Subject 1 – soil structure. Structure of clay Three main phases : soli d, liquid and air (vapourous) The structure of the soil represents one the important properties of the mineral grains.Soil structure is responsible for the integrity of the system and for the response to externally applied and internally induced sets of the forces a nd fluids. Soil structurecan be defined as the pro perty of soil, which provides the geometric arrangement of the particles or mineral grains and the ant iparticle forces which may act upo n them. Four types of structures : grained, honeycomb, floccules and mixed Subject 2- soil structure Soil texturemay be defined as the visual appearance of a soil based on a qualitative composition of soil grain sizes in a given soil mass. The relative sizes and shapes of particles, along withtheir distribution, define the soil texture. Soil texture is used for the classification of soils based on a visual grain description and connection of the particles, which co mpose them (cohesionless or cohesive). Soils are divided into coarse – grainedand fine – grainedsoils on the basis of their texture, and the dividing reference size is that which is visible to the naked eye (about 0.05 mm). Sands and gravels, in this respect, appear to be coarse textured. Cohesionless soils can be : homogeneous and inhomogeneous Cohesive soils can be : homogeneous, layered and in lens form Subject 3 – grain size distribution. Sieve analysis The solid phase of soil is an inhomogeneous material consisting of three different phases. To properly classify a soil one must know the grain – size distribution on it. To obtain the grain size d istributi on of a so il in laboratory such methods are used: The sieve analysis of coarse – grained soil: The hydrometer analysis for fine – gra ined soil. Create PDFfiles without this message by purchasing novaPDF printer (http://www.novapdf.com )
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Three main phases : solid, liquid and air (vapourous)
The structure of the soil represents one the important properties of the mineral grains. Soilstructure is responsible for the integrity of the system and for the response to externally applied
and internally induced sets of the forces and fluids.
Soil structure can be defined as the property of soil, which provides the geometric arrangement
of the particles or mineral grains and the antiparticle forces which may act upon them.
Four types of structures : grained, honeycomb, floccules and mixed
Subject 2- soil structure
Soil texture may be defined as the visual appearance of a soil based on a qualitative
composition of soil grain sizes in a given soil mass.
The relative sizes and shapes of particles, along with their distribution, define the soil
texture.
Soil texture is used for the classification of soils based on a visual grain description and
connection of the particles, which compose them (cohesionless or cohesive).
Soils are divided into coarse – grained and fine – grained soils on the basis of their texture,
and the dividing reference size is that which is visible to the naked eye (about 0.05 mm).Sands and gravels, in this respect, appear to be coarse textured.
Cohesionless soils can be : homogeneous and inhomogeneous
Cohesive soils can be : homogeneous, layered and in lens form
A set of standardized sieves of sizes varying from 80mm to 75 micro meters
-
A balance or a scale capable to measure 0.1% of the weight sample
-
A sample of soil which is dried at constant weight
-
Sample should have 500g-
We will weigh the material left on each sieve and if that material is greater than 20% from the
original sample we will have to use the Hydrometer Analysis method.
Subject 4 – Hydrometer analysis (Stoke’s law)
This laboratory method is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil particles in water.The use of an immersion hydrometer to measure the specific weight of the liquid is well known.
The principle can be extended to the measurement of the varying specific weight of a soil
suspension as the grains settle, thereby determining the grain size distribution diagram.
The diameter of the soil particle still in suspension at time “t” can be determined by Stoke`s law.
The ternary diagram is useful to identify the soil, giving a name to each of them and to classify
the soils.
The finer percentage in each sieve determined by a sieve analysis is plotted on semilogarithmic
graph paper.
The grain diameter, d, is plotted on the logarithmic scale, and the finer percentage is plotted on
the arithmetic scale.
Subject 5 – Uniformity coefficient. Soil separate size limits
From the grain – size distribution curves of coarse – grained soil two parameters can be
determined:
The uniformity coefficient (Un or Cu)
%10
%60
d
d U n
The coefficient of gradation (Cv or Cz)
%10%60
2
v%30
d d
d C
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Subject 6 – importance of the mineral composition of clay
The clay minerals, commonly found in soils, belong to the larger mineral family termed
PHYLLOSILICATES , which also contains other layer silicates. The clay minerals usually occur
in small particle size.
The two basic units in the clay minerals structures are the SILICA TETRAHEDRON , with atetrahedral silicon ion coordinated with four oxygen atoms, and the ALUMINIUM or
MAGNESIUM OCTAHEDRON , wherein aluminum or a magnesium ion is octahedral
coordinated with six oxygen atoms or hydroxyls.
KAOLINITE is composed of alternating silica and octahedral sheets. The tips of silica
tetrahedral and one of the planes of atoms in the octahedral sheet are common.
HALLOSYTE is a particularly interesting member of the kaolinite subgroup.
Two distinct forms of this mineral exist: one a no hydrated form having the same structural
composition as kaolinite and the other a hydrated form consisting of unit kaolinite layersseparated from each other by a single layer of water molecules.
ILLITE perhaps the most commonly occurring clay mineral found in the soil encountered in
engineering practice has a structural similar to that of mica and is termed “illite” or “hydrous
mica”. The basic structural unit for illite is the three-layer silica-gibbsite-silica sandwich that
forms pyrophyllite.
MONTMORILLONITE has a structural consisting of an octahedral sheet sandwiched
between two silica sheets
Subject 7 – Types of water in soil
The kinds and properties of water in soils may vary depending on its content and on the forces of
interaction of water with mineral particles, which are mainly determined by hydrophility of these
particles.
The types are :
The first criterion refers to the state of aggregation of water .Using this criterion we can
distinguish the following forms of water:
-
fluid water (liquid)
- solid water (ice)
- gaseous water (water vapors)
Another criterion is given by the forces which on the water molecules namely the nature
of the force fields which act on these molecules.
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Using this method the upper plastic limit can be defined as being the humidity at which a
slot made in the soil paste in the bowl of the device is closed on a length of 12 mm after 25 drops
of the cup, from a height of 10 mm with a frequency of 120 drops per min.
The plasticity index expresses quantitatively the soil plasticity and is calculated with the
relation:I P =w L -w P
The plastic limit is the water content which a soil element will start to crumble when rolledinto a pencil shape of 3.0mm diameter.
The consistency index expresses the physical state of a cohesive soil, which depends onhumidity and the value of this coefficient is determined with the relation:
I C =P L
L
ww
ww
The difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of a soil is defined as the
plasticity index (P.I.), or (I.P.):
() = − = − (2.25)
The current state, in terms of Atterberg limits, is defined by the liquidity index LI.
LI =
(2.26)
The amount of water that is bound to a clay surface dependents on the type of mineral, and
this phenomenon is accounted for by the activity defined as (Skempton 1953):
A
0.002
PII =
A
where: 0.002 2A A
activity index (2.27)
PI = 0.73(LL- 20)
PI – plasticity index; LL-liquidity index.
Figure 2.15 represents the relation between the volume and weight of on soil sample at its
different stages of plasticity, beginning from the dry state and ending at liquid state.
It shows clearly the different ranges of plasticity.
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The weight of the capillary water is transmitted to the skeleton so that its weight increases
the weight of the skeleton with the weight of the water comprised in the capillary rise. Thus
results the capillary pressure.
Since surface tension is a material property of liquids and depends on intermolecular
attraction it will be temperature dependent.
So for equilibrium 0h
F and 0vF
The behavior of cohesive soils depends on its mineral composition, the water content, the
degree of saturation and its structure.
If the equilibrium of the water column in the capillary tube is now considered, the downward
acting force is the weight of the water, and the upward acting force is the vertical component of
the reaction of the meniscus along the circumference (figure 2.18).
cos4
2
scw T d hd
(2.29)
and for a glass tube it follows that:
mm
md d
T h
w
s
c
03.04
(2.30)
The pore pressure in the capillary tube above the actual outside level is negative and itsvalue is obtained by considering that for any elevation z must be: (figure 2. 19)
0 zu w (2.31)
from which:
zu w z (2.32)
for z = 0 to ch zu w (2.33)
and z = 0 u=0
2.9.3 Vapor pressure
In a given soil mass, the interconnected void spaces can behave like a number of capillary
tubes with varying diameters. The surface – tension force may cause water in the soil to rise
above the ground water table as shown in the height of the capillary rise will depend on the
diameter of the capillary tubes.
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The locus of all (σ,τ) referring to all plans passing through L point is Mohr’s circle.
Several tests of this type can be conducted by varying the normal load. The angle of friction
of the sand can be determined by plotting a graph of s vs. sigma.
Subiect 19. General terms of clay status in soil. Mohr’s Circle
If we have to know the main directions knowing the efforts, we plot the Mohr’s circle: Aand B points have these efforts as co – ordinates. Then we plot the point by drawing parallels to
the co – ordinate.
Figure 3.15 – The establishing of the principal stresses
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Subiect 41. Slope stability for the homogeneous soil mass limited by a slipping plane
The factor of safety against sliding may be expressed by the equation:
1,3 R
l
d
F F f
F
(7.2)
Where:
RF = sum of the horizontal resisting forces;
DF = sum of the vertical forces.
Figure 7.5 Check for sliding along the base The thus, the maximum resisting force that can be derived from the soil per unit length of the
wall along the bottom of the base is area of cross section A =B 1.
Subiect 45. Correlation between pressure and settlement (bearing capacity)
This chapter discusses in detail the evaluation of the safe load – bearing capacity and
settlement of foundations.
The soil must be capable of carrying the loads from any engineered structure placed on it.
The shallow foundations must have two main characteristics:1. The foundation should be safe against shear failure in the soil that supports it;2. The foundation should not undergo excessive settlement.
The variation of the load per unit area on the foundation )(nq with the foundation settlement
– represents the limiting shear resistance, or the ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation.
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Subiect 47. Soil calculus of the limit state of deformation
8.4.2 Computation of deformations limit state DLS
Is made for loads from fundamental groups, corresponding to an ultimate limit state
(ULS), (if the deformations of foundation soil can result in displacements and deformations of
the building, compatible with it structure) or corresponding to a normal serviceability limit state(NSLS), (if the soil deformations hinder the normal exploitation of construction).
Computation of deformation limit state in the foundation soil done by observing the double
condition:
s s in the case of check DLS
t t in the case of check NSLS
where: ,s t are possible displacements or deformations of the construction, due to
displacement of deformations of the foundation soil, computed with fundamental loads for ULS,
respectively NSLS;
-
,s t displacements or deformations permissible for the structure, respectively for the
technological process, established by the designer of the structure or by technological designer.
Computation of possible deformations (possible settlements) is made by applying the
models (examples) of computation given. In this chapter it is provided that this computation is
made without considering the secondary settlement. This settlement will be taken into account if
some important settlement from secondary consolidation can occur. In this case, it will apply the
computation relations known from specialty literature, as well as the experimental values of
consolidation coefficient C .
Subiect 48. Soil calculus to the limit state of bearing capacity
8.4.3 Computation of the limits state of carrying capacity
The calculus of the limit state of carrying capacity (LSCC) is made in the following
situations:
for all constructions founded on difficult soils;
for all constructions founded on saturated soils, subjected to loads, fast applied;
for special constructions, founded on rocky soil;
for all constructions to which the foundations transmit important horizontal loads (H >0,1V), where H and V are respectively, the horizontal and vertical component of the load
on the foundation plate, Figure 8.7;
for all types of constructions whose foundations are placed on slopes or near them;
for existing constructions in which the loading regime is to be modified.The limit state of carrying capacity (LSCC) of foundation soil corresponds to zone II from
Figure 8.1, where the effective tangential stress is equal to the shear strength of the soil that
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