www.unescap.org/apef
Statistical Perspectives
Focus Areas for Enhanced Energy Security
ENERGY ACCESSWorking towards universal access to modern energy services
can advance inclusive social and economic development.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Adopting efficiency measures can signi�cantly enhance economic competitiveness and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
RENEWABLE ENERGYDeveloping new and renewable energy sources can diversify
the energy mix and create new job opportunities.
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
Shifting consumption towards sustainable energy can minimise environmental impacts and improve the future outlook for the
well-being of our citizens and planet.
ENERGY ECONOMICS
Improving �scal policy and �nancing mechanisms can incentivise
and strengthen markets for sustainable energy.
ENERGY TRADE AND INVESTMENT
Promoting trade and investment can optimise the developmentand utilisation of current and emerging energy resources.
ENERGY CONNECTIVITY
Developing infrastructure and harmonised energy policies can
increase regional economic integration and resilience.
Member states listed in blue are considered “Asia-Paci�c Developed Countries”. Other member States are considered “Asia-Paci�c Developing Countries”.
The statistics presented in this publication primarily cover member States located in the Asia-Paci�c region. However, Associate and Non-regional members appear in select charts and tables. Due to data limitations, only selected countries are used in several of the statistical representations. Additionally, "Paci�c (AUS, NZ)" indicates that data for the Paci�c subregion represents only Australia and New Zealand.
This publication is for reference only. Graphs and charts are based on data sources consulted for this publication. Additional data sources may exist that are not represented. In some cases, data sets may not be complete. ESCAP cannot con�rm methodologies of data sources.
East andNorth-East Asia
ChinaJapanKorea, Democratic People’s Republic of(Korea, DPR)Korea, Republic of(Korea, Rep. of)Mongolia
North andCentral Asia
ArmeniaAzerbaijanGeorgiaKazakhstanKyrgyzstanRussian FederationTajikistanTurkmenistanUzbekistan
South-East Asia
Brunei DarussalamCambodiaIndonesiaLao PDRMalaysiaMyanmarPhilippinesSingaporeThailandTimor-LesteViet Nam
South and South-West Asia
AfghanistanBangladeshBhutanIndiaIran, Islamic Republic of (Iran, IR)MaldivesNepalPakistanSri LankaTurkey
Paci�c
AustraliaFijiKiribatiMarshall IslandsMicronesia, Federated Stated of (Micronesia, FS)NauruNew ZealandPalauPapua New GuineaSamoaSolomon IslandTongaTuvaluVanuatu
AssociateMembers
American SamoaCook IslandsFrench PolynesiaGuamHong Kong, ChinaMacao, ChinaNew CaledoniaNiueNorthern Mariana Islands
Non-regional Members
FranceUnited Kingdom (UK)NetherlandsUnited States of America
ESCAP MEMBER STATES 03
Per Capita Final Energy Consumption, 2010
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from IEA
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from WPP2010
Data sources: World Bank, UNDP, and ESCAPStatistical Database based on data from IEA
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from IEA
Energy Consumption and Human Development
Per Capita EnergyConsumption byGlobal Region
The HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
INDEX (HDI), developed by
UNDP, is a measure of human
development and is a compos-
ite statistic of life expectancy,
education, and income indices.
The index is published annually.
In this chart, the 2010 index was
used to match against the most
recent data for energy
consumption.
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500
Paci�c (AUS, NZ)
North and Central Asia
South-East Asia
East and North-East Asia
South and South-West Asia
Per capita kg of oil equivalent (kgoe)
1,777
1,551
593
220
37
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Asia-PacificAfricaLa�n America and Carib.North AmericaEuropeOther countries/areas
Very High
East and North-East Asia member StateNorth and Central Asia member StateSouth-East Asia member StateSouth and South-West Asia member StatePaci�c member State Countries outside Asia-Paci�c
BASIC NEEDS OVERCONSUMPTION
Low
High
Medium
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Per capita energy consumption 2009/2010 (kg of oil equivalent)
04 Energy Context Energy Context 05
Total Energy Consumption and Populationby Global Region
Total Energy Consumption and Populationby Asia-Paci�c Subregion Asia-Paci�c Urbanisation TrendsAsia-Paci�c Per Capita Energy Consumption
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from IEA and WPP2010
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from IEA
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from WPP2010
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from IEA and WPP2010
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
East and North-East Asia
South-East Asia
South and South-West Asia
North and Central Asia
Pacific (AUS, NZ)
Asia-Paci�c Population
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Asia-Pacific
Asia-Pacific developing countries
Asia-Pacific developed countries
Africa
La�n America and Carib.
North America
Europe
Asia-Paci�c Population
Rest of World Population
Future
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
East and North-East Asia North and Central Asia Pacific (AUS, NZ)
South and South-West Asia South-East Asia Asia-Pacific World
06 Energy Context Energy Context 07
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
18,000
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Asia-Pacific
Asia-Pacific developing economies
Asia-Pacific developed economies
Africa
La�n America and Caribbean
North America
Europe
3,098 mtoe
Coal33%
Oil30%
Gas16%
Nuclear3%
Hydro2%
Renewables
1990 2010 2030
16%
5,534 mtoe
Coal43%
Oil24%
Gas16%
Nuclear4%
Hydro2%
Renewables11%
8,109 mtoe
Coal40%
Oil22%
Gas17%
Nuclear6%
Hydro3%
Renewables12%
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035
New Policies Scenario
Current Policies Scenario
450 Scenario
Global Cumulative Carbon Dioxide (C02) Emissions GDP in 2005 Constant Prices Asia-Paci�c* Total Primary Energy Demand Outlook in the New Policies Scenario**
Asia-Paci�c Total Primary EnergyDemand 1990-2035, by Scenario**
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from MDG Indicators database
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from NAMAD Source: Based on data from IEA World Energy Outlook (WEO) 2012
* Data excludes the following ESCAP member States: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Georgia, Iran IR, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uzbekistan.
** See References and Notes section for an explanation of the IEA Current Policies Scenario, New Policies Scenario and 450 Scenario.
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
Asia-Pacific
Africa
La�n America and Caribbean
North America
Europe
Other Countries/Areas
08 Energy Context Energy Context 09
Data sources: IEA WEO 2011, UNDPNote: Due to rounding, total differs from the sum of all countries.Data source: IEA WEO 2012 Data source: IEA WEO 2011
Access to Electricity and Human Development,Selected Countries, 2010
People without Access to Electricity, 2010 Rural and Urban Electri�cation Rates,Selected Countries, 2010
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Access to Electricity 2010 (% of Population)
Cambodia
Afghanistan
Timor-Leste
Bangladesh
Myanmar
Lao PDR
Pakistan
Nepal
India
Indonesia
Sri Lanka
Philippines Mongolia
Thailand
Singapore
Brunei Darussalam
Malaysia
Iran, IR
China
The HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI)is a composite sta�s�c of life expectancy,
education, and income indices.
y = 0.24 + 0.04x R2 = 0.71
Number of people without electricity access (millions)
293 India 16 Philippines 2.1 Viet Nam
88 Bangladesh 10 Cambodia 1.2 Iran, IR
63 Indonesia 8 Thailand 0.7 Timor-Leste
56 Pakistan 7 Nepal 0.4 Mongolia
26 Myanmar 5 Sri Lanka 0.2 Malaysia
22 Afghanistan 4.2 China 8 Rest of Asia
18 Korea, DPR 2.2 Lao PDR
0 20 40 60 80 100
Singapore
China
Brunei Darussalam
Malaysia
Viet Nam
Iran, IR
Thailand
Sri Lanka
Philippines
Nepal
Mongolia
India
Indonesia
Pakistan
Lao PDR
Bangladesh
Myanmar
Afghanistan
Timor-Leste
Cambodia
Korea, DPR
Rural electrifica�on rate Urban electrifica�on rate
%
628million people
10 Energy Access Energy Access 11
Data sources: UNDP, UN Data Data source: IEA WEO 2012Data source: United Nations Statistics Division based on data from the MDG Indicator Database
Solid Fuel* Use and Gender Inequality,Selected Countries
Percentage of Population Using Solid Fuels*2010
People Using Traditional Biomass2010 (millions)
Afghanistan
Armenia
Australia
Bangladesh
Cambodia
China
India
Indonesia
Iran,IR
Japan
Kazakhstan
Korea, Rep. of
Kyrgyzstan
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
MyanmarNepal
New Zealand
Pakistan
Papua New Guinea
Philippines
Russian Fed.
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Tajikistan
Thailand
Tonga
Turkey
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of Population Using Solid Fuels, 2010
The GENDER INEQUALITY INDEX (GII)is composite measure reflec�ng
inequality in achievements between
women and men in three dimensions:
reproductive health, empowermentand the labour market.
y = 0.24 + 0.003x R2 = 0.48
772 India
387 China
149 Bangladesh
128 Indonesia
111 Pakistan
49 Viet Nam
47 Philippines
171 Rest of Asia
1,814million people
using traditional biomass
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
AustraliaBrunei Darussalam
Cook IslandsIran, IR
JapanKorea, Republic of
Malaysia
NauruNew Zealand
Niue
PalauRussian Federa�on
SingaporeTurkey
Turkmenistan
AzerbaijanMaldives
Kazakhstan
UzbekistanArmenia
TuvaluThailand
Marshall Islands
KyrgyzstanTajikistan
FijiBhutan
Micronesia
TongaChina
GeorgiaPhilippines
Samoa
IndonesiaViet Nam
IndiaPakistan
Mongolia
Papua New GuineaSri Lanka
Kiriba�
NepalVanuatu
AfghanistanCambodia
Solomon Islands
BangladeshKorea, DPR
Myanmar
Timor-LesteLao PDR
%
* Solid fuels include coal, charcoal,
wood, crops or other agricultural
waste, dung, shrubs, grass, straw,
and others. Tradi�onal biomass
includes wood, charcoal,
agricultural residues and
animal dung.
12 Energy Access Energy Access 13
Data source: WHO Household Energy Database
Primary Cooking Fuel Mix for Selected Asia-Paci�c Countries, 2010
Data source: WHO Data source: WHO
Estimated DALYs Per 1,000 Capitafrom Indoor Air Pollution, 2004
Estimated Deaths fromIndoor Air Pollution, 2004
0 20 40 60 80 100
Viet Nam
Vanuatu
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Tonga
Thailand
Tajikistan
Sri Lanka
Solomon Islands
Russian Federa�on
Philippines
Pakistan
Nepal
Myanmar
Mongolia
Marshall Islands
Malaysia
Lao PDR
Kyrgyzstan
Kazakhstan
Indonesia
India
Georgia
China
Bhutan
Bangladesh
Azerbaijan
Armenia
Afghanistan
%
RURAL
Coal Charcoal Wood Dung Cropwaste
0 20 40 60 80 100
%
URBAN
Electricity LPG Natural gas Biogas Kerosene Other
Solid Fuels Cleaner Fuels
2.2 2.5 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 4.5
7.1 7.5 8.0 8.4 8.5 8.5 8.6 8.8 9.2
10.8 16.0 16.9
78.5
Tonga
Tuvalu
Philippines
Viet Nam
Samoa
Mongolia
Sri Lanka
China
Marshall Islands
Indonesia
Azerbaijan
Solomon Islands
Bhutan
Uzbekistan
Bangladesh
India
Nepal
Kyrgyzstan
Papua New Guinea
Pakistan
Myanmar
Lao PDR
Cambodia
Tajikistan
Afghanistan
DALYs/1000 Capita
The disability-adjusted life year (DALY) is a measure of overall disease burden, expressed as the number of years lost due to ill-health, disability or early death.
• Kazakhstan 100
• Solomon Islands 100
• Bhutan 200
• Georgia 200
• Iran 300
• Mongolia 300
• Armenia 400
• Russian Federation 600
• Azerbaijan 1,100
• Papua New Guinea 1,600
• Kyrgyzstan 2,100
• Lao PDR 2,600
• Tajikistan 3,300
• Turkey 3,400
• Sri Lanka 4,300
• Uzbekistan 6,200
• Cambodia 6,600
• Philippines 7,200
• Nepal 8,700
• Thailand 10,500
• Myanmar 18,100
• Viet Nam 23,800
• Indonesia 45,300
• Bangladesh 49,400
• Afghanistan 54,000
• Pakistan 56,100
• India 488,200
• China 548,900
Myanmar
Viet Nam
Indonesia
Bangladesh
Afghanistan
Pakistan
India
China
14 Energy Access Energy Access 15
Global Regional Primary Energy Intensity
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database based on data from IEA Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database based on data from MDG Indicators database
Asia-Paci�c SubregionalPrimary Energy Intensity Global Regional Carbon Intensity Asia-Paci�c Subregional Carbon Intensity
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific developing economies
Asia-Pacific developed economies Africa
La�n America and Caribbean. North America
Europe
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
East and North-East Asia South-East Asia
South and South-West Asia North and Central Asia
Pacific (AUS, NZ)
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
East and North-East Asia South-East Asia
South and South - West Asia North and Central Asia
Pacific
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Asia-Pacific Africa
La�n America and Carib. North America
Europe Asia-Pacific developing economies
Asia-Pacific developed economies
16 Energy Efficiency Energy Efficiency 17
Selected Energy Use and Intensity Reduction Targets Energy Efficiency and Economic Competitiveness, 2010
The GLOBAL COMPETITIVENESS
INDEX is a composite statistic
published annually by the World
Economic Forum. The index is
comprised of over 100 variables
under 12 pillars including:
institutions, infrastructure,
macroeconomy, health and
primary education, higher
education, goods market
efficiency, labour markets,
�nancial markets, technological
readiness, market size, business
sophistication, and innovation.
Data source:World Economic Forum
The ENERGY EFFICIENCY FACTOR
value is derived from subtracting
�nal energy intensity (total �nal
consumption per unit GDP
[kgoe/2005 Contant USD]) from
1. A higher value represents
greater efficiency.
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database based on data from IEA and NAMAD
Sources: China Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2011-2015), APEC Sydney Joint Declaration, Japan Energy Conser-vation Centre, Republic of Korea National Energy Basic Plan (2008 - 2030), ASEAN Centre for Energy, Indone-sian National Energy Conservation Master Plan (2005), Sustainable Singapore Development Blueprint (2009), Thailand 20-Year Energy Efficiency Development Plan (EEDP) 2011-2030, Vietnam National Energy Efficiency Program (VNEEP, 2006 -2015), Comprehensive Plan for Energy Efficiency Improvement in the Republic of Kazakhstan (2012-2015), Energy Efficiency and Energy Sector Development National Program of the Russian Federation (2013-2020), New Zealand Energy Efficiency and Conservation Strategy (2011-2016)
Note: TPES = Total Primary Energy SupplyTFC = Total Final ConsumptionBAU = Business as usual
2021
Energy Use Energy Intensity
Reduction Target (%)
Baseline Year
Target Year(TPES) (TFC)
East and North-East AsiaChina • 16 2010 2015
Hong Kong, China • 45 2005 2030
Japan • 30 2003 2030
Korea, Rep. • 45 2006 2030South-East AsiaBrunei Darussalam • 25 2005 2030
Cambodia • 10 BAU 2030
Indonesia • 1%/yr 2025
Lao PDR • 10 BAU 2030
Malaysia • 10 2011 2030
Myanmar • 5 BAU 2020• 10 BAU 2030
Philippines • 10 BAU 2030
Singapore • 20 2005 2020• 35 2005 2030
Thailand • 15 2005 2020• 25 2005 2030
Viet Nam • 8 2006 2015South and South-West AsiaIndia • 5 2010 2015North and Central AsiaKazakhstan • 10 2011 2010
• 25 2011 2020
Russian Federation • 40 2007 2020PacificNew Zealand • 1.3%/yr 2010
Armenia
Australia
Azerbaijan
Bangladesh
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Georgia
Hong Kong, China
IndiaIndonesia
Iran, IR
Japan
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Malaysia
Mongolia
Nepal
New Zealand
Pakistan
Philippines
Korea, Rep.
Russian Federa�on
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Tajikistan
Thailand
TurkeyViet Nam
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Energy Efficiency Factor
y = 3.12 + 1.87xR²=0.54
18 Energy Efficiency Energy Efficiency 19
Technological Contributions to Global Emissions Reductions to Achieve the 2OC Scenario
Sectoral Contributions to Global Emissions Reductions to Achieve the 2OC Scenario
LIMITING GLOBAL WARMING
The 6°C Scenario (6DS) is largely an
extension of current trends and is
broadly consistent with the Current
Policies Scenario*. By 2050, energy
use almost doubles (compared with
2009) and total Green House Gas
(GHG) emissions rise even more. In
the absence of efforts to stabilise
atmospheric concentrations of GHGs,
average global temperature rise is
projected to be at least 6°C in the long
term.
The 4°C Scenario (4DS) takes into
account recent pledges made by
countries to limit emissions and step
up efforts to improve energy
efficiency. It is broadly consistent with
the New Policies Scenario.
The 2°C Scenario (2DS) describes an
energy system consistent with an
emissions trajectory that recent
climate science research indicates
would give an 80% chance of limiting
average global temperature increase
to 2°C. It is broadly consistent with the
450 Scenario. It sets the target of
cutting energy-related CO2 emissions
by more than half in 2050 (compared
with 2009) and ensuring that they Note: CCS = Carbon Capture and StorageSource: IEA, Energy Technology Perspectives 2012
*See the References and Notes section for a furtherexplanation of the various scenarios. Source: IEA, Energy Technology Perspectives 2012
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
2009 2020 2030 2040 2050
End-use fuel and electricity efficiency 31% CCS 22%
End-use fuel switching 9% Renewables 28%
Power genera�on efficiency and fuel switching 3% Nuclear 9%
6°C Scenario
2°C Scenario
4°C Scenario
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
2009 2020 2030 2040 2050
Power genera�on 42% Industry 18% Transport 21%
Buildings 13% Other transforma�on 7%
6°C Scenario
2°C Scenario
4°C Scenario
20 Energy Efficiency Energy Efficiency 21
Asia-Paci�c Installed Renewable EnergyCapacity Including Hydro (GW), 2009/2010
Cumulative Installed Wind Power Capacityin Top Ten Countries, 1990-2012
Asia-Paci�c RenewableEnergy Production Trends
Source: EPI from Worldwatch, CREIA, DOE, GWEC, EWEA
Data source: REN 21
Data source: IEA
RPS = Renewable Portfolio Standard
Source: REN21 Renewables 2012 Global Status Report
Renewable Energy Policies, Selected Countries
0
50
100
150
200
250
2000 2005 2010
Portugal
Canada
France
ItalyUnited Kingdom
India
Spain
Germany
United States
China
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
2000 2005 2010
Solar (PV, Thermal)
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
2000 2005 2010
Wind
02,0004,0006,0008,000
10,00012,00014,000
2000 2005 2010
Biofuels and Waste
293.663.0
23.2
89.7
22.4
East and North-East Asia
North and Central Asia
South-East Asia
South and South-West Asia
Pacific
491.9 GW
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
2000 2005 2010
Hydro
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
2000 2005 2010
Geothermal
• na�onal-level policy • state/provincial policy
Fiscal Incentives Public Financing Regulatory Policies
CountryArmenia •Australia • • • • •Bangladesh • • •China • • • • • • • •India • • • • • • • • •Indonesia • • • • • • • •Iran, IR • • •Japan • • • • • •Kazakhstan • •Korea, Rep. • • • • • • • •Kyrgyzstan • • •Malaysia • • • • • •Marshall Isl. •Mongolia • •Nepal • • • • •New Zealand •Pakistan • • • •Palau •Philippines • • • • • • • • • •Russian Fed. •Singapore • •Sri Lanka • • • • • • • •Thailand • • • •Turkey • •Viet Nam • • •
22 Renewable Energy Renewable Energy 23
Asia-Paci�c Renewable Energy Production, by Subregion(excluding Hydro and Solid Biomass)
Asia-Paci�cRenewable EnergyProduction, 2010
(excluding Hydro)
Asia-Paci�cEnergy Production
2010
Source: IEA Data source: IEA
* Includes: biogas, sludge gas, land�ll gas, renewablemunicipal waste, biodiesel, and biogasoline.
Data source: IEA
Renewables** as % of Total Energy Production
Renewables (excluding Solid Biomass***)as % of Total Energy Production
*** Solid biomass includes a multitude of woody materials such as �rewood, wood chips, bark, sawdust, shavings, chips, sulphite lyes, and animal waste.
** Includes: hydro, geothermal, solar PV, solar thermal, tidal, wind, municipal waste (renewable), solid biomass, charcoal, land�ll gas, sludge gas, other biogases, biogasoline, biodiesel, and other liquid biofuels.
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
2000 2005 2010
East and North-East Asia
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
2000 2005 2010
South-East Asia
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
2000 2005 2010
North and Central Asia
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
2000 2005 2010
Paci�c (AUS, NZ)
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
2000 2005 2010
South and South-West Asia
2% 2%
89%
1%6%
Biofuels and Waste* Solar
Solid Biomass Wind Geothermal
East and North-East Asia North and Central Asia South-East Asia
South and South-West Asia Pacific (AUS, NZ)
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
2000 2005 2010
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
2000 2005 2010
Fossil fuels and nuclear88%
Renewables10%
Hydro2%
24 Renewable Energy Renewable Energy 25
Asia-Paci�c Electricity Production from Renewables (excluding Hydro)
Asia-Paci�cRenewableElectricity
Production2010
Asia-Paci�cTotal Electricity
Production2010
Data source: IEAData source: IEA
Source: IRENA, 2012
Source: UNEP, 2008
Source: ILO, 2012
Potential Employment Creationthrough Off-Grid Renewable Electricity
Renewable Energy Employment 2009/10
Average Employment over Life of Power Plants(Estimated jobs per megawatt of average capacity)
Biofuels and Waste15%
Solar4%
Wind47%
Solid Biomass
17%
Geothermal17%
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
180,000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Biofuels and Waste Solar
Wind Solid Biomass
Geothermal
Hydro14%
Renewables 2%
Fossil fuels and nuclear
84%
Jobs per megawatt
Solar 30
Small Hydro 4
Biomass 15
Wind 22
Manufacturing, Construction,
Installation
Operations & Maintenance/
Fuel Processing Total
Solar PV 5.76–6.21 1.20–4.80 6.96–11.01Wind Power 0.43–2.51 0.27 0.70–2.78Biomass 0.4 0.38–2.44 0.78–2.84Coal-Fired 0.27 0.74 1.01Natural Gas-Fired 0.25 0.7 0.95
-
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
China India USA
Biogas
Small Hydro
Biomass
Solar Thermal
Solar PV
Wind
26 Renewable Energy Renewable Energy 27
Total CO2 Emissions by Asia-Paci�c Subregion
Global CO2Emissions
2009
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database basedon data from MDG Indicators database
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database basedon data from MDG Indicators database
Global Per Capita CO2 EmissionsPer Capita CO2 Emissionsby Asia-Paci�c Subregion
Asia-Paci�c54%Africa
4%
Latin America and Carib.
5%
North America
19%
Europe14%
Other countries/areas 4%
30.1 billion tonnes0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
East and North-East Asia South-East Asia
South and South-West Asia North and Central Asia
Pacific
0
5
10
15
20
25
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific developing economies
Asia-Pacific developed economies Africa
La�n America and Carib. North America
Europe Other countries/areas
World
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
East and North-East Asia South-East Asia
South and South-West Asia North and Central Asia
Pacific Pacific (excl AUS, NZ)
28 Energy and Environment Energy and Environment 29
Asia-Paci�c Electricity Productionby Resource
Median Lifecycle GHG Emissions fromElectricity Generation Technologies
Source: Adapted from IPCC SRRES, 2011
CSP = Concentrating solar power
Data source: IEA Data source: WHO Global Health Observatory Data source: WHO Urban Outdoor Air Pollution Database
Outdoor Air Pollution AttributableDALYs per 100,000 Capita, 2004
PM10 levels in Selected Asia-Paci�c Cities*
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
2000 2005 2010
Coal Natural Gas Hydro Nuclear Oil Renewables(other thanhydro)
4 8 12 1846
2245
16
469
840
1001
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
renewable
non-renewable
WHO Air Quality Particulate Matter (PM10) Level Targets
WHO Air Quality Guideline
20
WHO interimtarget-3
30
In addition to other health benefits,
Recommended value representing anacceptable and achievable objective tominimize health effects
these levels reduce mortality risk by another approximately 6% compared to WHO-IT2 levels
WHO interimtarget-2
50
In addition to other health benefits, these levels lower risk of premature mortality by approximately 6% compared to WHO-IT1
WHO interim target-1
70These levels are estimated to be associated with about 15% higher long-term mortality than at AQG
10 11
2329 33
4347 49
54
64
77
96 96
106
121
134
189198
279
20
30
50
70
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
This chart indicates annual mean concentra�on
of par�culate ma�er of less than 10 microns
of diameter (PM10) [ug/m3] in ci�es.
These par�cles are able to penetrate deeply
into the respiratory tract and therefore
cons�tute a risk for health by increasing
mortality from respiratory infec�ons and
diseases, lung cancer, and selected
cardiovascular diseases.
4 5 932 35 39 48 49
6578
117127
174
207
0
50
100
150
200
250The disability-adjusted life year(DALY) is a measure of overall
disease burden, expressed as the
number of years lost due to ill-
health, disability or early death.
Outside ofWHO targetrange
*Data ranges from 2003-2010
30 Energy and Environment Energy and Environment 31
Asia-Paci�c Diesel and Gasoline Pump Prices, 2012
Data source: World Bank statistical database based on data from GIZ Data source: GTZ “Power in G-20 and N-11 Countries – At What Cost?” 2010
Household Electricity Tariffs for Selected ESCAP Member States, September 2010
$0.00
$0.50
$1.00
$1.50
$2.00
$2.50
$3.00
Diesel
Gasoline
Yellow and blue lines indicate the retail
prices of diesel and gasoline in the
United States. These cost-covering retail
prices include industry margin, VAT and
include approximately US 10 cents for
two road funds (federal and state). This
fuel price, being without other specific
fuel taxes, may be considered as the
interna�onal minimum benchmark for a
non-subsidised road transport policy.
2012 crude oil average
$0.00
$0.10
$0.20
$0.30
$0.40
$0.50
$0.60
1st kWh
51st kWh
501st kWh
1001st kWh
32 Energy Economics Energy Economics 33
Total Oil, Natural Gas, Coal and ElectricitySubsidies as Share of GDP for Selected
Asia-Paci�c Countries, 2011
Global Share of Fossil FuelSubsidies Received by theLowest 20% Income Group2010
Data Source: IEA
Data Source: IEA Data Source: IEA
Data Source: IEA
Data source: IEA WEO 2011
Average Fossil Fuel ConsumptionSubsidisation Rate of Selected
Asia-Paci�c Countries, 2011 Fossil Fuel Subsidies for SelectedAsia-Paci�c Countries, 2011
Subsidies by Fuel ($billion), 2011
2012 4th Quarter Percentage ofTaxes in Automotive Diesel Prices for
Non-Commercial Use
0.3
4.3
4.6
15.5
18.4
18.4
18.6
23.2
24.1
32.2
35.4
35.8
44.9
60
61
70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Korea, Rep.
Philippines
China
Viet Nam
Russian Federa�on
Malaysia
India
Indonesia
Sri Lanka
Kazakhstan
Pakistan
Azerbaijan
Bangladesh
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Iran, IR
% as share of full cost of supply
0.4
0.7
1.9
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.6
3.1
3.3
3.4
5.1
5.3
17
22.7
28.1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
China
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Russian Federa�on
India
Indonesia
Malaysia
Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan
Viet Nam
Bangladesh
Pakistan
Iran, IR
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
% share of GDP
6%
Gasoline
5%
LPG
15%
Kerosene
10%
Natural Gas
6%
Diesel
9%
Electricity
Oil NG Coal TotalIran, IR 41.39 23.4 0 64.79India 30.86 3.03 0 33.89Russian Fed. 0 21.87 0 21.87Indonesia 15.72 0 5.56 21.28China 18.45 0 1.39 19.84Uzbekistan 1.06 9.09 0 10.15Pakistan 2.79 5.54 0 8.33Malaysia 5.35 0.89 0 6.24Turkmenistan 0.83 4.36 0 5.19Kazakhstan 3.19 0.33 0.58 4.10Bangladesh 0.87 1.89 0 2.76Azerbaijan 0.65 0.83 0 1.48Philippines 1.46 0 0 1.46Viet Nam 1.02 0.16 0.02 1.20Sri Lanka 0.82 0 0 0.82
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Coal
Natural gas
Oil
13.3 13.3
31.9 34.5 37.1 38.7
57.7
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
%
34 Energy Economics Energy Economics 35
Global New Investment* in RenewableEnergy by Sector, 2004-2011
* New investment volume adjusts for re-invested equity.Total values include estimates for undisclosed deals.
Data source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance, UNEPData source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance as published in The PewCharitable Trusts report Who's Winning the Clean Energy Race? 2012 edition
Data source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance as published in The PewCharitable Trusts report Who's Winning the Clean Energy Race? 2012 editionData source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance, UNEP
Note: WTE = waste to energy
Global New Investment* in Renewable Energyby Region, 2004-2011
Distribution of Clean Energy** Investment forSelected ESCAP Member States, 2006-2012
Total Clean Energy** Investment for SelectedESCAP Member States, 2012
** Clean energy includes: all biomass, geothermal, and wind generation projects of more than 1 MW; all hydro projects between 1 and 50 MW; all marine energy projects; all biofuels projects with a capacity of 1 million litres or more a year; and all solar projects, excluding those less than 1 MW in size. Efficiency & low carbon technology investment is comprised of �nancial investment in technology companies covering energy efficiency, smart grid, energy storage, advanced transportation, carbon capture and storage, and general clean energy services companies. Investment in efficiency and low-carbon technology projects by governments and public �nancing institutions was excluded.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Wind Solar Biofuels
Biomass & WTE Small hydro Geothermal
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
United States
Brazil
America (excl. U.S. & Brazil)
Europe
China
India
Asia and Oceania (excl. China & India)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Efficiency & low carbon tech/services
Biofuels
Wind
Solar
Other renewables
65.1
35.6
16.3
8.3 6.94.9
1.4 0.9 0.20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
36 Energy Economics Energy Economics 37
Global Net Energy Imports Asia-Paci�c Subregional Net Energy Imports
Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database based on data from IEA Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database based on data from IEA
Note: “Coal” is comprised of coal and peat. “Renewables” includes hydro.
Data source: IEA
Asia-Paci�c Top 5 Importers and Exporters by Energy Resource, 2010(ktoe)
-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
East and North-East Asia South-East Asia South and South-West Asia
North and Central Asia Pacific (AUS, NZ)
China237,682
Japan184,613
India167,193
Korea, Rep. of121,571
Singapore58,005
Japan115,329
China86,442
Korea, Rep.72,949
India49,379
Russian Fed.15,310
Japan82,788
Korea, Rep. of39,279
Turkey31,311
China12,587
India10,295
Philippines78
Thailand66
Korea, Rep. of18
Malaysia4
Hong Kong, China3
1
2
3
4
IMPORTERS
Australia190,144
Indonesia155,882
Russian Fed.85,948
China14,531
Kazakhstan13,766
Russian Fed.248,266
Iran, IR129,491
Kazakhstan65,527
Azerbaijan44,730
Indonesia17,385
Russian Fed.154,131
Indonesia35,952
Malaysia24,137
Australia20,886
Turkmenistan19,549
Indonesia290
Malaysia101
Thailand34
Russian Fed.0.1
---1
2
3
4
EXPORTERS
CRUDE OIL
COAL
NATURAL GAS
RENEWABLES
-1,000
-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
ESCAP
ESCAP developing economies
ESCAP developed economies
La�n America and Caribbean
North America
Europe
Africa
Other countries/areas
World
38 Energy Trade and Investment Energy Trade and Investment 39
Global Cross Border New Investment in Clean Energy, 2011* Asia-Paci�c** Cumulative Gross Capacity Additions by
Source under the New Policies Scenario*** 2012-2035
Source:Bloomberg New Energy Finance White Paper “North-South Clean Energy Investment Flows:An $8bn Step to a $100bn Goal”.
*New build asset �nance for renewable energy projects only.Investment volumes show cross-border investments only.Domestic investments are excluded.
Data source: IEA WEO 2012 Data source: IEA WEO 2012
Asia-Paci�c** Needed Investment in Electricity-Supply Infrastructure under the New Policies Scenario*** 2012-2035 ($2011 billion)
** Excludes the following ESCAP member States: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Georgia, Iran IR, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uzbekistan.
*** New Policies Scenario: A scenario in the IEA World Energy Outlook which takes account of broad policy commitments and plans that have been announced by countries, including national pledges to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and plans to phase out fossil energy subsidies, even if the measures to implement these commitments have yet to be identi�ed or announced.
**** Includes geothermal, concentrating solar power and marine.
893
589
30
213
597
409
334
118
25 214
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
Renewable 1,508
Non-Renewable
1,512
North-South18%
North-North70%
South-South9%
South-North3%
Public Funds13%
Private Funds87%
$44.3 billion
1,062
411
19
557
968
793
582
241
144
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
Plant Infrastructure Investment,by Resource
Transmission948
Distribution 2,899
Non-Renewable
2,049Renewable
2,728
Plant Infrastructure 4,777
$8,624 (billion)
40 Energy Trade and Investment Energy Trade and Investment 41
Energy Self-Sufficiencyin Asia and the Paci�c Major Oil Trade
Movements, 2011
Major Gas TradeMovements, 2011
*Data was unavailable for Afghanistan, Maldives, Timore-Leste and Tuvalu.Note: Energy self-sufficiency values for this chart were derived by subtracting the ratio of production over TPES from one.
Oil trade movements are represented in million tonnes
Gas trade movements are in billion cubic metres
Source: Adapted from BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2012
Data source: ESCAP Statistical databasebased on data from IEA and IRENA
Self-sufficient
Between 0 and 25% below self-sufficiency
Between 25 and 50% below self-sufficiency
Between 50 and 75% below self-sufficiency
Between 75 and 100% below self
Data unavailable*
-sufficiency
-100%
0%
100%
200%
300%
400%
500%
SELF SUFFICIENT
88.0
26.614.1
9.7
117.1
66.4
35.2
23.5
12.1 10.2
32.0
14.3
17.38.6
6.7 6.3
3.8
3.9
15.7
3.0 7.6
44.116.8
4.4
13.5
29.1
19.8
17.47.1
41.3
9.8
5.0
19.0
133.8
59.8
27.1
41.1
23.7
29.5
35.5
68.3
18.4
95.5
111.2
42.2
27.1
29.5
57.6
298.2
126.0 175.1
48.6
61.1
110.7
34.3
15.6
22.128.4
61.5
137.849.5
28.4
26.0
226.6
Oil
Pipeline gas
LNG
42 Energy Connectivity Energy Connectivity 43
Russian Federa�on
China
Iran
India
Australia
Kazakhstan
Turkmenistan
Indonesia
Pakistan
Azerbaijan
Malaysia
Uzbekistan
ThailandViet Nam
Korea, DPR
Brunei Darussalam
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Bangladesh
Myanmar
Korea, Rep. of
Japan
HVDC OHL 600 kV
HVAC OHL 750 kV
pipeline (coal
gasifica�on)
Rail
HVDC UG 500 kV
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
Coal -generated electricity cost by transport options**(¢/kWh)
Resource Measurement Data SourceOil Proved reserves BP 2012
Gas Proved reserves BP 2012
Coal Proved reserves BP 2012
Hydro Technical poten�al (kWh) ESCAP 2008
Solar Total poten�al (KWh/m²/day) NREL 2008
Wind Area (km²) Class 3-7 Wind at 50m NREL 1990
Geothermal kWh GEA 1999
Uranium Proved reserves EEP 2008
High
Medium
• Medium-Low
Low
Unknown
X Not applicable
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Fossil Fuel Reserves Nuclear Renewable Energy Technical Poten�al
East and North-East Asia
North and Central Asia
South and South-West Asia
South-East Asia
Pacific
WIND
SOLAR
HYDRO
BIOMASS
GEOTHERMAL
OCEAN
Asia-Paci�c Proved Fossil FuelReserves at end of 2011
Asia-Paci�c RenewableEnergy Resources
Asia-Paci�c RenewableEnergy Resource Distribution
* Includes anthracite, bituminous,sub-bituminous and lignite
Fossil fuels data source: BP Coal-generated electricity cost source:ABB Review 1/2008
Note: Proportions represented are independent of eachother and therefore are not directly comparable.
Note: Information unavailable forArmenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia,Turkey and the Russian Federation
** Calculated from scenario of transporting 1,000 MWover distance of 1,000 km.
HVDC UG = High Voltage Direct Current UndergroundHVAC OHL = High Voltage Alternating Current Overhead LinesHVDC OHL = High Voltage Direct Current Overhead Lines
Note: Pie charts were generated using million tonnes oil equivalents for the three fossil fuel resource types. Size of chart is approximate representation of total fossil fuel resources.
Note: The information on resources should be taken as an indication only. It refers to a general trend of available resources, and does not pre-judge thefeasibility of individual projects. The thresholds are indicative, and do not refer to any technological choice. The IRENA analysis is based on literature.
OilNatural
Gas Coal*
Thousand million tonnes
Trillion cubic
metres
Million tonnes
Australia 0.4 3.8 76,400Azerbaijan 1.0 1.3 -
Bangladesh - 0.4 -Brunei Darussalam 0.1 0.3 -
China 2.0 3.1 114,500India 0.8 1.2 60,600
Indonesia 0.6 3.0 5,529Iran 20.8 33.1 -Japan - - 350
Kazakhstan 3.9 1.9 33,600
Korea, DPR - - 600Korea, Rep. - - 126Malaysia 0.8 2.4 -
Myanmar - 0.2 -New Zealand - - 571
Pakistan - 0.8 2,070Papua New Guinea - 0.4
Russian Federa�on 12.1 44.6 157,010Thailand 0.1 0.3 1,239
Turkmenistan 0.1 24.3 -
Uzbekistan 0.1 1.6 -
Viet Nam 0.6 0.6 150Other Asia Pacific 0.1 0.3 3,708Total 43.4 123.5 456,453
of
44 Energy Connectivity Energy Connectivity 45
GENERATION
•Develop evolu�onary regula�on to support more variable and distributed approaches
•Develop regulatory mechanisms to encourage business and markets to enable wider system flexibility
TRANSMISSION
•Con�nue Smart Grid deployment to increase visibility and reliability
•Assess status of regional transmission systems and future requirements
DISTRIBUTION
•Determine policy to use Smart Grids to leverage investments
•Promote real-�me energy usage info and pricing
INDUSTRIAL SERVICE RESIDENTIAL
Wide-area monitoring & control
Renewable and distributed generation integration*
Information and communication technology (ICT) integration
Electric vehicle charging infrastructure
Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI)
Distribution grid management
Transmission enhancement applications**
Customer-side systems (CS)
•Prac�cal sharing of Smart Grid costs & benefits•Cyber security
Development TrendModerate Fast
Central Asia – South Asia Regional Electricity Market (CASA 1000)CountriesAfghanistanKyrgyzstanPakistanTajikistan
Capacity1,300 MW
InvestmentApprox. US$ 950 million
StatusWorld Bank board of approval expected in 2013
GMS Power Market
CountriesCambodiaChinaLao PDRMyanmarThailandViet Nam
Capacity *•2,767 MW exis�ng•5,545 MW committed
thru 2015•31,400 MW iden�fied
projects
StatusComple�on target by 2028
ASEAN Power Grid
CountriesBrunei Darussalam CambodiaIndonesiaLao PDRMalaysiaMyanmarPhilippinesSingaporeThailandViet Nam
Capacity**More than 32,000 MW
InvestmentApprox. US$ 5.9 billion
Status•9 interconnec�ons
opera�onal•Remaining 7 ready
by 2020
SAARC Market for Electricity (part of SAARC Energy Ring)CountriesAfghanistanBangladeshBhutanIndiaIran, IRKyrgyzstanMaldivesMyanmarNepalPakistanSri LankaTajikistanTurkmenistanUzbekistan
InvestmentApprox. US$ 1 billion over next 5 years on priority projects
StatusDra� Framework Agreement under considera�onby SAARCStudy on Regional Power Exchange forthcoming in 2013
Uzbekistan
12,000
Hong Kong, China
11,047
Thailand
7,287
India
5,610
Viet Nam
5,599
Top 5 Electricity Importers (GWh), 2010
Russian Fed.
19,091
China
19,059
Uzbekistan
12,087
Iran, IR
6,707
Hong Kong, China
2,609
Top 5 Electricity Exporters (GWh), 2010Smart Grid Technology, Maturity Levels, Development Trends and Action Areas
Selected Asia-Paci�c MultilateralCross-Border Power Interconnections
Source: adapted fromOECD/IEA 2011 Technology Roadmap: Smart Grids
* Battery storage technologies are less mature than other distributed energy technologies** High Temperature Superconducting technology is still in the developing stage of maturity
* Capacity under the GMS Master Plan ‘base case’** Approximation based on available information for about 14 out of 16 interconnections
Note: This is not an exhaustive list. Bilateral initiatives are not included.
SAARC non-member Sources: World Bank World - Central Asia South Asia Electricity Transmission and Trade Project (CASA 1000), 2012; SAARC Website www.saarc-sec.org; ADB Update of the GMS Regional Master Plan 2010; ASEAN Economic Community Handbook for Business 2012, ASEAN Community Project Information Sheets 2012; HAPUA website www.hapuasecretariat.org
46 Energy Connectivity Energy Connectivity 47
Bloomberg New Energy Finance, Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment (2012), Frankfurt, Bloomberg New Energy Finance and UNEP, 2012. Bloomberg New Energy Finance, North-South Clean Energy Investment Flows: An $8bn Step to a $100bn Goal” white paper (2012).
BP, Statistical Review of World Energy (2012). Available from www.bp.com/statisticalreview.
ESCAP, Asian Energy Highway: Energy resource efficiency and security through regional energy planning and power trading. Working paper. Bangkok.
ESCAP, ESCAP statistical database(2013). Available from http://www.unescap.org/stat/data/statdb/DataExplorer.aspx.
IEA, Energy Technology Perspectives (2012). Paris. OECD and IEA.
IEA, Technology Roadmap: Smart Grids (2012). Paris. OECD and IEA.
IEA (2011).Fossil fuel consumption subsidy rates as a proportion of the full cost of supply database. Available from http://www.iea.org/subsidy/index.html
IEA. Renewables Information Statistics database. Available from http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/statistics.
IEA, World Energy Outlook (2011). Paris. OECD and IEA. IEA, World Energy Outlook (2012). Paris. OECD and IEA.
IEA, World energy outlook: IEA analysis of fossil fuel subsidies (2011). PowerPoint presentation. Paris. Accessed 4 October 2011.
IEA. World Energy Statistics and Balances database. Available from http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/statistics.
ILO, Working towards sustainable development (2012).Geneva.
IPCC, Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (2011). Bonn.
IRENA, Renewable Energy Country Pro�les database. Available from http://www.irena.org/REmaps/.
IRENA, Renewable Energy Jobs & Access (2012). United Arab Emirates.
Oudalov, A. and M. Reza. Transport or transmit? Should we transport primary energy resources or transmit them as electricity? ABB Review. vol. 1/2008: pp. 48-51 (2008).
The Pew Charitable Trusts, Who’s Winning the Clean Energy Race? 2012 Edition. Washington, 2013.
REN21, Renewables 2012 Global Status Report (2012). Paris. REN 21 Secretariat.
WHO, Global Health Observatory Data Repository database. Available from http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main#.
WHO, Household Energy Database” database (2013). Geneva, Available from www.who.int/indoorair/health_impacts/he_database/en/.
WHO, Solid fuel use for cooking estimates by country 2007” database (2013). Geneva. Available from www.who.int/indoorair/health_impacts/he_database/en/.
World Bank, Development Indicators database. Available from http://data.worldbank.org/.
World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011 (2011). Geneva.
UNDP, Gender Inequality Index database. Available from http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/gii/.
UNDP, Human Development Index database. Available from http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/hdi/.
United Nations Statistics Division, UNdata database. Available from http://data.un.org/.
Overview of ScenariosPresented in IEA’s World Energy Outlook Current Policies Scenario: A scenario that assumes no changes in policies from the mid-point of the year of publication.
New Policies Scenario: A scenario which takes account of broad policy commitments and plans that have been announced by countries, including national pledges to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and plans to phase out fossil-energy subsidies, even if the measures to implement these commitments have yet to be identi�ed or announced.
450 Scenario: A scenario which sets out an energy pathway consistent with the goal of limiting the global increase in temperature to 2°C by limiting concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere to around 450 parts per million of CO2.
All web-based sources were accessed between April and May 2013.
48 References and Notes