery TechnologyFor species diversification, the first step required will be for

hatcheries to produce seed. A number of freshwater and marine fish species have good potential for farming, yet no serious attempts to deliver seed in a commercially viable manner have so far been demonstrated to entrepreneurs. New hatchery technol-ogy will be an increasingly important aspect of the value chain in Indian aquaculture.

Farming RefinementsOnce the fish seed supply is in place, nursery and growout

systems will need modifications to transform from traditional farming methods to more modern and efficient systems. The feed mills that are currently in place will definitely catch up with species-specific formulations. When the farming systems are refined, there is potential to use more feed.

System DiversificationThe availability of suitable fish feed in India can lead to

diversification of the culture systems. Until recently, there was no extruded floating feed in the country, and the use of pelleted feed was limited. These types of feeds are now readily available to support the development of cage culture in freshwater and marine systems. When additional farming systems are in place, they automatically will demand more feed.

Fish MarketingThe gaps in the value chain are organized harvest, post-har-

vest handling and marketing of fish in India. The country han-dles fish through its wet markets and transports fish over long distances, which is inefficient and deters customers from buying fish due to spoilage concerns.

Today’s customers with purchasing power prefer a pleasant shopping experience, and current fish-marketing efforts fail to deliver to such customers. As a comparison, chicken is sold through wet markets, but chicken shops are modernizing, and processed chicken is catching up fast. India is the world’s largest milk pro-ducer, and its milk marketing and delivery systems are excellent.

Processing and value addition to fish may be the best answers for increased fish consumption. Processing helps fish reach cus-tomers in good condition and only transports the core product, while it retains waste and converts it into by-products that can be used by the feed industry. It also helps stabilize prices.

Processing also helps reduce the effective quantity of fish that reaches customers, thus creating more space for additional fish produc-tion. This in turn adds market pull on the farming, feed and hatchery sectors. Thus, processing, improved marketing and value addition have a direct bearing on the sustainability of the feed industry.

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26 July/August 2011 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate March/April 2011 27

After shrimp, tilapia is likely to become the second most important aquaculture species in Thailand in the near future. During the last decade, tilapia took the lead among finfish spe-cies, and an estimated 300,000 mt of tilapia are produced in Thailand annually. Most of the fish raised in rural areas are con-sumed by local families or sold in local markets.

Increased production has recently flooded the domestic mar-kets, and now farmers are looking for opportunities to export. However, Thailand has difficulty competing with cheap tilapia from China. Attempts have been made to reduce production costs and at the same time explore niche markets in Gulf coun-tries and Europe.

Pond CultureAlthough tilapia have been grown in cages in canals, lakes, riv-

ers and reservoirs, pond culture of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloti-cus, is most common in Thailand, especially in rural areas. Pond farms range from less than 0.5 ha to over 20 ha in area. Most farmers fertilize their ponds with chicken manure and/or chemical fertilizers to enhance planktonic growth for greenwater culture.

Feeding is supplementary only. Quality feeds are available, but due to their high prices and the low sale prices of fish grown in ponds, most farmers are unable to use them. They use the cheapest feeds and farm by-products available to reduce produc-tion cost and thereby maximize profits. Since the feeds are often not of standard quality in terms of nutrient contents and mois-ture, it is difficult to assess feed conversion and other growth performance parameters.

Culturing tilapia in greenwater ponds is the most cost-effec-tive method. However, this method can cause off-flavors in the

fish flesh due to chemicals produced by certain algae. Off-flavor problems can be solved by balancing the natural foods with homemade feed of high quality. Cage culture in lakes and rivers has been practiced to avoid this problem.

Cage CultureCage farming in canals and rivers became popular within the

last decade. Farmers are attracted to cage farming because it has been heavily promoted and avoids the off-flavor problems. Cage culture now contributes about one-third of the total production, although less than 5% of farmers practice it.

Almost all the cage farmers practice single-species culture with red tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus x O. mossambicus, or black Nile tilapia, O. niloticus. Although they use commercial pellets, the feeds are normally of rather low quality. Cage farmers feed two to three times daily, and feed-conversion ratios remain between 1.4 and 1.8.

Although cage culture has been contributing to greater export volume, its long-term sustainability is in question. Some-times it’s too risky to install cages in communal water bodies that are not under farmers’ control.

A few years ago, mass-scale mortality was caused by the release of sugar/molasses from a large sunken boat in the Chao-phraya River, while a second case was caused by the release into the Bangpakong River of a large amount of accumulated pesti-cides and chemical residues used by crop farmers.

Currently, cage culture in large ponds is undergoing trials instead of placing cages in communal water bodies so that farm-ers can control the water quality.

Feeds, FeedingDue to the low sale prices for tilapia cultured in ponds, it has

not been economical to feed relatively expensive commercial pel-lets. However, farmers who do use floating pellets have difficul-ties in selecting the appropriate feed for their farms.

As broodfish use enormous amounts of energy in terms of generating eggs and sperm, it is generally agreed that they need supplementation of various nutrients. However, the specific nutrients and levels are not yet known, so no specialized diets are available. Hatchery operators have to keep a large pool of brood-

Ram C. Bhujel, Ph.D.Senior Scientist, CoordinatorAqua-Internship ProgramAquaculture and Aquatic Resources ManagementAsian Institute of TechnologyP. O. Box 4Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120 [email protected]

Mark WoollardAqua-Internship ProgramAsian Institute of Technology

Tilapia Farming Faces Expansion Issues In Thailand

Thailand’s tilapia industry can benefit from the kinds of addi-tional food safety practices applied in shrimp aquculture.

production


stock to produce and supply seed continuously. Therefore, there is high demand for special brooder feed.

Fish farmers need training on how to manage feeding, including simple methods of feed formulation so they can pre-pare appropriate homemade feeds themselves. This method, however, is not suitable for cage culture, which needs floating pellets that require expensive extruders to produce.

While farmers explore alternatives to pellet feeds, they usu-ally end up with cheap by-products that contain mainly carbohy-drates. As protein is the preferred source of energy, the addition of at least one of the locally available proteins would greatly

enhance the quality of the feeds without adding substantial cost.

Seed QualityAlthough mixed-sex fry are still available, monosex fry are

becoming more common because of the development of better hatchery techniques and their successful dissemination. Supply of seed is not a problem because hatcheries can produce over 200 million fry a year. Maintaining and monitoring quality have been the major problems.

Achieving 99% male tilapia after sex reversal is a major indi-cator of quality. Mixing hormone with high-protein fishmeal ensures the required level of hormone intake through feed to achieve the high male population. Although fishmeal imported from Peru or Chile is best for this purpose, most hatcheries can’t afford it. A suitable alternative needs to be explored.

BroodstockSeveral strains of tilapia developed by crossing two or more

strains are available in Thailand. Most hatcheries keep several strains based on demands from customers. Several groups have tried to carry out selective breeding to develop separate strains.

Although some improvements have been made, this has also resulted in mixing of the genetic pool. This has confused farm-ers, as each developer claims his/her tilapia are the best. It has also created a problem in finding original pure strains of Nile tilapia, which are necessary to maintain continuous development of new broodstock lines.

ExportsAlthough not yet a major issue for the tilapia industry, com-

pliance with rules for food safety and traceability has become mandatory for the shrimp export market chain. Maintaining the quality standards and food safety has been the focus of national policy. All stakeholders involved have been trained, and a system of traceability using “movement documents” has been applied.

The tilapia industry can benefit from the application of these methods and practices once the industry expands into targeted export markets. Production of fish free of drug residues is the prime concern of the Thai Department of Fisheries policy.

RecommendationsDespite having the infrastructure for growth, Thai tilapia

exports have not yet taken off. The production costs for tilapia

Cage culture avoids the off-flavors that can arise in tilapia grown in green-water ponds and helps produce higher-quality fish for export.

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cultured in cages are relatively high com-pared to those for the country’s competi-tors, especially China.

Thailand’s tilapia industry has been able to grow into a thriving sector thanks to technological advances and knowledge sharing. The problems that now face tila-pia culture can be overcome using the recommendations outlined below.

• Research into the type of plankton/algae that produce chemicals caus-ing the off-flavors in tilapia could reduce the need for risky and costly cage farming.

• Farmers should be trained to care-fully handle and store feed.

• More research on diets for breeding or nursing stocks would be useful.

• New programs could assist farmers in selecting the right strains for cul-ture.

• Implementing a quality and certifi-cation process could help improve the quality of tilapia seed.

• The use of methyl-testosterone hor-mone for sex reversal should be monitored and regulated.

• Standards for responsible culture of tilapia developed by the World Wildlife Fund or Best Aquaculture Practices program could be applied.

• A manual on how to produce high-quality tilapia feed, seed and table fish is urgently needed.

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As the practice of aquaculture increases globally, more and more individuals will come into contact with zoonotic diseases specific to aquatic animals that have the potential to be transmit-ted to humans. Although there is an extensive list of pathogens that are infectious to humans via consumption of aquatic prod-ucts, relatively few pathogens pose a risk to individuals who han-dle or come in contact with fish or their products.

No known viral or fungal pathogens are acquired by humans from fish solely through contact, and only a few reports of para-sitic infections transmitted through the contact route have been recorded. Therefore, bacteria are the primary pathogens with zoonotic potential acquired through handling of fish (Table 1).

The majority of these pathogens are Gram-negative bacteria, but a few are Gram-positive bacteria associated with fish. Most are considered opportunistic in their infections of humans and are generally associated with trauma (cuts, abrasions, punctures) or immunocompromised individuals.

Gram-negative BacteriaAeromonas species are ubiquitous in the freshwater aquatic

environment and frequently cause disease in food, bait and orna-mental fish. Non-specific clinical signs of Aeromonas infections in fish include ulcerative lesions of the skin, lesions around the bases of the fins and anus, raised scales, abdominal distension and exophthalmia. Aeromonad infections in fish are often sec-ondary to stressors such as poor environmental conditions, including suboptimal temperatures and elevated ammonia or nitrite levels.

Aeromonas hydrophila, A. caviae, A. sobria and A. schubertii have all been implicated in human disease. The primary route of transmission is through contact with the mucus and tissues of infected fish. Existing cuts and abrasions on the hands, as well as puncture wounds from the fish are potential routes of infection. The most common sign of an Aeromonas infection in humans is localized swelling at the site of entry. However, in immunocom-promised individuals, the infection can become systemic and prove life threatening.

Vibrio species are commonly isolated from marine and brack-ish water fish and environments due to the bacteria’s preference for higher salinities. In spite of this preference, a number of spe-cies of Vibrio can also be sporadically cultured from freshwater fish. These bacteria can cause disease in fish with non-specific clinical signs that include anorexia, lethargy, skin ulcers, exo-phthalmia and erythema around the anus and base of fins.

The most common Vibrio species in marine fish are V. vul-nificus, V. parahemolyticus and V. cholera, with V. vulnificus the most common isolate in human infections. The major route of exposure in humans is through puncture wounds, with clinical signs of edema, tissue swelling and necrotizing fasciitis in the immediate area of the wound or abrasion.

There are occasional reports of other species of Gram-nega-tive bacteria causing disease in humans from contact with fish. These bacteria in the genera Edwarsiella, Escherichia, Salmonella and Klebsiella are generally associated with freshwater fish or freshwater environments.

The most common routes of infection are through a punc-ture wound while handling or examining fish, or by infection of existing cuts and abrasions. Clinical signs of disease in fish can range from a localized infection of the skin to a more progressive systemic infection. An infection with any one of these bacteria in humans can be a localized inflammation at the point of entry or become systemic and result in severe illness.

Gram-positive BacteriaInfections with Mycobacterium species are probably the most

common zoonotic infections acquired from fish. Numerous spe-

Stephen A. Smith, DVM, Ph.D.Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0442 [email protected]

Working With FishLimit Zoonotic Diseases Through Prevention

Superficial skin lesions can appear on the hands and arms of workers who handle fish infected with Mycobacterium marinum.

production

Summary:Relatively few pathogens pose a risk to individuals who handle fish or their products. The majority of these patho-gens are Gram-negative bacteria and a few Gram-positive bacteria, whose transmission to humans is generally associ-ated with cuts, abrasions and punctures. An infection in humans can cause localized inflammation or become seri-ously systemic. Prevention through good hygiene, use of gloves and basic biosecurity procedures is the best method for reducing the risk of acquiring these zoonotic diseases.

32 July/August 2011 global aquaculture advocate

cies of Mycobacterium have been cultured from fish, including M. marinum, M. fortuitum, M. chelonae, M. ulcerans, M. flavescens and M. gordonae. These aquatic bacteria belong to the non-tubercular group of mycobacterial pathogens and have been iso-lated from a wide range of freshwater, brackish water and marine species of fish. Any of these bacterial species can result in acute to chronic progressive disease in fish.

Generally few clinical signs are apparent with the acute form of the disease, and often only dead fish are found. Clinical signs associated with the chronic form of the disease include lethargy, poor body condition, pigment changes, abdominal distention, exophthalmia, scale loss and skin ulcers. Infected fish can serve as carriers of the disease without outward clinical signs of illness. The most likely route of transmission among fish is through the ingestion of infected feces or dead fish tissue. Sloughed tissue from infected gill or ulcerated skin lesions of live fish may also spread these organisms.

Zoonotic infections of Mycobacterium species in humans are often seen in individuals who handle or work with fish, leading to the common name “fish handlers disease” or “fish tank granu-loma.” In humans, raised granulomatous nodules or ulcerative lesions generally occur on the hands and arms due to the bacte-ria’s preference for lower temperatures. Systemic mycobacteriosis has occurred in humans with resulting clinical signs of respira-tory disease, but most of these cases were in immunocompro-mised individuals.

Streptococcus iniae causes abdominal distention, petechial hemorrhage of the dermis, exophthalmia and sometimes death in freshwater and marine species of fish. Many species of tropi-cal and ornamental fish can harbor this bacterium, but several species of food fish appear predisposed to infection, including tilapia, striped bass and their hybrids.

Humans infected with S. iniae can exhibit clinical signs of cellulitis, systemic arthritis, endocarditis, meningitis and occa-sionally death. The major route of infection is through a punc-ture wound from the fish or infection of an existing wound.

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is another bacterium that is ubi-quitous in freshwater and marine environments. Although no known pathology has been reported in fish, clinical signs of infection in humans can range from a localized to diffuse skin infection of the hands and fingers to a more progressive systemic infection in which the heart and heart valves are affected, result-ing in endocarditis. As the bacterium is often associated with the mucus and skin of the fish, the typical route of infection is through contact or handling of contaminated fish tissues.

PreventionIndividuals who work with fish need to be aware of the

zoonotic diseases that could be acquired from these aquatic ani-mals. Obviously, the best way to prevent any chance of a zoonotic infection is to avoid contact with the fish and water. However, since this is generally not practical in aquaculture, then prevention is the best method for reducing the risk of acquiring these diseases.

Basic hygiene and thorough hand washing after contact with fish or water containing fish are the primary preventative mea-sures for reducing this risk of exposure. Wearing gloves to pro-tect open sores and cuts, reduce contact with the fish or water, and reduce potential injury from fish or equipment is another good way to prevent exposure to potential pathogens. Instead of hands, using brushes, scrubbers and sprayers for cleaning tanks, cages, netting and other equipment should also be encouraged.

Developing and implementing basic biosecurity procedures for an aquaculture facility are also important in reducing the intro-duction and spread of potential pathogens in an aquatic animal population. Such procedures can include establishing quarantine protocols for all new fish and eggs entering a facility to prevent contamination of established populations of fish and thereby reduce the potential exposure of humans to these pathogens.

New fish should be maintained in separate, isolated systems and held in quarantine for a minimum of 30 days while observing behavior, feeding responses and development of clinical signs or lesions. Regular health monitoring of fish in both the quarantined and existing populations is another way of insuring the identifica-tion of potential pathogens in a population. And finally, any indi-vidual working with fish who is seeking medical attention for lesions or illness of unknown origin should make their personal physician aware of their involvement with aquaculture.

Table 1. Potential zoonotic pathogens of fish transmitted to humans by contact with infected tissues or water.

Pathogen Clinical Signs in Fish Clinical Signs in Humans

Gram-negative Bacteria

Aeromonas species Often non-specific, ulcerative skin lesions, abdominal distention, lethargy, exophthalmia, raised scales, fin erosion, death

Localized edema and swelling at site of infection, rarely systemic

Vibrio species Often non-specific, lethargy, skin ulcers, abdominal distention, exophthalmia, fin erosion, death

Edema, tissue swelling, necrotizing fasciitis at site of infection

Gram-positive Bacteria

Mycobacterium species Usually non-specific, lethargy, poor body condition, pigment changes, abdominal distention, scale loss, exophthalmia, skin ulcerations, death

Raised granulomatous nodules to ulcerative skin lesions, rarely systemic

Streptoccus iniae Abdominal distention, hemorrhages of the skin, exophthalmia, death

Cellulitis, arthritis, endocarditis, meningitis, rarely death

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae No apparent pathology Localized to diffuse skin infection, endocarditis, death

Developing and implementing basic biosecurity procedures are important in reducing the introduction and spread of potential pathogens.

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One of the most familiar aspects of health maintenance in cultured fish species is that of chronic disease characterized by the presence of white or tan nodules in one or many organs. Such nodules are due to chronic inflammation in tissue in which macrophages, a type of white blood cell, gather into populations known as granulomas.

Granulomas have infectious and non-infectious causes, can vary in appearance and have a natural history that is intimately involved with immune function. In short, they are a means by which a body isolates and eliminates undesirable material, but the degree to which granulomas are present is in part determined by the body’s success in controlling offending agents.

Granulomatous InflammationIt is common for healthy fish to have one to several 1- to

2-mm-wide granulomas in their internal organs. These granulo-mas are often due to parasites or non-infectious material.

However, numerous granulomas in diseased fish are charac-teristic of infections by bacteria such as mycobacteria, nocardiae and francisellae. These granulomas may be seen as spherical, often melanized structures in wet mounts of organ squash preps.

It is advisable to examine sections of fixed tissues stained with hematoxylin and eosin by light microscopy in any case of granulomatous disease to verify microbiological results and determine if more than one pathogen is present.

MycobacteriaMycobacteria are arguably the most common and well-

known cause of granulomatous disease in fish. They can affect both fresh- and saltwater species, and all fish should be consid-ered susceptible.

Mycobacteria are gram-positive, acid-fast bacteria that form pleomorphic rods, filaments or cocci. Until the last decade, only a handful of species (M. chelonae and M. fortuitum, for example) were identified as fish pathogens, but this list has expanded as methodology for speciation improved. Mycobacterium marinum, a frequent isolate from diseased fish, is a fast-growing species that shows growth in specific solid media in seven to 14 days, while other species can take months for colony growth.

It is important to understand that if cultures from diseased tissues are not obtained, mycobacteria can not be ruled out as a causative pathogen. The isolation of mycobacteria and presence of granulomas and acid-fast bacteria in lesions may not be well correlated. It is prudent to save frozen and fixed tissues for use in polymerase chain reaction testing and histopathology to solid-ify a diagnosis.

Disease SignsDiseased fish show a variety of external signs that range from

ulcers, exophthalmia and emaciation to lethargy, visible granulo-mas or no signs at all. The course of disease is typically chronic, although acute mortalities have been reported.

Internally, gray, tan or white foci are present in any organ, but typically the spleen, liver or kidneys. The foci may coalesce, lead-ing to partial or total replacement of the organ by inflammation.

Microscopically, prototypical granulomas composed of mac-rophage aggregates rimmed by lymphocytes and fibrocytes can be seen in diseased fish. Granulomas, which can have necrotic cores, typically mature through characteristic stages with overall progres-sive fibrosis. The presence of identifiable bacteria is highly vari-able, and in many cases, special stains are used to visualize them.

Tissue StainsThe best known, often used and most convenient tissue stain

for mycobacteria is the “acid-fast” stain, but fluorescent and

Enlarged spleens from pompano infected with Nocardia. On the left, white pinpoint foci indicate an early stage of disease. The right image reflects advanced granuloma-tous splenitis. Photo courtesy of H. Lan.

Bacterial Diseases Cause Granulomas In FishVaried Staining Methods Identify Pathogens

production

Summary:Granulomas in diseased fish often indicate infections by bacteria. External signs range from ulcers and ema-ciation to lethargy or no signs at all. Internally, gray or tan foci present in organs and can coalesce with severe inflammation. The best known tissue stain for identify-ing mycobacteria is the “acid-fast” stain, but fluorescent and immune-based stains are also available. For nocar-diae, modified Z.N. stains use mineral acid rather than acid alcohol. Francisellae bacteria are most easily seen with Giemsa stains.

Wes A. Baumgartner, DVM, Dipl. ACVPLouisiana State University School of Veterinary MedicineDepartment of Pathobiological SciencesSkip Bertman DriveLouisiana State University Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 [email protected]

John Hawke, Ph.D.Louisiana State University School of Veterinary MedicineDepartment of Pathobiological Sciences immune-based tissue stains are also available. Acid fastness in

the mycobacterial sense is the ability of bacteria to resist decolor-ization by 3% acid alcohol. It is important to recognize that this stain is not specific, since nocardiae and rhodococci can also be acid-fast. Further, acid fastness is not sensitive. Less than 1% of mycobacteria can be acid fast in some cases.

The degree of acid fastness can vary widely due to the fixation method, staining recipe, presence of mycobacteria with intact cell walls, type and amount of mycolic acid in bacterial walls and growth stage of the bacteria. It is not rare to find few to no acid-fast bacteria in tissue slides from cases of mycobacteriosis.

The Ziehl-Neelsen stain for acid fastness is perhaps the most commonly used and reported technique for diagnosis of myco-bacteria in fixed tissues. However, this staining procedure is not standardized and has many variations, so methodologies should be specifically reported when using the stain.

Many have advised the use of periodic acid as an oxidizing agent to improve acid fastness in tissue sections, yet such a treat-ment alters the nature of bacteria in a mycobacteria-specific sense. While periodic acid improves bacterial staining with acid-fast

stains, it also makes the Ziehl-Neelsen (Z.N.) stain useless for the diagnosis of mycobacteria and nocardiae in disease outbreaks.

NocardiaeNocardiae are gram-positive, weakly acid-fast, branching rod

bacteria that affect both fresh- and saltwater species. Nocardia asteroides, N. seriolae and N. salmonicida are the most common isolates. They can take up to three weeks to grow in solid media at 25° C. The presence of branching aerial hyphae in culture col-onies is characteristic.

The clinical signs of disease from nocardiae are similar to mycobacteriosis. Nocardiae are often said to be acid-fast, but this depends heavily on the staining method applied. Modified Z.N. stains use mineral acid rather than acid alcohol, which may be more effective. Additionally, 3% acid alcohol is the standard Z.N. decolorizer, which will often decolorize nocardiae. If 1% acid alcohol is used, as in some commercial Z.N. stains, nocar-diae retain the stain.

FrancisellaeFrancisellae have been known as mammalian pathogens for

nearly a century. However, only recently have they become iden-tified with significant disease in farmed fish.

Francisellae have been confused with piscirickettsia-like organisms in fish disease outbreaks, and distinguishing between the two is problematic. Francisella noatunensis and F. asiatica have been identified as emerging pathogens in a growing list of fish, including cod, tilapia, grunt, salmon, cichlids and hybrid striped bass.

They are gram-negative coccobacilli that infect macrophages, causing characteristic granulomas in many tissues. These bacteria won’t grow in simple media and are often difficult to isolate, even from obviously diseased specimens. As they grow slowly – taking five to seven days to show visible colonies – overgrowth of the francisellae by contaminating bacteria is a problem. Selective media is recommended for primary isolation. The selective medium the authors use is produced by adding 50 µg/mL ampi-cillin and 100 units/mL polymyxin B to cysteine heart agar forti-fied with bovine hemoglobin.

F. asiatica, which causes severe and widespread granuloma-tous disease in farmed tilapia, originally presented as a necrotiz-ing myositis that caused fillet condemnation at processing plants. Granulomatous disease primarily affects the head kidney, spleen and liver of the fish. Disease outbreaks are affected greatly by water temperatures below 28° C, and the progression of lesions is relatively rapid.

Within macrophages, 0.5- to 1- µ-wide cocco bacilli are present in tremendous numbers in many cases. Bacteria are not acid fast sense and are most easily seen with Giemsa stains, but standard hematoxylin and eosin stains also work well.

A typical granuloma in the head kidney of a tilapia infected with Francisella asiatica. The darker core is composed of dead cell material, melanin and bacteria, which are surrounded by macrophages.

This highly magnified granuloma contains acid-fast mycoba-teria, which stain bright pink/red. Macrophages are counter-stained purple.

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The question of “What Farmed Fish Eat” was the subject of the first panel session at the International Boston Seafood Show held in March. The panel of aquafeed experts discussed recent advances in feed research and industry progress toward sustainability.

The panel was moderated by Steven Hart, director of aqua-culture at the Indiana Soybean Alliance. Hart began the session with a look at the growth of world aquaculture, which is cur-rently around 7% per year. In 2011, the volume of farm-raised seafood is expected to equal that of wild catch for human con-sumption. The traditional feed for fish has been based on fish-meal for many years, and the ocean supplies of fishmeal are at their maximum sustained yields.

“This increased volume, obviously, is a major issue in feed formulation for aquaculture,” Hart said. “The price of fishmeal has skyrocketed and is at an all-time high. Because of that, the feed industry is looking for alternatives.”

Of particular concern is the fish in:fish out ratio, which is how many units of fishmeal go into a unit of final farmed prod-uct. At the start of the aquaculture industry, those numbers were as high as 5:1, but have since improved to 2:1 and lower. “If sus-tainable aquaculture is to grow at the rates needed to meet increased demand, that number’s going to have to come down a lot lower than even 1:1,” Hart asserted.

USDA Feed InitiativeJeff Silverstein, director of the aquaculture program at the

Agriculture Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agri-culture, then gave an overview of the USDA/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Alternative Feeds Initiative and the Plant Products and Aquafeeds Group, an NGO alliance of researchers interested in developing primarily plant-based alternatives to fishmeal.

“As we’re looking for alternatives to the limited supply of fishmeal, we’re really trying to maintain what we call a ‘triple bottom line,’” Silverstein said.

The bottom line includes maintaining the good taste and human health benefits of seafood from its excellent protein and lipid profiles. Alternative feeds will maintain the economic sustain-ability of aquaculture, as less-expensive substitutions can be identi-fied when ingredients climb in price. Environmental sustainability will be maintained, with more fish grown with less impact.

The Alternative Feeds Initiative program focuses on areas such as understanding the nutrient requirements of the species grown and how diets can deliver them. Species studied include trout, salmon, hybrid striped bass, pompano, cobia and channel catfish.

Kelly ColemanColeman CommunicationsP. O. Box 88Laupahoehoe, Hawaii 96764 [email protected]

Boston Session Examines ‘What Fish Eat’Aquafeed experts considered alternatives to fishmeal and emerging advances in sustainable feed technology at IBSS. Courtesy photo.

production

Summary:A panel session at the International Boston Seafood Show brought together aquafeed experts to discuss recent advances in feed research and industry progress toward sustainability. Speakers said the aquaculture industry and other stakeholders are examining such issues as fishmeal use, feed-conversion efficiency and non-marine feed ingre-dient alternatives. More ecosystem-based management of fisheries that leaves some forage fish in the oceans for other species was suggested.

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The aquafeed industry continues to research sustainablealternatives to fishmeal.


The program also is looking at the composition, palatability and digestibility of feeds and alternative proteins such as soy, barley and algal meals – all low-cost biofuel co-products. Growth performance and feed conversion are examined, as well as the quality of the final consumer products. Also, how do the genetics and health of fish work together with nutrients?

Silverstein said the Agriculture Research Service (ARS) works hard to get this information out to industry by making data from hundreds of feed ingredient evaluations publicly avail-able online. He also noted that the ARS research program has the unique capability of making commercial-quality materials to test on a very small scale, which is a valuable resource for the feed industry.

Feed IngredientsRichard Nelson, manager of purchasing at Silver Cup Feeds,

spoke on feed ingredients. His company has manufactured fresh-water finfish feeds in the United States for half a century, pro-ducing feed for the aquaculture industry as well as government conservation and mitigation operations that grow fish for stock enhancement and other reasons.

Nelson explained the challenging procurement process for buying raw feed materials: “I have to deal with 90 to 100 differ-ent products grouped in generic classes: proteins, fats, carbohy-drates, vitamins, minerals, some types of conditioning, groups of things that might affect the PH balance in feed, things that might provide antioxidant characteristics, mold inhibitions.

And there are some items that go into feeds that help us to actually make the feed itself. In some diets, some pigmentation goes in for coloring the fillets. Not a dye – it’s a natural microbe that is what salmon consume in the wild.”

The analysis of the value of any particular product comes down to the bioavailability of the nutrients, such as amino acids, fatty acids, sugars and carbohydrates. Nelson said that because fish want protein and fat, much of the focus is on amino acid and fatty acid contributions to diets. Also of consideration are whether these products are readily available and the economic viability of passing along their costs at levels that allow farmers to produce and market fish.

Quick Weight GainMike Hickerson, director of sales at Bell Aquaculture, a yel-

low perch farm in Indiana, USA, said, “We want aquafeeds that will produce the quickest turn of weight on our fish so that I can sell them in a timely fashion.”

Bell expects to produce about 9 million yellow perch per year indoors in freshwater tanks. The company is vertically inte-grated, raising fish from broodstock through final processing.

Sustainable FeedsMike Cremer, director of the Global Aquaculture Program

of the U.S. Soybean Export Council (USSEC), said that most people don’t know the U.S. soybean industry has one of the larg-est aquaculture programs in the world. It has developed sustain-able soy-based feeds for most of the major production species around the world.

Cremer referenced projections from the Food and Agricul-ture Organization of the United Nations and other groups for the requirement of another 40 mmt to 100 mmt of seafood products, which are all going to have to come from aquaculture.

“It’s quite obvious that, as valuable a resource as fishmeal is, there’s not enough produced in the world to adequately sustain feeds for this growing industry,” he said. “So we’re working very hard to find alternative protein sources for those feeds, and we’re

positioning soy in those markets as one of those major compo-nents of aquaculture feeds for the future.”

Cremer said USSEC’s biggest success story has been in China, which has made a shift from manure-based freshwater fish production to the use of commercial feeds.

“That industry has grown into a 23-mt production industry that’s about 80% feed-based now,” he said. “We’ve worked with the production sector and the feed-manufacturing sector to develop all-plant-protein feeds for essentially all the major fresh-water production species in China.”

Cremer said there has been success over the last decade in significantly reducing the amount of fishmeal in feed for a wide variety of marine species cultured around the world. “Our ulti-mate target is to get that fishmeal inclusion down to about 15% of the protein requirement of those feeds,” he said, “by providing alternative ingredients that are much more sustainable and avail-able on a global basis.”

Four R’sRepresenting the Ocean Conservancy, a national environmen-

tal conservation organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., Director of Aquaculture Programming George Leonard said orga-nizations such as his approach the issue of aquaculture “from the ocean side.” He said that many in the conservation community are concerned about aquaculture because fishmeal and fish oil come from forage fish species, which are a critical link between sunlight and many other animals in the marine ecosystem.

“If we want aquaculture to ultimately be true farming, then we need to figure out a way to break that link into aquaculture through the use of wild forage fish for feed,” Leonard said.

He said conservationists identify four essential “R’s” with respect to aquafeed and aquaculture: reduce, reform, replace and reevaluate.

We need to reduce the inclusion rates of fishmeal and fish oil in farmed feed, Leonard said. He acknowledged the industry-driven progress achieved in this area in the last 10 years. But because industry at the global scale is outpacing the improve-ments made at the individual level, there is continuing pressure on ocean ecosystems.

The second R is the reform issue. Many conservationists do not deny the use of some forage fish in feeds, but strong manage-ment is required for their capture. “In particular, we need to grap-ple with the concept of ecosystem-based management, which is leaving some forage fish in the oceans for those other species, and to think beyond single species management of those fish.”

The third R is replacement. Leonard listed a diversity of alternative feedstuffs that can replace fishmeal and fish oil, including plant-based proteins; seafood processing by-products; oils and meals derived from macroalgae, microalgae, bacteria and yeasts; and animal by-products.

The fourth R is reevaluate. “We need to think very carefully about the environmental trade-offs of one use of product for the other,” Leonard said. “We are concerned about the environmental impacts of the use of forage fish, but we do not want to be pro-moting things, either wittingly or unwittingly, that will result in a larger environmental footprint somewhere else.”

Leonard said the Ocean Conservancy wants aquaculture to be a part of the solution to world food needs, but if these chal-lenges are not grappled with, it will be part of the problem. “Aquaculture really has to be part of our future seafood supply, and we want to make sure that we get it right so that we can have our fish and eat them, too, he said.”

Note: Panel content courtesy of the International Boston Seafood Show.

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Fisheries professionals routinely sedate fish for procedures such as collection of samples or morphometric data, surgical implantation of tags or tracking devices, and transport. Fish are innately difficult to handle, and when they actively resist restraint, epithelial damage or other physical injury is more likely. Handling fish without sedation can cause greater stress to the animals and pose a risk to personnel, particularly in the case of handling large or hazardous fish. When fish are sedated prior to handling, risks to both fish and handlers are minimized.

Ideally, fish sedatives should be safe, effective, easy to admin-ister when used over a broad range of water chemistries and inexpensive. They should also have rapid induction and recovery times, and offer some analgesia. Additionally, it is desirable that sedatives have no withdrawal period, so sedated fish can be immediately released into the wild or taken to market.

Current SedativesCurrently, few effective, practical sedative options are available

to fisheries professionals, and no sedative can be legally used as an “immediate-release” product. Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) is the only compound approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the temporary immobiliza-

tion of fish and other aquatic, cold-blooded animals. However, legal use of MS-222 is restricted to four families of

fish: Ictaluridae, Salmonidae, Esocidae and Percidae. Water tem-peratures must be above 10˚ C, and a 21-day withdrawal period is required for fish intended for human consumption or which may be caught and consumed. For many applications, holding fish for even a short period post-sedation is not practical.

Currently, the only available option is the use of carbon diox-ide, which is not approved by FDA, but is considered a drug of low regulatory priority, for which regulatory action is unlikely, assuming certain criteria are met. Although carbon dioxide gas has been characterized as a somewhat effective sedative for some fish, it is slow-acting and difficult to apply uniformly, and often results in adverse reactions that include morbidity and mortality.

Aquatic Animal Drug ApprovalThe FDA approves new animal drugs based on data demon-

strating that the drugs are effective and safe when used as directed for treated animals, people administering treatment, the environment and consumers. For any species, generating the data required for a new drug approval is a time-consuming and expensive endeavor.

It is estimated that for an aquaculture drug, approval requires an investment of up to 15 years and U.S. $30 million. This is because aquaculture drug approval efforts are challenged by low economic incentives for drug sponsors, a relatively small group of active researchers generating the data and a very expensive, arduous regulatory process.

Immediate-Release SedativesEfforts are currently under way to evaluate the safety and

effectiveness of two compounds based on benzocaine or eugenol as immediate-release fish sedatives.

Benzocaine is a local anesthetic that has been used as a topi-cal pain reliever since the end of the 19th century. Benzocaine is the active ingredient in nearly 100 over-the-counter topical anal-gesic products and is also used in terrestrial livestock as an anes-thetic and to treat minor wounds.

Although benzocaine can induce methemoglobinemia, a con-dition that interferes with the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, serious toxicity is extremely rare. It has been estimated that more

James Bowker, M.S.U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceAquatic Animal Drug Approval Partnership Program4050 Bridger Canyon RoadBozeman, Montana 59715 [email protected]

Jesse Trushenski, Ph.D.Fisheries and Illinois Aquaculture CenterSouthern Illinois University CarbondaleCarbondale, Illinois, USA

American Fisheries Society Calls For Immediate-Release Fish Sedatives

Aquaculturists have few options when it comes to safe, fast-acting sedatives for fish.

production

Summary:The absence of practical immediate-release sedatives for fish jeopardizes fish, fisheries, fish culture and research, pos-ing risks to aquatic resources as well as those handling fish. The American Fisheries Society is reviewing a draft policy statement that describes the impediments to accessing a suitable sedative and the constraints the situation places on aquatic natural resources management and the aquaculture industry. It also recommends a course of action to facilitate the timely approval of an immediate-release sedative.

than 1 million intentional and accidental human exposures to benzocaine occur every year in the U.S., yet fewer than 100 cases of benzocaine-induced methemoglobinemia have been reported in the medical literature over the last 50 years.

Research has shown that benzocaine is efficacious for sedating a variety of freshwater and saltwater fish under differ-ent environmental conditions while incurring very low tissue residues.

Eugenol is a pale yellow, oily compound derived from the flowers, stalks and leaves of various plants, including clove. Because of its high 85 to 95% eugenol content, clove oil has been used as a mild topical anesthetic for the treatment of toothache, headache and joint pain since antiquity.

Eugenol is included on FDA’s list of food additives that are “generally recognized as safe.” Although it’s been reported that eugenol exposure may cause gastrointestinal and cardio-respi-ratory symptoms, and contact dermatitis in those with a eugenol allergy, the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committees on Food Additives estimated a temporary acceptable daily intake for men of up to 2.5 mg/kg body weight.

Available research indicates that eugenol is efficacious for sedating and anesthetizing both freshwater and saltwater fish. Eugenol appears to depurate from the fish tissues rapidly.

Risk AssessmentRisk can be described by comparing the concentrations of

benzocaine and eugenol known to cause adverse human health effects with the residues likely to be found in fish tissues.

Assuming a standard portion size of 85 g and a “worst-case scenario” – exceeding the proposed sedative dosages and con-suming the fillet within one hour of sedation – a fillet portion from a fish treated with benzocaine would contain an estimated 1.2 mg benzocaine. A fillet portion from a fish treated with eugenol would contain an estimated 0.9 to 4.7 mg eugenol.

Assuming a conservative 10-fold margin of safety, consum-ers could still eat more than one treated fish portion at every meal without undue risk of health effects.

AFS RecommendationsThe absence of a suitable immediate-release sedative jeop-

ardizes fish, fisheries, fish culture and research, and poses con-siderable risk to those involved in these activities. Benzocaine and eugenol meet a range of criteria that justify an assumption of safety and efficacy, as well as minimal risk to fish, research-ers, the environment and human consumers.

Accordingly, the American Fisheries Society (AFS) recom-mends an expedited review of the candidate immediate-release sedatives and implementation of a risk management-based approach to establishing the data requirements for drugs intended for use in fish. AFS also recommends a reduction in the data requirements for approval of the candidate sedatives and, in the interim, regulatory discretion to allow immediate-release sedative use. Ultimately, AFS recommends that the consequences of inaction be balanced against the consequences of approving the use of benzocaine or eugenol as an immedi-ate-release sedative in the fisheries disciplines.

Editor’s Note: The article is a summary of a paper recently published by the authors in Fisheries. The draft policy statement it expresses was recommended by the Governing Board of the American Fisheries Society for distribution to its membership for comment.

42 July/August 2011 global aquaculture advocate

Potassium diformate (PDF) is a conjugated salt that has been used as a non-antibiotic feed additive to promote the growth of livestock. However, very limited studies have been documented in aquatic species, and its effectiveness is contradictory.

A previous study on Atlantic salmon showed that diets con-taining fishmeal treated with 1.4% PDF improved feed effi-ciency and growth rate. Results based on the growout of hybrid tilapia also indicated that the addition of 0.2% PDF in test diets significantly increased growth and feed efficiency, and decreased bacterial infections.

In contrast, a study of juvenile hybrid tilapia showed that supplementation of PDF at up to 1.2% of the diet did not show improvement in growth performance, despite significantly sup-pressing gut bacteria. Based on the limited available information, the efficacy of PDF in fish performance appears to vary depend-

ing on species, life stage, supplementation levels of PDF, test formulation and culture conditions.

Experimental DesignThe authors recently conducted a growth trial at the Oceanic

Institute in Hawaii, USA to evaluate the effect of PDF on the growth performance and digestibility of Pacific white shrimp cultured in a clearwater system. It was funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service and through a cooperative agreement with the University of Alaska Fairbanks.

Juvenile Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, were cultured in an indoor flow-through cleanwater system with 31 ppt salinity and 25° C temperature. They were fed six test diets with 35% protein and 6% lipid containing PDF at 0, 0.3, 0.6, 1.2 or 1.5%.

For each 100 g, the basal diet was formulated to contain 30.0 g soybean meal, 15.0 g pollock meal, 6.0 g squid meal, 2.0 g menhaden oil, 2.0 g soy lecithin, 33.8 g whole wheat, 1.0 g chro-mium oxide and 11.2 g other ingredients (including minerals and vitamins). For each diet, four 52-L tanks were stocked at 12 shrimp/tank. With 0.84 g initial body weight, the shrimp were hand fed four times daily to apparent satiation for eight weeks.

For the digestibility trial, 120 shrimp with body weights of 9 to 10 g were cultured in each of 18, 550-L tanks with 3 tanks/dietary treatment. Chromium oxide was used as an inner marker for measuring apparent digestibility coefficient.

In the growth trial, shrimp were cultured in this system with flow-through water.

Potassium Diformate Doesn’t Affect Shrimp Growth, Survival; Reduces Nutrient Digestibility

production

Summary:A recent eight-week growth trial evaluated the effects of potassium diformate on the growth performance and digestibility of Pacific white shrimp. Weight gain was not significantly affected by different levels of PDF in diets, and survival was high for all treatments. The study showed that PDF supplementation at high levels can affect feed efficiency and nutrient digestibility, but PDF at up to 1.5% of diet did not affect the growth of shrimp cultured under clearwater conditions.

Dong-Fang Deng, Ph.D.Aquatic Feeds and Nutrition DepartmentOceanic InstituteWaimanalo, Hawaii 96795 [email protected]

Zhi Yong Ju, Ph.D.Warren G. Dominy, Ph.D.Aquatic Feeds and Nutrition DepartmentOceanic Institute

Peter J. Bechtel, Ph.D.U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research ServiceSubarctic Agricultural Research UnitFishery Industrial Technology CenterKodiak, Alaska, USA

Scott Smiley, Ph.D.Fishery Industrial Technology CenterSchool of Fisheries & Ocean SciencesUniversity of AlaskaKodiak, Alaska, USA

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ResultsThe weekly weight gain of shrimp ranged from 0.6 to 0.8 g

and tended to increase in treatments with 1.2 and 1.5% PDF

diets, but was not significantly (P > 0.05) different among the dietary treatments. The survival of shrimp was 97% or higher in the growth trial.

Feed-conversion ratios (FCRs) were similar for the diets with 0.3 and 0.6% PDF, and both were lower than the FCR for the 1.2% PDF diet (P < 0.05) However, the FCRs for the control, 1.2 and 1.5% PDF diets were similar (P > 0.05).

Shrimp fed the 1.2% diet had lower digestibility (P < 0.05) for dry matter, protein and gross energy than the shrimp fed the other diets (Figure 2). Their digestibility of dietary lipids, how-ever, was not affected (P > 0.05) by the PDF levels.

PerspectivesThis study showed that supplementation of PDF at up to

1.5% in a diet did not affect the growth and survival of shrimp cultured in a clearwater system. This observation was similar to a previous finding with hybrid juvenile tilapia, but different from the results found in research with Atlantic salmon and growout of hybrid tilapia.

The effects of dietary PDF on FCR and digestibility revealed dose dependence in this study. It is possible the high FCR of the 1.2% PDF diet was due to the low digestibility of protein, dry matter and gross energy for the diet. There is very limited infor-mation regarding the effects of PDF on nutrient digestibility in aquatic species.

The results of this study were different from those of a previ-ous report that said the addition of PDF to fishmeal during the storage period before feed processing increased protein digest-ibility. The different efficiencies of dietary PDF found in the current and previous studies may have been due to the different conditions, such as testing species, culture system, dietary formu-lation or other experimental conditions. The exact reason for this discrepancy was not clear and warrants further investigation.

Dig

est

ibil

ity (

%)

100

80

40

60

20

00 0.3 0.6 1.2 1.5

Dietary PDF (%)Figure 2. Mean apparent digestibility coefficients of shrimp fed different dietary levels of potassium diformate. Asterisks indicate significant (P < 0.05) difference among dietary treatments.

Dry Matter

Protein

Lipid

Gross Energy

*

*

*

Fe

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2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

00 0.3 0.6 1.2 1.5

Dietary PDF (%)Figure 1. Mean feed-conversion ratios for shrimp fed diets with dif-ferent levels of PDF for eight weeks. Different letters indicate sig-nificant (P < 0.05) difference among test diets.

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Aquaculture ponds for channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, in the southeastern United States often contain more food-sized catfish than processors can accept at one time. Fish remaining after the initial harvest are returned to the pond and harvested again as soon as possible based upon processor demands.

Some catfish farmers report that catfish crops initially declared “on flavor” appear to develop off-flavors soon after the first harvest, which postpones harvests of the remaining popula-tion and delays subsequent production.

Sudden Off-FlavorThere are at least three possible reasons for fish to suddenly

develop off-flavors after seining and harvest. First, the type of phytoplankton in the pond may change to include blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) that produce odorous compounds such as geosmin or 2-methylisoborneol (MIB). Those compounds are

quickly absorbed by fish and deposited in flesh, giving fish “earthy” or “musty” off-flavors.

Second, seining a pond can release odorous substances from pond sediments and taint fish. And third, fish remaining after harvest may feed on dead fish or plants, and odorous substances in the decaying material can impart off-flavors to fish after con-sumption.

The authors conducted an eight-month study to determine whether fish systematically develop off-flavors after partial fish harvest and, if so, to determine the types and origins of the flavors.

Study SetupThe study was conducted on a commercial catfish farm in the

delta region of western Mississippi. The water source and produc-tion practices were typical of other production ponds in the region.

Ponds were sampled in sets of two with each pair sampled over a two-week period under a defined schedule. Water and catfish fillet samples were collected immediately prior to initial harvest. Water samples were collected the day after harvest, and water and fish samples were collected three to seven days after harvest.

Water and catfish samples were again collected 14 to17 days after harvest. Six ponds were sampled over a warm-weather period (July through October), and six ponds were sampled over a cool-weather period (January to early April).

Water samples were analyzed in the laboratory for geosmin and MIB levels, and phytoplankton in pond water samples were identified and counted using microscopy. Catfish fillets were ana-lyzed in the laboratory to quantify geosmin and MIB and were taste tested to determine the quality and intensity of off-flavor.

MIB, Geosmin LevelsIn most ponds, MIB levels decreased or remained unchanged

in pond water after the first seining, while geosmin remained at levels below 10 ng/L in all ponds. In four ponds, MIB levels increased the day after seining. However, the MIB in two of those ponds eventually decreased or returned to levels similar to those prior to seining. Based upon sensory analysis, the spikes in MIB levels in those four ponds did not increase the incidence or inten-sity of musty off-flavors in fish sampled after the initial harvest.

Kevin K. Schrader, Ph.D.U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research ServiceNatural Products Utilization Research UnitNational Center for Natural Products ResearchP. O. Box 8048University, Mississippi 38677-8048 [email protected]

Craig S. Tucker, Ph.D.Thad Cochran National Warmwater Aquaculture CenterMississippi State UniversityStoneville, Mississippi, USA

Common Off-Flavors In Channel Catfish Following Partial Pond Harvest

The detection of off-flavors in catfish after partial harvest is more likely a statistical anomaly than the result of changing ecological conditions.

production

Summary:The authors conducted a study to determine whether channel catfish systematically develop off-flavors after partial harvest as well as the possible origins of the fla-vors. For the common odorous compounds geosmin or 2-methylisoborneol, analysis of catfish fillets showed no systematic increase in mean MIB or geosmin levels following initial harvest. Off-flavors of dietary origin appeared highly variable within a population of fish because the feeding habits differ among fish.

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Mean MIB and geosmin levels in catfish fillets from the summer and winter sampling periods were lower or not signifi-cantly different after the first harvest. Statistical analysis indi-cated that MIB levels in catfish fillets decreased or were unchanged after the first harvest, although several individual fish samples contained MIB at or above 200 ng/kg, the sensory detection threshold value for trained taste testers.

Similar results were found for geosmin levels in catfish fillets. Overall, analysis of catfish fillets did not show any systematic increase in mean MIB or geosmin levels following the initial harvest.

Microscopic analyses of water samples showed that Plankto-thrix perornata, an MIB-producing blue-green alga, was present in only three ponds. The abundance of P. perornata decreased in two ponds after initial harvest and increased in the third pond. This indicated that seining the ponds did not change ecological

conditions, thereby causing an increase in odor-producing algae. In addition, seining did not promote conditions leading to enhanced production of geosmin and MIB by actinomycetes (non-photosynthetic bacteria) present in the ponds.

Summer FlavorTaste testing of fish sampled in the summer months identi-

fied “musty” as the most common type of off-flavor (Table 1). “Woody” off-flavor was also detected in catfish fillets on a couple of sampling dates. Woody off-flavor has been attributed to β-cyclocitral, another compound produced by blue-green algae and other microorganisms.

Two of the 12 ponds sampled during the summer contained objectionable-tasting catfish prior to initial harvest. Samples from pond 169 possessed an objectionable off-flavor intensity rating of about 2.0 or higher on each sampling date. Pond 46 also con-

tained objectionable fish collected on the first sampling date, but the mean sensory score improved on later sampling dates.

Winter FlavorFlavor testing of catfish obtained during the winter months

detected a variety of off-flavors, and four of the 12 sampled ponds contained objectionable off-flavored catfish prior to har-vest (Table 2). Off-flavors described as “decay,” “fishy”, “rotten” and “rancid” were probably caused by catfish eating dead fish during the winter – a time when most catfish farmers do not apply manufactured feed, and fish may scavenge for food. Like-wise, off-flavors described as grassy or “vegetable” are likely due to fish eating dead or living algae or plants.

Off-flavors of dietary origin appear to be highly variable within a population of fish because the feeding habits differ among fish. Overall, sensory scores for pond samples during the winter months were variable, and mean scores were in the range described as “very slight off-flavor” on most sampling dates.

PerspectivesResults of this study showed no consistent, systematic change

in fish flavor quality after partial fish harvest. Apparent changes in fish flavor over time were most likely due to variation in fish flavor quality within a population and inadequate sampling to detect off-flavored fish within that population.

Most catfish processing plants require flavor samples from several fish prior to harvest, although sampling requirements dif-fer dramatically among plants. A previous study of flavor varia-tion in catfish showed that sampling of 30 catfish was needed to detect off-flavored fish in some populations. Most plants do not require this number of samples due to logistical constraints, and detection of off-flavored catfish after partial fish harvest is there-fore more likely a statistical anomaly than the result of changing ecological conditions.

Pond Sampling Date Mean Sensory Score Off-Flavor Fish* Flavor Description

52

169

86

301

46

160

7/15/097/20/097/31/097/15/097/20/097/31/098/17/098/20/098/31/098/17/098/20/098/31/099/24/099/28/0910/8/099/24/099/28/0910/8/09

0.200

2.02.21.70.30.20.30

0.20.21.31.00.30.20

0.2

000443000000210000

Cardboard, staleNone detectedNone detectedMusty, woody

MustyMusty

Slightly mustySlightly stale

Slightly mustyNone detectedSlightly mustySlightly sewage

MustyMusty, earthy

WoodyStale, slightly earthy

None detectedSlightly earthy

* The number of catfish rated at “2” or above using the following scale: 0 = on flavor, 1 = very slight off-flavor, 2 = slight off-flavor, 3 = distinct off-flavor, 4-5 = strong off-flavor.

Table 1. Results of sensory analysis of catfish fillets collected during summer months. Score represents results of six catfish obtained on the sampling date.

Pond Sampling Date Mean Sensory Score Off-Flavor Fish* Flavor Description

440

450

291

298

304

358

1/25/102/1/102/10/101/25/102/1/102/10/102/22/103/1/103/11/102/22/103/1/103/11/103/29/104/5/104/12/103/29/104/5/10

0.80.70.80.51.20.31.000

0.20

0.50.50

0.71.00.2

11112020000000020

Earthy, musty, grassyMusty, woody, rottenDecay, grassy, woodyRancid, stale, grassy

Decay, earthy, woodyGrassy, decay

Decay, fishy, rotten, vegetableNone detectedNone detected

CardboardNone detectedVegetable, straw

Hay, grassy, moldy, decayNone detected

Grassy, moldy, cardboardEarthy, hay

Decay, moldy

* The number of catfish rated at “2” or above using the following scale: 0 = on flavor, 1 = very slight off-flavor, 2 = slight off-flavor, 3 = distinct off-flavor, 4-5 = strong off-flavor.

Table 2. Results of sensory analysis of catfish fillets collected during winter months.Score represents results of six catfish obtained on the sampling date.

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The United States farm-raised catfish industry has downsized dramatically since 2001. Production area is now half of the area uesd in 2002 (Figure 1). Total annual processing has declined from 660 million lb (299,370 mt) in 2003 to less than 400 million lb (181,435 mt).

Competition from other whitefish species, such as tilapia and Asian catfish, has kept fish prices stalled, while feed and fuel costs continue to remain at record levels compared with the past 15 years. Growers have trimmed their costs in an attempt to remain

profitable, but little remains for further improvement in this area. While industry production is dominated by the channel cat-

fish species, the blue catfish x channel catfish hybrid is gaining in popularity because of its higher average survival and growth rates. The hybrids may comprise 10% of the total hatchery out-put in the 2011 hatchery season.

Fish PricesFish prices received by growers have averaged near U.S.

$0.77/lb ($1.69/kg) since 2007 but rose in 2011 to over $1.00/lb ($2.20/kg) for the first time in history. Fish inventories are low, and the competition for those remaining is strong.

The current fish prices paid to growers make the outlook bet-ter for the first time in years, given the high feed and fuel prices. However, producers’ uncertainty over high feed prices and future fish prices is causing many to be very conservative on stocking rates and reduce the number of ponds they operate this year.

Farming AlternativesGood prices for soybeans, rice and corn have resulted in

many older ponds being reduced to farm soil grade for conven-tional tillage. Ponds built on soils with higher clay levels are mostly suited to soybeans and rice.

High fuel prices make taking pond levees down an expensive proposition – as much as U.S. $2,000/ac ($4,940/ha), so those areas with drainage problems or poor access are frequently enrolled in conservation reserve programs that can run over 10 years in term. The possibility of retired ponds returning to fish culture in the near future currently seems remote. Farm-raised catfish processed during April totaled only 23.6 million lb (10,705 mt) – down 36% from the previous year.

The U.S. catfish-farming industry is changing. The photo on the left was taken at a farm in Sunflower County, Mississippi, in 2006. The photo on the right shows the same location in 2010.

U.S. Catfish Industry ProductionShifts Continue

production

Summary:U.S. catfish farmers have drastically downsized their operations over the last decade. They have had to deal with competition from other whitefish species as well as rising feed and fuel costs, causing some to replace catfish harvests with soybeans or rice. With lower inventories of fish available, catfish prices have recently risen. Some processors anticipate returning to near-normal operation within months.

Industry AdjustmentYet the average price paid to growers in April was $1.14/lb

($2.51/kg) – up 32% from April of 2010. Processors have yet to really adjust to this smaller fish supply long term. In the short term, they frequently operate three to four days weekly, depend-ing on available supplies.

The average price of all products at the processor rose from U.S. $2.48/lb ($5.45/kg) in April 2010 to $3.37/lb ($7.41/kg) in April this year. Some processors anticipate returning to near-normal operation by July, but growers have been largely frus-

trated by lower-than-normal temperatures in April and May, which delayed feeding programs on many farms.

Feeding for food-size fish this April was down 25% from the previous April. A good summer feeding season extending into October would go a long way to help remaining growers restore their inventories.

James A. Steeby, Ph.D.Associate Professor EmeritusMississippi State University National Warmwater Aquaculture CenterSunflower Aquaculture Consulting Co.P. O. Box 52Inverness, Mississippi 38753 [email protected]

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140,000

120,000

100,000

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YearFigure 1. Catfish production area in four U.S. states.

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Barriers impeding aquaculture development in the United States are ever present. Some point to uncertain regulations and complex challenges involving economic, technical, social and eco-logical aspects of the industry. Still others mention resistance to aquaculture from the general public and political conflict.

Aquaculture SurveyThe authors performed a study of members of the United

States’ National Association of State Aquaculture Coordinators (NASAC) and their perceptions about the barriers of continued growth of the aquaculture industry, as well as strategies for over-coming these barriers.

An online survey was administered to representatives from all 50 states in the NASAC database in 2009 to capture members’ views on various dimensions of the aquaculture industries in their respective states. In the winter and spring of 2010, phone

interviews were also conducted with 10 members of NASAC.

Thirty-two of the 56 state members in the 2009 NASAC database responded to the online survey. Accounting for the combined responses in two states, the actual sample size was 30 of 50 states. Table 1 displays the number of respon-dents, total number of states per geo-graphic region, and percentage of state representation per geographic region.

Industry demographics for all states were obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture 2005 Census of Aqua-culture. Respondent and non-respondent states were statistically identical for total number of farms and farm sales, as well as the number of food fish, baitfish, ornamental, crustacean and mol-lusk farms. Respondent and non-respondent states differed sta-tistically only in terms of the number of sport fish/recreational aquaculture farms (P < .05).

Barriers To Aquaculture DevelopmentRespondents were asked to indicate major barriers to aqua-

culture development in their states on a scale from 0 to 4, with 0 not a barrier at all and 4 the largest barrier. Table 2 lists the 12 barriers, percentages of responses per category and total mean for each barrier.

Among the barriers perceived as largest were start-up costs and input costs. An interviewee described the cost of feed as a major contributor, as his feed costs rose from U.S. $230 to $400/ton in recent years and now represents over 50% of input costs. Another interviewee commented that land, labor and material costs were major contributors to high input costs.

Stringent regulations and complicated regulatory processes were listed as minor to moderate barriers. Among the barriers

Survey Examines Perceived Barriers,Strategies For U.S. Aquaculture Development

Saba SiddikiUniversity of Colorado DenverSchool of Public Affairs

Christopher M. Weible, Ph.D. University of Colorado DenverSchool of Public AffairsP. O. Box 173364, Campus Box 142Denver, Colorado 80217-3364 [email protected]

Summary:In a survey of U.S. state aquaculture coordinators, costs (capital investments and land prices), resource con-straints and stringent regulations were considered sig-nificant barriers to further aquaculture development. Minor barriers included resistance from the public, con-flict among resource users and lack of cohesion among aquaculture industry representatives. Strategies for over-coming these barriers included seeking legislative sup-port and coordinating among allies. Industry members were least likely to hire experts to defend their positions or refute opponents’ claims.

Strategies for overcoming barriers to aquaculture development include coordinating among allies and seeking legislative support.

RegionStates in Sample

States in Region

Percentage of States Represented by Region

West MidwestNortheastSouth

51177

11151212

45%73%58%58%

Table 1. Respondent states by region.

perceived as minor or not a barrier included cohesiveness or cooperation among industry members and general public resis-tance to aquaculture development.

In the interviews, slightly more variance in responses was observed. When asked the extent of support from the general public, four coordinators commented that the general public was generally very supportive of aquaculture in their respective states. Others described public perceptions that varied from supportive to a fair amount of opposition in more urban areas.

When interviewees were asked, “Has there been opposition to aquaculture development by interests groups in your state?”, interviewees mentioned non-governmental organizations (NGOs) generally and specific advocacy groups, including the Environmental Defense Fund and Food and Water Watch. Yet another interviewee said that neighbors and commercial fisher-man can also pose opposition.

A number of interviewees were not satisfied with the level of state governmental support of aquaculture. Two respondents made these statements:

• “Politically, while there has been some legislation, there is currently no one person who has led the efforts.”

• “Some key people that are very supportive and other people are uninformed or misinformed. Need to educate these people and clarify misconceptions.”

Strategies To Overcome BarriersSurvey respondents were asked to indicate how often the

industry used a variety of strategies to overcome barriers to aqua-culture development on a scale from 0 to 4, with 0 never and 4 daily. Table 3 provides the percentages of respondents who chose each response, as well as the mean scores for each question.

About 10% or less of all respondents reported that the indus-try engages in the activities monthly or daily. Coordinating activities among allies, seeking legislative support and engaging in publicity/marketing campaigns were the most frequently con-ducted activities. Unlikely activities for industry members were to use experts to refute opponents’ claims or to develop defensi-ble positions.

Response Category

Frequency of Responses

Mean

Not a Barrier

Minor Barrier

Moderate Barrier

Significant Barrier

Largest Barrier

0 1 2 3 4

Start-up costs (capital investments, application fees, obtaining leases)Input costs (land prices, labor, material costs) Resource constraints (water scarcity, land availability, energy)Stringent environmental protection regulations, safeguardsForeign competitionEconomic downturnComplicated regulatory process associated with obtaining permits, licenses, etc.Domestic competitionInexperienced farmers Local user conflicts (recreational users, commercial fishers) General public resistance to aquaculture development Cohesiveness or cooperation among industry members

0%

0%4%

11%

22%11%19%

15%11%19%

33%

41%

4%

4%30%

15%

22%26%30%

30%44%41%

33%

41%

26%

41%37%

41%

7%33%29%

37%30%22%

4%

19%

48%

33%15%

26%

41%19%7%

11%15%19%

19%

0%

22%

22%15%

7%

7%11%15%

7%0%0%

11%

0%

2.9

2.72.1

2.0

1.91.91.7

1.71.51.4

1.1

0.7

Table 2. Frequency of responses for barriers to aquaculture development.

Response Category

Frequency of Responses

Mean

Never

Less Than

Yearly Yearly Monthly Daily

0 1 2 3 4

Coordinated activities among allies to convince decision makers to adopt industry positionSought legislative supportEngaged in publicity/marketing to change perceptions regarding aquacultureInfluenced the composition of aquaculture- related advisory committeesNegotiated with opponents to produce consensusUsed and/or hired experts to develop defensible positionsUsed and/or hired experts to refute opponents’ claims

7.4%

3.7%14.8%

29.6%

25.9%

44.4%

44.4%

37.0%

51.9%51.9%

33.3%

37.0%

40.7%

48.1%

44.4%

37.0%25.9%

25.9%

33.3%

11.1%

7.4%

11.1%

3.7%3.7%

11.1%

3.7%

3.7%

0%

0%

3.7%3.7%

0%

0%

0%

0%

1.6

1.51.3

1.2

1.1

0.7

0.6

Table 3. Frequency of responses for strategies for overcoming barriers to aquaculture development.


The interviewees were also asked to describe activities in which industry frequently engages to overcome barriers to aqua-culture development. While the survey identified seeking legisla-tive support as a frequent strategy, the interviewees reported that these efforts have been far from successful, saying:

• “Where (industry members) haven’t been so active is in working with the state legislature to find a champion.”

• “It can be challenging for industry people to get involved at the state level, but it is not impossible. The industry can be involved at the state level through the aquaculture advisory council or the shellfish advisory council.”

• “Small industry – small voice.” • “Bickering industry associations – when they get involved

like this, they look weak.” Interviewees agreed that publicity and marketing are impor-

tant. One interviewee described one effective strategy: “For shell-fish farming, point out that it is very environmentally friendly. For marine finfish, point to reduction in global fish supply, high-lighting food quality/contamination concerns regarding imported fish.”

The interviews described a variety of ways the industry attempts to influence decision makers. Two interviewees said that industry members try to preserve what they have through various legal processes and that people can work through aqua-culture-related councils to deal with issues.

Both survey and interview responses indicated that industry members engage in negotiation with opponents. Interviewees stated:

• “Usually put together a team of people to deal with a prob-lem issue – leadership for these groups is usually provided through the university.”

• “If there is ever an issue, (industry members) like to sit down with the concerned parties and discuss like the gen-tlemen they are.”

• “A whole variety of ways – one example was through com-munity engagement with affected parties.”

PerspectivesResults from this study complement an emerging social sci-

ence about the aquaculture industry. Mazur (2006) and Amberg (2010) documented public resistance to aquaculture develop-ment. This study suggests such resistance may be secondary to costs and regulations. Firestone (2004) emphasized fragmenta-tion of regulations as a barrier, while this study showed that complicated regulatory processes and stringent regulations are minor to moderate barriers.

It is important to view this study as exploratory and based on the perceptions of members of the state aquaculture coordinators. Yet it represents one of few social science opinion pieces about the aquaculture industry. Such introspection is important in understanding the status quo barriers and current strategies to overcome barriers, which both begin to provide a foundation for better strategic decision making into the future.

Editor’s Note: Cited references are available from the second author.

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Chile farms and fishes a wide range of seafood products. Leading industry exports to the United States include salmon and mussels. Salmon farming accounts for 3.6% of Chilean exports and 57.6% of fish exports. Chilean salmon ships to 64 coun-tries, with Japan and the United States accounting for 65% of sales in 2010.

In the aftermath of the infectious salmon anemia (ISA) virus crisis, the local industry is hard at work regaining lost ground in world markets. The Chilean salmon industry and local health authorities dealt with the ISA outbreak by overhauling farming and health procedures. Their virus control steps were commended around the world.

Answering The ChallengeThe industry is now looking forward

to the challenge of retaking a leading posi-tion in world markets, especially the United States.

“Major changes to production meth-ods; a new, more stringent regulatory framework and ongoing controls should result in sustained growth going forward,” said SalmonChile, a 25-year-old trade group whose 28 member companies account for 63% of Chile’s salmon and trout exports. “This, plus the ability to offer value-added products at competitive prices, will be key to regaining the ground lost.”

SalmonChile runs the Salmon Tech-nology Institute, which is dedicated to identifying opportunities for improving production methods. In line with govern-ment requirements, Chilean producers confronted the ISA virus crisis through health policies focused on prevention and recovery, improved production and control methods, and the introduction of indus-trywide good health practices.

Signs Of RecoveryThe significant increase in average

harvest weight is a highly encouraging sign. While Atlantic salmon harvest weights fell to as low 2.7 kg at the height of the ISA crisis, weights now exceed 5.1 kg. Another good sign is the rise in smolt seeding. Some 163 million rainbow trout and Atlantic and coho salmon smolts were seeded in 2010, a 22% increase over 2009.

Signs of market recovery are also encouraging. The Chilean salmon indus-try’s share of the U.S. market grew signifi-cantly from September to December 2010. For the period of January through Novem-ber 2010, the supply of fresh Atlantic salmon fillets to the U.S. market was led by Norway with 41.9% and Chile with 38.2%, followed by Canada, the United Kingdom and other smaller players.

The industry is now setting its sights on Latin America, which currently accounts for a healthy 17% of sales. Brazil is the largest regional market for Chilean Atlantic salmon.

ProspectsIndustry observers expect Chile to pro-

duce about 400,000 mt of salmon by 2013, and their expectations are confirmed by current events. The Chilean Department of Fisheries recently reported that the value of salmonid fish exports in January and February hit an all-time peak of U.S. $623 million. While the industry has yet to make a full comeback from the ISA outbreak, the 100,306 mt shipped in this period showed that 2011 should be a good year for salmon producers.

The Department of Fisheries report noted that export value and volume rose 47.3 and 26.3%, respectively, over the year before. In 2011, salmon is selling at U.S. $6.8/kg, a 16.3% increase over 2010 – and the best price obtained in five years.

New MarketsThe Chilean Trade Commission

(ProChile) is helping the Chilean salmon industry explore new markets, especially Bra-zil, and keep or recover markets in the United States and Europe. However, recap-turing world markets for Chilean salmon and other fish and shellfish products requires the local industry to apply new health and environmental sustainability standards.

“ProChile encourages industry revital-ization and sustainability through volun-tary adoption of international certification standards,” ProChile Director Félix de Vicente said. “The intended goal is to keep expanding as a stable, reliable supplier of seafood products to stringent markets around the world.”

Figures Confirm: Chilean Salmon Is Back

Summary:Chilean salmon producers con-fronted the ISA crisis through health policies focused on pre-vention, recovery, and improved production methods. Their efforts have resulted in climbing num-bers: higher harvest weights and millions more smolts seeded, as well as signs of market recovery. The Chilean Department of Fisheries recently reported that January-February salmonid ex-ports hit an all-time peak of U.S. $623 million. Observers expect Chile to produce 400,000 mt of salmon annually by 2013.

marketplace

Jorge Diaz Salinas [email protected]

Through its cur-rent efforts, Chile plans to recapture world markets for Chilean salmon and other fish and shellfish products.

The Chilean salmon industry’s share of the U.S. market grew significantly from September to December 2010.


Water used in aquaculture production can acquire flavors from industrial instal-lations upstream. Due to the lack of available information verifying the sea-food-tainting capabilities of industrial compounds, there is little clear informa-tion that precisely relates a source of con-tamination to unacceptable flavors in fish and shellfish produced downstream. Even the placement of caged fish near effluent sources has not always resulted in a clear identification of a polluting source.

Despite the difficulty in establishing clear links between industrial effluents and off-flavors, some compounds have been identified. In one river, industrial com-pounds responsible for flavor tainting included alkylphenols (2-isopropyl-, 3-iso-propyl, 4-isopropyl-, 2,4-diisopropyl-, 2,5-diisopropyl-, 2,6-diisopropyl-, 3,5-diiso-propyl-, 5-methyl-2-isopropyl- and 2-methyl-5-isopropyl-) and thiophenol.

Chlorination of wastewater from municipal or industrial sources has resulted in the formation of 2,4,6-trichlo-roanisole and other chlorinated anisoles, which have been related to off-flavors in fish. Ozonation is known to produce a variety of off-flavors as well, but its con-tribution to unacceptable flavor or odor in aquaculture has not been studied.

Off-Flavor From EnzymesFish lipids are very susceptible to oxi-

dation because of a high degree of acyl unsaturation. Lipoxygenase present in fish tissues can initiate the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids to produce acyl hydroperoxides. Thus, oxidative off-flavored short-chain carbonyl compounds such as 4-heptanal, 2,4-heptadienal, 2-pentenal, 3-hexenal and 2,4-decadienal increase during cold storage of some aquacultured fish species.

The effects of lipoxygenase on lipid oxidation and off-odor formation has been studied in silver carp, Hypophthal-michthys molitrix, where it was associated with a strong fishy odor. It is likely that 2,4-heptadienal contributes to fishy odors, while hexanal and nonanal are responsible for oxidized oil odors.

Off-Flavor From Microorganisms

Algae have been responsible for the production of compounds that result in objectionable tastes and odors. Some algae produce isopropyl di- and trisulfide, iso-propyl mercaptan, methyl isothiocyanate, isopropyl methyl sulfide and isopropyl methyl sulfide. Dimethyl sulfide, which is also produced, has an odor threshold con-centration of just 0.33 ng/g in water but has been found in canned fish at concen-trations of 8.4 µg/g (8,400 ng/g).

The contribution of bacteria to flavor-tainted seafoods is well known and docu-mented. Microorganisms in soil produce several volatile compounds, such as 2-iso-propyl-3-methoxy pyrazine. However, the off-odors and off-flavors produced by bacteria living on aerobically stored fish are also dependent upon the fish species and its origin.

The spoilage of temperate-climate marine fish species is characterized by the development of ammoniacal, fishy, rotten and hydrogen sulfide odors and flavors. In tropical and freshwater fish, such

Off-Flavors In Aquacultured ProductsPart II: Environmental, Endogenous Factors

George J. , Jr., Ph.D.Food Science

and Technology Department Virginia Tech/Virginia Sea Grant (0418)

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA [email protected]

Summary:Off-flavors in seafood can stem from a variety of sources. Industrial effluents can at least secondarily contribute to off-flavors in fish. Off-flavor oxidative carbonyl compounds increase during cold storage of some farmed fish. Algae produce compounds that result in objectionable tastes and odors. Post-harvest changes in the flavor quality of fish are tied to initial contamination by microorganisms, the growth of anaerobic bacteria, development of surface slime and subsequent growth of anaerobic bacteria.

Off-flavors in shrimp and other seafood can result from industrial contamination, enzymatic reactions and microorganisms.

marketplacespoilage is characterized by the presence of fruity and sulfhydryl odors and flavors.

A four-phase pattern of change in the flavor quality of fish occurs post-harvest. These changes are tied to initial contami-nation of the fish by microorganisms, the growth of anaerobic bacteria, develop-ment of surface slime and the subsequent growth of anaerobic bacteria.

Off-OdorsUsually, the first sign of off-odor is

the ammoniacal odor of trimethylamine, which comes from the degradation of trimethylamine oxide. The next stage is the development of sulfurous and putrid odors caused by compounds primarily formed by the microbial decomposition of amino acids. Most bacteria are capable of producing one or more sulfides (hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol, dime-thyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide) from either cysteine or methionine.

Chilled fish can develop a fruity odor during the early stages of spoilage. The compounds responsible for this are the ethyl esters of acetic, butanoic and hexanoic acids. These compounds are thought to be formed from mono-amine, monocarboxylic acids.

Crustacean Off-FlavorsThe microbiological origins of off-fla-

vors in crustaceans have received little attention compared to those of fresh- and saltwater fish. The majority of the litera-ture has focused on the Australian deep-sea prawn, Hymenopenaeus sibogae, which can develop a distinctive garlic-type flavor that on occasion renders the product unac-ceptable to consumers. A similar off-flavor has also been reported in sand lobsters.

The prawns are not microbiologically spoiled, and the off-flavor is exclusively concentrated in the animals’ gut. The responsible compound has been identi-fied as bis-(methylthio)-methane. The organism or organisms causing the off-flavor has not been identified.

Dimethyl trisulfide was identified as the cause of an unpleasant cooked onion odor in rejected catches of deep-sea prawns. Indole was also identified in the prawns. The flesh of the prawns was dis-colored and slimy to the touch. The prawns contained a high microbiological population, but the cause of the off-flavor could not be attributed to any of the microorganisms.

Garlic off-flavors have been shown to be due to the presence of trimethylarsine in both deep-sea and shallow water prawns. Again, the prawns were not microbiologically spoiled, and the com-pound was concentrated in the gut.

Environmental arsenic is readily transformed into alkylarsines by many bacteria under reducing conditions. Mold and yeast both produce trimethylarsine, while bacteria produce dimethylarsine. Algae are capable of converting arsenite to trimethylarsine oxide. It should be noted that prawns are known to accumu-late inorganic arsenic, and the presence of some bacteria could convert the com-pound to trimethylarsine.

Editor’s Note: Part I of this series discussed the effects on aquacultured products of off-flavors caused through the biological production of geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol. Part III will cover the flavor effects of aquaculture feeds, processing and storage conditions.

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It may be surprising to some that fish aquaculture represents only 9% of all mari-culture. Shellfish aquaculture represents 43%. At 46%, seaweed aquaculture repre-sents the largest portion of the total. But 99.8% of the 15.8 mmt of seaweed culti-vated annually come from China, Indone-sia, the Philippines, Korea and Japan.

During the last few years, there has

been renewed interest in the mariculture of seaweeds and their uses – something that should make phycologists and ecolo-gists rejoice, as this group of organisms has been misunderstood, unappreciated and underused over the centuries. We now have an opportunity to explain what sea-weeds are, and the many applications, benefits and services they can provide.

While everyone wants the seaweed sector to develop, some biotechnological issues and societal constraints, particularly in the Western world, should be recog-nized and a long-term responsible and gradual implementation strategy adopted.

Breaking Down ClichésThe Western marine biology commu-

nity has been dominated by people who received primarily zoological training, often reinforced by monospecific special-ization at university, instead of developing an ecosystem approach to marine knowl-edge. Not surprisingly, knowledge of sea-weeds and their functions and services in/to ecosystems is limited and remains at universities and research institutions that have wisely kept diverse expertises.

To expand our outlooks, we must first recall there is more than fish in the oceans! Oceans cannot function with only fish, and our seafood solutions cannot come from only this group of organisms. To

better manage marine environments, we need to revisit the concept of marine agronomy, learning from mistakes made in agriculture over the centuries to do a better job with aquaculture.

It is interesting to note that traditional agricultural practices, such as crop diversi-fication, rotation and fallowing, are now being transposed to aquaculture practices. From an ecological point of view, diversi-fication also means cultivating at more than one trophic level, adding organisms of different and lower trophic levels (sea-

Diversification Of The Aquaculture SectorSeaweed Cultivation, Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture, Integrated Sequential Biorefineries

Summary:To retain sustainability as the world’s need for seafood grows, aquaculture’s business models will likely have to change from “one species/one process/one product” to a streamed bioeco-nomic web involving different industry sectors. Evolving aqua-culture practices will require a conceptual shift toward under-standing the working of food production systems rather than focusing on monospecific techno-logical solutions. As aquaculture expands to open-ocean operations, deployment footprints should make sense from environmental, economic and production per-spectives, and also have an acceptable societal impact.

Large-scale kelp cultivation in Sungo Bay, China, is integrated with the cultivation of oysters, scallops, abalones and sea cucumbers.

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Dr. T. ChopinCanadian Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture NetworkUniversity of New BrunswickP. O. Box 5050Saint John, New Brunswick E2L 4L5 [email protected]

Dr. A. NeoriIsrael Oceanographic and Limnological Research Ltd.National Centre for MaricultureEilat, Israel

Dr. A. Buschmanni-marUniversidad de Los LagosPuerto Montt, Chile

Dr. S. PangInstitute of OceanologyChinese Academy of SciencesQingdao, China

M. SawhneyCanadian Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture NetworkUniversity of New Brunswick

Evolving aquaculture practices will require a shift toward understand-ing the workings of food production systems rather than focusing on monospecific technological solutions.

weeds, shellfish, crustaceans, echinoderms, worms, bacteria, etc.) to mimic the func-tioning of natural ecosystems.

This is what is happening with the development of integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA). Evolving aquaculture practices will require a conceptual shift toward understanding the workings of food production systems rather than focusing on monospecific technological solutions.

Sensible ChangesIt is important to understand that

changes rarely happen overnight. There is no shortage of interesting ideas for sea-weeds and other species at the small dem-onstration scale, but problems generally appear when people realize the conse-quences of scaling up. The deployment footprints required should make sense from environmental, economic and pro-duction perspectives, and also have an acceptable societal impact.

We should also stay away from the idea that since around 71% of this planet is covered by oceans, there is plenty of space for aquaculture development. Although aquaculture will probably expand into more exposed and open-ocean locations due to the reduced availability of suitable new nearshore sites, it is doubtful we will

see farms in the middle of oceans for sim-ple logistics and weather reasons. More-over, present international laws of the sea are not that comforting for owners of pri-vate equipment found at sea.

The vagueness of territorial jurisdic-tional competence regarding the exclusive economic zone in different countries, and certainly in international waters, has been a major impediment to progress in off-shore aquaculture. If moving to the open ocean has been considered a means for moving away from environmental and public perception issues in the coastal zone, it should not encourage an “out of sight, out of mind” attitude, as open-ocean development will also come under scrutiny by an increasingly educated public.

There will be a point when reasonably accessible and manageable open-ocean ecosystems eventually reach their assimila-tive capacities. Instead of taking the posi-tion that open-ocean hydrodynamic con-ditions will be appropriate for dispersion and reduced environmental impacts, the open-ocean aquaculture sector will also have to capitalize on recapturing the by-products of fed aquaculture and engineer efficient IMTA systems with their built-in biomitigative functions – soon and not as an afterthought in the 2050s.

New Paradigm, New SeascapeWith a new paradigm in the design of

efficient food production systems, there are no simple solutions, but one thing is cer-tain: The human population is increasing, and as standards of living increase, people aspire to have more proteins in their diets.

People need balanced and responsible diets, and food will have to increasingly come from aquatic production systems. As was the case on land, where the acqui-sition of food by hunter/gatherer societies had to evolve toward agriculture practices and signifigant landscape changes, we will have to accept an evolution in sea-food procurement and seascape.

We are in the middle of this transfor-mation, and this may be why people are uncomfortable, and unable to sit back and analyze without being emotional. Let us not forget that we are still in the infancy of modern, intensive aquaculture and that some agricultural practices have taken cen-

The open-ocean aquaculture sector will also have to capitalize on recapturing the by-prod-ucts of fed aquaculture.


turies to develop into better, not necessar-ily yet best, management practices.

Marine Spatial PlanningBeyond the biological, environmental,

technological, engineering, economic, marketing and regulatory issues of aqua-culture development, a basic question will be that of societal acceptance. Are we ready to evolve in our use of this planet’s “last frontier” and finally deal with the concept of zoning portions of the oceans for large aquaculture parks as sustainable food production systems for a human pop-ulation seeking ever more seafood?

Despite all the campaigns and move-ments, the global human population con-tinues to grow and eat more seafood than ever. Are we investing in the principal, in fisheries and aquaculture, to only harvest interest every year so as to not reduce/eat the capital for long-term sustainability? Are we ready to put some savings aside in the form of marine protected areas, not only for their natural beauty, but also their ecosystem functions, such as breeding grounds, nursery habitats and food pro-duction areas?

The question of readiness for marine spatial planning could also be applied to emerging projects of wind and biofuel farms. In fact, combining IMTA with wind, underwater turbine and/or biofuel farms in large multipurpose integrated food and renewable energy parks could be a means for reducing their cumulative footprint, while integrating green energy with food and fuel production and pro-cessing.

Our business models will have to change from “one species/one process/one product” to a streamed bioeconomic chain or web approach among different industry sectors. On one hand, a wide range of bio-based, high-value food and feed products/ingredients/supplements, biopolymers, fine and bulk chemicals, agrichemicals, biostimulants, pharmaceu-ticals, cosmeceuticals, nutraceuticals, functional foods, biooils, botanicals and pigments. And on the other hand, lower-

value commodity energy from biofuels, biodiesels, biogases, bioalcohols and bio-materials and heat/power – all produced within reduced footprint requirements.

The physiological, biochemical and production performances of the different organisms will have to be improved to make the systems even more efficient, profitable and competitive. The aquacul-turists and different multisector end users will need to become interdisciplinary in their approaches and learn to collaborate while aiming at the lowest resource and energy inputs.

Functionalities will have to be main-tained, as much as possible, along the process for optimal use/valorization of the multipurpose biomass, and not neces-sarily the maximization of just one end product, as some co-products could reveal themselves as the real drivers of the emerging integrated sequential biorefin-ery concept (Figure 1). Market volumes/

values, biomitigative services and public acceptance will have to be considered and included in models.

Walk The TalkIf the “not in my back yard” and simi-

lar attitudes continue to prevail, especially in the Western world, we will not be able to secure our food, chemicals and energy in an intricately interconnected ecosys-tem-responsible manner, despite ongoing rhetoric regarding alternative technolo-gies and solutions.

We will not be able to ensure our self-sufficiency, but will become dependent on other food, chemical and energy “mas-ters,” who may no longer be in the Mid-dle East, but the Far East. It is time to walk the talk and recognize the implica-tions – notably regarding marine spatial planning and our societal production and food habits – of the policies we are elabo-rating for the future.

Beyond the biological, environmental, tech-nological, engineering, economic, marketing and regulatory issues of aqua-culture development, a basic question will be that of societal acceptance.

Although shrimp imports to the United States in 2010 were even with the previous year, significant production and supply disruptions occurred in 2010, including the Gulf of Mexico oil spill. 2011 was thought by many to be a return to a “normal” supply and demand situation.

However, that scenario is not playing out this year. In fact, significant supply disruptions continue to drive the current shrimp market with at least delays in typical seasonal production to late summer and early fall. April shrimp imports were down 3.6% from year-ago levels, with year-to-date (YTD) imports at a 2.4% increase over 2010 (Table 1).

Many suggested we started the year with a tight supply, as shorted retail contracts from 2010 were still being fulfilled in the first quarter of 2011, and inventories were unable to accumulate. Raw material pricing for value-added production remained strong throughout the period, pushing the spot market higher in most categories.

In late March, heavy flooding in southern Thailand, a major supplier, set production back from that country. This manifested in April shrimp imports down 23.0% or 7.7 million lb, resulting in YTD imports 5.4% below last year. Reports indicate that inclement weather conditions have also adversely affected shrimp production in Vietnam.

Vietnam is also reportedly dealing with disease that is dra-matically affecting the early production of black tiger shrimp in the Mekong Delta region of the country. However, YTD

imports from Vietnam through April indicated a 20.9% increase. This increase was likely in white shrimp, and future import fig-ures may indicate current production problems.

Indonesia’s production, which has been down for the last couple of years, is apparently improving, with imports up 24% for April and 17% year to date. Shrimp imports from India were sharply higher in April and YTD, representing a significant increase in the production of large headless, shell-on white shrimp.

So, the supply picture is unclear, but many anticipate that seasonal production, like last year, will be at least delayed. As with most other products, shrimp production costs continue to increase – especially for feed, labor, fuel and transportation.

In addition, the U.S. dollar remains weak in relation to most major currencies, making imported shrimp more expensive. These factors all indicate a strong undertone for the shrimp mar-ket. But it remains unclear what U.S. demand requirements will be for higher-priced shrimp, given the current economic envi-ronment.

Poor weather conditions are stalling shrimp production in several regions.

Shrimp Disruptions Continue, Supply Delays Expected

Summary:Many anticipate that seasonal shrimp production will be delayed due to weather and disease problems. Rising costs and a weak U.S. dollar point to a strong undertone for the shrimp market. Shrimp imports from India and Indonesia to the U.S. are improving. April fresh whole salmon YTD import figures were 11.9% below April 2010 YTD figures. Salmon fillet imports were 5.5% lower than year-ago levels. Chile was again the top source for fillets. Frozen whole tilapia imports remain low, while fresh fillet imports slid in April. Pricing has remained static as plentiful, high-priced inventories deplete. Channel catfish imports from China were the lowest since 2007 in April, while Pangasius imports increased again. Replacement costs are making their way to the U.S. spot market.

marketplace

Paul Brown, Jr.Urner Barry Publications, Inc.P. O. Box 389Toms River, New Jersey 08754 [email protected]

Janice Brown Angel RubioUrner Barry Publications, Inc.

Table 1. Snapshot of U.S. shrimp imports, April 2011.

FormApril 2011(1,000 lb)

March 2011(1,000 lb)

Change(Month)

April 2010(1,000 lb)

Change(Year)

YTD 2011(1,000 lb)

YTD 2010(1,000 lb)

Change(Year)

Shell-onPeeledCookedBreadedTotal

30,74627,100 12,5577,35378,130

31,85627,51612,6675,65978,329

-3.5%-1.5%-0.9%29.9%-0.3%

31,130 27,19215,9865,999 81,028

-1.2%-0.3%-21.5%22.6% -3.6%

124,934119,63855,520 28,961331,031

121,668108,08861,89828,666323,170

2.7%10.7%-10.3%1.0%2.4%

Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.

Figure 1. The concept of an integrated sequential biorefinery reflects the integrated use of biomass, food, feed, chemicals and energy produced by multipurpose integrated food and renewable energy parks in an integrated multi-trophic aquaculture setting that provides biomitigative services.

Bio-based,High-Value Compounds

• Food and feed products/ingredients/supple-ments (from nori, kombu, wakame, etc. to protein substitutions in aquaculture feed)

• Biopolymers (alginates, carrageenans, agars)• Fine and bulk chemicals

• Agrichemicals, fertilizers, biostimulants• Pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, cosmeceuticals

• Nutraceuticals, functional foods, antioxidants, biooils• Botanticals, pigments, colorants, aromatics

Low-Value Commodity Energy Compounds

• Biofuels• Biodiesels, gasoline, waxes, olefins

• Biogases (biomethane, biohydrogen)• Bioalcohols, aldehydes, acids• Biomaterials, biocomposites,

thermoplastics, adhesives• Heat/steam

• Power/electricity

Separation Fractionation

Integrated SequentialBiorefinery

Sequential Processing

HarvestingDewatering

PretreatmentTransportation

Biomass

Turquoise Revolution

Bioproductionat Integrated Food

and Renewable Energy Parks

Biomitigative Services (IMTA)

Nutrient andCarbon Dioxide Sequestration

(Nutrient and Carbon Trading Credits)

Oxygen Supply

Species Interactions


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Whole FishApril fresh whole fish YTD import figures revealed a

decrease of 11.9% below April 2010 YTD figures (Table 2). Month-to-month data also decreased, with April whole salmon imports 9.3% lower than in March. Comparing April 2011 to April 2010, there was a 10.6% decrease. Canadian imports were 16.5% lower YTD and 10.0% lower month to month.

The Northeast whole fish market through the end of May and beginning of June was barely steady to weak and trended lower over the past few weeks. Supplies were full adequate to ample, with whole fish coming into the U.S. market from all parts of the world during the last few weeks of May. Demand was quiet to fair, at best, and the undertone was unsettled. All sizes, however, remained well above the three-year price averages.

The West Coast market, somewhat similar to the Northeast, was barely steady to weak at the end of May and through the first few weeks of June. Supplies were fully adequate to ample for a dull demand. The undertone going forward is barely steady to weak. Like the Northeast market, all sizes have been well above their three-year averages.

Fillets U.S. imports of fresh salmon fillets continue 2011 with Chile

the top source and Norway in second position. During April, Chile exported 6.9 million lb, while the combination of Norway, Faroe Islands and Canada exported 3.8 million lb to the U.S.

Overall, April YTD import levels were 5.5% lower than year-ago levels. Month-to-month data showed April 3.2% lower than March. Imports from Chile were 43.7% higher, while Norway’s YTD levels were 55.1% lower than in April 2010. Canada’s 2011 YTD levels were 25.1% lower than 2010 YTD levels.

Like the whole fish markets, the Chilean fillet market was weak the last few weeks of May and into the first few weeks of

U.S. imports of whole salmon dropped over 9% in April.

Whole Salmon, Fillet Imports To U.S. Down


FormApril 2011

(lb)March 2011

(lb)Change(Month)

April 2010(lb)

Change(Year)

YTD 2011(lb)

YTD 2010(lb)

Change(Year)

Frozen whole fishFresh filletsFrozen filletsTotal

4,274,9673,935,56812,561,47120,772,006

3,977,9165,671,90511,693,12821,342,949

7.47%-30.61%7.43%-2.68%

6,090,0314,438,68416,348,83026,877,545

-29.80%-11.33%-23.17%-22.72%

25,291,18618,717,63189,924,083133,932,900

25,880,65919,182,71488,771,361133,834,734

-2.28%-2.42%1.30%0.07%

Table 3. Snapshot of U.S. tilapia imports, April 2011.

June. Supplies were fully adequate to ample for a quiet to dull demand. The undertone ranged barely steady to weak going into mid-June. All Chilean fillets, however, were well their above

three-year price averages. The European fillet market was steady to weak; demand was dull.


Table 2. Snapshot of U.S. salmon imports, April 2011.

FormApril 2011

(lb)March 2011

(lb)Change(Month)

April 2010(lb)

Change(Year)

YTD 2011(lb)

YTD 2010(lb)

Change(Year)

Fresh whole fishFrozen whole fishFresh filletsFrozen filletsTotal

15,421,543205,942

12,064,44411,329,98339,021,912

17,008,919306,045

12,718,3658,654,99438,688,323

-9.3%-32.7%-5.1%30.9%0.9%

17,252,807388,309

10,163,1637,185,10134,989,380

-10.6%-47.0%18.7%57.7%11.5%

63,351,5441,864,05144,936,05042,461,343152,612,988

71,909,4571,477,69545,707,09538,301,899157,396,146

-11.9%26.1%-1.7%10.9%-3.0%

Whole TilapiaApril imports of frozen whole tilapia to the United States

increased slightly from the previous month, but overall remain low. Despite the modest surge, imports in April were the second-lowest figure recorded in the past six years. On a YTD basis, imports were down only 2.3% when compared to 2010 (Table 3).

Fresh FilletsAfter reaching a four-year-high in March, imports of fresh

fillets in April declined just under 4 million lb. Historically, imports have seasonally decreased in April when compared to the previous month, as the Lenten period normally ends. Nota-bly, there was a tremendous decline of imports from the third-largest player, Costa Rica, where shipments diminished to 137,500 lb from 1.5 million a month earlier.

The market has remained quiet since the last report. The undertone as of the third week in June was steady to about steady.

Frozen FilletsU.S. imports of frozen tilapia fillets increased just slightly from

the previous low figure recorded a month earlier. April imports were below the 2008-2010 average, as well as 23.0% under those in April a year ago. Overall, imports were just 1.1% higher than the previous year, with China, the main supplier, staying flat at 1.5%. Indonesia, ranked a distantly second supplier, saw its ship-ments increase only 3.4% during the first four months of 2011.

Pricing has remained static for the past months as plentiful, high-priced inventories deplete in the U.S. Many in the U.S. have reported some easing in offering price levels from Chinese packers as they try to reignite buying interest from discouraged U.S. importers, and as the harvests take place. The current undertone is mixed.

Whole Tilapia Stay Low, Costa Rica Fillets Drop

Pangasius Imports Grow As Replacement Costs RiseChannel Catfish

Imports of channel catfish from China to the United States remain low (Table 4). On a YTD basis, imports were the lowest since 2007 in April, and when compared to the same month in previous years, 2011 marked the lowest numbers since this item was initially tracked by the Department of Commerce. The mar-ket was short, and quotations have not been re-established due to negligible spot trading.

PangasiusU.S. imports of Pangasius increased significantly in April: 46

and 73% from the previous month and when compared to the same month a year ago, respectively. A cyclical pattern of monthly imports is increasingly more apparent in this market.

On a YTD basis, imports for the January-April period were 47% greater when compared to the same period a year ago. When compared individually to their counterparts from previous

U.S. imports of tilapia fillets from main supplier China have remained fairly flat.


Three F8, F9 and F12 generation fam-ilies of Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, were challenged per os with white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) at the University of Arizona’s Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory. These families were developed by the Panamanian shrimp company Camaronera de Coclé, S.A. (CAMACO) from founder stocks that survived white spot a decade ago. All three lines were obtained through the selective breeding of offspring from multiple gener-ations since 2001 that were survivors of experimental WSSV infections.

The family identified as LP-1 was F9 generation and produced by artificial insemination from one female and one male. The second family, LP-2, was obtained by crossing females from a mass-selected F11 population with F8 genera-tion males from the LP-1 family using natural copulation. The third LP-3 family was in the F12 generation and obtained by crossing shrimp previously produced by mass selection and natural copulation from a mixture of all individually selected and WSSV-challenged families.

Study SetupL. vannamei stock with average weight

of 1.5 g per shrimp were shipped to the University of Arizona from CAMACO in Panama. On arrival, the shrimp were acclimated and stocked at 50 to 96 animals per tank into nine, 1,000-L fiberglass tanks containing artificial seawater with 30-ppt salinity and 26˚ C temperature. The shrimp were allowed to recover from shipping stress for three days prior to the WSSV challenge studies.

The experimental challenge consisted of three negative environmental control tanks, each containing representatives from one of the families, which were challenged separately with WSSV. Six tanks were utilized for challenging the three families with WSSV and included two replicates for each family. A positive control consisting of 20 Kona specific pathogen-free (SPF) reference line L. vannamei with average weight of 1.5 g was challenged with WSSV in a 90-L glass aquarium.

The Kona stock were fed the same batch of WSSV tissue as the three Pana-

manian families to ensure that the tissue used was infectious and provide a basis with which to measure and compare sur-vival. All tanks were equipped with air diffusers to provide sufficient aeration and an acclimated oyster shell internal recirculating biological filter. Each tank was covered with a plastic sheet to con-tain aerosols and minimize water temper-ature fluctuations.

WSSV ChallengeChina isolate WSSV-CN95 was cho-

sen for this challenge study because it is the reference isolate most often used by the university laboratory and has shown consistency in virulence since it was obtained in 1995. Shrimp in the challenge tanks and positive control tank were ini-tially given one feeding of WSSV-infected minced frozen animals at a rate of 5% of their average body weight. Beginning the next day, all the shrimp were fed a com-mercial pelleted shrimp diet.

Dead and moribund animals were recorded and removed from the tanks daily. Dead shrimp were frozen at -70° C. Moribund animals and some of the survi-vors at termination on day 17 were pre-served in fixative and processed using rou-tine histology to confirm WSSV infection status. An additional five WSSV survivors from each tank were frozen and individu-ally tested by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) to determine their WSSV status and viral load.

innovation

Testing Finds Resistance To WSSV In Shrimp From Panamanian Breeding Program

Jorge Cuéllar-AnjelCamaronera de Coclé S.A.

Roberto ChamorroCamaronera de Coclé, S.A.Natá (Coclé), Apartado 0823-058-19Panamá, República de Panamá[email protected]

Brenda White-NoblePaul SchofieldDonald V. Lightner, Ph.D.Department of Veterinary Science and MicrobiologyUniversity of ArizonaTucson, Arizona, USA

Summary:In a recent challenge test under controlled conditions using a severe strain of the virus, resistance to WSSV was shown in shrimp supplied by the Cama- ronera de Coclé, S.A. L. vannamei genetics program. Three families of shrimp were exposed to WSSV, with survival ranging from 23 to 57%. A control of specific pathogen-free Kona shrimp of similar size, however, showed no survival after WSSV exposure.

Survivors from three families of shrimp were never infected with WSSV (while others from the same family in the same tank died from WSSV) or were resistant to the virus.


Table 4. Snapshot of U.S. catfish imports, April 2011.

FormApril 2011

(lb)March 2011

(lb)Change(Month)

April 2010(lb)

Change(Year)

YTD 2011(lb)

YTD 2010(lb)

Change(Year)

PangasiusChannel catfishTotal

13,022,444203,438

13,225,882

8,900,389165,193

9,065,582

46.31%23.15%45.89%

7,528,6011,070,9518,599,552

72.97%-81.00%53.80%

48,935,7182,580,28451,516,002

33,314,5047,243,21140,557,715

46.89%-64.38%27.02%

years, imports of each of these months were also greater. From a market perspective, increasing replacement costs

from the pond to the processor and from the processor to the importer are making their way to the U.S. spot market. Quota-tions firmed slightly early in June, then remained steady.

Replacement costs have gone up for U.S. importers, but so have raw material prices for processors in Vietnam – who have seen their profits shrink when compared to 2010, according to an article in the Vietnam Net Bridge. According to VASEP, Vietnamese seafood exporters are trying to negotiate with

importers to lift the average export price by approximately U.S. $.09/lb.

Only a slight rise in market prices was seen for Pangasius during the first week of June. The proposal for USDA inspec-tions reported in the last issue remains relatively unchanged. The only pertinent news is that the FSIS scheduled two public meet-ings for late May. The main discussions were to cover the imple-mentation schedule for enforcement and whether to define cat-fish as members of the order Siluriformes or to limit the definition to members of the family Ictaluridae (channel catfish).

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Survival Survival at termination in the negative

control families was 95, 98 and 100%. Sur-vival in the Kona WSSV-positive control was 0%, as all the shrimp died by six days after infection. Survival in the WSSV-chal-lenged groups was 23, 57 and 26% for LP-1, LP-2 and LP-3, respectively (Table 1).

WSSV challenges performed at the University of Arizona using L. vannamei from 1996 to 2010 resulted in an overall survival rate of about 5% with a low of 0% and a high of 25%. A total of 176 families were challenged during this period, most of which had no survival. Occasionally, one to five survivors were noted within a single family. The highest survival noted reflected five animals from a single family.

The results of the 2011 challenge were unusual in that survival rates were much higher, and the survivors were in the same tank with shrimp with severe WSSV infections and chronic mortalities that did not cease until about two days prior to termination of the study.

Histological Observations Histological examination of speci-

mens collected prior to the start of this study showed no sign of infection by WSSV, Taura syndrome virus or other significant shrimp disease agents. The severity of white spot disease pathology was high in all of the moribund speci-mens collected after day 4 in the study. The severity of infection was due to the very high number of cells in target tissues presenting fully developed basophilic

intranuclear inclusion bodies. WSSV has an anti-apoptosis gene,

which has been suggested to be the rea-son species like the Australian redclaw crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus, can pres-ent severe WSSV infections while not suffering high mortalities. Perhaps the selection for WSSV resistance in the three families tested in this study was related to the up regulation of the anti-apoptosis gene of WSSV, up regulation of a shrimp apoptosis gene or some com-bination of these and other possible explanations consistent with high levels of WSSV replication, but reduced or delayed mortality.

However, not consistent with the hypothesis of the up regulation of the anti-apoptosis gene(s) of the virus or shrimp host was the finding that the shrimp that survived to termination on day 17 presented no histological signs of WSSV infection, nor did they contain a detectable level of WSSV by qPCR.

With a detection limit of 1 WSSV genome copy, this finding suggested that the survivors from all three families in the study either were never infected with WSSV (while others from the same fam-ily in the same tank died from WSSV) or that they were sufficiently resistant to the virus to clear it to levels below the detec-tion limit of the qPCR test (Table 2).

Editor’s Note: This is the first time in the known scientific literature that a challenge test using a severe WSSV strain under con-trolled conditions identified resistance to the virus in L. vannamei, as demonstrated by CAMACO genetics.

Family Treatment Survival

LP-1LP-2LP-3KonaLP-1 (2 tanks)LP-2 (2 tanks)LP-3 (2 tank)

Negative control Negative control Negative control

WSSV positive controlWSSV challengeWSSV challengeWSSV challenge

49 of 50/98%91 of 96/95%68 of 68/100%

0 of 20/0%24 of 104/23%74 of 129/57%34 of 130/26%

Table 1. Experimental design utilized in the WSSV challenge study.

Day of Sample

NumberExamined Treatment

HistologyResults

qPCRResults

044, 5 ,12 3, 4, 5, 114, 5, 1517171717

3, 3, 31345

2, 2, 211910

LP-1, LP-2, LP-3Kona/+WSSV control

LP-1/WSSVLP-2/WSSVLP-3/WSSV

LP-1, LP-2, LP-3/WSSVLP-1/WSSVLP-2/WSSVLP-3/WSSV

No WSSV lesionsSevere WSSV lesionsSevere WSSV lesionsSevere WSSV lesionsSevere WSSV lesions

No WSSV lesions–––

––––––

Not detectedNot detectedNot detected

Table 2. Pathology and histology results from samples taken during a WSSV challenge test.

Over the last two decades, the produc-tion of fry and smolts at Norwegian hatch-eries has more than doubled. An average hatchery now produces about 2 million smolts and fry annually, which corre-sponds to a biomass of 150 to 200 mt. Norway’s total annual production in 2009 was 230 million salmon smolts and approximately 15 million trout smolts. It is also expected that smolt production in the Norwegian hatcheries will increase consid-erably during the next decade (Figure 1).

IntensificationEven though most Norwegian hatch-

eries produce smolts in flow-through sys-tems, increased production capacity at the farms has been made possible by different intensification efforts. The introduction of new technologies allowing injection of pure oxygen into the tanks for aeration,

for example, has been a decisive factor for the intensification. Oxygen-supersatu-rated inlet water allows higher fish densi-ties and reduced water flow.

Correspondingly, effective stripping

technologies for preventing high accumu-lations of carbon dioxide were developed. Because of this, developmently harmful concentrations can be avoided while achieving increased production intensities.

Water ExchangeWater exchange rates may fall far

below the 0.3-0.4 L/kg fish/minute typi-cal throughout the year in modern hatch-eries. But in dry periods with reduced availability for inlet water – which coin-cide with high biomass peaks within farms before delivery of smolts in spring, late summer and fall – available water can be critical for production.

In such situations, the inlet water needs to be saturated at 200 to 300% of oxygen at high temperatures to support

innovation

Asbjørn DrengstigHobas Ltd.P. O. Box 391N-4067 Stavanger, [email protected]

Yngve UlgenesSINTEF Fisheries and AquacultureTrondheim, Norway

Helge LiltvedNorwegian Institute for Water ResearchGrimstad, Norway

Asbjorn BergheimInternational Research Institute of StavangerStavanger, Norway

Summary:Smolt production in Norwegian hatcheries will likely increase during the next decade to answer salmon growout needs. Injection of pure oxygen into tanks for aeration, which allows higher fish densities and reduced water flow, has been a decisive factor for the intensification. Fish tank sizes have increased substantially, resulting in more challenges related to efficient particle removal. Farmers are converting existing flow-through systems to partially or fully incorporate recirculation technologies.

Norwegian Salmon Smolt FarmsEmbracing RAS To Raise Production

Most Nor-wegian farms are follow-ing the trend in installing compact moving-bed filter reactors.

Sm

olt

s (m

illi

on

s/ye

ar)

Wate

r De

man

d (m

illion

m3/d

ay)

1,000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

01990 2000 2010 2020

Figure 1: Projected smolt production and water flow requirements in Norway. Source: SINTEF, Norway.

Smolts Freshwater Demand


the fish stock. The carbon dioxide pro-duced must be controlled to ensure safe conditions for the fish. Systems with par-tial recirculation of water including oxy-genation and carbon dioxide removal are often called “reuse systems.”

RecirculationIn order to continue increasing pro-

duction capacity for the future, Norwe-gian smolt farmers need to address more intensive types of water treatment tech-nologies, such as recirculating aquaculture systems that include biofilters for ammo-nia removal.

Moving-bed biofilters and similar sys-tems with mixed moving-bed/stationary-bed functions have become popular. With biofilm growth areas of 350-650 m2/m3 biofilter volume, the systems are quite compact. Most Norwegian farms are following the trend in installing mov-ing-bed filter reactors.

Moreover, RAS technologies allow intensive production using significantly lower amounts of backup water (Table 1).

Industry Trends Most new smolt farms are being

designed as recirculating aquaculture sys-tem (RAS) facilities. Moreover, several farmers are converting existing flow-through/partial-RAS farms with fully RAS technologies. The newer establish-ments are generally large with annual production capacities of 3 million to 10 million smolts. There is also a significant trend toward installing bigger tanks or production units, with diameters ranging 12 to 16 m.

Installation of RAS technology requires elevated focus on the removal of particulate matter in order to reduce organic loads in the biofilters. In addi-tion, efficient particle removal has a direct effect on the systems’ availability to

achieve proper disinfection of water. The minimum ultraviolet ray dose

required in Norway is 25 mWs/cm2 for seawater intake, RAS farms and farms located on salmon rivers. When using ozone, an adequate level of residual ozone at the end of the contact chamber is essential to ensure killing of bacteria. It has been shown that a 60-second contact time with a 0.2 mg/L ozone concentra-tion was required for efficient inactivation of common fish pathogenic bacteria. Removal of residual ozone is required before the water reaches the fish tanks.

Ultraviolet and ozone tolerances vary significantly among salmonid viruses, and some are highly resistant. In addition, bacteria and viruses associated with parti-cles are partly protected against ultravio-let irradiation and ozonation.

Particle RemovalA prerequisite in RAS farms is effective

System Water TreatmentWater Consumption

(L/minute/100 kg fish)

Flow-through systemsFlow-throughPartial recirculation (less 75% than recirculationFull recirculation (95% recirculation)

Without adding oxygen (aeration only)With oxygen supplyCarbon dioxide stripping and particle removalBiofiltration, carbon dioxide stripping and particle removal

240.060.07.00.6

Table 1. Water treatment and consumption at smolt farms.

particle removal to obtain proper water dis-infection. A study conducted by the Nor-wegian Institute for Water Research showed that by reducing the mesh sizes of a filter unit from 350 to 50 µ, more than 90% improved bacterial removal was obtained by the same ultraviolet dose.

Normal hydraulic water retention times in Norwegian RAS systems vary between one and five days. These farms can be regarded as semi-intensive sys-tems. Fish tank sizes have increased sub-stantially, resulting in more challenges related to efficient particle removal in commercial RAS systems.

Besides being efficient at removing total ammonia nitrogen and some organic compounds, biofilters can provide micro-bial “matured water” by enriching the water with possible probiotic bacteria.

When installing RAS technologies, farmers also need to utilize proper disin-fection methods such as ultraviolet filters or ozonation to depress opportunistic bacteria. In addition to the disinfecting effect, ozone may initiate oxidation of persistent organic compounds, making them easier to degrade by heterotrophic bacteria in the biofilter.

Of course, the hydraulics and self-cleaning of tanks are factors of utmost importance to meet the requirements of reduced organic load. In this way, the nitrifying bacteria in biofilters are given preference. Several new approaches are being introduced to improve the overall process and reduce the investment and running costs of RAS farms in Norway.

Industry DevelopmentIn 2009-2010, a total of 109 salmon

smolt companies and 214 licenses/smolt farms were in operation. Only some 10% of these farms turned into full RAS tech-nology in Norway, but six to eight new

intensively run RAS farms are expected each year. In addition, the high rate of reconstruction of traditional flow-through systems into reuse systems will continue.

Such reconstruction is often com-bined with the installation of heat pumps and advanced technologies for oxygen-ation and flushing of excess carbon diox-ide. These intensification attempts have increased the former production capacity more than 50% at many farms. In 2009, the upgrading of the hatcheries repre-sented an investment of approximately U.S. $130 million – even more than the total investments at the cage farms for growout.

At present, several attempts are being made to develop bigger RAS plants for both research and development purposes and industrial-scale production. The Norwegian research company Nofima recently started production in a bigger facility with the aim of conducting large-scale trials in RAS.

AkvaPark Rogaland is also planning industrial-scale production in 2013. The capacity at this farm will be 4,000 mt of 4- to 5-kg salmon annually and include land-based production of smolts and broodstock. The salmon production will be located at the same location at which the company plans increased RAS pro-duction of new marine species such as lobsters, sea urchins, scallops, microalgae and macroalgae.

In addition, Norway has some of the leading suppliers of RAS technology worldwide. The industry is undergoing positive changes in adapting to delivering highly intensive and cost-effective tech-nologies to customers all over the world.

The authors’ company, Hobas Ltd., for example, has recently acquired a pat-ent on a new Modular Recirculating Aquaculture System (M-RAS)concept

that incorporates modular construction and fully integrated tank and water treat-ment systems. This unique modular tech-nology can reduce capital and operating costs and increase profits.

PerspectivesThe number of RAS farms in Norway

is increasing rapidly. The Norwegian government recently lifted the ban on producing smolts larger than 250 g, so farmers are now targeting smolt sizes up to 1 kg for stocking in sea cages.

Despite current regulatory constraints due to sea lice, escapes and diseases, the Norwegian salmon industry aims to dou-ble its annual production to over 2 mmt during the next decade. This clearly dem-onstrates the need for increased salmon smolt production to bridge the gap between supply and demand.

However, the industry is currently struggling with a deficit in smolt supply, and capacity building is a high priority today. The production goals set by the industry also emphasize the need to find alternative and more effective growout technologies than traditional sea cages.

Hobas Ltd.’s new M-RAS system utilizes a modular approach to control costs.

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New Techniques, Peptide Treatments Aid Intensive Shrimp Farm In Ecuador

PescaMaris S.A. is reviving the lost industry of intensive shrimp farming in Ecuador. Several years ago, white spot syndrome decimated the entire industry, but now PescaMaris has started its sec-ond year of production. Located just out-side Montecristi in the Manabi province of Ecuador, the 7-ha intensive site can equal the production of 150 ha of tradi-tional open water ponds.

“In intensive shrimp farming, the most critical requirement is to maintain the quality of the water, which in turn maintains the health of the population,” said Ernesto Cardenas, the general man-ager of the operation. “We have found some unique combinations that allow us to improve our feed conversion, decrease the cost of our feed and ultimately increase our total output per hectare.”

One key aspect PescaMaris credits for the improvement in its operation is the strategic use of fish peptide/nucleotide iso-lates in several steps during production. Cardenas, who previously worked on feed formulation at the AgriPac Balanfarina feed company in Ecuador, has found mul-tiple ways to catalyze the growth of the shrimp with peptide feed treatments. His efforts are supported by Representaciones Acuicolas, a local distributor that tests shrimp and tilapia feed programs and per-forms analytical work utilizing peptides for bacteria fermentation.

Managing Water QualityInoculating ponds with good bacteria

is a standard practice in high-quality shrimp operations, and it is even more critical for intensive farms. PescaMaris

has enhanced this process by adding Bluewave PerfectDigest fish peptide iso-lates during the bacterial “fermentation” process at the farm. The peptide/nucle-otide base is produced at the Marine Pro-tein S.A. factory in Manta, Ecuador.

During the first 10 days of fermenta-tion, sugar molasses at a ratio of 20 L/L bacteria is traditionally mixed with 1,000 L of water to create a full batch to be added to the ponds. With this standard recipe, the molasses is the only food source for the bacteria in the holding tank.

In a new approach, PescaMaris includes 1 L of fish peptide isolates with 10 L of molasses, which exponentially accelerates the growth of the bacteria. The increased population inside the fer-mentation tank results in more bacteria reaching the water with each application and, ultimately, cleaner ponds with healthier shrimp.

Lower-Cost FeedFeed is the highest-cost component

for commercial production, and Pesca-Maris found a way to reduce feed costs using peptides. This process begins by replacing 20% of the manufactured feed, which costs about U.S. $31 for a 40-kg bag, with a blend of traditional fermented grain silage priced at only $8 for 40 kg. In order to bring the grain silage to shrimp feed quality, it must be “top dressed” with a combination of fish peptides, nucleo-tides and fish fats/oils. At $4 per applica-tion, the PerfectDigest FPc product brings the overall cost to about $12 for 40 kg of the secondary feed.

The mix is allowed to set for about an hour prior to feeding, which allows the peptides to saturate the silage. The solu-bility of the peptide product allows partial release when the feed hits the water. It serves as an attractant for the shrimp and

Continuous aeration in the lined ponds helps support high stocking rates at the PescaMaris farm.

Mark RottmanBluewaveAve. La Encalada 1388Office #1101Lima 33 [email protected]

Summary:The PescaMaris shrimp farm in Ecuador is successfully practic-ing intensive culture utilizing responsible practices that include minimal water exchange. Pesca-Maris uses fish peptide isolates to accelerate probiotic bacteria growth and improve water quality. It also uses fermented grain silage “top dressed” with fish peptides, nucleotides and fish fats/oils to reduce feed costs and fishmeal consumption. When the peptides leach from the feed, bacteria form a floc that is fed upon by the shrimp.

ensures they consume all of the low-cost silage material.

Top dressing grain silage with fish pep-tide has direct implications when consider-ing the use of other “waste” grain products, such as distiller dried grains, in aquaculture feeds. With massive amounts of low-cost distiller grains available and a newly designed program to treat them with fish peptides, shrimp farmers around the world could benefit from lower feed costs.

They can also improve feed conver-sion by using a few techniques. For example, gently placing feeds into trays or nets and lowering them into ponds, rather than just throwing pellets, helps more of the feed reach the shrimp and not be lost in the water.

Farm TreatmentsAdding fish peptides to feed at the

farm has some major advantages. For one, farmers can be sure of exactly how much peptide is being included in their

feed programs. Feed mill recipes change – and with the recent high fishmeal prices and sometimes short supply, there has been pressure to reduce its inclusion, resulting in lower-performing feeds.

At-farm top dressing with liquid pep-tide products also assures that the pep-tides have not been denatured during steam extrusion processes at the feed mill. This means the peptides have maximum bioactivity when they reach the water.

In nature, shrimp eat raw marine components in their natural diets. Add-ing peptides provides bioactive peptides and nucleotides in an uncooked condition – similar to the way they occur in nature. This allows a lower net inclusion rate of fish-based ingredients without affecting final performance.

Some farmers are concerned that when the peptides leach from the feed, they are lost in the ponds. However, what they fail to realize is that the bacteria population in the water quickly consumes the peptides and forms a floc, which in turn is fed upon by the shrimp.

Sustainable Production Having a small environmental foot-

print, water recycling and the use of by-product feed ingredients to reduce fish-meal use are the cornerstones of the program at PescaMaris.

As was previously stated, the farm currently operates on only 7 ha and pro-duces about 13.5 mt shrimp/ha. This compares to the 650 kg/ha achieved at less-intensive farms.

The facility has only limited quantities of high-salinity groundwater, so PescaMa-ris recycles water through a large post-pond holding area. When the ponds are drained, the water has several weeks to recover in the holding area, from which it

can later be reused in subsequent ponds. During production cycles, the farm

operates with zero water exchange. Instead, it maintains oxygen levels above 5 ppm by relying on the bacteria and continuous pad-dlewheel aeration to keep the water clean.

Utilization of the liquid fish peptides on site in conjunction with the fermented grain lowers the total fishmeal content of the fed diets by about 20%, a reduction that can help reduce the impacts fof the 5 mmt of fishmeal used in aquaculture each year. And since the products PescaMaris has chosen all come from by-product sources, this further reduces the impacts on wild-catch fishmeal.

Economic SuccessFarming is a business, and economic

success is the final measure of the pro-gram. At PescaMaris, the latest produc-tion cycle has shown a great improvement over the last. The overall feed-conversion ratio has improved from 1.7 in 2009 to the current 1.3.

Currently, the ponds that utilize the peptide program are two weeks ahead of the neighboring control pond. Table 1 shows a summary of shrimp performance from this cycle. Good market conditions prompted an early harvest at day 85 instead of waiting until day 100. Although intensive farming is historically 30% higher in unit cost of production than extensive farming, PescaMaris is nearing a unit cost similar to those achieved at extensive facilities.

SurvivalFeed-conversion ratioHarvest shrimp sizeYield/haDays of cycle

85%1.2510 g

8.2 mt84

Table 1. Recent shrimp performance at PescaMaris.

Farms can mix a portion of their feeds using lower-cost ingredients with the addition of fish peptides, nucleotides and fish fats/oils.

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Single-cell detritus (SCD) is a seaweed-based bioproduct produced through a combination of enzymatic and fermentative techniques. It can be prepared at particle sizes of 5 to 12 µ, mak-ing SCD ideal for marine hatchery feeding apart from its biore-mediatory and probiotic roles in culture systems.

SCD can be fed to the larvae of both finfish and shellfish. The use of SCD as feed has been studied with oysters and Artemia by Motoharu Uchida in Japan. At present, the authors’

lab is working toward the formulation and production of SCD for Penaeus monodon shrimp larvae as a replacement for unicellu-lar algae.

Trials have so far been successful. The expected break-through would be a major development in shrimp hatchery feed-ing technology by making nutrition management simpler and more cost-effective.

SCD FeaturesSome of the features that SCD offers include the fact that

with crude protein levels up to 35%, it is relatively nutritious and could partially or fully replace microalgae as a feed in hatcheries.

SCD particles can be produced in various sizes, as per need and species. The high cell concentration of SCD is comparable to that of algal concentrates. It can act as a bioremediatory agent and has proven probiotic effects.

Mass preparation of SCD is somewhat easier than the pro-duction and maintenance of microalgae. The production and use of SCD is an economically viable technology. In addition, sin-gle-cell detritus can be stored up to a year at room temperature.

FermentationFermentation is one of the oldest biotechnological tech-

niques that can be used for marine larval feed preparation. Uchida of Japan was the initiator of the formulation and produc-tion of SCD for marine oyster hatcheries.

For maximum utilization of the dietary potential of macroal-gae, it is advantageous to perform thalli degradation under con-ditions regulating the catabolic losses. Mechanical or enzymatic fragmentation is effective for this purpose. Using viable bacteria for degradation is another alternative.

Another interesting characteristic of the detritus diet is the attachment of bacteria to the surface of the detritus, which can

innovation

Dr. S. FelixFisheries Research and Extension CentreTamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences UniversityChennai 600051Tamil Nadu, [email protected]

P. PradeepaFisheries Research and Extension CentreTamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University

Summary:Single-cell detritus is a seaweed-based bioproduct whose use as feed has been studied with oysters and Artemia. The authors are working toward the development of SCD for shrimp larvae. SCD has crude protein levels up to 35% and can be produced at high cell concentrations in various sizes, as per need and species. SCD technology is relatively eco-nomical with an end product that can be stored up to a year at room temperature.

Single-Cell Detritus: Fermented, Bioenriched Feed For Marine Larvae

Seaweed processed into single-cell detritus is a high-protein productthat could supplement or replace microalgae in shrimp hatch-eries.

be achieved by incubating the bacteria for several hours with axenically prepared SCD particles. This method has some useful functions, such as anti-pathogenic activity and a vitamin-pro-ducing ability, and is expected to be useful in the development of a functional hatchery diet for suspension-feeding animals. The combination of lactic acid bacteria and yeast might have a syner-getic effect for reducing the prevalence of pathogenic microbes in the production process.

Cellulase enzyme was used initially for the production of sin-gle cell units. Fermentation of seaweed was carried out by inocu-lating a lactic acid bacterium and yeast at a rate of 104 cfu/mL. A sugar substrate and nitrogen substrate were added to enhance the rate of fermentation and protein concentration. The process of fermentation was monitored continuously by estimating the lactic acid concentration, and measuring pH, microbial propaga-tion rate and odor.

Two-Phase Protocol SCD production has two phases. The first phase is cellulo-

lytic enzymatic treatment of seaweed, which leads to single cell units. The enzymatic digest is further treated with bacteria and yeast in the second, fermentative phase. These two phases can be performed simultaneously or one by one.

Cellulolytic PhaseAlgae have cellulose in their cell walls that keeps the cells

intact. When cellulose is digested, the individual cells are released and become single cell units. The enzyme cellulase is used for this purpose with the end product of cellulolytic diges-tion sugar. This phase has two roles: to produce single cell units and to produce sugars for the fermentative phase.

Fermentative Phase Two organisms are used in the fermentative phase to produce

SCD: lactic acid bacteria and yeast. These organisms can be iso-lated from the natural fermented seaweed or other sources. In 2004, Motoharu Uchida used Lactobacillus brevis bacteria, and the yeasts Debaryomyces hanseii var. hanseii and Condida zey-lanoides isolated from fermented Ulva. Bacteria like L. plantarum and L. casei can also be used for this purpose. Any suitable source of yeast can be used for fermenting the seaweed.

In the authors’ work, a consortium of microbes including L. plantarum and S. cerevisiae was used to produce 5- to 12-µ SCD to feed shrimp in a larval-rearing system. Sugar substrate was added to increase the fermentation rate, and a nitrogen source was added to increase the protein concentration, which is essen-tial for shrimp larvae.

Lactic acid bacteria and yeast utilize the sugar produced by cellulolytic digestion and produce lactic acid. This prevents other organisms from growing and thus preserves the SCD.

Lactic acid bacteria also act as a probiotic and thus help to increase survival and maintain water quality. Yeast predomi-nately acts as a bioremediatory agent, which enables culture sys-tems to be run with little or no water exchange.

Large-Scale ProductionSCD can be produced in large quantities in simple air-tight

containers or more sophisticated fermentors or bioreactors spe-cially designed for the purpose. The main difference between the two technologies is that it takes nearly two weeks for SCD to ferment in air-tight containers but only two to three days in a fermentor. Further, for purity and quality production, fermentors are recommended.


innovation

Novel Soy Proteins, Oils Replace FishmealTo Achieve FIFO Under 1:1 In Amberjack

Aquaculture’s requirements for fish-meal and fish oil are utilizing a large and increasing proportion of the world’s sup-plies. The marine finfish that are most highly esteemed for their taste and health benefits have the highest need for these marine-sourced proteins and oils. Their expanded production may be stymied by the fishes’ (assumed) biological needs for the fatty acids and amino acids found most abundantly and ideally in forage fish products.

Terrestrial agriculture producers have known for some time that specific fatty and amino acids need to be in animals’

diets. The sources of those proteins and oils, however, can be diverse. As stated in the recent United States Department of Agriculture/National Oceanic and Atmo-spheric Administration collaboration The Future of Aquafeeds: “Fishmeal and fish oil are not nutritionally required for fish to grow.”

In an effort to reduce the growing pressures on forage fisheries, Kona Blue Water Farms and the University of Nebraska have been pursuing research designed to maximize the levels of soy-based proteins and oils in the diets of longfin amberjack or “kahala” (Seriola rivoliana), known commercially as Kona Kampachi.

Nutrition ResearchSince 2007, there has been ongoing

research to determine the ability of long-fin amberjack to thrive on diets contain-ing soy protein concentrate as a primary protein source. Additional work has examined this species’ ability to elongate the long-chain omega-3 fatty acid steari-donic acid (STA) into eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which could lead to a reduced need for fish oil in diets.

Early trials indicated not only an inability for the fish to elongate STA, but that the inclusion of soy concentrate in levels over 20% induced a severe reduction in growth and overall fish health. Follow-ing some encouraging studies by Japanese and North American researchers, the authors’ efforts were refocused on increas-ing soy concentrate inclusion, coupled with the non-essential amino acid taurine.

Supplementing diets for longfin amberjack with taurine allowed greater replacement of fishmeal with soy protein concentrate.

Jennica Lowell, M.S.Kona Blue Water FarmsP. O. Box 4239Kailua Kona, Hawaii 96745 [email protected]

Neil Anthony Sims, M.S.Kona Blue Water Farms

Tom Clemente, Ph.D.University of Nebraska-LincolnDepartment of Horticulture and AgronomyLincoln, Nebraska, USA

Summary:In a nutrition trial, longfin amber-jack received two diets composed of 40% soy protein concentrate and 10% fishmeal, and a control diet with 20% fishmeal. The lipids in the experimental diets were either a blend of 50% fish oil and 50% soybean oil high in STA or a blend of fish oil and standard soybean oil. The amberjack had somewhat greater growth on the soy-based diets.

By late 2008, fish reared on diets contain-ing 40% soy protein concentrate with sup-plementary taurine performed as well as fish fed a commercially prepared diet used in longfin amberjack production.

Feeding TrialTo confirm findings and assess which

proteins and oils would be most applica-ble in future amberjack diets, a trial was conducted in 2009 examining three diets. Two contained soy protein concentrate with variations in lipid sources, and the third control diet was the standard com-mercial diet.

Forty percent of the experimental diets was soy protein concentrate, and another 10% was fishmeal, resulting in a feed that was 50% protein. This was around half the level of fishmeal used in the standard commercial diet. The lipids in the experimental diets were either a blend of 50% fish oil and 50% soybean oil high in STA or a blend of fish oil and standard soybean oil, yielding a lipid con-tent of approximately 18%. Five percent taurine was included in the experimental diets.

Study SetupThe trial took place from July to

October 2010. The fish were held in 4,000-L round high-density polyethylene tanks at Kona Blue’s facility in Hawaii, USA, with three replicate tanks of each diet type. These tanks were supplied with flow-through, ambient temperature sea-water filtered to 5 µ with an average flow rate of 40 L/minute. Tanks were aerated at all times.

Fish were randomly selected for each replicate, and the total biomass in each tank was recorded. The increases in total

biomass, average fish weight and feed-conversion ratio were calculated. Initially, beginning when the animals were approximately 5 g in weight, the fish were fed three times daily to satiation. Once fish were greater than 100 g, the feeding schedule decreased to twice daily.

Tanks were cleaned daily, and uneaten food was collected and accounted for. Mortalities were removed and exam-ined when found. Feed intake was recorded each day, and fish were weighed once every four weeks. Following the trial, fish tissue was analyzed to ascertain fatty acid content.

ResultsThere was virtually no difference in

growth rates between the test diets, with increased mean weights of 329 g and 328 g over the three months. Fish reared on the control diet had a mean weight gain of only 274 g.

The fatty acid profiles of the fish reflected the oils in the feed. Animals fed diets with increased levels of stearidonic acid had higher levels of alpha-linolenic acid and STA in their tissues, whereas fish fed diets with soybean oil had higher levels of linolenic acid in their tissues. The ani-mals that ate the control diets had the highest amounts of EPA and docosa-hexaenoic acid. Feed-conversion ratios for all three diets were between 0.96 and 1.0.

PerspectivesThese results suggested that there is

great potential for increasing the sustain-ability of marine fish diets. The addition of supplementary taurine led to the dou-bling of the amount of soy protein con-centrate that could be included in longfin amberjack diets.

The low fishmeal inclusion and low FCRs may in fact yield a wild fish in:farmed fish out (FIFO) ratio of less than 0.50, implying that this diet for this species could result in no net loss of marine protein. The fish oil levels resulted in FIFOs for the experimental diets of around 0.87. Ongoing work in 2011 will rear animals to market size and confirm the applicability of soy protein concentrate as a feed ingredient by culmi-nating with a consumer taste test.

Ave

rage

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eig

ht

(g)

350

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0 7/8 7/23 8/7 8/22 9/6 9/21 10/6

DateFigure 1. Growth of fish fed soy-based diets or a control.

50% Fish Oil, 50% Soy Oil w/STA

50% Fish Oil, 50% Soy Oil

Control Diet

Figure 2. Figure 2. Final average weights of fish.

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50% Fish Oil 50% Fish Oil Control 50% Soy Oil 50% Soy Oil Diet w/STA

®

Global Aquaculture AllianceSt. Louis, Missouri 63129 USAWeb: www.gaalliance.orgE-mail: [email protected]

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Although consumers have certain expectations about product color, current production and processing technology make it difficult to produce catfish fillets with consistent color. When people see catfish fillets in varying shades of pink,

white and yellow in the seafood case, they often question which color represents the best or freshest product.

Color StandardsThere are no standards for optimum

colors or color grades in use by the United States catfish industry at this time. The salmon industry, however, has dealt with this issue and can be used as a model for the color grading of other fish.

Salmon experts have developed stan-dards and grades for both flesh color and skin color. Processing machinery can automatically evaluate each fillet and then calculate the most economic cut configu-ration based on size, shape and color grade parameters.

About ColorColor is measured by a variety of

methods. Regardless of the method employed, three components are neces-sary to see and evaluate color: a light

source, an object and an observer. Light sources vary in color, and

objects appear differently under different lighting conditions. Our brains have adapted to this, but mechanical devices like cameras must be told how to measure light. Almost everyone has seen a photo-graph taken under fluorescent lights, in which peoples’ skin has a greenish hue, or a scene illuminated by candlelight, where things appear more yellow.

A light’s color or color temperature is expressed by a unit called the kelvin (K). This measurement is called a temperature is because it was derived from a theoreti-cal object called a “black body radiator.” When the radiator is heated, it changes from black to red to yellow to white to blue. The lower the kelvin rating, the “warmer” or more yellow the light. At higher ratings, light is “cooler” or more blue. Kelvin ratings for common light sources are shown in Table 1.

innovation

David ClineAquaculture SpecialistAlabama Cooperative Extension System203 Swingle HallAuburn University Alabama 36849 [email protected]

Summary:The author developed a protocol for the consistent measurement of catfish fillet color using a camera and properly calibrated software. The digital method accounts for both the amount and intensity of color over the entire fillet. This work resulted in a visual category scale that can be used by process-ing line workers to separate catfish fillets into categories for different markets and pack similarly colored fillets in the same retail box.

A preliminary “color spectrum” based on LAB color space values was created for catfish fillets.

Photo-Based Color EvaluationCan Enhance Catfish Fillet Quality

Light Source Temperature (K)

CandleIndoor tungsten

Indoor fluorescentOutdoor sunlightOutdoor shade

North sky

1,8003,0004,0005,5007,50028,000

2542 2576 2578 2579 2560 2549 2547 2548 2543 82_12_9 77_17_10 79_14_11 81_15_12 86_14_14 74_25_16 69_26_18 73_22_23 72_29_35

Table 1. Light temperatures of common light sources.

Object, ObserverFor this article, the object of evalua-

tion is the catfish fillet at the end of com-mercial filleting prior to additional treat-ment. Aspects such as the three-dimen- sional shape, color variations and color sheen of fillets can make color measure-ment more complex than with “flat” products like paint. To avoid hot spots or shine in the photos, the fillets must be evenly lit.

A person can be a very effective observer of color and able to distinguish many shades and hues. However, people perceive colors differently and with vary-ing sensitivity. The author therefore chose to use a camera and properly cali-brated software as an unbiased, accurate and consistent observer. This method has been in use for some time in the salmon industry, and has been evaluated as equal to if not superior to using a high-tech colorimeter.

Color evaluation of catfish fillets can also be conducted using a photo spec-trometer, which takes a highly calibrated and sensitive measurement, but of only a very small area. The variability in catfish tissue makes this approach problematic because it only measures small portions of the whole. With the camera and calibra-tion software, it was possible to account for both the amount and intensity of color over the entire fillet.

Photo ProcedureFor the authors’ procedure, catfish fil-

lets taken directly from the processing line were placed on a uniform white cut-ting board and placed in a box made of translucent material to form a light cube. Two sides of the cube were lit using 3,150-K video spotlights. Sheets of white foam core were also placed under, in front of and behind the cube to avoid color contamination from nearby objects.

The fillets were photographed using a Canon 40D digital camera in the RAW image format. This format captures and maintains all information in the scene. JPEG-format images are typically ana-lyzed and processed in camera by various algorithms, and the camera presents what it “thinks” you want. JPEG images are typically smaller in file size because some of the color data is compressed or dis-carded altogether.

Using the same lighting conditions, a photograph of a checkerboard array of standardized color patches called a color target was also captured. The color patches were “scientifically prepared” col-ors that represent natural colors like human skin, blue sky and green foliage. With this photograph and the color cali-bration software, it was possible to create a specific camera/lighting profile to use in the Photoshop program.

Photoshop ScaleThe photos were transferred to a com-

puter and run through a series of steps using Adobe Photoshop image-editing software. Manipulation of Photoshop made it possible to digitally extract the fil-let from the background and determine the average color of the fillets within the LAB “color space” of the software.

Results from the analysis allowed the

authors to create a color spectrum for the fillets. Sample fillets from across the spectrum were used to create three pri-mary color categories. The validity of the color categories was tested by asking industry experts to place 100 fillets into one of the three categories. There was only a 68% agreement among the mem-bers of the group regarding placement of the fillets.

Using the fillets with the highest agreement rates, a second version of the color chart was developed. Five groups of experts were then given identical sets of photographs of fillets and asked to place them into the three categories. There was a 92% agreement among the groups on which fillets fell into category one and 88% agreement on the other two catego-ries.

The final result of the project was the “Cline Color Scale” for catfish fillets.

PerspectivesThe catfish industry is facing many

challenges in producing consistently high-quality, high-value products. This color scale is one tool that can be applied in refining catfish quality. Among the long-term goals of the catfish industry is the establishment of a set of best man-agement practices that will provide cat-fish fillets of consistent color, flavor and texture.

In the meantime, this scale can be used by processing line workers to sepa-rate catfish fillets into categories for dif-ferent markets. At a minimum, it makes it possible to get similarly colored fillets into the same box to avoid confusion at the retail level.

The Cline Color Scale allows processors to improve product quality by grouping catfish fillets with similar color.

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3

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This method has been in use for some time in the salmon industry and has been evaluated as equal to if not superior to using a high-tech colorimeter.


Nitrogenous wastes can accumulate in closed aquaculture ponds and recirculat-ing systems, primarily in the forms of ammonia from animal excretion and decomposing organic solids such as uneaten feed.

Ammonia can be removed from the systems and used directly as a nutrient by heterotrophic bacteria, algae or plants. Ammonia can also be removed from the

system via nitrification, which is a two-step process performed by autotrophic bacteria called nitrifiers.

More specifically, oxidation of ammo-nia to nitrite is typically performed by bacteria from the genus Nitrosomonas. Nitrite is then oxidized to nitrate by bac-teria from the genus Nitrobacter. The nitrification process often takes place nat-urally in ponds and recirculating system biofilters.

It is important to ensure nitrification is efficient in the conversion of ammonia and nitrite to nitrate because nitrate is the least toxic form. Ammonia and nitrite are toxic to aquatic animals at concentrations as low as 1 mg/L. Meanwhile, nitrate doesn’t become toxic to aquatic animals until concentrations are greater than 60 mg/L. Some aquatic animals are more sensitive, while others exhibit greater tol-erance to these nitrogenous wastes.

Effective NitrificationFactors that influence nitrification

efficiencies include the amount of nitrog-enous waste, nitrifier population and types, biofilm thickness, alkalinity, oxy-gen levels and temperature. If healthy populations of both ammonia- and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria are not present, then no nitrification will occur.

This is the case for a new biofilter that has no bacteria. It typically takes four to eight weeks to initiate a new biofilter using earlier techniques, which prescribe no additions other than ammonia. Fur-thermore, sometimes a biofilter that is established can fail and needs to be restarted. In both cases, a bacterial prod-uct that is rich in both ammonia- and

nitrite-oxidizing bacteria could provide the means to mitigate ammonia and nitrite.

Nitrifier ProductNovozymes Biologicals, Inc., a bio-

tech company based in Salem, Virginia, USA, has developed a nitrifying bacteria product that is rich in both types of nitri-fiers needed to convert ammonia into nitrate. This liquid product, PondPro-tect-L, is primarily a combination of Nitrosomonas eutropha ammonia-oxidizing bacteria and Nitrobacter winogradskyi nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, both of which are great candidates for typical aquacul-ture waters.

Novozymes teamed with Virginia Tech to conduct research on the effec-tiveness of this product in a controlled bench-scale study and on a production scale at a shrimp farm in Virginia. In both cases, recirculating aquaculture sys-tems (RAS) were tested with white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, at salini-ties ranging approximately 10-15 g/L.

Bench StudyThe bench-scale study was conducted

in six 150-L recirculating systems with a new biofilter. Three systems were inocu-lated with the bacteria product and three systems did not receive any bacteria. Thirty juvenile shrimp were stocked in each system and fed the same type and amounts of food. Nitrification rates in the inoculated systems had significantly lower levels of both ammonia and nitrite (Figure 1).

Quantitative polymerase chain reac-tion testing was used to verify the pres-ence of the desirable Nitrobacter win-ogradskyi nitrifying bacteria strain in the inoculated systems.

Production-Scale ApplicationDuring the first year of operation, a

innovation

David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.Department of Food Science and TechnologyVirginia TechBlacksburg, Virginia, [email protected]

David J. DrahosSenior R & D Group LeaderNovozymes Biologicals, Inc.Salem, Virginia, USA

Summary:Healthy populations of both ammonia- and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria must be present in aqua-culture systems to support the nitrification of potentially toxic ammonia to nitrite, with further oxidation to less problematic nitrate. A new commercial nitri-fying product was found capable of inoculating a new biofilter or a failing biofilter with viable populations of both ammonia- and nitrite-oxidizing strains of bacteria in recirculating systems.

Nitrifier Product ImprovesNitrification In RAS

Microscopic and fluorescence views of the nitrifier product show the activity of the nitrifiers.

A. Phase Contrast B. All Viable Bacteria C. Nitrobacter Species, 29% of Total

commercial-scale RAS shrimp farm observed occasional spikes of ammonia and long-sustained spikes of nitrite, which significantly impaired the health of shrimp in the production-scale raceways.

To mitigate these pollutants from compromising shrimp production, the nitrifying bacteria product was applied to the systems. Shortly after application, nitrite levels began to decrease signifi-cantly and continued to drop to levels con-sidered safe for shrimp culture (Figure 2).

PerspectivesMany aquaculture operations rely on

nitrification for the removal of toxic nitrogenous constituents such as ammo-nia and nitrite from the culture water. This process relies on a healthy popula-tion of nitrifying bacteria.

The use of a commercial nitrifying product can inoculate a new biofilter or a failing biofilter with viable populations of both ammonia- and nitrite-oxidizing strains of bacteria. Even though the nitri-fying bacteria product tested was initially designed for pond applications, it per-formed well in recirculating systems.

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Figure 2. Nitrite concentrations in an RAS shrimp production race-way after addition of a nitrifier product.

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GROBEST GLOBAL SERVICE, INC.125 E. Santa Clara St., #7Arcadia, CA 91006 USATel. +1.626.445.9990 [email protected]


Essential oils, also known as volatile oils, are highly scented compounds of fra-

grant grasses, trees and plants. The word “essential” suggests that essential oils are vital to the life of plants, but this is not the case. The word “essential” is derived from the word “quintessence,” which can be defined as the “pure and concentrated essence of a substance.” Essential oils con-tain most of the plants’ active substances.

Many essential oil mixtures have been used for centuries in traditional medicine in the treatment of bacterial and viral dis-eases, inflammation, pain and even some forms of cancer. Today, they are com-monly found as ingredients in cosmetics, perfumes, cleaning products and flavorings for food and drinks.

As the popularity of essential oils increases, products specific to the domestic livestock and aquaculture markets have emerged. These products – often sold as

feed additives – appear to be associated with realized performance gains. Several studies have focused on unraveling the mode of action of the oils. It seems the modulation of gut microflora plays an important role, but many questions remain on how the additives provide their appar-ent medicinal effects.

At the animal level, research with domestic livestock suggests that essential oils may improve growth and feed effi-ciency, and increase the ability to ward off diseases. Although fewer studies using the oils in fish have been conducted, the data also suggest that essential oils have bene-fits in improving growth and controlling diseases.

Current ResearchAt the Thad Cochran National

Warmwater Aquaculture Center in Stone-ville, Mississippi, USA, the authors con-ducted a trial to examine the effects of a commercial matrix-encapsulated essential oil (Biomin P.E.P. MGE) on weight gain, specific growth rate, feed-conversion ratio (FCR) and survival of channel catfish.

Groups of 50, 32.4 ± 1.7-g fish per tank were randomly assigned to two treatments with five replicate tanks per treatment.

innovation

Brian C. Peterson, Ph.D.Thad Cochran National Warmwater Aquaculture CenterU.S. Department of AgricultureAgricultural Research Service127 Experiment Station RoadStoneville, Mississippi 38776 [email protected]

Brian G. Bosworth, Ph.D. Monica L. Wood Menghe H. Li, Ph.D.Thad Cochran National Warmwater Aquaculture Center

Ruben Beltran, M.S.Biomin America, Inc.San Antonio, Texas, USA

Summary:Essential oils appear to be associ-ated with performance and health gains in livestock. In research with channel catfish, the inclusion of an essential oil product in feed resulted in greater feed consump-tion and weight gain in fish than a control diet without the additive provided. In addition, fillets from fish fed the oil tended to have higher amounts of protein and less fat. The modulation of gut microflora may play an important role in the efficacy of essential oils.

Essential Oils Increase Weight Gain In Channel Catfish

Research with domestic livestock that suggested essential oils can improve growth, feed efficiency and the ability to ward off diseases is carrying over to aquaculture species.

TreatmentInitial

Weight (g)Final

Weight (g)Weight Gain (g)

Specific Growth Weight Feed Conversion Ratio Survival (%)

Control dietDiet with essential oilStandard error

33.4031.401.94

88.40a

112.80b

2.48

53.4a

76.90b

2.17

1.30a

1.50b

0.03

1.511.360.06

89.590.04.8

Table 1. Growth performance of channel catfish fed diets with and without an essential oil additive for 12 weeks. Values with different letters within columns are significantly different (P < 0.001).

1 Specific growth rates were calculated from the formula ((ln (BW2) – ln (BW1)/(t)) x 100 where BW1 and BW2 are initial and final weights, respectively, and t is feeding period (days). 2Feed conversion ratios were calculated as ingested food (g)/weight gain (g).3SE is the pooled standard error of the mean.a,bWithin columns, values with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.001).

TWO GREAT EAS EVENTS FOR 2011 - Mark your planning!

Trondheim, NorwayAUGUST 17-18, 2011

(during Aqua Nor 2011)

Rhodes, GreeceOCTOBER 18-21, 2011

UPSCALING aquaculture systems

Mediterranean Aquaculture 2020

Aquaculture Europe 2011 will be the most innovative event of European aquaculture to date, bringing together research institutions, academia and the industry.

Sessions will address vital questions affecting the development of Mediterranean aquaculture over the next decade, with reviews of the importance of aquaculture in EU food production; the sustainability of aquaculture feeds and the implementation of selective breeding strategies in aquaculture. A review of current EU-funded research programmes will highlight their relevance to the current and future production practices.

Aquaculture Europe 2011 will establish benchmarks of future research that will lead to a clear foresight of the development dynamics of Mediterranean aquaculture 2020.

The conference will include an international trade show, Farmers’ Day and a student workshop. It will provide a platform to showcase European initiatives in aquaculture.

The AQUA NOR FORUM is organised by the European Aquaculture Society (EAS) every second AQUA NOR, and provides a forum for science, industry, consumers and policy makers to review developments in the aquaculture sector and to discuss the key issues that affect those developments.

AQUA NOR FORUM 2011 will address one of the critical constraints to the development of aquaculture in Europe – notably access to sites with high water quality to ensure high quality aquaculture products. By up-scaling production systems an increase in productivity can be obtained for any specific site; but this must be compliant with legislation, with regard to fish welfare, with regard to husbandry and especially with regard to the environmental impacts of increased production systems.

The FORUM will be arranged during Aqua Nor 2011 and will take the format of three sessions, each of some 2 hours duration, where presentation of the issues and discussion of the solutions will be the priority.

Updates posted regularly at www.easonline.org


Treatment 1 was a control with a 32%-crude protein floating commercial diet. Treatment 2 used the same diet with the addition of the essential oil at 200 g/mt.

The 1.15-m3 tanks were supplied with recirculated pond water and aeration. The fish were fed once a day to apparent satia-tion for 12 weeks and weighed every four weeks. Water quality was monitored throughout the study. At the end of the study, fillets from two fish per tank were analyzed for protein and fat.

ResultsWater temperature and dissolved-oxy-

gen concentrations averaged 32.9° C and 9.3 mg/L, respectively. Total ammonia nitrogen and nitrite averaged 0.34 and 0.01 mg/L, respectively. By week 8, fish in treatment 2 gained more weight (51.4 ±

1.9 versus 37.3 ± 5.1 g/fish) and had a higher specific growth rate (1.8 ± 0.1 ver-sus 1.5 ± 0.1) than the controls (P < 0.03).

At the end of the study, fish that received the essential oil product gained more weight (76.9 ± 2.0 versus 53.4 ± 3.2 g/fish) and had a higher specific growth rate (1.5 ± 0.1 versus 1.3 ± 0.1) than the controls (P < 0.001) (Table 1). In addition, fish fed the essential oil consumed more feed (104.3 ± 3.6 versus 79.6 ± 3.0 g/fish), suggesting an increase in feed palatability.

There was an improvement in FCR (1.36 versus 1.51) in fish that received the essential oil, although it was not statisti-cally different (P > 0.05). The survival rates of about 90% were similar in both treatments, as no natural outbreaks of dis-ease were recorded. Fillet composition analysis showed that the amount of fat in

the fillets of fish fed the essential oil was lower (16.1 versus 18.7%), and the amount of protein was higher (79.6 versus 76.5%) compared to controls (P < 0.09).

PerspectivesThe results showed that fish fed an

essential oil consumed more feed and gained more weight. In addition, fillets from fish fed the oil tended to have higher amounts of protein and lower amounts of fat.

The mechanisms through which the essential oil increased weight gain were not determined in this study, but may be related to an increase in appetite. The addition of essential oils to catfish diets may prove beneficial in improving the pal-atability of feed as well as the growth effi-ciency of channel catfish.

Snooks are high-value, tropical diadro-mous fish. Six species occur along the Western Atlantic coast. Two are consid-ered candidate species for aquaculture: the fat snook, Centropomus paralellus; and the common snook, Centropomus undecimallis. The closest Asian relative to the fat snook

is the barramundi, Lates calcarifer. This species has a high dietary lipid require-ment above 140 g/kg.

Although spawning and hatchery techniques have been well established for

the fat snook in Brazil, data is lacking on the species’ nutritional requirements.

Study SetupIn a study at the Instituto de Ciências

do Mar (Labomar), five isonitrogenous slow-sinking diets with 483.9 ± 3.2 g/kg crude protein were extruded in a lab. One kilogram of all the diets contained 410 g of salmon meal, 200 g of soybean meal, 120 g of poultry by-product meal, 100 g of wheat flour, 20 g of a vitamin and mineral premix, 11 g of magnesium sul-fate, 10 g of soybean oil, 7 g of synthetic binder, 7 g of monobicalcium phosphate and 3 g of potassium chloride. About 0.3 g of vitamin C and 0.1 g of ethoxyquin were also included.

Only fish oil inclusion varied at the cost of kaolin at 11.3, 31.7, 52.1, 72.5 and 92.9 g/kg. As a result, the lipid con-tents of the diets reached 100, 120, 140,

innovation

Alberto J. P. Nunes, Ph.D.Instituto de Ciências do MarAv. da Abolição, 3207 – MerelesFortaleza, Ceará 60165-081 [email protected]

Ricardo C. C. Pinto, M.S.Marcelo V. C. Sá, Ph.D.Instituto de Ciências do Mar

Summary:Work at the Instituto de Ciências do Mar is evaluating the optimum growth response of fat snook to the lipid and energy content in diets. In a study using five diets with varied fish oil contents, there was no statistical difference in fish performance among feeding treatments, although visceral fat indexes increased with higher dietary lipid content. The opti-mum dietary lipid level for fat snook was estimated at 122 g/kg. Their gross energy requirement was 4,216 kcal/kg.

Labomar Study Defines Optimal DietaryLipid, Energy Content For Fat Snook

A juvenile fat snook at Labomar in Brazil.

We

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ain

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40090 115 140 165 190

Lipid Content (g/kg of diet)Figure 1. Optimum dietary lipid requirements of juvenile fat snook between 6.47 ± 2.42 g and 38.2 ± 12.5 g in body weight.

that aquaculture is the only sustainable means of increasing seafood supply to meet the foodneeds of the world’s growing population.

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160 and 180 g/kg with corresponding gross energy levels between 17.0 and 19.7 MJ/kg.

Hatchery-reared juvenile snook of 6.47 ± 2.42 g were stocked in 30 round 1,000-L outdoor tanks at 10 fish/m3. Six replicate tanks were assigned for each tested diet. The tanks were subjected to a daily water exchange of one-third of the total water volume.

The snook were fed three times daily by hand broadcasting to apparent satia-tion and reared for 96 days. Fish wet body weight was checked individually every 24 days of rearing.

ResultsOver the rearing period, dissolved

oxygen was kept above 90% saturation, while water salinity, pH and temperature reached 34.7 ± 1.85 ppt, 8.56 ± 0.19 and 30.7 ± 0.7° C, respectively. Ammonia, nitrite and nitrate nitrogen concentra-tions increased significantly through the experiment, varying from 0.27 to 0.42, 0.020 to 0.103, and 0.88 to 1.58 mg/L, respectively.

At harvest, there was no statistical difference in fish performance among the different feeding treatments (Anova, P > 0.05). Fish reached 38.2 ± 12.5 g in body weight and gained 317.0 ± 40.0 g/m3 in biomass. Fish attained a specific growth rate of 1.92 ± 0.12% or 0.34 ± 0.04 g/day. No fish mortality was observed during the culture period. The mean final feed-conversion ratio reached 1.77 ± 0.25 with a protein retention ratio of 1.19 ± 0.17.

There was a significant (P < 0.05) increase of the viscerosomatic and vis-ceral fat indexes with an increase in the lipid content of the diets. This indicated the highest fat accumulation in the vis-ceral cavities of fish was due to high fat input in the diets.

Based on broken-line regression anal-ysis, the optimum dietary lipid level for fat snook was estimated at 122 g/kg (Fig-ure 1). Their gross energy requirement was 4,216 kcal/kg.

Unlike barramundi, juvenile fat snook do not require high lipid-content diets. The snook exhibited high tolerance to confinement, disease resistance and ease of management.

Landmark Report Finds Farmed Seafood Key To Food Security

Blue Frontiers: Managing the Environmental Costs of Aquacul-ture, a comprehensive new anal-ysis by the WorldFish Center and Conservation International of the world’s major aquaculture production systems and species, offers a first-ever global assess-ment of trends and impacts of cultivated seafood.

The report concluded the demand for aquaculture products will continue to grow over the next two decades, and that the industry needs to meet this demand with

improved efficiencies and reduced environmental impacts.Among the landmark report’s major findings were two key

highlights. The environmental impacts of aquaculture vary dra-matically by country, region, production system and species. Also, aquaculture is more efficient and less damaging to the environment than other animal protein production systems such as beef and pork, and likely to be among the most important sources of protein for human health and nutrition in growing urban populations in many parts of the developing world.

For more information, contact Anne Delaporte of the WorldFish Centre at [email protected].

Preferred Freezer Services Focuses On China

Preferred Freezer Services, a global leader in temperature-controlled warehousing, is committed to addressing the rapidly changing consumption trends in China through the construction of additional facilities.

John Galiher, president and CEO of Preferred Freezer Ser-vices, has identified the need for continued expansion of mod-ern, energy-efficient and safe, temperature-controlled ware-houses within China.

Preferred Freezer Services’ expansion plan has commenced the planning and development of 14 locations in China. The tar-geted cities include Beijing, Tianjin, Shenzhen and Shanghai. Currently, two fully automated facilities in Shanghai totaling over 44,700 m2 are near completion in Lingang Logistics Park and Wai Gao Qiao. The Lingang facility will open in the third quarter of 2011.

“Preferred Freezer Services is very proud to participate in the development of China’s cold chain supply and logistics industry,” Tim McLellan, managing director of international business development, said. “Our model (can help) China meet its demands for properly handled food products.”

For more information on the China facilities, contact McLellan at +86-139-1755 5748 or [email protected]. For more on all North American facilities, please visit www.pre-ferredfreezer.com or contact Daniel DiDonato at +1-973-820-4040.

New Astec Center To Support U.K. Aquaculture

The new Astec Aquaculture Business and Science Centre is expected to play an instrumental role in the growth of the aqua-culture industry, both in the United Kingdom and overseas.

The purpose-built resource in Northumberland, North East England, is uniquely placed to pump a constant supply of near-tropical-temperature, flow-through seawater to its state-of-the-art aqua laboratories, which are fitted with special equipment to support a broad range of commercial and research activities.

“Our intention is to create a thriving community of like-minded industry experts operating in a culture where experiences and knowledge are shared, and opportunities are explored together,” Kevin Haddrick, chief executive of Astec, said.

Astec offers private, customizable laboratory, office and outdoor production space for all types of aquaculture businesses and research projects. Its links with other research institutions, the North East science community and universities mean that businesses and individuals based at the center can benefit from valuable support and advice to help them develop and commercialize their ideas.

For further information on Astec, e-mail info@ astecaquaculture.com.

Shellfish Treatment Replaces Sulfite Products

Traditionally, hazardous sulfite-based products have been used within the shellfish processing industry as a treatment to prevent melanosis (black spot). Thanks to a new product from Scottish company Shellfish Treatments Ltd., that is no longer necessary.

The ST 500 sulfite-free treatment controls unsightly mela-nosis for up to 14 days in fresh shrimp, prawns and shellfish. Seafood treated with ST 500 is delivered to market retaining its natural colors, flavors and textures. There are none of the adverse tastes, odors or bleaching effects associated with sulfite use.

Pat Mair, quality control manager at Laeso Fish in the United Kingdom, said: “As an MSC-accredited company, we are always looking at ways to deliver sustainable products with the highest quality to our clients. … ST 500 is the best sulphite-free anti-melanosis product we have ever worked with.”

“The market realizes the time is right to move away from sulfite-based products, as consumers now demand that their food is more natural with fewer hazardous additives,” said Ruary McGregor, man-aging director of Shellfish Treatments Ltd. “We are now actively seeking distribution partnerships throughout the world.”

For more information, contact McGregor at +44-7-984-984-777 or [email protected].

industry news

People, Products, ProgramsPlease send short news items and photos for consideration to:Darryl E. Jory5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3ASt. Louis, Missouri 63129 USAE-mail: [email protected]: +1-419-844-1638


J U L Y

Japan International Seafood & Technology ExpoJuly 27-29, 2011Tokyo, JapanPhone: +81-3-5775-2855Web: www.exhibitiontech.com/seafood/e_tokyo_gaiyou.html

A U G U S T

Aquaculture in the Classroom Teacher WorkshopAugust 1-3, 2011Fort Pierce, Florida, USAPhone: +1-772-242-2506Web: www.fau.edu/hboi/Aquaculture/AQacted_WorkshopSchedule.php

Australian Prawn Farmers Assocation/Australian Barramundi Farmers Association ConferenceAugust 3-5, 2011Sydney, New South Wales, AustraliaWeb: www.apfa.com.au/events/

Aqua Nor 2011August 16-19, 2011Trondheim, NorwayPhone: +47-73-56-86-40Web: www.nor-fishing.no/index.php?page=aqua-nor-2011&hl=en_US

S E P T E M B E R

Asian Seafood ExpositionSeptember 6-8, 2011Wanchai, Hong KongPhone: +852-3105-3961Web: www.asianseafoodexpo.com

Genomics in Aquaculture SymposiumSeptember 14-17, 2011Heraklion, Crete, GreecePhone: +30-28210-83960 Web: www.gial2011.com

Acvapedia 2011September 15-18, 2011Tulcea, RomaniaPhone: +40745454938Web: www.acvapedia.ro

O C T O B E R

Fish Culture Techniques WorkshopOctober 17-19, 2011Fort Pierce, Florida, USAPhone: +1-772-242-2506Web: www.fau.edu/hboi/Aquaculture/AQacted_WorkshopSchedule.php

Aquaculture Europe 2011October 18, 2011Rhodos, GreecePhone: +32-59-32-38-59Web: www.easonline.org/meetings/aquaculture-europe-event/ae-2011

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Seafood and Aquaculture EventsSend event listings in English to:Event Calendar5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3ASt. Louis, Missouri 63129 [email protected] fax: +1-314-293-5525

24 March/April 2011 global aquaculture advocate

In tilapia fed the vegetable oil diet, the bioconversion of 18:2 omega-6 to longer and more unsaturated fatty acid was quite efficient, resulting in similar final content of arachidonic acid in tilapia fed the fish oil diet, which provided a dietary source of this fatty acid. The GIFT tilapia fed the vegetable oil diet had higher contents of ARA, EPA and DHA than red hybrid tilapia.

Dietary lipid source significantly con-tributed to higher apparent in vivo delta-6 desaturase and elongase activity on 18:2 omega-6 and 18:3 omega-3, with fish fed the vegetable oil diet having sig-nificantly higher activities (Figure 1). Delta-6 desaturase activity on 18:2 omega-6 and 18:3 omega-3 was signifi-cantly higher in GIFT tilapia compared to red hybrid tilapia. In fish fed the fish oil diet, the dietary supply of 18:3 omega-3 was minimal, and thus the majority of delta-6 desaturation acted on 18:2 omega-6.

PerspectivesOverall, total fatty acid beta-oxidation

and delta-5 and delta-6 desaturation were higher in fish fed the diet with vegetable oil compared to values for fish on the fish

oil diet. Independently from the diet, GIFT tilapia showed significantly better and more efficient fatty acid neogenesis and bioconversion activities compared to red hybrid tilapia.

This observation, coupled with the ever-increasing need for replacing fish oil in aquafeed formulations, further rein-forces the zootechnical advantages of cul-turing these improved Nile tilapia strains.

Therefore, the farming of improved tila-pia strains is not only a more economi-cally viable option, but also a more envi-ronmentally friendly one, as the cultivation of these tilapia strains may rely less heavily on marine-derived raw materials for aquafeed production.

Editor’s Note: This article was based on a paper published in the journal Aquaculture (2011).

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GIFT, Fish Oil Diet GIFT, Vegetable Oil Diet

Red Tilapia, Fish Oil Diet Red Tilapia, Vegetable Oil Diet

Figure 1. Apparent in vivo desaturation, elongation and beta-oxidation for 18:2 n-6 and 18:3 n-3 in tilapia fed a fish oil or blended vegetable oil diet for 14 weeks. Different letters indicate statistical significance.

18:2 n-6 18:3 n-3

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We Support SeaShareJoin the seafood industry’s effort to end hunger. Give to SeaShare.

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Alaska Ocean Seafood • Alaska Trawl Fisheries • Alyeska Seafoods • American Seafoods Group • Arctic Fjord, Inc • Arctic

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Company • Alaska Air Forwarding • Alaska Marine Lines • Bellingham Cold Storage • Burlington Northern and

Santa Fe Railroad • CityIce Cold Storage • Coastal Transportation, Inc. • CSX Transportation • Diversified Business

Communications • Fry Trucking • Horizon Lines • Labeling Services Inc. • Mundt McGregor LLP • North East

Refrigeration Terminals • Northland Services, Inc. • Phillips Seafoods • Western Cartage • Rubicon Resources

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If you have questions about Q.R. options or other advertising in the Global Aquaculture Advocate, please contact Janet Vogel at [email protected] or +1-314-293-5500. We’re “The Global Magazine for Farmed Seafood,” and we’re evolving to help you reach your advertising audience as effectively as possible.

Q.R. 101 Millions of phone users around the world are already using Quick Response technology. To get started, install an application like i-nigma, Mobiltag or Optiscan from your favorite app store. These typically free apps are available for most current smartphones.

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Aquaculture Systems Technologies, LLC 57 Aqua 2012 41Aquamar Internacional 84 AquaNor Forum 80Aquatic Eco-Systems, Inc. 49Aquaculture Europe 2011 80BioWish Technologies 24Camanchaca Inc. OBCEastern Fish Co. 25Emperor Aquatics, Inc. 59Gregor Jonnson Inc. 36Grobest Global Service, Inc. 79Guabi Animal Nutrition 29Martek Biosciences Corp. 33Megasupply 13Meridian 47Marine Products Export Development Authority 31Mulligan Printing Co. 45Nutriad 54OxyGuard International A/S 44Pacific Supreme Co. 21Preferred Freezer Services IFCPrilabsa 66Red Chamber Group 68Reef Industries, Inc. 18Sea Port 39Seajoy 51SeaShare 87Sunwell 73Trace Register 23Uni-President Vietnam Co., Ltd. 27Urner Barry 62Wenger 43XL-Maquinarias 73YSI 28Zeigler IBC

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