1 ANIMAL WELFARE ASPECTS OF GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE PIG PRODUCTION
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ANIMAL WELFARE ASPECTS OF GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE
PIG PRODUCTION
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ANIMAL WELFARE ASPECTS OF GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE (GAP)pig production
This presentation has been adapted for use on shareview
Full version available free from ciwf.org/gap on DVD-ROM
Full version includes embedded video clips and interactive animation
DVD-ROM also includes film, book and lecturers’ notes
GAP Pigs DVD-ROM
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GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES:
• produce safe, healthy, high-quality food for consumers
• provide jobs with fair incomes for rural communities
• are socially and environmentally sustainable
• provide high standards of animal welfare
This presentation will concentrate on animal welfare aspects
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ANIMAL WELFARE ASPECTS OF GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE
PIG PRODUCTION
Contents:
• Chapter 1 Natural behaviour and production systems - 4
• Chapter 2 Space and foraging needs for dry sows - 19
• Chapter 3 Avoiding aggression in dry sows - 35
• Chapter 4 Space and nesting needs of farrowing sows - 50
• Chapter 5 Avoiding teeth clipping in piglets - 70
• Chapter 6 Avoiding castration in male piglets - 82
• Chapter 7 Avoiding early weaning - 94
• Chapter 8 Avoiding tail docking and tail biting - 106
• Chapter 9 Good stockmanship - 122
• Chapter 10 Summary - 144
To return to the contents list at any time,type 3 and press ENTER
To jump to any slide in this presentation, type the number of the slide and press ENTER
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Worldwide, 1.1 billion pigs are raised for meat each year
CHAPTER 1natural behaviour & production systems
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Pigs are descended from the wild boar
ANCESTRY Dale Arey/CIWF
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ANCESTRY
Some breeds have been developed for hot climates like these small black Iberian pigs
Some breeds have been developed for cold climates like these hairy Mangalicas
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ANCESTRY
Some traditional breeds still closely resemble their wild boar ancestors like these Tamworth crosses
Most pigs used in production are based on these Large White x Landrace crosses
Pigs of all breeds have inherited most of the behaviours of the wild boar
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SOCIAL BEHAVIOURPigs naturally live in social groups of 2-4 sows, often sisters or otherwise related, along with their offspring
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MATERNAL CYCLE
Nest away from group
Return withpiglets
to group
Suckle young
Graduallywean
Dale Arey/CIWF
Marek Spinka
Fiona Chambers of Fernleigh Free-Range
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ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT
Pigs have evolved to live in a complex environment
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browsinggrazing
rooting Marek Spinka
Marek Spinka
FEEDING BEHAVIOUR
Pigs have evolved a range of foraging strategies to live in that environment
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DIURNAL BEHAVIOURThe day is divided between periods of
foraging (for up to nine hours a day)
and resting
14
MAEP/CIWF
THERMOREGULATORY BEHAVIOUR
Huddling for warmth
Wallowing for skin care and cooling
Pigs mainly control their temperature through behaviour
Shade
Film of wallowing behaviour follows
15
PLAY BEHAVIOUR
Young pigs also use their environment for recreation
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INTENSIVE PRODUCTIONsome intensive systems fail to satisfy behavioural needs of pigs
Dry sows
Farrowing sows
Weaners
Growing pigs
Could these systems be modified to meet behavioural needs?
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MODERN PRODUCTION SYSTEMSmethods of providing behavioural needs of pigs
Foraging
Secluded nesting
Comfortable rest
Separation of dunging and lying areas
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EXTENSIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEMSmethods of providing behavioural needs of pigs
Shelter
Protectionfrom predators
Temperaturecontrol
Posts for rubbing
Film of post-rubbing behaviour follows
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NATURAL BEHAVIOUR AND PRODUCTIONsummary
1. Pigs are descended from wild boar and have inherited most of their behavioural patterns
2. Pigs live in social groups consisting of mothers and their young
3. Pigs are adapted to complex environments that contain woodland and water
4. Pig behaviour has developed to utilise the environment for food, water, shelter, resting, temperature control, skincare, dunging and recreation
5. Intensive environments do not provide for these complex behaviours and give rise to many welfare problems
6. Modern systems can be designed to meet the behavioural needs of pigs
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CHAPTER 2space and foraging needs for dry sows
Diane Halverson / Animal Welfare Institute
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PREGNANT (DRY) SOWSsow stall (gestation crate) – a confinement system
Why are most sows kept in stalls?
• To reduce space and thereby costs
• To prevent aggression
• To simplify management and observation
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PREGNANT (DRY) SOWStether stall – another confinement system
Film of bar-biting behaviour by tethered sow follows
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SOWS IN STALLShealth issues
Health problem
Weak bones
Leg problems
Urinary disorders
Possible explanation
Lack of exercise
Lack of exercise
Unable to excrete away from lying area
Possible explanations for health problems suffered by sows in stalls
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Sows cannot:
• exercise
• forage
• socialise properly
• dung away from their lying area
• regulate their body temperature through behaviour
SOWS IN STALLSWelfare issues
What important behaviours are sows in stalls unable to carry out?
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SOWS IN STALLSwelfare issues
What abnormal behaviours are observed as a result of this close confinement and hunger?
In addition, dry sows are fed once a day on a maintenance ration which leaves them feeling hungry
See next slide
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STEREOTYPIESbar-biting
This sow may be hungry, but is unable to forage.
This may be a displaced feeding behaviour.
Unlike normal feeding, this is very repetitive and cannot fill her stomach.
Film of bar-biting behaviour follows
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What are the key features of stereotypic behaviour?
What kind of stereotypy is this?
What other kinds are there?
What causes stereotypies?
Bar-biting
Sham chewing, excess drinking etc
Frustration of natural behaviours
Repetitive and apparently devoid of function
STEREOTYPIES
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STEREOTYPIESsham-chewing
Sham-chewing is also thought to be caused by frustration, boredom and hunger
Film of sham-chewing behaviour follows
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STEREOTYPIESexcessive drinking
How could you find out whether this drinking was excessive?
Compare water intake of this sow with one that was completely satiated and not frustrated
This is another form of stereotypy
Film of excessive drinking behaviour follows
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STEREOTYPIES IN BARREN PENS
bar-biting
sham-chewing tongue rolling
Stereotypies can also occur in pens where there is no bedding to occupy the sows and provide gut fill
Film of these three behaviours follows
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APATHYAnother response to confinement and frustration
This sow might be resting. How would one distinguish apathetic behaviour from natural resting behaviour?
Test how responsive she is to different stimuli like cold water or novel food
Film of possibly apathetic behaviour follows
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GOOD PRACTICEproviding resources for natural behaviour
• Providing sufficient space
• Keeping sows in natural social groups
• Providing an enriched environment with foraging material
Outdoor systemsIndoor systems
How can stereotypic and apathetic behaviours be reduced?
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The same is true for boars which in many countries are not provided with bedding
GOOD PRACTICEproviding resources for natural behaviour
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“(7) To satisfy their hunger and given the need to chew, all dry pregnant sows must be given a sufficient quantity of bulky or high-fibre food as well as high-energy food.”
Council Directive 2001/88/EC 23rd October 2001
EU REGULATIONSrequirement for high fibre food
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The tether stall is banned in:• European Union
The sow stall is banned in:• Sweden• Switzerland• United Kingdom• Florida
Sow stall use is restricted in:• Philippines
Sow stall is due to be banned in:• European Union (2013, except for first four weeks of pregnancy)• New Zealand (2015, except for first four weeks of pregnancy)• Australia (2017, except for first six weeks of pregnancy)
LEGISLATION TO RESTRICT THE SOW STALLcurrent and future bans
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SPACE AND FORAGING NEEDS FOR DRY SOWSsummary
1. Most sows spend their entire pregnancies in confinement systems such as the sow stall
2. These severely restrict natural behaviour and cause a range of health and welfare problems
3. Restrictions on natural behaviour can lead to apathy and stereotypies such as bar-biting, sham-chewing, tongue rolling and excessive drinking
4. A key problem is hunger due to restricted diets – EU regulations require dry sows to be provided with high-fibre food to satisfy this hunger and the need to chew
5. Stereotypies can be avoided by satisfying the need of sows for space, company and foraging material
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CHAPTER 3avoiding aggression in dry sows
Dale Arey / CIWF
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• Competition for food and other resources
• Mixing sows that are unfamiliar with each other
Marek Spinka
AGGRESSION BETWEEN DRY SOWS
What are the main causes of aggression in dry sows?
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AGGRESSION DURING FEEDINGsow pens
Why is aggression at feeding a particular problem with dry sows?
• food restricted to a maintenance diet so sows remain hungry
• only fed once a day
• diet is low in fibre
• food not widely spread out
Film of aggression over food follows
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AGGRESSION DURING FEEDINGfree-range sows feeding with less aggression
Film of mild dominance behaviour follows
Why is aggression over food milder
in the following film?
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AGGRESSION DURING FEEDINGfree-range sows feeding with less aggression
Why was aggression milder here?
• lower motivation for less concentrated feed
• sows in stable groups have clear dominance order
• access to high fibre food reduces hunger
• spacious environment reduces stress
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AVOIDING AGGRESSION - INDIVIDUAL FEEDING SYSTEMSelectronic sow feeders
photos and video ASAB
Each sow wears a transponder. In the feeding stall, a computer provides each sow with an individual ration
Film of use of electronic sow feeder follows
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AVOIDING AGGRESSION - INDIVIDUAL FEEDING SYSTEMSelectronic sow feeders
photos and video ASAB
Advantages
Sows free from harassment in stall
Individual sows can be given extra food if needed
Can be run automatically
Disadvantages
Sows cannot feed simultaneously as they would normally
Aggression can occur outside the stall
Sows not occupied searching for main food supply
What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system?
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Feeding Release
AVOIDING AGGRESSION - INDIVIDUAL FEEDING SYSTEMSfeeding stalls
In this system, the sows have access to a straw area and are locked in the stalls just at feeding time
Film of use of feeding stalls and subsequent release follows
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AVOIDING AGGRESSION - INDIVIDUAL FEEDING SYSTEMSfeeding stalls
Advantages
Sows free from harassment in stalls
Individual sows can be given extra food if needed
Sows can be fed simultaneously
Disadvantages
Expensive to set up
Sows don’t have to search for their food
What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system?
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Top view Front view
Food is delivered slowly over longer periods. Sows that bully others out of their place lose out because food builds up in their own feed space
AVOIDING AGGRESSION - DISPERSED FEEDINGtrickle feed systems
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AVOIDING AGGRESSION - DISPERSED FEEDINGtrickle feed systems
Disadvantages
Aggression might still be a problem
Individual sows cannot be given extra food
Sows don’t have to search for their food
Advantages
Sows feed simultaneously
Aggression minimal since sows occupied in own stations
Feeding process can occupy sows for longer
What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system?
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AVOIDING AGGRESSION - DISPERSED FEEDINGscatter-feeding systems
What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system?
Dale Arey/CIWF
Advantages
Sows feed simultaneously
Aggression minimal since food dispersed
Feeding process naturally occupies sows for a long time
Extra fibre consumed at same time
Disadvantages
Aggression might still be a problem
Individual sows cannot be given extra food
Film of scatter feeding follows
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Colin Seddon / CIWF
What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system?
Food is automatically dumped from the feeders at the top of the picture
AVOIDING AGGRESSION - DISPERSED FEEDINGdump-feeding systems
Similar to previous system, though food less well dispersed
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AGGRESSION AT MIXING
Another major cause of aggression is mixing sows that are unfamiliar with each other
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CASE STUDY - STRESS AT MIXINGCollege farm experiences infertililty problems
Colin Seddon / CIWF
System worked well for Meishan cross sows mixed in large enriched pen%. However the meat was too high in fat content for the UK market so they switched to Large White x Landrace crosses.
Unfortunately sow fertility suffered as a result of stress, perhaps caused by aggression. They switched to housing sows in small groups and try to keep sows together in original groups to minimise stress
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AVOIDING AGGRESSION IN SOWSsummary
1. Sows should be fed separately and simultaneously where possible
2. Alternatively, feed should be spread out over as wide an area as possible or released slowly
3. Sows should be kept in small stable groups
4. The sow system should not be overcrowded and should allow sows to escape from each other
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CHAPTER 4 space and nesting needs of farrowing sows
Diane Halverson Animal Welfare Institute
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MATERNAL BEHAVIOURnesting in wild boar
BBC Motion Gallery
Film of nesting behaviour in wild boar sow follows
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MATERNAL BEHAVIOURnesting in domestic sows
Diane Halverson / Animal Welfare Institute
Domestic sows have inherited the same nest building instincts as seen in wild boar
What is the function of the nest?
• The nest provides protection from weather and predators
• It helps protect the piglets from being accidentally crushed by the sow
Film of nesting behaviour in domestic sow follows
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Marek Spinka
FARROWING SOWS AND THE RISK OF CRUSHING
Why is the risk of crushing high with modern breeds?
Sows are larger; litters larger, so piglets smaller
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FARROWING SOWS AND THE RISK OF CRUSHING
1. Sows respond naturally to a piglet’s squeal
How does the sow’s behaviour reduce the risk of crushing?
Film of Hungarian sow’s response to a piglet’s squeal follows
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FARROWING SOWS AND THE RISK OF CRUSHING
2. Sows check through the bedding and remove piglets before lying down. The sow needs plenty of space to be able to lie down carefully.
How does the sow’s behaviour reduce the risk of crushing?
Film of Hungarian sows checking through the bedding before lying down follows
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FARROWING CRATES
Most sows are housed in farrowing crates prior to giving birth
Farrowing crates are designed to reduce piglet crushing by slowing down the movements of the sow
Film of sow in farrowing crate trying to lie down follows
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Sows in farrowing crates cannot:
• walk or turn round
• lie down comfortably
• perform important behaviours such as nest building
• interact naturally with her piglets
How is the behaviour of the sow affected in the farrowing crate?
FARROWING CRATES AND SOW BEHAVIOUR
Her ability to move is very restricted
Film of sow in farrowing crate trying to get up follows
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FRUSTRATED MATERNAL BEHAVIOURnesting BBC Motion Gallery
What effects can be caused by this frustration?
• high blood levels of cortisol, a stress hormone
• delayed birth, leading to increased piglet mortality
The farrowing crate causes particular stress to a sow trying to build a nest before farrowing
Film of frustrated nesting behaviour in sow follows
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What are the risks of frustrating normal interactions between the sow and her piglets?
Sows in farrowing crates are more likely to savage their young. The risk of this may be increased if the sow cannot make normal contact
FRUSTRATED MATERNAL BEHAVIOURinteraction with young
Shortly after giving birth, sows naturally sniff their newborn piglets. This helps to create a bond between them
Film of sow trying to make contact with newborn piglet follows
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STRESS HORMONE LEVELSin sows in farrowing crates
Possible reasons include:
• The sow cannot escape from her piglets
• In the barren environment piglets may begin to bite and chew at the sow
• The sow is likely to have lost condition in the process of feeding a large litter
These rise at two times:
• Just before birth
(Due to frustration of the nesting instinct)
• 3-4 weeks after farrowing
Why do they rise again 3-4 weeks after farrowing?
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Family group system, Brazil. Sows are released into groups after 3 days in farrowing crate.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of doing this?
RELEASING SOWS EARLY
Disadvantages:• Sow still confined for at least a
week• Nesting instinct still frustrated• Early interactions between sow
and piglets still impeded
Advantages:• Sow only confined during period
of highest crushing risk• Piglets can mix before weaning
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photos Marek Spinka
ALTERNATIVES TO THE FARROWING CRATESwedish group farrowing system
The sows have a communal straw area with individual boxes to farrow in
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photo Marek Spinka
ALTERNATIVES TO THE FARROWING CRATE
Differences
Sows cannot find an entirely isolated spot to nest
Risk of two sows nesting in same box
Similarities
Nesting material readily available
Sows can nest separately
Piglets can mix once large enough to escape nest-box
How far does this system tie in with natural behaviour?
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ALTERNATIVES TO THE FARROWING CRATEindividual farrowing pens
Advantages:
• Isolated nesting spot
• Nesting material available
• Protection for piglets with safety bars and heated safety area
What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system?
Disadvantages:
• Piglets cannot mix with other litters
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ALTERNATIVES TO THE FARROWING CRATEoutdoor free-range farrowing huts
Each sow has a separate hut to farrow in
The barriers contain very young piglets in the huts.
In the UK, 35% of piglets are produced outdoors
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ALTERNATIVES TO THE FARROWING CRATEoutdoor free-range farrowing huts
Individual paddocks
Some outdoor units have individual paddocks for each sow and litter
What are the advantages and disadvantage of this?
• An advantage is that the sows are not disturbed by other sows
• A disadvantage is that it obviously costs more in time and effort
Once the piglets are four weeks old, the electric fences separating the paddocks are removed to allow the families to mix
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• Breeds which make good mothers
• Sufficient space for sow to be able to manoeuvre to avoid crushing piglets
• Excellent stockmanship
• Plenty of bedding material for nesting and warmth
• Safety areas for piglets
• Good shelter from all types of weather
ALTERNATIVES TO THE FARROWING CRATE
What features are required to make non-confinement systems work effectively?
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SOW AND PIGLET MORTALITIESUK figures comparing outdoor & indoor herds
Year ending September Outdoor herds Indoor herds
Sow mortality annually (%)2.84 5.92
Piglets:Pigs born dead per litter
0.79 0.96
Mortality of pigs born alive (%) 9.46 11.60
Pigs reared per litter 9.74 9.64
Pigs reared per sow per year 21.14 21.49UK averages for 2000-2004 (calculated from Meat and Livestock Commission Pig Yearbooks 2001-5)
Can these results be explained?
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UK SOW AND PIGLET MORTALITIESpossible explanations for figures
FeatureLower free-range sow mortality
Fewer free-range pigs born dead
Lower mortality for free-range piglets
More outdoor pigs reared per litter
More indoor pigs reared per sow per year
Possible explanation/sUse of farrowing crate can lead to higher sow death-rate
Stress of farrowing crate can delay birth, increasing mortality
Savaging rates may be higher with farrowing crates. Free-range sows bred for good mothering abilities
Lower mortality for free-range pigs
Indoor sows had slightly higher frequency of litters
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SPACE AND NESTING NEEDS OF FARROWING SOWSsummary
1. The large litters and small piglets of most modern breeds means that they are prone to being crushed
2. Farrowing crates were designed to reduce this risk
3. Confinement at farrowing causes stress particularly at the time when the sow wants to build a nest
4. Systems which give the sow more freedom are better for welfare and can give good production figures
5. Free farrowing systems require good management and breeds with good maternal abilities
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CHAPTER 5avoiding teeth clipping in piglets
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TEETH CLIPPINGwhy it is carried out
As soon as they are born, piglets compete to select a teat on the sow’s udder to which they remain attached until weaning
Piglets suckle own teat
Why do piglets compete for teats?
The older and stronger piglets try to select the anterior (front) teats that tend to produce more milk
Why do the front teats produce more milk?
It is probably an evolutionary strategy to ensure some piglets survive when food is short. When food is plentiful, the sow can produce enough milk for all her piglets.
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TEETH CLIPPINGwhy it is carried out
Piglets are born with sharp incisor teeth which they use to fight for the best teat and then to defend their teat
This defence can cause injuries to other piglets and also to the sows udder
How do the piglets compete for teats?
Vigorous teat defence
© Dale Arey
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TEETH CLIPPINGthe problems that it causes
• Teeth-clipping is likely to cause severe pain during the procedure
• Damage to the teeth leaves them prone to infection
• Infection can lead to abscesses and long-term pain
Farmer clipping teeth
What are the likely health and welfare consequences of this procedure?
Soon after they are born, the piglets’ incisors are cut with sharp clippers or side-cutters
The pig industry’s solution to problems with injuries is to teeth clip
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TEETH CLIPPINGhow it can be reduced or prevented
• Larger litters increase the amount of competition
• Fostering piglets from large litters onto smaller litters also increases competition
• Reduction in milk supply through poor condition, sow illness e.g. mastitis or sow discomfort due to confinement or lack of bedding Piglet with facial injuries
What factors might increase the risk of this occurring?
Piglets are more likely to fight for a better teat if they are not getting enough milk
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TEETH CLIPPINGhow it can be reduced or prevented
• Use breeds that have slightly smaller litters
• Minimise cross-fostering
• Ensure good hygiene and sow health to reduce the risk of infections
• Keep sows in free-farrowing systems with plenty of bedding
Piglets more settled with reduced competition
How can good management practice reduce the risk of injuries?
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TEETH CLIPPINGhow it can be reduced or prevented
If injuries do become a problem a less invasive technique is to use teeth grinders
Grinders have a small abrasive wheel designed to blunt the sharp tip of the incisors
This procedure is likely to cause less pain and is less likely to leave the teeth open to infection
Tooth clipping is banned in several countries including Denmark and Germany which only allow tooth grinding
Tooth grinding is still a painful mutilation. Routine tooth clipping and grinding are both banned throughout the EU
Farmer clipping teeth
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CASE STUDY enriched indoor production, Schleithal, France
If injuries occur, the farmer uses a teeth grinder
This farm does not clip teeth
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CASE STUDY organic production, Eastbrook farm, UK
This farm uses traditional breeds like Saddlebacks that have slightly smaller litters and the sows maintain condition. The farm does not tooth clip
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“Neither tail docking nor reduction of corner teeth must be carried out routinely but only where there is evidence that injuries to sows' teats or to other pigs' ears or tails have occurred. Before carrying out these procedures, other measures shall be taken to prevent tail biting and other vices taking into account environment and stocking densities (our emphasis). For this reason inadequate environmental conditions or management systems must be changed.”
Annex to Council Directive 91/630/EEC
EU REGULATIONS REQUIRE:
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TEETH CLIPPING summary
1. Injuries caused by teat defence are reduced by teeth-clipping
2. Teeth-clipping causes pain and can lead to infection
3. Tooth-grinding is a less invasive method that can be used to blunt teeth
4. Injuries are mainly a problem if sows do not produce enough milk for all their piglets
5. Breeding sows with smaller litters and which can produce plenty of milk is part of the solution
6. Avoiding udder infections and keeping the sow in a comfortable high welfare environment can also help improve milk supply
7. Avoiding cross fostering can also reduce the risk of injuries
8. Routine tooth clipping and grinding are not permitted in the EU and should be avoided by good breeding, environment and management
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CHAPTER 6avoiding castration in male piglets
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CASTRATIONWhy it is carried out
Shortly after birth, male piglets testes are removed
This is because when they become sexually mature, they can leave an odour in the meat known as ‘boar taint’ which some people find unpleasant
Some meat buyers insist that farmers castrate male pigs
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CASTRATIONHow it is carried out
The testes are removed through slits in the scrotum made with a scalpel
Piglet about to be castrated
Anaesthetics are rarely used even though the procedure causes severe pain
Some people argue that it is the handling of pigs which is stressful, not the castration itself. How do we know the procedure causes pain?
see next slides
88
After Weary et al 1998
IS CASTRATION MORE STRESSFUL THAN HANDLING? Vocal responses of castrated piglets were compared with those of piglets which were similarly handled but without castration.
What do the results show?
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(after Wemelsfelder & van Putten 1985)
IS CASTRATION MORE STRESSFUL THAN HANDLING? The frequency (Hz) of vocal responses of piglets was measured at various stages of castration. What do these results show?
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CASTRATIONis there further distress after castration?
Following castration, a study showed that piglets:
• were less active
• showed more trembling, leg shaking, sliding and tail jerking
• took longer to lie down
• lied down in a way protective of the hindquarters
(after Wemelsfelder & van Putten 1985)
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CASE STUDYenriched indoor production, Schleithal, France
The farmer therefore uses a local anaesthetic before castration
The buyers of these pigs insist on castration because of the risk of boar taint in the meat
Anaesthetics provide short-term pain relief
Analgesics are also needed to provide long-term pain relief
92
CASE STUDY Sparsholt College, UK
In the UK, pigs are very rarely castrated because they are slaughtered at an earlier age.
How does this avoid the need for castration?
The pigs are just over 6 months at slaughter and are sexually immature so boar taint is less of a problem
Avoiding castration means that male pigs grow faster and produce a leaner meat.
93
WHICH IS THE BEST SOLUTION?
It could be a combination of more than one of these
1. Surgical castration without pain relief
2. Surgical castration with short and long term pain relief
3. Immunocastration
4. No castration, but one or more of the following:
a) Risk boar taint
b) Kill male pigs younger
c) Selectively breed pigs for less boar taint
d) Use herbal additives in the diet to reduce boar taint
e) Use sexed semen to increase the percentage of females born
f) Test carcases for boar taint in the slaughterhouse
94
WHICH IS THE BEST SOLUTION?
Compassion in World Farming believes that:
• surgical castration without pain relief is unacceptable
• In the medium term, surgical castration should be avoided altogether
• In the long run, farmers should move towards keeping all pigs entire
95
summary
CASTRATION IN MALE PIGLETS
1. Male piglets are castrated to avoid ‘boar taint’
2. The testes are removed through two slits in the scrotum made with a scalpel
3. The procedure causes acute pain and can affect piglet behaviour for days
4. Pain can be reduced using a local anaesthetic and a longer acting analgesic
5. In the UK pigs are slaughtered before they become sexually mature and so boar taint is less of a problem
6. A number of other alternatives to castration are being considered
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CHAPTER 7avoiding early weaning
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NATURAL WEANING
What is the natural weaning age for pigs?
Piglets:• begin to eat solid food at about three weeks• gradually eat more as they get older• are completely weaned between 13-17 weeks
MAEP/CIWF
Weaning is the process by which the sow gradually reduces the amount milk given to her piglets making them more reliant on solid food
98
EARLY WEANINGin intensive production
Early weaned piglets
What is the usual weaning age for commercial piglets?
Weaning ages:
• EU – 4 weeks (3 weeks for “all in/all out” systems)
• US – as low as 2 weeks
Intensively reared piglets are weaned by forcibly removing them from their mother
99
EARLY WEANINGin intensive production
Late weaning can lead to loss of condition in sows because:
• modern sows produce larger litters
• they have been bred for low fat content, so have fewer reserves to draw on for milk production
Irish sow with her litter
Why does the sow lose condition?
What are the reasons for early weaning?
Early weaning:
• induces oestrus so sow can become pregnant again
• reduces loss of condition in the sow
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Because of:
• Removal from their mother
• Sudden change of diet from milk to solid food
• Sudden change of environment
• Being mixed with piglets from other litters
• Aggression for dominance as a result of mixing
EARLY WEANINGand effects on welfare
Why is early weaning particularly stressful for piglets?
These stresses are compounded by the fact that they all happen at the same time
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EARLY WEANING and effects on welfare
This behaviour of early-weaned piglets is called belly nosing
ASAB
Film of belly-nosing in early-weaned piglets follows
102
EARLY WEANING and effects on welfare
Belly nosing. ASAB
Belly-nosing resembles the way in which piglets massage the sow’s udder prior to suckling
Film of piglet massaging sow’s udder follows
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Belly-nosing also continues in older pigs.
Naturally they wouldn’t be weaned until 13-17 weeks old.
It is thought to be a sign of frustrationBelly-nosing is less common in enriched environments with plenty of straw. Why might this be?
Belly-nosing is a displaced foraging behaviour. Providing plenty of foraging material may help the weaning process.
Film of belly-nosing in older pigs follows
EARLY WEANING and effects on welfare
104
Marek Spinka
EARLY WEANING and effects on welfare
What are the likely causes of these problems?
Problems with early weaning
Belly nosing
Digestive problems
Weight loss or growth check
Increased risk of disease
Increased use of antibiotics
- desire to suckle
- sudden change in diet
- diet change and digestive problems
- lowered immunity caused by stress
- lowered immunity
105
EARLY WEANINGand effects on welfare
Stress can be reduced by:
• Getting piglets used to solid food before weaning
• Using liquid feeds after weaning
• Putting piglets into groups before weaning
• Leaving piglets in a familiar environment after weaning
• Providing a comfortable and enriched environment throughout
• Weaning later wherever possible
How can stress caused by early weaning be reduced?
106
CASE STUDYloose-housed farrowing system, Sweden
Piglets can escape from the hut when bigger
They mix with the other piglets
The sow is removed at weaning
Sows farrow in groups
photos Marek Spinka
107
CASE STUDY – LATER WEANINGorganic production Eastbrook farm, UK
Wean at 8 weeks or later (organic rules state minimum 40 days)
Use breeds like saddlebacks (left) that have better fat reserves and produce slightly smaller litters so they can wean later
108
EARLY WEANINGsummary
1. Piglets naturally wean at 13-17 weeks old
2. Commercial piglets are weaned early at 2-4 weeks old to increase number of pigs produced per sow
3. Early weaning causes stress leading to a range of piglet health and welfare problems
4. Stress can be reduced by good management practice
5. Organic systems wean at 6-8 weeks to reduce health and welfare problems and the need for antibiotics
6. Later weaning requires breeds of sows capable of sustaining a full lactation with good fat reserves and slightly smaller litters
109
CHAPTER 8avoiding tail-docking and tail biting
110
TAIL-BITING
This pig’s tail has been bitten by one or more of her companions
111
TAIL-BITINGwhat causes it
What factors have been linked to the likelihood of tail-biting in intensive production?
• Barren environments: there are no suitable substrates for the pigs to forage and chew
• Overcrowding: there is little opportunity for pigs to avoid each other
• Poor environments: discomfort can increase restlessness and frustration
• Poor nutrition: lack of feeder space and/or nutrients in the diet
112
TAIL-BITINGthe problems it causes
Seemingly innocent nibbling can rapidly spread through the whole group and take on the resemblance of cannibalism
The wounds can cause considerable pain to the tail-bitten pig
Infections can get into the central vertebrae causing serious health problems and carcass damage
It is a sign of poor environments and/or management
It is one of the greatest economic losses to pig production
113
On this farm, this was the only case of tail-biting observed in over 100 pigs. Why wasn’t it more common?
The farm manager attributed a low level of tail-biting to an enriched high-welfare environment with straw.
TAIL-BITINGthe problems it causes
114
TAIL-BITINGthe industry’s solution to the problem
Shortly after birth, each piglet’s tail is docked with a blade or a hot wire
What is the industry’s solution to the problem?
115
TAIL-BITINGthe industry’s solution to the problem
How is tail-docking likely to reduce tail-biting?
Removing most or just part of the tail may work by:
• making the tail less obvious to a foraging pig
• making the tail more sensitive to investigation, so pigs are less likely to tolerate tail-nibbling
116
TAIL-DOCKINGarguments for and against
Lesions from tail-biting
Arguments for:
• Tail-docking is a simple way of reducing tail-biting
Arguments against:
• Tail-docking causes pain, distress and risk of infections
• It can lead to the formation of neuromas (swollen nerves)
• Tail-docking does not address the causes of the problem
What are the arguments for and against tail-docking?
117
TAIL-BITINGhow it can be reduced or prevented
Some farms provide chains and toys to try and reduce problems with tail-biting
Which of these two methods of enrichment are likely to be most effective in reducing tail-biting?
Wood shavings, see next slide
118
TAIL-BITING methods of enrichment that work best
Effect of environmental enrichment on tail-biting in piglets (after Zonderland et al, 2004)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Chain Rubber toy Strawhopper
Straw onfloor
Form of enrichment
% M
ild
or
seri
ou
s le
sio
ns
Mild lesions (%)
Serious lesions (%)
Zonderland et al investigated the effects of different kinds of enrichment on the number of mild and serious injuries caused by tail-biting.
What do the results show?
119
TAIL-BITING methods of enrichment that work best
There are three stages to foraging behaviour:
• Searching
• Manipulating
• Eating
Which of these stages are provided by:
• Chains?
• Ropes?
• Beds of saw dust or straw?
• Rough ground, pasture or woodland?
An increasing amount of foraging is enabled as you go down the list
Film of rooting behaviour follows
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“Neither tail docking nor reduction of corner teeth must be carried out routinely but only where there is evidence that injuries to sows' teats or to other pigs' ears or tails have occurred. Before carrying out these procedures, other measures shall be taken to prevent tail biting and other vices taking into account environment and stocking densities (our emphasis). For this reason inadequate environmental conditions or management systems must be changed.
“Pigs must have permanent access to a sufficient quantity of material to enable proper investigation and manipulation activities, such as straw, hay, wood, sawdust, mushroom compost, peat or a mixture of such …”
Annex to Council Directive 91/630/EEC
EU REGULATIONS REQUIRE:
121
Deep-bed of rice hulls
CASE STUDY - DEEP BED SYSTEM developed by EMBRAPA, Brazil
Suitable for small-scale farming:• capital costs 40-60% lower• existing buildings can be adapted
Better for the environment:• reduce ammonia emissions 50%• produce less waste and a better
fertiliser
Good for production and welfare:• reduce tail-biting and lameness• provide foraging opportunities• provide comfort
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CASE STUDY – SLATTED vs DEEP BED SYSTEMexperiment on Brazilian farm
Experimental group on deep-bed
Group on part slatted system
Weaners on the deep bed system:
• kept warmer and huddled less
• suffered less from diarrhoea
• were more active and less fearful See next slide
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Environmental enrichment can:• reduce fearfulness of novel
situations and human interaction• later reduce stress during transit• benefit health, welfare and food
quality
CASE STUDY – SLATTED vs DEEP BED SYSTEMWhy do these two groups of pigs respond so differently to photographers?
The pigs on the right are used to:
• a more stimulating environment
• interaction with people
124
TAIL-BITING IN GROWING PIGSsummary
1. Tail-biting is a major problem for welfare and production
2. Tail-biting is a displaced foraging behaviour and a sign of poor welfare
3. Tail-docking is a common method of reducing tail-biting
4. Tail-docking causes pain and risks infection. It deals with the symptoms of the problem, not the causes
5. Environmental enrichment with straw or other fibrous material reduces tail-biting by encouraging normal foraging behaviour
6. Chains and toys are less effective enrichments since they don’t allow the full range of foraging behaviour
7. European Union regulations require environmental enrichment to be tried before resorting to tail-docking
125
CHAPTER 9good stockmanship
126
STOCKMANSHIPgood welfare depends on good stockmanship
What makes a good stockperson?
Some views of stockpeople:
• “Good stockmanship is about understanding your pigs”
• “A good stockperson is always checking that everything is alright”
• “A good stockperson knows instinctively when something is wrong”
• “It is a job you have to need to do”
• “It takes a lifetime to learn”
127
STOCKMANSHIPgood welfare depends on good stockmanship
A good stockperson needs:
• Empathy
• Knowledge and experience
• Good observation skills
• Conscientiousness
How do these make a difference?
128
STOCKMANSHIPempathy
Empathy is all about how you would feel if in the pigs situation
This stockperson is aware that this sow is stressed because she is about to give birth in a farrowing crate. She therefore tries to soothe the sow and cool her down.
Do some people naturally make more empathetic stockpersons?
This farm deliberately chooses female staff for supervising farrowing sows
Film of cooling farrowing sow follows
129
STOCKMANSHIPknowledge and experience
These pig producers attend regular meetings where they share the latest scientific information
130
STOCKMANSHIPgood observation skills
Recognising signs that pigs are thriving and content or not
These stockpersons know that ‘bedding down’ is a good time to observe the sows for any sign of illness or poor welfare
Film of bedding down of sows follows
131
STOCKMANSHIPgood observation skills
Any sick or injured pigs should be moved immediately to a sick pen
Sick pen deepbedded with straw
Health problems should be monitored and vets should be consulted regularly
132
STOCKMANSHIPconscientiousness
Paying careful attention to the pigs and the equipment they rely on
These farmers check whether there is sufficient bedding in the arcs
133
STOCKMANSHIPwelfare codes
The “5 freedoms” form the basis of welfare codes that are recommended for pigs
Many different countries produce welfare codes that provide a useful reference for stockpersons
Although they are not always legally binding, they can be cited in prosecutions
In the UK, the law states that every person caring for animals must have instruction in the codes
English Welfare codes Defra
134
STOCKMANSHIPwelfare codes are based on the five freedoms
All stockpersons must be aware of the “5 freedoms”:
•freedom from hunger and thirst•freedom from discomfort•freedom from illness•freedom to perform natural behaviour•freedom from fear and distress
Most stockpersons readily recognise the first three freedoms but freedom from fear and distress and freedom to perform natural behaviour can too easily be overlooked
135
STOCKMANSHIPfreedom to perform natural behaviour
Stockpersons need to be aware of the natural behaviour and ethology of the pig
It is common for stockpersons to see bar biting as normal behaviour having never seen pigs in a more natural environment
136
STOCKMANSHIPfreedom to perform natural behaviour
Pigs are naturally clean animals and will select a particular part of the pen away from the main lying area for dunging
If pigs are overcrowded and become too hot, they will start to use the dunging area as a wallow to try to cool down
137
STOCKMANSHIPfreedom to perform natural behaviour
For outdoor sows it is even more important to have the correct provisions so that they can regulate body temperature through their own natural behaviour
Wallows Well bedded shelters
138
STOCKMANSHIPfreedom from fear and distress
Pigs are naturally fearful of humans
The attitude and behaviour of the stockperson is important for reducing this fear
Reducing fear not only improves welfare it also improves performance
Film of fearfulness in early-weaned piglets follows
139
STOCKMANSHIPfreedom from fear and distress
Type of interaction Good None Poor
Time to react with person (s) 10 92 160
Corticosteroid (ng/ml) 1.6 1.7 2.5
Pregnancy rate of gilts (%) 88 57 33
Growth rate 8-18 weeks (g/d) 897 881 837
Several studies have compared the effects of stockperson interaction on performance in pigs
(Gonyou et al., 1986; Hemsworth et al., 1986; 1987)
What do these results suggest?
140
STOCKMANSHIPwelfare and production
Good interactions with pigs reduce both fear and stress
Reducing stress improves performance
This is because stress can have a negative effect on:
• growth• reproductive functioning• immunity
Regular inspection reduces stress
Better interactions with pigs can be developed through training
What would this training need to include?
141
STOCKMANSHIPeffects of training on both welfare and production
Effect of training
Abnormal behaviours -36%
Fear of humans -29%
No. of piglets weaned +4.8%
Pigs/sow/year +6%
A four year study looking at 40 farms showed that the training of stockpeople can have a beneficial effect on both welfare and production
The training developed an understanding of the behaviour of pigs and a knowledge of how they should be handled correctly.
The training encouraged the stockpeople to develop more empathetic attitudes to pigs
(Hemsworth et al., 1987)
142
STOCKMANSHIPhandling pigs
The most common interaction between stockpersons and pigs occurs when they are being moved
Good handling can have a beneficial effect on meat quality
How?
Because stress before slaughter increases the risk of PSE (Pale Soft Exudative) meat, reducing meat quality
Film of pig-handling follows
143
STOCKMANSHIPhandling pigs
• Make sure the passageway is secure and uncluttered
• A thin layer of bedding can be used to cover any distractions in the floor surface
• Always use a pig board to prevent escape back to where they came from
• Use encouraging tones and gentle slapping to let the pigs know where you are and to achieve a steady flow
• Electric goads and sticks should be prohibited
What are the important things to remember when moving pigs?
144
STOCKMANSHIPwelfare potential
Pigs can suffer in any system if stockmanship is poor
However, systems vary in their potential to provide good welfare
In most intensive systems, the stockperson is limited to ensuring that the pigs do not face any additional stressors
Most extensive systems have a higher welfare potential but this can be highly dependent on good stockmanship
Which of these systems has the higher potential for good welfare?
145
STOCKMANSHIPsummary
1. A good stockperson has empathy, knowledge, good observation and conscientiousness
2. Stockpersons must be aware of the “5 Freedoms” and Welfare Codes and any related laws issued by their particular country
3. Good stockmanship is a main factor for the benefit of both pig welfare and performance
4. Good handling using correct procedures can be beneficial for meat quality
5. Stockmanship can be significantly improved by training
146
STOCKMANSHIP
“ In many situations, the importance of the stockperson as a ‘welfare worker’ is undervalued “
147
CHAPTER 10summary
148
PIG PRODUCTION – SUMMARYgood welfare depends on good environments
The environment must provide:
• Shelter and comfort
• Appropriate space
• Appropriate company
• Appropriate facilities for the expression of natural behaviours
• Material for foraging
All can be provided in good indoor and outdoor systems
What must a good environment provide?
149
PIG PRODUCTION – SUMMARYgood welfare depends on good genetics
Good breeding should ensure that:
• Pigs are healthy and are adapted to the local climate and conditions
• Sows have good mothering skills
• Sows can sustain a full lactation without unsustainable loss of condition
• Sows do not produce larger litters than they can rear
• Pigs display a good temperament to each other and to people when properly treated
How can good breeding improve welfare?
150
PIG PRODUCTION – SUMMARYgood welfare depends on good stockmanship
• Ensure the needs of pigs are provided for
• Recognise welfare problems whenever they arise
• Achieve the welfare and production potential of the farming system
• Ensure that pigs come to feel appropriately relaxed in the company of humans
What are the crucial roles of the stockperson?
151
PIG PRODUCTION – SUMMARYAnimal welfare aspects of Good Agricultural Practice
• Environments
• Genetics
• Stockmanship
• Health care
• Nutrition
All are essentialIf any of these are missing, welfare is likely to be poor
Which of these is the most important?
Pig welfare therefore depends on good:
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• Biological systems are more complex than technological ones
• The most intensive systems are not necessarily the most advanced
• Farm animals are sentient beings. They have feelings which matter to them
• For animals to grow well, their needs have to be understood, which are emotional as well as physical
• Developing good stockmanship is one the best investments that can be made for welfare and production
PIG PRODUCTION – SUMMARYAnimal welfare aspects of Good Agricultural Practice
Finally, it is important to remember:
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ANIMAL WELFARE ASPECTS OF GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE (GAP)pig production
This presentation has been adapted for use on shareview
Full version available free from ciwf.org/gap on DVD-ROM
Full version includes embedded video clips and interactive animation
DVD-ROM also includes film, book and lecturers’ notes
GAP Pigs DVD-ROM
154
PIG PRODUCTION – SUMMARYAnimal Welfare Aspects of Good Agricultural Practice
THE END
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