1 2013 (3) ISSN 2277 – 2464 FPRC Journal ____________________________________________________ (a Quarterly research journal devoted to studies on Indian Foreign Policy) ____________________________________________________________ Focus : India-Myanmar Relations Responses, Articles ____________________________________________________ Foreign Policy Research Centre NEW DELHI (INDIA) ____________________________________________________
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2013 (3) ISSN 2277 – 2464
FPRC Journal
____________________________________________________ (a Quarterly research journal devoted to studies on Indian Foreign Policy)
Preface India has a special relationship with Myanmar. Long standing historical, cultural and religious links with Myanmar underpin this broad-based relationship. There are cross-border ethnic links, too, with Naga and Mizo tribes inhabiting both sides of the India-Myanmar border. Myanmar is now rising in India’s foreign policy priorities, that the earlier policy constraints of democracy and China are reduced, and that there are grounds now for being more upbeat than previously. The prospects for an enhanced economic partnership, in particular, in the energy sector,it is hoped, will add to this substantive and comprehensive relationship.
It is very heartening to note that a wide galaxy of writers have focused on important themes and other related issues in their writings and comments, for this special issue of FPRC Journal on India –Myanmar Relations.
We express our heart-felt thanks to our contributors who have shared our sentiments and accepted our invitation to enrich the contents of the Journal.They are always our source of strength. Mahendra Gaur Indira Gaur Director Mg. Editor
Foreign Policy Research Centre New Delhi
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FPRC Journal
Focus : India-Myanmar Relations Contributors :
RESPONSES :
1. Amb. PREET MALIK Ambassador to Myanmar. 1990-92
2. Dr Arvind Gupta, Director General Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, New Delhi
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3.Dr. Renaud EGRETEAU Research Assistant Professor Hong Kong Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences (inc. Centre of Asian Studies) The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
4.Dr. Bibhu Prasad Routray Singapore based security Analyst/ consultant. Former Deputy Director in India's National Security Council Secretariat, New Delhi
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(5) Sreeradha Datta (PhD)
Director Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies (MAKAIAS) KOLKATA , India
(6) Bertil Lintner Swedish Journalist, Writer Expertise on Burmese issues
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(7) Ms. Moe Thuzar ISEAS Fellow and lead researcher for socio-cultural affairs at the ASEAN Studies Centre (ASC) at ISEAS
Articles
1.Hon’ble Amb. (R) Trevor Wilson Visiting Fellow,
Dept. of Political & Social Change, ANU College of Asia & the Pacific
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2. Prof. Kanbawza Win formerly, the Foreign Affairs Secretary to the Prime Minister of Burma
3. Shri P.M. Heblikar Managing Trustee, Institute of Contemporary Studies Bangalore (ICSB)
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4.Dr. Rajaram Panda Visiting Faculty at the Centre for Japanese, Korean and Northeast Asian Studies, School of Language, Literature & Culture Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University and Visiting Fellow at the Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, New Delhi
5. Dr. Alistair D. B. Cook
Visiting Research Fellow at the East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore
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6. Col. VIRENDRA SAHAI VERMA Honorary Fellow , Institute of Chinese Studies Delhi
7.Dr. Swapna Bhattacharya (Chakraborti) Professor & former Head , Dept. of South & Southeast Asian Studies, University of Calcutta
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8. Col R Hariharan Chennai Centre for China Studies and the South Asia Analysis Group
9. Syed Ali Mujtaba ,Ph.D, Senior journalist based in Chennai,India
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10. Prof.E.Bijoykumar Singh Economics Department ,Manipur University
11. C. S. Kuppuswamy Consultant with the South Asia analysis Group (SAAG)
a retired officer of the Indian Army and former Director of the Cabinet Secretariat
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12.Dr. SANTISHREE DHULIPUDI PANDIT PROF.Dept.of Politics and Public Administration
University of Pune,India
&
Dr. RIMLI BASU RESEARCH FELLOW Dept. of Politics and Public Administration,University of Pune
13. Dr. (Mrs) Munmun Majumdar Associate Prof. Dept of Political Science ,North-Eastern Hill University,
Shillong, Meghalaya,India
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14. Dr.Rakhee Bhattacharya Fellow at Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies,
New Delhi
15. Varigonda Kesava Chandra Research Associate,
Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy,
National University of Singapore
16. Lindsay Hughes Research Analyst at Future Directions International , Perth, Australia
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17. Monish Tourangbam Associate Fellow, Observer Research Foundation, New Delhi
18. Hu Xiaowen PhD Candidate of Centre for East Asian Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University;
Research assistant of Yunnan Academy of Social Sciences
19.Dr. Rahul Mishra Researcher , Institute for Defence Studies & Analyses,
New Delhi
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RESPONSES (pp.15-53) (1) Ambassador PREET MALIK DOB 18.02.1937 1954-1958 Worked as junior executive in Kalinga Industries Ltd., Cuttack, Orissa. ED: BA (Hons.) Economics and Human Geography. May 1962 Joined the Indian Foreign Service. Nov. 1963-Apr. 1966 Third Sec/Second Sec. Embassy of India Cairo. May 1966-Oct. 1967 Second Sec./Acting High Commissioner, High Commission of India Singapore. Nov. 1967-Apr.1970 Second Sec./First Sec. Political Office for Sikkim and Bhutan. 1970-73: First Secretary and Acting PR. Permanent Mission to the UN, Geneva. Dealt with Economic issues and was the representative to the Governing Body of the ILO and the WHO Committees. Dealt with WIPO (copyright and patent regimes and issues). Chairman Committee on Implementation of Conventions of the ILO. Delegate to the International Maritime Conference. Delegate to the Committee on Disarmament. Delegate to the G-77 issues on trade policy and development. Delegate to the Narcotics Commission and part of the negotiating team on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances and Prevention of Trafficking in Drugs. Was involved with the Prepcoms on Law of the Seas, Environment and the specialized Committee of UNCTAD on Lead and Zinc. 1973-76: Ambassador to Bahrain. 1976-79: Director Ministry of Commerce. Formulated policies of distribution of export quotas for Textiles. EXIM policy on manufactures. Bilateral trade policy issues on South Asia, WANA and Africa. Multilateral trade policy issues including regional trading arrangements and bilateral payments arrangements. Oil/Energy related policy and trade issues consequent on oil price hikes of 1973 and policy determination to ensure adequate oil import flows, petroleum product flows and dissolution of the bilateral payments outstandings/credits via oil imports from Egypt. 1979-81: Ambassador to Cuba. This was the period when Cuba held the Chairmanship of NAM. Participated in several Committees on sectoral subjects dealing with technical assistance, trade and development including issues relating to Global Negotiations and Monetary issues. 1981-83: High Commissioner to Tanzania and Seychelles. 1983-86: Deputy Permanent Representative and Minister E&P to the Permanent Mission of India to the UN, New York. Dealt specifically with economic and social issues; dealt also with the Budget and Administrative Committee of the UN. Vice President of ECOSOC. Delegate to the International Population Conference, Mexico. Dealt specifically with issues relating to Money and Finance, Trade Policy issues including the Uruguay Round of Negotiations and matters relating to IBRD, IMF, GATT and UNCTAD at the UN in New York and Geneva. Dealt directly with UNDP and its meetings in New York and Geneva. Dealt with OPEC countries on oil and trade policy factors relating to development of the G-77 and the NAM member States. 1983-90: High Commissioner to Malaysia and Brunei. Dealt with Petronas relating to India’s bilateral energy supplies and cooperation issues including the 1990 emergency requirements of crude to meet India’s needs. 1990-92: Ambassador to Myanmar.
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1992-95: first as Additional Secretary and then as Secretary (Economic Relations) in the Ministry of External Affairs. Was on the FIPB and the Steering Committee on Economic Reforms. Associated with the drafting, negotiation and adoption of Bilateral Investment Protection Agreements. Issues relating to the establishment of the WTO at the conclusion of the URN. Specific dealings in the new areas of TRIMS, TRIPS, Trade and Environment and in defining policy options on the Indian approach to Trade and Labour. Coordinated the response of the GOI on economic and trade policy issues including energy supply and investment issues. This involved extensive consultations on policy issues and approaches with the economic and social ministries and departments of the GOI and the Prime Ministers Office. Headed the relations with SAARC and was involved in the definition and the initiation of SAFTA. Actions to promote India as an Investment Destination. Accompanied the Prime Minister on various official visits (USA, Germany, UK, Vietnam and Singapore, Oman, DAVOS etc.) dealing with economic and business aspects. Associated with defining the look east policy announced in Singapore by Prime Minister Narasimha Rao. Specialized on all aspects of Economic Diplomacy both Multilateral and Bilateral. Dealt with economic and trade policy issues in NAM, G-77 and G-15. Established the informal dialogue between the G-15 and the G-7. Set up the Sectoral Dialogue between India and ASEAN and laid the foundations for India attaining the full dialogue status with ASEAN. Dealt with issues arising out of WTO commitments in the context of Globalisation and its effect on the Indian efforts to integrate its economy into the global economy. Established the institutional dialogue with OECD and MITI of Japan. Dealt with economic issues relating to India and the EU. From 1995 onwards have been associated with some leading Corporates as Advisor on Corporate, restructuring and financing issues. Acted as Corporate Advisor to the Chairman of the Kirloskar Group one of India’s top Business groups. Also advised the RPG Group and The leading United States float glass manufacturer Guardian International. These assignments were held during the period April 1995 to March 2002. For one year advised Dua Consulting in New Delhi. Dealt with Trade Policy issues relating to anti-dumping, subsidies and safeguards. In this regard have a consultancy arrangement with a leading British Law Firm where have been advising on trade policy actions to clients that include clients from Japan, India, the UK and at the EU. Worked for the development of a plan for extending advise to an African Government on WTO, EU, Regional arrangements etc negotiating techniques including advisories on issues relating to subsidies, anti-dumping and safeguards as well as on new issues in the WTO. Separately advising Indian firms on anti-dumping actions in India and against them at the EU. Extensive work on developing papers on strategic issues and areas of Indian interest where China is concerned. Subjects covered in this respect are:
1. State Owned Enterprises in China with a particular emphasis on subsidies and trade distorting actions. 2. China’s Financial System and the impact on it of the accession to the WTO. 3. China’s Textile industry and the manner in which it has managed itself under trade restrictions including
the manner in which it has circumvented the MFA. 4. China’s Cyber warfare capacities and techniques. 5. China – Strategic Defense Hi-Tech Upgradation
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Served as Director on several company Boards from 1995-96 to 2001-2002. Have written extensively on Indian Foreign Policy and economic diplomacy in the Financial Express during the period 1995-2000. Have made contributions to the publication Indian Foreign Policy Agenda for the 21
st Century:
1. The Changing Face of India’s Economic Diplomacy: The Role of the Ministry of External Affairs. 2. Indo-Myanmar Relations.
Have developed a confidential paper on Energy Strategy and Security for the NSA. With Publishers book on India Myanmar relations Senior Advisor to Ashurst a leading International Law Firm covering areas specific to its India Practice from 2002 to 2011.
Answers to the questions raised by the FRPC are provided ad seriatim:
1. A growing Indo-Myanmar relationship has the potential to make a significant impact on South Asia, but also in the larger Asian region. Do you agree with this assessment?
In response to this question it is essential to place Myanmar within the contextual parameters of the importance of its geo-strategic position and the security implications of its still unresolved ethnic divides need to be put in perspective. This is also important as the opportunity that Myanmar projects can be exploited to the mutual advantage of India and Myanmar while it does not necessarily have to come in conflict with Myanmar’s other great neighbour China. The factual position is that Myanmar’s geographical location places it on the cross roads linking South Asia with South East Asia, and South Asia with East Asia inclusive of The Peoples Republic of China.This places it in a unique position to connect these three regions enabling the establishment of a multi-dimensional relationship across the regional borders. For India in particular it establishes a land bridge connecting it to the ASEAN Region; an area that is of great strategic importance to India, that has the potential of becoming a positive factor in promoting the socio-economic development linkages between western Myanmar and the North Eastern States of India suggesting a logical sub-regional framework within the India-ASEAN FTA as well as the bilateral comprehensive strategic arrangements between India and SE Asian countries. Myanmar is also a key to furthering India’s Look East Policy (LEP) with a focus on India’s NE Region as integral to that policy and its inter-active framework. The LEP is an important plank for India to forge direct links with SE Asia and the Far East, a
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region where a close relationship helps serve India’s interests: political, economic and strategic; making it a key imperative for India to attain its historical over reach as an Asian power and to achieve its potential as a major economic power and a key driver of the global economy. In a sense this is a dynamic that works towards the realisation on a more pragmatic basis the Nehruvian vision of a united Asia playing a dominant role for peace and development as part of a globalizing world. A vision that was dear to Nehru’s heart at the time of India’s independence, a vision that lay shattered on the rock of differences that came to impact the relations between India and China. It is worth recalling at this stage that both Nehru and the then Burma Prime Minister U Nu had come to look on the PRC as a disruptive force in the region, self serving and unreliable. The fact that Myanmar lies between two large neighbours China and India, projects both an opportunity and a security dilemma for India. As long as the Myanmar borders that form the homelands of its ethnic minorities are not at peace and under the unquestioned administrative control of the Government of Myanmar, these areas are subject to exploitation by outside forces and where the writ of Nay Pi Daw would continue to be flouted. The current situation in the Kachin State is a case in point where China has shown that it can raise the threat level to serve its own interests and along side that it continues to retain linkages with Indian insurgents by providing material support to these groups utilizing the Kokang Armed force as an intermediary. While the security threat is an obvious issue Myanmar also serves as a potential source that could encourage a greater degree of political and security related relationship neutered in the medium term by cooperation for socio-economic development based on the border development arrangements between the two countries. The implications areself-evident, as this would involve linkages between the development programmes of the two countries covering the NE Region of India and the western states and divisions of Myanmar bordering on India. For India the moves so far made to progress Myanmar through a mix of political and economic reforms that favour the setting up a democratic state that also favours the setting up of an open economy leveraged by market forces and encourages global investment, is an attractive proposition. These developments have encouraged India to make moves that offer cooperation that covers all aspects of a bilateral relationship between two close neighbours: political, here there are programmes that cover the Parliamentary system and the connected governance system; socio-economic development that covers the different dimensions of economic activities and investment by Indian entities that would target economic growth through collaborative efforts. All that has been put across so far clearly establishes the significance of Myanmar
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to India. There is no question that the involvement of ASEAN in the development and economic aspects of the NE Region that has a heavy emphasis on specifics of socio-economic development of the region would help involve a coordinated approach that would also bring in the adjoining western frontier regions of Myanmar within the evolving developmental model. Further the tourism potential of the NE Region is a significant part of the ASEAN involvement. There is little doubt that this area can attain its potential only when the infrastructure for the purpose is put in place this would find its natural outlets also in the adjoining areas of Myanmar. Given that the NE Region has a key to play in the achievement of the over all targets set under the LEP, Myanmar becomes an even more significant factor as an actor in the coordinated developmental arrangements with both economic and business benefits flowing out of the Indo-ASEAN cooperative efforts in India’s NE Region. The benefit of India’s Myanmar engagement for South Asia as a whole is a more complex issue. Indo-Myanmar relations in the post 1992 period have grown to acceptable levels with India having made significant commitments to assist Myanmar by increasing investment to its infrastructure development, a push to India Inc.to make business investments, and in the Border Development Arrangement that involves India in the socio-economic and institutional development in the ethnic areas of Myanmar that border on India’s sensitive NE Region. With the rest of South Asia at present the relations are cordial, except with Bangladesh with whom the Rohingya issue is a stumbling factor, but do not have any substantial depth. What is important though is Myanmar having developed a political space for South Asia and could look on South Asia as a whole as an important future market once its economic potential has been appropriately developed making it a major Asian economy. There is however little doubt that it is India that is the country of South Asia with whom Myanmar would continue to have close relations and with the connectivity with India and the economic and business role increasingly binding the two countries together this would serve as a major opening to the rest of South Asia. The key factor in the relationship however is the Geo-strategic imperatives that Myanmar signifies for India’s relations with SE Asia as well as with East Asia particularly China. Myanmar is providing infrastructural linkages to China that places it in contention as an alternative route to the Malacca Straits for transporting its energy supplies. It is also placed to providing alternative routes and connectivity to the Yunann and Schwan provinces of China to the Bay of Bengal and beyond. For India the South Western Sea face of Myanmar has now become central its alternative route to the NE Region via Myanmar’s Chin State to Mizoram and beyond. This provides connectivity to the NE Region to the Bay of Bengal and also to the ASEAN Region as a whole. It would thus be correct to assume that once the infrastructure that would connect India with South East Asia and China is in place, providing both road and rail connectivity, it would bring the whole of
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Eastern Asia into close and direct contact particularly Thailand and the connecting ASEAN lands of which relations with Vietnam have an increasing strategic value. In straight value terms it can be put across that once the land connectivity has been established and the rules of pass through traffic have been put in place these linkages could be of benefit not only to India but also to the entire SAARC and ASEAN regions. The trigger point would obviously be the very large and growing presence of the consumer community within the SAARC countries. This would however be possible if the India Pakistan economic relationship develops to its logical conclusion.
2. India sees connectivity through Myanmar as crucial for its ‘Look East Policy’ and development of ties with the Asean countries. Looking back, can it be said that the policy has been successful?
There is an increasing clarity to India’s relations with the ASEAN States with the strategic and the economic values being underwritten by both the FTA’s and the Comprehensive Strategic Agreements. Narasimha Rao was the Indian Prime Minister who recognised the imperatives that were to guide India’s Look East Policy being centred on SE Asia and the Far East. It was for that reason that he announced the LEP from a platform in Singapore that was chaired by Lee Kuan Yew who had been perhaps the strongest advocate for India to play its rightful role in Asia.
The relations with SE Asia were developed on an axis that did not involve Myanmar
till the late 90’s even though Myanmar had agreed to become part of ASEAN in 1991 being made a full member in 1997. It is essential to understand that till Myanmar remained a closed economy; even though under the SLORC and subsequently under the SPDC a policy of granting to the Myanmar economy a market driven face had been put forward; it was a limited access player and did not lend itself as an ASEAN opportunity.
India had promoted itself up the ASEAN ladder without attaching any role to
Myanmar in that context. However Myanmar was included in the LEP from the initial period itself as it was of strategic importance and was seen as a possible outlet for the NE Region as an inclusive market partner and a possible alternative connectivity route for that sub-region. Further in the post 1992 period India came to place an emphasis on energy cooperation with a focus on Myanmar as a partner in that area. With India looking on infrastructure development that would help substantiate Myanmar’s role as a land bridge between India and SE Asia. The importance of that country to India’s relations with ASEAN and the further evolution of the LEP with a greater focus on
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the developing economic and business linkages between the NE Region and the ASEAN, the role of Myanmar has become an essential part of the India ASEAN relationship. Despite all of this one has to see to what extent the policy has so far achieved its objectives. For the policy to succeed it is crucial that what has been targeted is achieved in a reasonable time frame and should be embedded into the policy objectives. As is evident the policy objectives are the evolution of a secure environment that is built on the back of infrastructure development covering the NE region and Myanmar in tandem, The extension of institutional backup to socio economic development of the adjoining areas of Myanmar that would involve areas of public health, education, agricultural extension systems, industrial development based on a common market approach and the development of tourism that would cover both the NE Region and Myanmar ; with these being locked into the overall tourism systems of India and the ASEAN Region, are now clear imperatives of the relations. The crucial factor that is essential to the logical realisation of the potential of these goals particularly as these could help in the stabilisation of the adjoining ethic minority areas of Myanmar is the time bound development of the necessary infrastructure on both sides of the common borders of the two countries.
3. ‘Let’s not be over-optimistic about Burma’ , the opposition leader Aung San
Suu Kyi said. She would want India to look at the situation in Myanmar, which is in transition from one form of governance to another, “in a very practical way”. In what specific ways can India help Myanmar at this stage of its political transition?
The Suu Kyi statement quoted above covers, to my mind, two specifics. The first being the issue of democracy and the second being the involvement of India in the economic and business areas of the opening economy of her country. The first aspect in a sense is related to the fact that Myanmar in political terms could be described logically as a polity in transition. This calls for an understanding of what has so far happened, despite the overall implications of the provisions of the 2008 Constitution the President permitted a twisting of the electoral rules that enabled Suu Kyi and her NLD to fight the bye-elections and win 48 seats. This has in an effective sense brought Suu Kyi and her party into the mainstream of Myanmar’s politics and has given a push to national reconciliation promising an eventual democratic polity. However the 2008 Constitution continues to act as a barrier to the Thein Sein political reform process unless it is significantly amended adopting a fully democratic political system that would be based on a Federal Arrangement that is the demand of the ethnic minorities. In other words the 2008 Constitution has for all practical purposes to be replaced. This is a difficult
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situation as the Armed Forces are unlikely to acquiesce in any arrangement that threatens their power base and ability to retain the power to intervene. Further while they may agree to share power and even contemplate a bending of the Constitutional provisions, that at present rule out the possibility of Suu Kyi becoming President if her Party sweeps the polls of 2015, they would do so as long as they retain the overall control on the direction that her Government would adopt including an ability to intervene if they feel that their control is under threat. What Suu Kyi wants from India is that it should try and influence President Thein Sein to continue to introduce reforms that would establish a true democracy. India has taken steps to assist in the reform movement by encouraging relations on a Parliament-to-Parliament basis. It has also undertaken to support Thein Sein’s economic reforms that are focused on rural development that would also benefit possibilities at the level of grass roots democratic institutions. Providing them with economic teeth is the other aspect of the Indian involvement, this is being done through institutional arrangements and technology transfer offers. Suu Kyi is being regularly kept in the picture on the steps that India has undertaken and intends to continue with on the platform of democracy. Suu Kyi has also maintained that India’s economic policies and business trends in Myanmar should be in keeping with the aspirations of the people of Myanmar. Implying that India should do all it can to assist in the socio-economic development of Myanmar that helps the people of the country to progress and strengthen their capabilities to advance up the economic ladder. In other words India’s economic presence should be people oriented and in cooperation with the aspirations of the people. She has also mentioned that the infrastructure investments being made by India are of mutual benefit and should focus to a large extent on improving the lot of the people of Myanmar. None of her positions is in any way against India taking steps to promote economic cooperation with the present Government nor is she blind to the fact that while India has emphasized the social development aspects of the relationship that would obviously be of direct benefit to the people of her country, and the positives that should flow out of India’s involvement in the infrastructure development projects, she is a realist enough to accept that the business relations have to guided by a profit motive and that without that investment would hardly take place. The areas of cooperation that would assist Myanmar and would be of mutual benefit relate to grass routes democracy evolving in Myanmar; here India can provide the institutional underpinnings that would provide content to the democratic reform process. By granting access, to the Myanmar Parliamentarians covering all hues of the current political mainstream thinking in India, to the manner in which both the Indian Constitution and the governance system delivers in a Federal Arrangement that does not in any way prevent the State meeting any
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challenges thrown up by internal threats to the sovereignty and integrity of the nation. Emphasis on social development both at the local level and the Union level by establishing cooperation in the areas of public health, education, local manufacturing to support the agricultural system including the setting up of a support system as well as cooperative production and marketing systems. Rapid development of infrastructure that would bring the entire Indian market area and the ASEAN market area closer through land linkages and would bring the development goals of Myanmar as a target area for India’s economic decisions. A common market like development arrangement that links India’s NE Region to the adjoining regions of Myanmar particularly those West of the Irrawaddy, furthering this along the road of greater Indian involvement with ASEAN. Promote by all financial means the involvement by India Inc. to look upon Myanmar as a major investment destination. These are some clear imperatives that should be driving the Indian engagement with Thein Sein’s Myanmar that would not only place India as a meaningfuleconomic partner but also as a realistic political partner who is willing to assist on a pragmatic level his approach to national reconciliation that covers both the democratic and economic reform process.
4. As Myanmar is now rising in India’s foreign policy priorities, there should be a strategically pre-emptive effort to forestall Myanmar, a next door neighbour, from becoming a vehicle through which huge problems could be created for India. What are the promise and challenges of ‘a new relationship?
The common Colonial period that both India and Myanmar had been visited upon, left two issues at the closing of the colonial period; the first related to the issues of land and business dominance by the Indian community in Burma and the second that continues to haunt both is the failure to provide a pragmatic political solution that would safe guard the interests of the ethnic minority in Burma. The Ethnic issue and the failure of the Burman’s to live up to the promises of the Aung San negotiated Panglong Convention has resulted in years of confrontation and was largely responsible for the authoritarian rule imposed by Ne Win in 1962 that thereafter continued in unbroken sequence by the SLORC and its successor the SPDC. The Military still retains its views on preserving the sovereignty and integrity of the country by imposing central rule that is now underwritten by the 2008 Constitution. The first area of economic dominance by the Indian’s was solved by two measures adopted by the Government of Burma, by the agricultural reforms that were adopted under U Nu’ prime Ministership. This ensured without any real protest by the Nehru Government in India and deprived the mainly the Chettiar land holdings of over 60% in the rice bowl of Burma. Subsequently Ne Win implemented the goal of his party to nationalize the economy leading to the Indian business community
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loosing its stronghold of the economy and the evacuation of over 100 000 Indians by the GOI ; again there was no real protest against the measures directed against the Indian business community. In actual fact it would appear that the powers that be in India were sympathetic if not in approval of the measures having “universal implications” that were adopted by U Nu and Ne Win. The economic issues that were largely directed towards Indian interests have left one lesson behind; while in todays terms and the investment encouraging environment that the Thein Sein Government has come to promote opportunities, that could be of interest to India Inc., Indian business should never be seen to dominate the economy but should to an extent have local partners particularly ensuring that these are not people of Chinese or Indian origin. As Suu Kyi put it squarely the presence should never be dominating and should be of visible benefit to the people of Myanmar. A tall order indeed where the profit motive drives any business investment. This also means that Indian business has to ride to an extent on the coat tails of the ASEAN and the Japanese or Koreans. Or it has to have financial safeguards extended to it by the GOI and Indian financial institutions. However one area that throws open possibilities is the setting up of Specialized Economic Zones that would integrate the issues of local raw materials, business enterprise and vocational training centers that would encourage and be based on cooperative efforts by Myanmar and Indian entrepreneur’s with such efforts concentrating on arrangements on a cross border basis bringing in locales in India’s NE Region and the adjoining regions of Myanmar into the equation to mutual benefit. The issues of security posed by the insurgencies on the Indian side and the encouragement that they receive by the unsettled nature of the Myanmar ethnic regions that adjoin India, often have been an area of consistent refrain in the relations between the two countries. The other element has been the exploitation of the Indian insurgency movement by China and by Pakistan firstly in East Pakistan and subsequently in Bangladesh. The problem that Myanmar faces is related directly to the issue of resolving the political problems both of a constitutional and an administrative nature with the ethnic minorities. What makes this an issue of greater salience is the fact that almost the entire border area of Myanmar is the homeland of the ethnic communities of which the Chin State, the Naga Tribal areas of the Sagaing Division and the Kachin State border India. The demand of the ethnic states is for a federal Myanmar that grants them “real autonomy” the ideal situation being that the Central entity should have control over External affairs, Defence and Finance leaving everything else to the federated states. They want the 2008 constitution to be re-written endorsing an acceptable Federal System for the country. Albeit there are ceasefire arrangements at present in prevalenceand negotiations on a political settlement are in process, the ongoing war with the Kachin’s is indicative of the political stumbling blocs.
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What the Kachin problem has also thrown up is the fact that China retains its role to play mischief that is represented by two development ; first is the arming with sophisticated weapons the Kokang ethnic army, the second is the open support that is being extended by the Kachin ethnics of the Yunann province of China. The Kachin have shown that they are more comfortable negotiating with the Myanmar Government on Chinese soil. What India has to keep in mind is that the control over the frontier states by the ethnic minority where economic development has been largely absent or minimal can be exploited as they have been in the past, by any authority in China that is inimical to the Myanmar as has happened in the past. It is in India’s interests that a political settlement between the Ethnic and Burman people is arrived at that spells peace and stability in the frontier regions of Myanmar. This would make the joint and cooperative arrangements between the two countries more meaningful in containing any support to Indian insurgents including safe havens and training areas within Myanmar to them. It would also help contain the exploitation of these developments by Chinese interests inclusive of the material support that is at times being offered to Indian groups through the Kokang. India has already arrived at a Border Areas Development Agreement with Myanmar; this was part of the Joint Statement that was issued during Prime Minister Manmohan Singh’s visit in 2012 to Nay Pi Daw. Under this the most important aspects are the development of medical and public health areas, education and vocational education institutions, development assistance in developing the local economy, both agricultural and non-agricultural and the evolving of local administration. The Indian approach has to be along the rural development schemes and local area developmental processes that are part of the Indian experience. The main element behind this involvement remains the stabilization of the area that would have a stimulating impact also on India’s NE Region. It would be a truism that if the Frontier areas of Myanmar are not stabilized and secure they would continue to pose a existential problem for India that would continue to be exploited by a China that has continued to show that it would do so whenever it feels that this route would put pressure on India and keep it focused on the immediate region and not succeed in its LEP policy making it a major and effective player on the Asia-Pacific scene that China wants to dominate and where it sees Myanmar as integral to its attaining its aggressive goals particularly over the Indian Ocean Region.
5.Defence cooperation between India and Myanmar is an important facet of bilateral relations. But India’s posture in the matter of defence cooperation with Myanmar now needs to be tempered, keeping in view the realities of ethnic turmoil in that country, caution defence experts. How far do you share their concerns?
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Defence cooperation is a vital area of the new emphasis that India has placed on Myanmar that is in democratic transition. Myanmar itself has shown a desire to reduce its defence dependence on China. It is not only to India that it has projected this area of cooperation but has tried to broaden its defence equipment acquisition from other suppliers to meet its requirements. It is the contention of many within the Indian defence establishment that the supplies of a limited nature that has been undertaken by India have been found to be superior to that supplied by China. This may be so however though it may have contributed to Myanmar asking for greater involvement of India on the defence side, the main driving force is Myanmar desiring a lowering of China’s dominance in this area that assumed that position in the post 1988 period when the rest of the world including India for that matter decided to isolate a Burma that was being ruled by a brutal military regime. Today the situation has changed thanks to a more open and practical role having been adopted by a nominally democratic military dominated government. If we have accepted the role of supporting the reform minded Thein Sein and to encourage him further in his reform efforts it is a clear essential that India should along with others help him in his efforts to reduce his dependence on China in the defence area. It makes no sense to hedge our bets in this regard particularly as we have also accepted a role in assisting Thein Sein in the socio-economic development of the Frontier States as part of the political process that he is trying to put in place in direct negotiation with the ethnic groups including the Kachins. While the frontier states continue to pose a security problem till a political system acceptable to all is put in place we need to assist him in every way that we can to assure a secure future for Myanmar including the defence area covering equipment supplies, software and training areas.
6. How far the prospects for an enhanced Indo-Myanmar economic partnership, in particular, in the energy sector will add to this substantive and comprehensive relationship?
The evolving economic partnership between India and Myanmar has assumed a multifaceted appearance covering a number of areas that have undertakings that are of essential importance to the NE Region connection with Myanmar and further with ASEAN States as a whole; it is also a major component as a positive for the growth of bilateral trade and investment that place the whole of the India and Myanmar on the trade map of the two countries. The Energy area is an important aspect of the economic and business relationship. The other major area of concentration is the development of infrastructure of which perhaps the two most prestigious projects are the Kaladan multi modal transport project to which are linked the development of the Sitwe Port and a futuristic Sitwe SEZ. The other being the Trilateral Highway Project that would connect Moreh (India) on the Indian side to Mae Sot in Thailand through the main land areas of Myanmar ; this 1360 Kilometre project is the logical outcome of the interest in India to utilise the
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land bridge potential that Myanmar offers providing a land link to SE Asia and progressing the intent of the LEP. It would also offer an alternative route to India’s increasing economic and strategic interests in Vietnam. Another significant economic development has been the agreement for India to provide economic assistance in reviving the garment industry in Myanmar inclusive of capacity building. This could also become an area of linkage between India’s textile industry, the garment industry in Myanmar and a strengthening of India’s garment industry by providing additional capacity to offer large scale value based exports to the global market as an alternative to the present dominance of China of the textiles global market. The cooperation in the area of energy development in Myanmar by Indian companies, the support for the technological renovation of the Thanlyin Refinery and the up gradation of theThanbayakan Petrochemical Complex for which India has extended concessional lines of credit are indicative of the increasing Indo-Myanmar cooperation in this area of economic activity. Indian companies are also involved in the exploration and production of oil and gas as well in the pipeline projects. The main issue of India ensuring that in the future India is able to set up a pipeline that would convey gas to India, the most logical route would of course through Bangladesh but that is not the only way ;it could also be sent along an alignment that enters India through the NE Region. Energy cooperation is a significant area of Indo-Myanmar economic relations however the main relationship is between China and Myanmar where the twin pipeline projects not only relate to gas exports from Myanmar where ONGC is also involved but also as a route that would serve as an alternative supply route for the Gulf energy imports of China enabling to avoid the Malacca Straits. The energy area and the future investments in this area have to be a priority not only in the possible export to India of oil and gas but also as an area for the production of petro-chemical products and fertilisers for India’s agriculture growth. It can be stated as part of India’s pragmatic growth oriented relations with Myanmar that the Energy area can be an essential part of the comprehensive strategic partnership between the two countries. One area that India appears to be failing is in the development of Hydropower projects that would also have as a major component the agricultural development of the very large and presently backward Sagaing Division of Myanmar that adjoins India. The NHPCIL that was tasked with developing the technical parameters and subsequently of executing the Tamanthi and the Shwezaye projects has concluded that these are not feasible for technical and commercial reasons. This is very unfortunate and shows a lack of innovative enterprise by India. There are other India based entities qualified to look into the issues raised both technical and commercial that would assist in finding adequate solutions and make it possible to
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realise these projects. Presently this has shown that India still suffers from a disappointing gap between promise and performance. Perhaps what makes for a clear enunciation of the increasing importance of the relations is the fact that trade between the countries from insignificant levels in the 80’s is now in the US $ billion plus range. However it is still a very low level particularly when one looks at the potential that the future holds out both in sub-regional terms inclusive of manufacturing, as well as in the area of tourism and the IT areas. The SEZ’s in the offing should also lead to greater economic growth and the transport links that the infrastructure arrangements in progress to enhance the connectivity of the NE Region to other areas of Asia are bound to add a fresh dimension to the economic and business relations between the two countries.
7. Do you think ASEAN, BIMSTEC and Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC) have helped India and Myanmar to come closer?
Myanmar became a member of ASEAN in 1997 but had accepted the invitation to join ASEAN in 1991. It has faced a rather turbulent relationship within ASEAN particularly as the ASEAN relations with the USA and the EU questioned the legitimacy of the Myanmar presence and functioning as a member of ASEAN while its proclaimed human rights violations and brutality towards its own people remained an issue. Let us not forget that in the period 1988 to 1992 India had also played a role of questioning the legitimacy of the military government in power particularly after the 1990 elections had clearly ruled in favour of an elected government, a result that the SLORC had refused to implement. However after Thein Sein came to power being elected to rule under the provisions of the 2008 Constitution and subsequent implementation of the political and economic reforms the world image of Myanmar has changed in a positive context. Its role in ASEAN was now accepted and Myanmar is today part of the central counsels of the regional body. The ASEAN position of Myanmar is of great import to India’s Look East Policy and the central role that Myanmar is placed to play in the integrating of the NE Region within the LEP and India’s cooperation with the ASEAN places Myanmar’s importance to India within the correct perspective. India has been developing and implementing ASEAN related programmes that place the relationship with Myanmar in the ASEAN context inclusive of the involvement of programmes that are directed towards India’s North East. BIMSTEC and The Mekong Ganga Cooperation arrangements are playing a role in bringing to the region a direction towards closer trade and economic relationships including the FTA type relationship under BIMSTEC and project oriented developments under the MGC; however these are still to realise the potential that they cover and while they certainly bring the relations in the agreed areas into focus they are secondary to the bilateral arrangements between the two countries.
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The MGC however has one benefit in that it attracts the involvement of the Asian Development Bank and thus does have an increasing role in the project related development cooperation for instance in the area of tourism. Of all the areas the one that holds the greatest promise is the ASEAN relationship. Bimstec in once sense is is important as it helps focus Myanmar’s relations not only with India but also other South Asian Countries like Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Considering the problems that afflict the relations between Bangladesh and Myanmar this is one forum where the pure dynamics of the trade and economic relations comes to the fore.
8. Do you agree withthe suggestion that fear of China was behind India's involvement in Myanmar?
This is an interesting question and consistently crops up in any discussion of Myanmar’s relations with India. Historically India has had a civilizational role resulting in India having an impact on religion, the Pegu period saw Hinduism prevail, the Pagan period saw the blossoming of Buddhism that prevails to this day, the script of the country and many terms were influenced by the Pali language of Southern India and the monarchical system that was ended by the British colonial system was influenced by the doctrines of Manu and by Brahminical practices. The Indian influence in these areas remains a positive force for India to have a close relationship with Myanmar. China has always had a more aggressive relationship with Myanmar and has often adopted interventionist policies. Forces from China destroyed the Pagan Kingdom along with the Yunann based Shan’s. In the post independence period China exploited the political disruptions in Burma by providing material and at times direct military support to the Communist Party of Burma and the WA and Shan insurgent groups. China therefore is a country that poses a threat to Myanmar and it is only after the events of 1988 that it came to play the role of the underwriter of the Myanmar Military regime. In this role it assisted Myanmar to come to ceasefire arrangements with a number of ethnic forces and at the same time established its economic and commercial position as a partner in development and in providing defence security. In the period 1988 to 1991 when China was consolidating its position as the saviour of the military regime in the face of global opposition and the more serious to the SLORC the Indian opposition to it, India despite what was evident that its refusal to deal with the SLORC was counter productive and was pushing Myanmar into the Chinese hands, India maintained its position of support to the forces of democracy in particular Suu Kyi and in fact had almost broken off all economic, and political relations while maintaining the formal diplomatic relations. This is surely an answer to all those who suggest that India’s Myanmar policies and relations are guided and driven by a fear of China.
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The sharing of the Colonial relations between India and Burma that had even led to Myanmar forming an administrative part of British India till 1937 led to the establishment of institutional arrangements that created commonality to administrative and legal practices and kept the two countries close to each other. Developments on Myanmar’s borders causing ethnic related insecurity impacted on India and created the need very early on for cooperation between the two administrations that would work against the insurgencies and insurgents. This area was one where India faced a constant problem of support being extended by the Chinese to the Indian insurgents. The fact that Rangoon and New Delhi were able to set in place the mechanisms that till this day remain in place show clearly that the relations between India and Myanmar are driven by the dynamics of bilateralism that are relevant to themselves irrespective of the Myanmar China relations. In todays terms the Myanmar China relations are being cut to an acceptable size, this is possible as Myanmar is no longer an international pariah and because even during the Than Shwe period attempts were made by both India and Myanmar to establish a more balanced and pragmatic relationship that offered India as a useful economic partner. In the Thein Sein period we have a push by Myanmar for a greater involvement of India not because this would negate Myanmar’s relations with China but in order that Myanmar maintains a balance in its relations with its two large neighbours. China has a strategic engagement with Myanmar that has led to its placing in Myanmar two programmes that benefit it both by providing an alternate route for its energy supplies to the Malacca Straits and also for a new road rail link that would grant its Yunann province with a port directly linked to it on the Sea of Martaban that would provide it with an opening to the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean Region as well to South East Asia. This is a serious development as it can grant China with a means of engaging India on its sea doorsteps. It is this development that India needs to counter by adopting means that would contain China whenever it poses a threat to India’s interests both in its strategic and security areas. It is also worth noting that these developments are part of China’s threat perception that have been further emphasised by the US rebalancing towards the Asia Pacific; the implications are obvious and are directly related to China’s assertiveness in the South China Seas etc. Obviously these have an implication for India that is considered to play the role of the strategic alternative. This is a role that India can only play if it is willing to come to understandings with the USA, Japan and other powers involved in the Asia Pacific region. Another aspect that grants credence to the fact that Myanmar considers India as a role player that would help re-balance the Myanmar China equation is that Thein Sein wants India to play a greater role in extending aid and assistance to Myanmar
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particularly in areas of infrastructure and institution building. Only recently during the ASEAN India summit in India India has extended a fresh aid package of over $ 900 million. This is however not enough to reduce the Chinese dominance in these areas, India does not have the extensive resources that are needed to meet Myanmar’s requirements, the solution would lie in brining together the ASEAN, Japan and the International Financial Institutions in a cooperative arrangement along with India to help meet Myanmar’s needs. To conclude India has to be involved because it is in India’s strategic interests, and not out of fear of China’s presence. We have to meet China head on where it threatens India’s strategic interests or poses a security threat but not because we fear its presence in our neighbourhood.
9 President Obama urged India to accept expanded international responsibilities commensurate with its role as an emerging power. Is there an opportunity in Myanmar for U.S.-India Strategic Coordination?
The issue is not just that India and the USA should evolve a relationship that is driven by common perceptions of strategic interests and thus to coordinate relations in that regard to attain their strategic interests. This is like motherhood the givens are universally understood. The Obama observation obviously points to the two countries working together to contain an assertive China. India has its own bilateral threats to counter that are posed to it by two nuclear powers China in Tibet and Pakistan on its western borders. India has to grant its first priority to meet these threats and at the same time not let them come in the way of its growing economic strengths thus in a sense limiting its main areas of concentration on developing its internal resources. However it has also to ensure that its energy deficits are met by secure supplies, that it keeps the trade lanes secure and that it counters China’s forays in the Indian Ocean Region that also is of importance in the availability of strategic commodities essential to meet India’s immediate and future needs. These are givens that require a measure of understanding with the USA and its re-balancing policy towards the Asia Pacific region. It is the nature and the extent of the understanding that has to be worked out between the two powers within the Indian perception that the USA tends to be an unreliable partner as its actions in Iraq and Afghanistan have shown.
10. The issue of Pyongyang’s suspected linkages with Naypyidaw’ gain salience for India, particularly in the light of the fact that Pyongyang-Islamabad nexus was partly responsible for the development of Pakistan’s nuclear and missile capability. Similarly, missile and nuclear developments in Myanmar have the potential to undermine regional stability and security due to Pakistan’s nuclear brinkmanship
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strategy. Should India encourage Myanmar to have a dialogue with its neighbours that aims at transparency about its nuclear plans?
From time to time there have been references to Myanmar’s nuclear designs there has been however nothing to show that Myanmar has muddied its NPT or IAEA obligations and is engaged today in any nuclear activity outside those obligations. In fact in its exchanges at the highest levels the Myanmar leadership has made it clear that it does not have either the means or the inclination to go nuclear let alone develop nuclear weapons. We are aware that the Myanmar military is possessed of missiles but these are weapons obtained from China and Russia and do not have any nuclear intent. The relations re-established with North Korea in 2007 did bring to the fore the possibility that Nuclear and missile technology may be on the agenda. However after the Thein Sein Government came to power there have been no moves that would sustain the feelings that such collaboration between Myanmar and North Korea are underway. The various IAEA protocols including the additional protocol, there are enough safeguards in place including the issues of accountability and transparency, India as a member of the IAEA’s Governing Body has ample opportunity to review IAEA reports on Myanmar and could take up any issues that it feels need to be clarified on the bilateral basis.
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(2) Dr Arvind Gupta
Director General Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses NewDelhi
Dr Arvind Gupta is the Director General of the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses. He also heads the Nuclear & Arms Control Centre of the Institute. His current interests include the international security issues, India’s foreign policy, energy security, climate change, technology & internal security issues. He has three books, several edited books and a number of academic publications to his credit. He has been a member of several task forces on issues such as space security, climate change, cyber security, nuclear disarmament etc.
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FPRC Journal-15-India-Myanmar Relations-Q
Q.1 A growing Indo-Myanmar relationship has the potential to make a
significant impact on South Asia, but also in the larger Asian region.
Do you agree with this assessment? Ans. Yes. I do agree with this assessment. Given the geopolitical location of Myanmar at the cross section
of South Asia, South East Asia, China and the Bay of Bengal, it is obvious that a stable and strong
Indo-Myanmar relationship will be a factor of stability and prosperity.
Q.2 India sees connectivity through Myanmar as crucial for its „Look East
Policy‟ and development of ties with the Asean countries. Looking
back, can it be said that the policy has been successful? Ans. The Look East policy has brought concrete dividends to India although much more can be done.
Strong Indo-Myanmar ties will give a fresh lease to India’s Look East Policy. Connectivity between
India & ASEAN through Myanmar can be increased. Myanmar can be a gateway for India to the larger
Asian Region. Stronger ties with Myanmar can bring prosperity and development to India’s NE
Region.
Q.3 „Let‟s not be over-optimistic about Burma‟ , the opposition leader
Aung San Suu Kyi said. She would want India to look at the situation
in Myanmar, which is in transition from one form of governance to
another, “in a very practical way”. In what specific ways can India
help Myanmar at this stage of its political transition? Ans. Myanmar is in transition. Democracy has yet to consolidate. Ethnic issues are not fully resolved.
Myanmar, though rich in resources, has yet to achieve the levels of economic development that
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other ASEAN countries have. In view of these factors, we can be cautiously optimistic about
Myanmar.
Q.4 As Myanmar is now rising in India‟s foreign policy priorities, there
should be a strategically pre-emptive effort to forestall Myanmar, a
next door neighbour, from becoming a vehicle through which huge
problems could be created for India. What are the
promise and challenges of „a new relationship‟ ? Ans. India and Myanmar have a long historical relationship. The ties got disrupted due to a variety of
developments within Myanmar. A lot of time was lost. The relationship is now being built again.
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited Myanmar last year and set the tone for a new relationship.
One of the important elements of this relationship is economic cooperation. An ambitious agenda of
cooperation has been chalked out. Security cooperation is also an important part of the new
relationship. Border management will be an important component of this relationship. The potential
of India-Myanmar relationship is huge and should be exploited. The bilateral relationship will be a
broad based relationship and not confined to just one aspect. India shall be pro-active and invest in
bilateral ties.
Q.5. Defence cooperation between India and Myanmar is an important
facet of bilateral relations. But India‟s posture in the matter of
defence cooperation with Myanmar now needs to be tempered,
keeping in view the realities of ethnic turmoil in that country, caution
defence experts. How far do you share their concerns? Ans. Defence cooperation is an important part of Indo-Myanmar relationship. Cooperation in this sphere
will lend stability to bilateral relations. The specific areas of cooperation will be decided mutually
keeping in mind the relevant factors. Too much caution may also be counter-productive. India should
take a pragmatic view on this issue.
Q.6. How far the prospects for an enhanced Indo-Myanmar economic
partnership, in particular, in the energy sector will add to this
substantive and comprehensive relationship?
Ans. Economic cooperation will be the backbone of the Indo-Myanmar relations. In the energy sector, a
production sharing contract between the government of Myanmar and the Jubilant Energy of India
has been signed. Indian companies can also invest in Myanmar’s oil and gas sector. India can also
help Myanmar in the downstream sector. India, Myanmar & Bangladesh can join in transporting
Myanmar gas.
Q.7. Do you think ASEAN, BIMSTEC and Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC)
have helped India and Myanmar to come closer?
Ans. Myanmar is an important member of ASEAN, BIMSTEC and MGC. India & ASEAN are developing a
blueprint for further development of their relations. Last year, on the conclusions of a
commemorative India-ASEAN Summit, the two sides issued a vision document. There is ample scope
in deepening India-ASEAN cooperation. Myanmar can play an important role in this. If these sub-
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regional initiatives grow, the entire region will benefit. Myanmar’s own interest will be served by
actively participating in these groupings. Myanmar will take ASEAN Chair in 2014. This can be a
significant moment for India’s Look East policy. Myanmar will also host the next BIMSTEC Summit.
India should help Myanmar in steering the BIMSTEC agenda.
Q.8. Do you agree with the suggestion that fear of China was behind
India's involvement in Myanmar?
Ans. Uni-dimensional analysis of a relationship is seldom helpful. Myanmar has a relationship with China.
India should certainly take note of it but it should develop its own ties with Myanmar independently.
Q.9. President Obama urged India to accept expanded international
responsibilities commensurate with its role as an emerging power. Is
there an opportunity in Myanmar for U.S.-India Strategic
Coordination? Ans. India-Myanmar & US-Myanmar relations are still developing. Myanmar is in transition. As of now, I do
not see a strategic partnership between India, US and Myanmar.
Q.10. The issue of Pyongyang‟s suspected linkages with Naypyidaw‟ gain
salience for India, particularly in the light of the fact that Pyongyang-
Islamabad nexus was partly responsible for the development of
Pakistan‟s nuclear and missile capability. Similarly, missile and
nuclear developments in Myanmar have the potential to undermine
regional stability and security due to Pakistan‟s nuclear brinkmanship
strategy. Should India encourage Myanmar to have a dialogue with its
neighbours that aims at transparency about its nuclear plans? Ans. India should discuss such issues with Myanmar and clarify the situation.
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(3)Dr.Renaud EGRETEAU Research Assistant Professor Hong Kong Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences (inc. Centre of Asian Studies) The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong SAR
1. A growing Indo-Myanmar relationship has the potential to make a significant
impact on South Asia, but also in the larger Asian region. Do you agree with this assessment?
I am not convinced that the enhancement of the Indo-Myanmar relationship will dramatically impact
the whole region. Even if more-than-cordial relations are established between Naypyidaw and New
Delhi, there are many other impediments to be taken into account. The Indo-Burmese borderlands
are far from offering a stable polity, and the region has all the chances to remain a hotbed of
instability even if India and Myanmar build some sort of friendlier and more strategic relationship.
Furthermore, one should not forget the ups and downs of Bangladesh’s relations with both India and
Myanmar, which are critical elements too. If New Delhi and Dhaka prove increasingly at odds in the
near future, the whole region might suffer from these renewed tensions. Likewise, if the tensions
between Bangladesh and Myanmar’s Rakhine State persist, however good the partnership between
India and Myanmar is, the region will suffer from a salient instability. Finally, the Sino-Indian equation
has to be considered too, of course.
2. India sees connectivity through Myanmar as crucial for its „Look East Policy‟ and development of ties with the Asean countries. Looking back, can it be said that the policy has been successful?
India has long argued that Myanmar was its logical gateway to Southeast Asia, but this has long
been a pipedream. India has proved far more successful in getting commercial and diplomatic
toeholds in East and Southeast Asia just by bypassing Myanmar. And it will probably continue to
do so, unless it invests massively and appropriately throughout Myanmar. The TransAsia
Highway project – whose purpose is to link India’s northeast to Thailand via Mandalay – is still in
its infancy, two decades after the idea was first put on the table; talks about reviving the Ledo
Road between Assam and Yunnan through northern Burma have been going on for years too;
and the Kaladan River project in which India has agreed to invest some US$ 120m can only
boast a very limited scope – it indeed aims to link landlocked Mizoram to the Indian Ocean, but
through a region (the Rakhine State and the port of Sittwe) almost completely disconnected from
the booming and more populous central Myanmar. Talks about connectivity are here, but there is
still not much substance.
3. „Let‟s not be over-optimistic about Burma‟ , the opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi said. She would want India to look at the situation in Myanmar, which is in transition from one form of governance to another, “in a very practical way”. In what specific ways can India help Myanmar at this stage of its political transition?
India is in good position to further its policy of development, capacity-building and empowerment,
and invest in grand infrastructure projects. This is what has to be done in Myanmar; New Delhi
would be wise to do just what it has massively done since 2001 in Afghanistan. India has long
been overcautious in Myanmar, with discourses on assistance been there, but not systematically
followed by extensive programmes and massive funding focused on development. Probably the
new Indian ambassador to Yangon, coming from Kabul, will keep this in mind.
4. As Myanmar is now rising in India‟s foreign policy priorities, there should be a strategically pre-emptive effort to forestall Myanmar, a next door neighbour, from becoming a vehicle through which huge problems could be created for India. What arethe promise and challenges of „a new relationship‟ ? I’m not convinced that there is, or will be, a ‘new’ relationship. India will follow its path in Myanmar
according to the same policy objectives that first drove it closer to its Burmese neighbor in the mid-
1990s. I’m not convinced either that Myanmar’s domestic conundrum will be extended to India. India
is already facing huge sociopolitical challenges, especially in its Northeast. I don’t see what problems
can be brought for Myanmar into India: India’s Northeast is already plagued with corruption, ethnic
insurgency, criminal networks and a despairing hostility between the Center and the periphery.
5. Defence cooperation between India and Myanmar is an important facet of
bilateral relations. But India‟s posture in the matter of defence cooperation with Myanmar now needs to be tempered, keeping in view the realities of ethnic turmoil in that country, caution defence experts. Again, India has long been cautious in its dealing with the Burmese military authorities. Trust is a
difficult thing to build. For twenty years, New Delhi’s security establishment has wanted a friendlier
cooperation from the local Burmese military and police authorities – in particular to crack down on
Northeast criminal and rebel groups lodged in Burmese jungles. This has however proved quite
difficult to get. But at least a dialogue and strategic interactions have been established between
Naypyidaw and New Delhi. India has been able to get its security concerns heard and understood by
the Burmese over the years. Besides, Myanmar’s ethnic conundrum is well known to Indian
policymakers, so I don’t see why some defence experts would feel concerned; defence cooperation is
in any case minimal.
6. How far the prospects for an enhanced Indo-Myanmar economic partnership, in
particular, in the energy sector will add to this substantive and comprehensive relationship? The commercial and financial partnership between India and Myanmar is still far from being
comprehensive. India has invested so little over the years, focusing mostly on trade, and a few
infrastructure projects that have hardly develop smoothly. Smaller regional powers such as South
Korea or Malaysia have proved more successful and managed to dramatically expand their economic
presence in the country, unlike a neighboring India. Besides, India’s tentative economic thrust in
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Myanmar was spearheaded by its state-run enterprises, not its dynamic private sector – unlike in
Africa for instance. One should be cautious too. Myanmar is on the verge of becoming another
country falling into the resource curse trap. The country is rich in natural resources and lacks so many
basic infrastructures. Its economy is based on a powerful oligarchic system in which the military and a
few corrupt cronies are still dominant players, despite the recent opening-up. This is the perfect
recipe for a resource curse. Foreign investors – and Indians in particular – would be wise not to join
only the hunt for extractive resources (and the energy sector in particular) in Myanmar but also
position themselves as do-gooder, and creators of jobs for the Burmese– not only looters. In 2011,
the suspension of the Chinese-owned hydropower project of the Myitsone dam by the new
government in Naypyidaw perfectly illustrated the re-emerging Burmese resentment against potential
foreign exploitation. Something Indians in, and from, Burma should remember.
7. Do you think ASEAN, BIMSTEC and Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC) have
helped India and Myanmar to come closer? BIMSTEC and MGC were, in the early years, the perfect diplomatic platform for Burmese diplomats.
They needed to be heard, and accepted as equal partners by their regional counterparts. Through
these two forums, Burmese and Indian policymakers were also able to discuss, especially on non-
political affairs, without having to deal with the continuing Western ostracism – something which has
long been welcomed by Burmese leaders. Yes, both organizations were a positive asset, although
the momentum seems now to have faded away..
8. Do you agree with the suggestion that fear of China was behind India's involvement in Myanmar? Security analysts in India are obsessed by the Chinese challenge. This remains the dominant
discourse in New Delhi. Talks of a ‘Great Game’ taking shape in the Indian Ocean and in or around
Myanmar are nothing new. This was certainly the main reason during the 1991-95 years for India to
strategically move into Burmese field and depart from its earlier idealistic posture. But now, I think the
Chinese threat it is far less a significant motivation for India to get closer to Myanmar. Security circles
in India must have gotten some re-assurance about the lesser threat China poses in Myanmar –
remember that sinophobic sentiments still linger in Myanmar. Indians probably are concerned by the
Chinese challenge elsewhere in the region.
9. President Obama urged India to accept expanded international responsibilities commensurate with its role as an emerging power. Is there an opportunity in Myanmar for U.S.-India Strategic Coordination? Potentially yes. But I don’t see it as a priority. There are other fields in which India would like to see
the Indo-US cooperation going forward, and other issues where the collaboration between
Washington and Delhi is more critical. And India now sticks to a non-interference policy, unlike the US.
So I don’t see New Delhi really obliging. After all, India has long lambasted the US approach in
Myanmar, and elsewhere in the world.
10. The issue of Pyongyang‟s suspected linkages with Naypyidaw‟ gain salience for
India,particularly in the light of the fact that Pyongyang-Islamabad nexus was partly responsible for the development of Pakistan‟s nuclear and missile capability. Similarly, missile and nuclear developments in Myanmar have the potential to undermine regional stability and security due to Pakistan‟s nuclear brinkmanship strategy. Should India encourage Myanmar to have a dialogue with its neighbours that aims at transparency about its nuclear plans?
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I think we should update our understanding of the alleged Myanmar-North Korea linkages. At least,
Washington has, lately. So New Delhi should too. There has been no proven credible (and
threatening) connection between Naypyidaw and Pyongyang over the past few years – including in
the nuclear field. There were rumors of Than Shwe’s regime aiming to use the potential nuclear threat
as a strategic tool in the late 2000s. It raised concern indeed, and the Burmese seemed to have
played with fire for a little while. But now that they open up, they know that they can gain far more
from a closer relationship (including through military dialogue) with the US than with North Korea – or
Pakistan for the matter.
11. Should India encourage Myanmar to have a dialogue with its neighbours that
aims at transparency about its nuclear plans?
I think we should update our understanding of the alleged Myanmar-North Korea linkages. At least,
Washington has, lately. So New Delhi should too. There has been no proven credible (and
threatening) connection between Naypyidaw and Pyongyang over the past few years – including in
the nuclear field. There were rumors of Than Shwe’s regime aiming to use the potential nuclear threat
as a strategic tool in the late 2000s. It raised concern indeed, and the Burmese seemed to have
played with fire for a little while. But now that they open up, they know that they can gain far more
from a closer relationship (including through military dialogue) with the US than with North Korea – or
Pakistan for the matter.
Dr. Renaud Egreteau has co-authored with Mr. Larry Jagan Soldiers and Diplomacy in Burma: Understanding the Foreign Relations of the Burmese Praetorian State (Singapore: NUS Press, 2013), released this June 2013.
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(4) Dr. Bibhu Prasad Routray
Dr. Bibhu Prasad Routray is a Singapore based security Analyst/ consultant. He served as a Deputy Director in India's National Security Council Secretariat, New Delhi. Prior to his official tenure, he served in various think tanks in India including the Institute for Conflict Management (ICM), Guwahati, Assam, which he headed as Director. He received his doctoral degree from the School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Routray specialises in decision-making, governance, counter-terrorism, force modernisation, intelligence reforms, foreign policy and dissent articulation issues in South and South East Asia. He writes extensively in various journals, print media and on the Internet. His writings have appeared in various international forums including Janes Intelligence Review, Asia Times and Wall street Journal. His monograph "National Security Decision-Making in India" has recently been published by the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Singapore, where he was a Visiting Research Fellow. Routray remains a key commentator on Indo-Myanmar relations and writes annual essays on Myanmar for the Armed Conflict in South Asia project of the Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, New Delhi. He can be contacted at [email protected] and followed on Twitter @BibhuRoutray.
Questionnaire –India-Myanmar Relations 1.A growing Indo-Myanmar relationship has the potential to make a significant impact on South Asia, but also in the larger Asian region. Do you agree with this assessment? The growing Indo-Myanmar relations and its parameters have significant transformative impact on both South Asia and the larger Asian region. The successful fruition of the vital projects both countries envisage can upgrade the ways South Asia connects with Southeast Asia and pave way for greater economic integration between the two regions. This will have significant impact on the state of economy and development between the two regions. Similarly, Myanmar's cooperation would be instrumental in addressing many of the ills- arms and drugs smuggling- that affects the region. 2. India sees connectivity through Myanmar as crucial for its „Look East Policy‟ and development of ties with the ASEAN countries. Looking back, can it be said that the policy has been successful? The particular land connectivity projects between India and Myanmar are well known. India has offered to help Myanmar upgrade its Tamu-Kalewa-Kalemyo road (160 kilometre in length), build the Kaladan multi-modal transit transport project that involves setting up roads and inland waterways from Sittwe port in Myanmar to Mizoram; and some segments of the 1360- kilometre trilateral highway project connecting Moreh (Manipur) to Mae Sot (Thailand) through Myanmar. Progress on all these projects have been slow. The trilateral highway project (Moreh to Mae Sot), for example, was conceived at the trilateral ministerial meeting on transport linkages in Yangon in April 2002 and is now expected to be operational by 2015-16. In addition, land and sea connectivity between India and Myanmar remains poor too. Air India with a twice-a-week service between Kolkata and Yangon, is the only direct air link between the two countries. Travellers intending to travel to Myanmar otherwise travel to Bangkok to catch a connecting flight. Sea connectivity remains even poorer. As Myanmar plans to set up three major ports in Kyaukpyu, Kalagauk, and Dawei in the coming years, New Delhi will have to think seriously about improving the level of shipping links. 3. „Let‟s not be over-optimistic about Burma‟ , the opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi said. She would want India to look at the situation in Myanmar, which is in transition from one form of governance to another, “in a very practical way”. In what specific ways can India help Myanmar at this stage of its political transition?
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There are two opinions regarding the ongoing process of reforms in Myanmar. The first one is represented primarily by the western as well as the ASEAN countries. They believe that the reforms undertaken are for real and will transform Myanmar's political landscape completely in the times to come. The second group which includes the ethnic and opposition groups within the Myanmar and many strategic analysts outside, is suspicious of the real intentions of the military. They find the reforms thus far superficial and completely reversible. Aung San Syu Kyi is somewhere in the middle of these divergent views. She has benefited from the ongoing reforms process, but the process, according to her, is yet to impact decisively on the political sphere. India has a plenty of indirect opportunities to be involved in the reforms process. It can use its fairly healthy contacts with the ruling regime to push for the political reforms process which includes amending the constitution, inclusive dialogue with the ethnic groups and holding of a free and fair parliamentary elections in 2015. However, given the fact that reforms are continuing and have acquired a pace and character of their own, a policy of wait and watch would be more advisable. Given that future is somewhat uncertain and the opposition's governance abilities are unknown, too much of aggressive pushing may be counter-productive. At the same time, New Delhi needs to prepare for all future scenarios. It must build contacts with all probable leaders who would assume leadership roles in the years to come. Some bridges (presently there are none) can be built with the ethnic groups. It must not be caught napping in the event of a significant political transformation. 4. As Myanmar is now rising in India‟s foreign policy priorities, there should be a strategically pre-emptive effort to forestall Myanmar, a next door neighbour, from becoming a vehicle through which huge problems could be created for India. What are the promise and challenges of „a new relationship‟ ? Myanmar's ungoverned borderlands have remained a source of strength for the insurgencies in India's northeast. Even in their most weakened state since past couple of years, insurgent outfits have been able to sustain and carry out intermittent strikes exploiting a sense of safety they enjoy inside Myanmar. Arms and narcotics have flowed into the northeast region with devastating impact. Additionally, Myanmar to an extent has also been used by China (which incidentally funded the northeastern insurgencies for a long time both through official and unofficial channels) to encircle India. Myanmar's significance for India's security can hardly be over emphasised. This creates a special scope for dialogue and cooperation between India and Myanmar, which needs to factor in India's security concerns in that country. Over the years, India has attempted to fulfil Myanmar's logistical requirements to carry out operations against the northeastern rebels. However, such intermittent operations have achieved only transient impacts. Myanmar continues to cite the weakness of its military to permanently dislodge these insurgents from its territory. One only can hope that in the days to come, such operations would increase in their frequency and make it more difficult for the insurgents to engage in a 'dismantle and reinstall'-strategy. India's also hopes that its greater engagement with Naypyidaw will create more opportunities for it to deal with the Chinese aggressive intents. The Chinese footprints in Myanmar are deep and wont disappear, even in the face of growing local discontentment against its projects. However, India's growing presence in Myanmar can create a level playing field. For this, India's bureaucracy and political leadership would have to get into a more active mode, dealing with the inertia, red tapism and lack of vision that has hindered India's global power ambitions. 5. Defence cooperation between India and Myanmar is an important facet of bilateral relations. But India‟s posture in the matter of defence cooperation with Myanmar now needs to be tempered, keeping in view the realities of ethnic turmoil in that country, caution defence experts. How far do you share their concerns? Stabilising its insurgency affected northeast through cooperation from Myanmar played as a driver behind New Delhi's policy of supplying military hardware to that country. Apart from China, Myanmar acquired new weapons systems from numerous countries, including India, Singapore, Pakistan, North Korea, Ukraine and Israel. New Delhi had hoped that the weapons supplied would be used to upgrade the
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capacities of the Myanmar military vis-a-vis the Indian insurgents. However, there have been at least one instance in which the Myanmar military has been found using Indian supplied Swedish anti-tank 84mm Carl Gustaf rocket launchers against the Kachin rebels. This called for caution and additional preventive mechanisms to forestall the repeat of such scenarios. Future supplies must have inbuilt mechanisms to prevent such abuse. While New Delhi does hope that its supplies add to the capacities of the military vis-a-vis the northeastern insurgents, it would like to stay away from assisting, albeit indirectly, the campaign against annihilating the ethnic rebels in Myanmar. 6. How far the prospects for an enhanced Indo-Myanmar economic partnership, in particular, in the energy sector will add to this substantive and comprehensive relationship? India ranks as the world's eleventh greatest energy producer, accounting for about 2.4 per cent of the world’s total annual energy production, and also as the world's sixth greatest energy consumer, accounting for about 3.3 per cent of the world's total annual energy consumption. Myanmar’s oil and gas reserves are of critical interest to India’s future energy requirement. Myanmar has oil reserves of around 600 million barrels and total gas reserves of 88 trillion cubic feet (TCF). Indian companies like the overseas arm of India's Oil and Natural Gas Commission - ONGC Videsh Ltd - and Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) and ESSAR etc have made investments in the oil and energy sector of Myanmar. OVL and GAIL together hold 30 per cent stake along with Daewoo 60 per cent and Korea Gas 10 per cent of offshore Block A-1 gas field. However, in spite of the involvement of OVL and GAIL in exploration activities in the offshore A1 and A3 natural gas fields along the Rakhine coast, India vis-à-vis China has suffered a number of setbacks in getting gas from Myanmar. Myanmar in 2008 withdrew India’s status as preferential buyer and in stead declared its intent to sell them to China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) for 30 years beginning 2013. Starting October 2009, the CNPC started building a crude oil port in Myanmar to cut out the long detour oil cargoes take through the congested and strategically vulnerable Malacca strait. Earlier, in a similar move in December 2005, Myanmar had declined gas supply to the Myanmar-Bangladesh-India pipeline. Instead, it had signed an agreement with Hong Kong-listed Petrochina, under which Myanmar’s Ministry of Energy agreed to sell 6.5 TCF from A-1 block (Rakhine coastline) reserve through an overland pipeline to Kunming (China) for 30 years. This had made the proposed tri-nation Myanmar-Bangladesh-India pipeline project redundant. However, India has little option but to stay engaged in Myanmar. 7. Do you think ASEAN, BIMSTEC and Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC) have helped India and Myanmar to come closer? Since 1997, ASEAN, BIMSTEC and since 2000, MGC have been crucial forms for India-Myanmar cooperation. The wide area of cooperation under each of these forums, ranging from free trade agreements, education, culture, transport, communication and tourism creates enormous opportunities for both countries to grow closer and prosper. These forums, apart from bilateral diplomacy, provide opportunities for sustained dialogue and engagement. 8. Do you agree with the suggestion that fear of China was behind India's involvement in Myanmar? Denials by the political elites and the foreign policy establishment notwithstanding, various authors have argued that India’s present pragmatic policy towards Myanmar has to be understood in the light of New Delhi's worries of being encircled by China. To an extent, meeting the growing profile of China in Myanmar has been one of the many drivers of India's policy towards Myanmar. Intelligence inputs that the Chinese have built monitoring facilities at Myanmarese ports near the strategic Straits of Malacca as part of their “string of pearls” strategy to encircle India has raised India's concerns. Similarly, Chinese investments in mining and energy sectors in Myanmar has been interpreted as cases of lost opportunities in that country. However, as mentioned earlier, China is one of the many drivers of India's Myanmar policy. India's energy requirements, its look-east policy, the goal to pacifying the insurgencies in the northeast are the other important drivers.
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9 President Obama urged India to accept expanded international responsibilities commensurate with its role as an emerging power. Is there an opportunity in Myanmar for U.S.-India Strategic Coordination? Apart from the basic tenets of international conduct and belief in fundamental values of democracy, governance and reforms, India and United States have divergent strategic interests in Myanmar. While Myanmar is an important country for the US 'pivot to Asia'-policy in its attempt to contain China and gain a decisive strategic dominance in Southeast Asia, for India interests are far more permanent. Sharing 1338 kilometres-long international borders, Myanmar- both its stability and volatility impacts on India's security on a permanent basis. While both India and US can forge a bond to push the process of political reforms, India's policy towards Myanmar should remain independent taking its own national interests in that country into account. 10. The issue of Pyongyang‟s suspected linkages with Naypyidaw‟ gain salience for India, particularly in the light of the fact that Pyongyang-Islamabad nexus was partly responsible for the development of Pakistan‟s nuclear and missile capability. Similarly, missile and nuclear developments in Myanmar have the potential to undermine regional stability and security due to Pakistan‟s nuclear brinkmanship strategy. Should India encourage Myanmar to have a dialogue with its neighbours that aims at transparency about its nuclear plans? Much of narrative on Myanmar's nuclear aspirations with help from North Korea are speculative and hence, anecdotal. About seven years ago, Myanmar acquired precision machinery from Germany, Switzerland and Singapore. Some analysts concluded these were part of an attempt to set up facilities for enriching uranium. Several other experts disputed that conclusion. According to American sources, "under a November 2008 accord North Korea agreed to help Myanmar build medium-range, liquid-fueled ballistic missiles." In 2009 and 2011, two North Korean ships suspected to be heading to Myanmar with military cargoes in were tracked by the US Navy and sent back. However, Myanmar has consistently issued denials. Moreover, the current state of reforms process eliciting loosening of the sanctions regime and international investment in the country, which can be derailed in the event of Myanmar attempting to go nuclear, acts as additional deterrent. In November 2012, Myanmar declared that it will sign an international agreement that would require it to declare all nuclear facilities and materials. In December 2012, Myanmar's military chief, Vice Senior Gen. Min Aung Hlaing, declared that his country plans to use nuclear technology for medical, research and energy purposes but will not develop atomic weapons. Myanmar is assuming chairmanship of ASEAN in 2014 is another factor which will retain sufficient attraction to be a responsible player. For the time being, Myanmar going nuclear is not be a high priority area of concern for New Delhi.
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(5) Sreeradha Datta (PhD) Director Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies (MAKAIAS)
KOLKATA , India Sreeradha Datta is Director, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies (MAKAIAS), Kolkata. She specialises on contemporary development in South Asia. Her publications include three books Bangladesh: A Fragile Democracy, and The Northeast Complexities and its Determinants, Caretaking Democracy: Political Process in Bangladesh 20060-8 and edited books and monograph. She has published research articles in various national and international journals including Energy Policy, South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, South Asia, International Institute for study of Islam in Modern World (ISIM). She has been part of various track-II dialogues in South Asia, functioning as a resource person for various meetings, government agencies and diplomatic dialogues. She regularly interacts with various policy institutes, think tanks and security establishments and has been contributing to or interviewed by to national and international media outlets including the Voice of America, BBC, Time, Newsweek and The Economist, New York Times, Daily Star etc.
1.A growing Indo-Myanmar relationship has the potential to make a significant impact on
South Asia, but also in the larger Asian region. Do you agree with this assessment?
Yes while India is geographically located within South Asia Myanmar is located in the
Southeastern Asia. But both the sates, given its unique geographical location has political,
economic and cultural linkages with all of the Asian region presently which infact is a legacy
of the past. Thus impact of the growth of India –Myanmar ties will not be limited to only
specific areas of South Asia.
2. India sees connectivity through Myanmar as crucial for its „Look East Policy‟ and development of ties with the Asean countries. Looking back, can it be said that the policy has been successful?
The physical connectivity between India and Myanmar has not seen much progress in the
last few years but India has been able to increase its trade and other linkages with
Myanmar over the same period in continuation of its Look East policy thrust towards
engaging with its Southeast Asian neighbours. India has in the last decade deepened its
engagement with these neighbours and continues to increase its political and economic ties
with several of the states in the region.
3.. „Let‟s not be over-optimistic about Burma‟ , the opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi
said. She would want India to look at the situation in Myanmar, which is in transition from one form of governance to another, “in a very practical way”. In what specific ways can
India help Myanmar at this stage of its political transition?
India can play a significant role in improving its education sector. It can also facilitate their
access to high quality education in within India. When expanding the education facilities in
Northeast India, it is important to factor-in and invite students from Myanmar through
special scholarship programmes. Easing of travel procedures for students from Northern
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Myanmar to educational institutions in Northeast India will help both the countries. India is
one of the very few countries in the neighbourhood that can play a significant role in
training people for strengthening public institutions and a stronger civil society.
4. As Myanmar is now rising in India‟s foreign policy priorities, there should be a
strategically pre-emptive effort to forestall Myanmar, a next door neighbour, from becoming a vehicle through which huge problems could be created for India. What arethe promise and challenges of „a new relationship‟ ?
Myanmar has embarked on a path of political reform. But this must also necessitate the
availability of well-trained manpower that can implement and take forward the various
reform initiatives. Also apart from the difficulties within its domestic front, political
transition in Myanmar will be influenced by the policies of major powers. The policies of
organizations such as the EU and ASEAN, and the policies of countries such as the US, India
and China will play a significant role in impacting the transition process in Myanmar. These
are both opportunities as well as challenges that Myanmar will have to deal with. India as
an immediate neighbour will also have to support Myanmar and its political transformation
in any manner that Myanmar may wishes to seek from India.
5.Defence cooperation between India and Myanmar is an important facet of bilateral
relations. But India‟s posture in the matter of defence cooperation with Myanmar now
needs to be tempered, keeping in view the realities of ethnic turmoil in that country, caution defence experts. How far do you share their concerns?
Defence cooperation certainly is an important facet of the bilateral relations. But India has
always been cautious and mindful of all domestic issues with all its neighbours when
establishing such ties and in future too India will continue to do so. India is not unaware of
the prevailing ethnic tensions within Myanmar and will not initiate any measure contrary to
any interests within the state.
6. How far the prospects for an enhanced Indo-Myanmar economic partnership, in particular, in the energy sector will add to this substantive and comprehensive relationship?
The prospects and possibilities on the energy sector are immense. India will certainly be
interested in building and strengthening such ties. Given the potentials this sector will
indeed be a strong element of the bilateral ties.
7. Do you think ASEAN, BIMSTEC and Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC) have helped India
and Myanmar to come closer?
India and Myanmar have long established strong bilateral ties. These organisations and their
processes are important and help to strengthen the regional ties alongside the bilateral
engagement.
8. Do you agree with the suggestion that fear of China was behind India's involvement in
Myanmar?
China is a strong player in the region and India is cognizant of that. But to suggest that fear
of China led to India’s engagement with Myanmar cannot be substantiated at all. Given not
only the nature of the contemporary ties but also the historical facts the two neighbours
have enjoyed a relationship that has not been influenced by other regional or external
actors.
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9 President Obama urged India to accept expanded international responsibilities commensurate with its role as an emerging power. Is there an opportunity in Myanmar for U.S.-India Strategic Coordination?
Yes, there is certainly scope for that. But the nature and nuances will depend on the mutual
interests of all the three states.
10. The issue of Pyongyang‟s suspected linkages with Naypyidaw‟ gain salience for India,particularly in the light of the fact that Pyongyang-Islamabad nexus was partly responsible for the development of Pakistan‟s nuclear and missile capability. Similarly, missile and nuclear developments in Myanmar have the potential to undermine regional stability and security due to Pakistan‟s nuclear brinkmanship strategy. Should India encourage Myanmar to have a dialogue with its neighbours that aims at transparency about
its nuclear plans?
Presently there is very little to suggest that Myanmar will act in any manner that is
irresponsible or that will give way to regional tensions. Given the many challenging tasks
that lie ahead the nation to strengthen its political reforms the priorities for India lies in
contributing and supporting that process in the immediate future.
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(6) Bertil Lintner
Journalist, Writer Expertise on Burmese issues
Website Asia Pacific Media Services Bertil Lintner (born 1953) is a Swedish journalist, author and strategic consultant who has been writing about
Asia for nearly four decades.[1]
He was formerly the Burma correspondent of the now defunct Far Eastern Economic Review and currently works as a correspondent for Swedish daily Svenska Dagbladet and Politiken of Denmark. He has written extensively about Burma, India (especially the North East), China and North Korea in various local, national and international publications of over thirty countries.
[1] He is considered to be the first
journalist to reveal the growing relationship between Burma and North Korea on strategic cooperation. He mainly writes about organized crime, ethnic and political insurgencies, and regional security. He has published several books including, "Aung San Suu Kyi and Burma's Struggle for Democracy", "Blood Brothers: The Criminal Underworld of Asia" and "Great Leader, Dear Leader: Demystifying North Korea Under The Kim Clan".
[2]
Lintner is one of many blacklisted journalists who have not officially been allowed to enter Burma since 1985. The previous Burmese government body, the State Peace and Development Council, said his reports on Burma were groundless and based on wishful thinking. Ironically, blacklisted journalists tend to garner better respect as primary sources, and due to this, Lintner was the first foreign journalist to learn about Aung San Suu Kyi's release from house arrest in 1995. Lintner has since shifted to Laos and North Korea, but he continues to be interested in Burma. He is a regular contributor to YaleGlobal Online, the Wall Street Journal and Asia Times Online.
Lintner lives in Chiang Mai, Thailand with his wife Hseng Noung, an ethnic Shan from Burma. They have a daughter who was born in Kohima, India, during their epic "18-month, 2,275-kilometer overland journey from northeastern India across Burma’s northern rebel-held areas to China" in 1985-87. They travelled by foot, jeep, bicycle, and elephant, becoming the first outsiders in over four decades to cross the isolated area, then controlled by various ethnic insurgents. This culminated in his first book, "Land of Jade: A Journey from India through Northern Burma to China".
[1]
In 2004, Lintner received an award for excellence in reporting about North Korea from the Society of Publishers in Asia. He was also the president of the Foreign Correspondents Club of Thailand (FCCT) from 1993-95.
[1]
Bibliography
1. Land of Jade: A Journey from India through Northern Burma to China, Orchid Press, Bangkok, 2011. 2. World.Wide.Web: Chinese Migration in the 21st Century—and How It will Change the World, Orchid Press,
Bangkok, 2011. 3. "Great Game East: India, China and the Struggle for Asia’s Most Volatile Frontier", Harper Collins, New
Delhi, 2012. 4. "Merchants of Madness: The Methamphetamine Explosion in the Golden Triangle" (coauthored with
Michael Black), Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai, 2009, 180 p. 5. "The Kachin: Lords of Burma's Northern Frontier", Teak House Books, Chiang Mai, 1997.
1.A growing Indo-Myanmar relationship has the potential to make a significant impact on South Asia, but also in the larger Asian region. Do you agree with this assessment ? Indo-Myanmar relations have always been cordial but somewhat cool. Myanmar prefers to look east (SE Asia) and north (China). But Myanmar would be interested in improving relations - and trade - with India to counterbalance the unprecedented influence that China has gained in Myanmar since the upheavals of 1988 (when the West, and India and Japan, condemned the massacres of pro-democracy demonstrators in Myanmar). 2. India sees connectivity through Myanmar as crucial for its ‘Look East Policy’ and development of ties with the Asean countries. Looking back, can it be said that the policy has been successful? Only partly successful, the infrastructure on the Indian as well as the Myanmar side has to be upgraded.
3.. ‘Let’s not be over-optimistic about Burma’ , the opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi said. She would
want India to look at the situation in Myanmar, which is in transition from one form of governance to
another, “in a very practical way”. In what specific ways can India help Myanmar at this stage of its
political transition?
Not really, the Myanmar regime (with the military at its apex) has its own agenda and seldom listens
to advice from outsiders. India could, however, offer scholarships to Myanmar students to help
educate a new generation of Myanmar citizens and bring them into the modern world.
4. As Myanmar is now rising in India’s foreign policy priorities, there should be a strategically pre-emptive effort to forestall Myanmar, a next door neighbour, from becoming a vehicle through which huge problems could be created for India. What are the promise and challenges of ‘a new relationship’ ?
The main challenge is that fact that several insurgent groups from the Northeast (ULFA, NSCN[K], PLA, UNLF) maintain camps on the Myanmar side of the border, some of them close to Myanmar army bases. Evidently, Myanmar, preoccupied with its own insurgents, view those rebel groups as "India's problem". But this is an old problem that has to be tackled. 5. Defence cooperation between India and Myanmar is an important facet of bilateral relations. But India’s posture in the matter of defence cooperation with Myanmar now needs to be tempered, keeping in view the realities of ethnic turmoil in that country, caution defence experts. How far do you share their concerns?
I share those concerns. The armed conflict in Kachin State should be a major concern, and a reason to act carefully, especially since Swedish-made Carl Gustaf rocket launchers ended up in the hands of the Myanmar army, and those rocket launchers could be traced to a shipment to India from Sweden, see 28 January 2013 Jonathan Ashworth: To ask the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs whether he has had discussions with his EU counterparts on the discovery of the use of Swedish-made weapons in Burma. Mr Swire: In December last year, Sweden's Agency for Non-Proliferation and Export Controls said an investigation had revealed that the Swedish-made weapons found by Kachin forces in early December were part of a larger shipment of arms Sweden sold to the Indian Government. It remains unclear how they ended up being used in Burma. Swedish Trade Minister, Ewa Bjorling, has requested clarification from Indian authorities on the matter.
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http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmhansrd/cm130128/text/130128w0001.htm#13012847000020 6.How far the prospects for an enhanced Indo-Myanmar economic partnership, in particular, in the energy sector will add to this substantive and comprehensive relationship? Possible, but there are also many other contenders, foreign countries and companies which want to exploit Myanmar's energy potential (China and Thailand: hydroelcctric power and natural gas; Western companies: oil) 7. Do you think ASEAN, BIMSTEC and Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC) have helped India and Myanmar to come closer? Not really, those groupings don't have much clout or influence on developments.
8.Do you agree with the suggestion that fear of China was behind India's involvement in Myanmar?
Partly, yes. After 1988, India supported the pro-democracy movement to counter China's influence,
but when it became clear that the pro-democracy movement was not going to come to power any time
soon, India shifted its priorities to engagement with the Myanmar regime, for the same reason. India
does not want to have a pro-Chinese neighbour on its eastern flank.
9 President Obama urged India to accept expanded international responsibilities commensurate with its role as an emerging power. Is there an opportunity in Myanmar for U.S.-India Strategic Coordination?
Yes, because India and the US share a common concern here: China's influence in Myanmar. The US did not change its Myanmar policy because it was concerned about democracy and human rights, that's just window dressing, the China factor was the most important (and Myanmar's military cooperation with North Korea, which set off alarm bells in Washington).
10. The issue of Pyongyang’s suspected linkages with Naypyidaw’ gain salience for India,particularly in the light of the fact that Pyongyang-Islamabad nexus was partly responsible for the development of Pakistan’s nuclear and missile capability. Similarly, missile and nuclear developments in Myanmar have the potential to undermine regional stability and security due to Pakistan’s nuclear brinkmanship strategy. Should India encourage Myanmar to have a dialogue with its neighbours that aims at transparency about its nuclear plans?
See 9. Yes, India could encourage Myanmar to be more transparent but I doubt whether the Myanmar military would listen. There is increased frustration in the US over this as well, the US has done a lot to help Myanmar break its isolation and shifted its policy from condemnation to engagement. But the North Koreans are still there. The recent sanctioning of Lt-Gen Thein Htay, who heads the Directorate of Defense Industries (DDI), for “illicit trade in North Korean arms to Burma" was a warning to the Myanmar government. The US knows as well as everybody else that Lt-Gen Thein Htay wasn't acting on his own in a private capacity, he was just following orders and carrying out duties assigned to him. But by sanctioning one individual of his calibre, the US put the Myanmar government on notice.
Moe Thuzar is an ISEAS Fellow and lead researcher for socio-cultural affairs at the ASEAN Studies Centre (ASC) at ISEAS. Starting July 2012, she was appointed Fellow at ISEAS. Before Moe joined the ASC in May 2008 she headed the ASEAN Secretariat’s Human Development Unit, which coordinated ASEAN cooperation in labour, youth, social welfare, education, women’s affairs, poverty reduction and rural development, health, and civil service matters. At ISEAS, Moe has co-authored with Pavin Chachavalpongpun, Myanmar: Life After Nargis (ISEAS, 2009), and has co-edited with Yap Kioe Sheng, “Urbanisation in Southeast Asia: Issues and Impacts” (ISEAS, 2012). She has written on Myanmar for Regional Outlook: Southeast Asia 2012-2013 and Southeast Asian Affairs 2012, and has contributed a chapter on Myanmar's readiness for the ASEAN Economic Community for an edited volume "ASEAN Economic Community Scorecard: Performance and Perception" (ed. Sanchita Basu Das, ISEAS, 2013). In July 2012, she took on responsibilities as coordinator of the Myanmar Study Group at ISEAS. She is also a resident analyst for Channel News Asia’s Think Tank programme. Moe is working on a review of Myanmar’s foreign policy, focusing on the post-1988 period. Her other research interests cover urbanisation, environmental cooperation in ASEAN, and ASEAN’s dialogue relations. Moe was a Temasek scholar for the Master in Public Policy Programme at the National University of Singapore.
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Questionnaire –India-Myanmar Relations
1.A growing Indo-Myanmar relationship has the potential to make a significant impact on South Asia, but also in the larger Asian region. Do you agree with this assessment? - Yes, I do agree. Myanmar constitutes the strategic land link between India and the wider ASEAN region, as well as with countries in East Asia such as China. Greater multi-sectoral interactions between India and Myanmar can contribute positively to regional connectivity. 2. India sees connectivity through Myanmar as crucial for its „Look East Policy‟ and development of ties with the Asean countries. Looking back, can it be said that the policy has been successful? - In my view, the policy needs to be given effect by national-level commitments on both the Indian and Myanmar sides. The border areas of both India and Myanmar can still be said to
be among the lesser developed regions of both countries. Connectivity projects in these regions therefore need to be accompanied with community awareness and development initiatives aimed at reducing poverty, creating more opportunities for income generation and lessening the rural-urban migration flows.
3.. „Let‟s not be over-optimistic about Burma‟ , the opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi said. She would want
India to look at the situation in Myanmar, which is in transition from one form of governance to another, “in a
very practical way”. In what specific ways can India help Myanmar at this stage of its political transition? - Myanmar has embarked on an ambitious programme of political, economic and social
reforms, which are being implemented at a pace that is acknowledged as fast by many in
and outside the country. In January 2013, Myanmar launched a Framework on Economic
and Social Reforms to her development partners and donors. It is interesting that
Myanmar, in transforming the political process, looked to India's model (among others),
with regard to central and local government structures. As Myanmar moves along the path
towards democratisation, both countries can leverage on the bilateral cooperation
mechanisms to identify priorities under Myanmar's framework for reforms that encourage
participatory and deliberative processes in implementing important projects.
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4. As Myanmar is now rising in India‟s foreign policy priorities, there should be a strategically pre-emptive effort to forestall Myanmar, a next door neighbour, from becoming a vehicle through which huge problems could be created for India. What arethe promise and challenges of „a new relationship‟ ? - In a way, Myanmar and India are "relearning" the process of partnerships in addressing common or shared issues and concerns along their shared border. This "new relationship" under the aegis of PM Manmohan Singh and President Thein Sein has political/strategic and economic implications. I believe it is incumbent on both leaders and their leadership in the respective national context, to minimise the negative and encourage the positive impacts of joint or bilateral projects and initiatives.
5. Defence cooperation between India and Myanmar is an important facet of bilateral relations. But India‟s posture in the matter of defence cooperation with Myanmar now needs to be tempered, keeping in view the realities of ethnic turmoil in that country, caution defence experts. How far do you share their concerns? - Myanmar is in the midst of peace negotiations with several armed ethnic groups. Myanmar's neighbouring countries have a stake in ensuring that the peace negotiations
progress towards workable solutions that all parties can accept or agree to. 6. How far the prospects for an enhanced Indo-Myanmar economic partnership, in particular, in the energy sector will add to this substantive and comprehensive relationship? - I believe any review of existing (or initiation of new) energy projects should focus on the mutual benefits for developing the border regions and communities where these energy projects may be located. It is important that any enhanced partnership - whether political
or economic - overcomes past suspicions and mistrust. 7. Do you think ASEAN, BIMSTEC and Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC) have helped India and Myanmar to come closer? - Yes. I think the sub-regional arrangements may have helped move the process of getting closer along more than the regional interactions.
8. Do you agree with the suggestion that fear of China was behind India's involvement in Myanmar? - I would see it more as the need to balance interests, both on the part of India and of
Myanmar.
9 President Obama urged India to accept expanded international responsibilities commensurate with its role as an emerging power. Is there an opportunity in Myanmar for U.S.-India Strategic Coordination?
- Myanmar is currently the country coordinator (in ASEAN) responsible for ASEAN-US dialogue, for the period 2012-15. Additionally, Myanmar will chair the East ASia Summit (where India and the US participate) during her ASEAN chairmanship year of 2014,
together with the ASEAN-India and ASEAN-US Summits. It is conceivable that there will be some areas of overlap in Myanmar's coordination of the agendas of these important meetings and dialogues.
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(pp. 56-296) 1. Amb. (R) Trevor Wilson
Myanmar : International Perspectives on Reform – Responses from the US, UK, EU, China, Japan, and Australia (pp.56-78)
2. Prof. Kanbawza Win
Rohingya is not the case of Citizenship but that of Human Rights (An Ethnic attempt to solve the Rohingya Crisis) (pp.79-111)
Indo Myanmar Relations: Looking East from the North east (pp.170-182)
11. C. S. Kuppuswamy
India - Myanmar Economic Relations (pp.183-189) 12.Dr. Santishree Dhulipudi Pandit
& Dr. RIMLI BASU
US PENETRATION IN ASIA-PACIFIC, RISE OF CHINA AND THE PAWN CALLED MYANMAR: THE INDIAN RESPONSE (pp.190-217)
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13. Dr. (Mrs) Munmun Majumdar
Positioning Myanmar in India’s Look East Policy (pp.218-232) 14. Dr.Rakhee Bhattacharya
Stilwell Road – the Road to Hope for Northeast India (pp.233-239) 15. Varigonda Kesava Chandra
India’s Struggle for Myanmar’s Energy (pp.240-248)
16. Lindsay Hughes Principles, Pragmatism, and Pipelines: The Evolution of India’s Myanmar Policy (pp.249-259)
17.Monish Tourangbam US Policy towards Myanmar: The Big Shift and Regional Impact (pp.260-265) 18. Hu Xiaowen
Triangular Relationship of China, India and Myanmar after Democratic Reform of Myanmar (pp.266-283) 19. Dr. Rahul Mishra
Myanmar and The US: Tying Up The Loose Ends (pp.284-296)
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Myanmar : International Perspectives on Reform –
Responses from the US, UK, EU, China, Japan, and Australia
Trevor Wilson Visiting Fellow,
Dept. of Political & Social Change, ANU College of Asia & the Pacific
(Trevor Wilson retired in August 2003 after more than thirty-six years as a member of the Australian foreign service, and after serving as Australian Ambassador to Myanmar (2000-03). Since October 2003 he has been a Visiting Fellow on Myanmar/Burma at the Department of Political & Social Change, School of International, Political & Strategic Studies, Australian National University. Since 2004, Trevor Wilson has been co-convener of the Myanmar/Burma Update conference series at the Australian National University. He has (co)-edited five volumes of the conference papers, Myanmar’s Long Road to National Reconciliation (ISEAS 2006); and, with Monique Skidmore, Myanmar: The state, community and the environment (Asia Pacific Press, 2007); and Dictatorship, disorder and decline in Myanmar (ANU E-Press, 2008); and with Monique Skidmore and Nick Cheesman, Ruling Myanmar From Cyclone Nargis to National Elections (ISEAS 2010) and Myanmar’s Transition: Openings, Obstacles and Opportunities (ISEAS 2012 forthcoming) based on the 2011 Myanmar/Burma Update. With David Kinley, he co-authored a case study of Australia’s human rights training in Myanmar ‘Engaging a pariah: Human rights training in Burma/Myanmar’ (Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 29 No. 2, May 2007). He has written numerous opinion pieces and given many interviews about the situation in Myanmar/Burma.- July 2012)
Different countries have reacted differently to Myanmar‟s reforms, depending on their previous policies (sanctions vs engagement), their current political viewpoint, their perceived long-term strategic and/or economic interests, and the legal and other constraints they have to navigate to promote greater cooperation with Myanmar. It goes without saying that Myanmar‟s immediate neighbours were motivated to be among the first to welcome the reforms and to shift their own policies, while for more distant developed countries Myanmar was neither important enough nor sufficiently well known to prompt more substantive or more expeditious reactions. In every sense, the presence of Nobel Peace Prize winner and “democracy icon”, Aung San Suu Kyi made a great difference to the timing, the level and the nature of international responses before and after Myanmar‟s reforms began.1
1 As US Myanmar expert David Steinberg said: “No living foreigner has shaped contemporary U.S. attitudes toward a single country more than Aung San Suu Kyi. As the seemingly vulnerable international avatar of democracy, she has effectively determined the parameters of possible U.S. policy choices. Although her Burma/Myanmar specific goals and those of the U.S. overlap, they are not contiguous. That country is a „boutique‟ issue in U.S. politics - important but not of the highest priority.” (Steinberg 2010)
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Changes in Myanmar came quickly once the main opponent of change, former head of the military regime and former Head of State, Senior General Than Shwe stepped down of his own accord on 30 March 2011. If anything, Myanmar‟s changes initially came faster than the international community‟s responses, although international responses were also quite rapid and in some cases quite dramatic. One element that may have slowed down shifts in international policies toward Myanmar was the fact that Myanmar‟s own proclivity in the past for isolation and neutralism meant that it did not have many traditional friends or like-minded supporters in the international community. Indeed, other than Aung San Suu Kyi, few Myanmar nationals were known among their peers in other countries or around the world. Moreover, there was a widespread suspicion that the new Myanmar leadership was making similar promises to those made in the past, and that they would (once again) not be fulfilled. In addition, the governments of OECD countries were being fiercely warned by pro-democracy Burma activist organisations that it was premature to lift sanctions and most unwise to offer international assistance to the new Thein Sein government as some sort of “reward”.
Generally speaking, as at early 2011, international policies towards Myanmar were based on an unusual conjunction of circumstances: member countries of the OECD (which is the main Official Development Assistance coordinating organization) had concerted their policies and applied various sanctions against Myanmar. None of these sanctions was endorsed by the United Nations, so they were all administered separately under “autonomous” sanctions regimes, which varied quite significantly in their content, according to the political exigencies of the sanctions imposing country. Most sanctions regimes included restrictions on the types of ODA that were permitted, on military cooperation and arms sales, and on political contacts; after 2007 some regimes included economic sanctions either in the form of assets freezes, or (in the cases of the United States and the EU only) some restrictions on trade with Myanmar. None was specifically based on any international authority, although the boards of the World Bank, the IMF, the Asian Development Bank, and UNDP had taken formal decisions at the instigation of the United States, to limit their cooperation with and assistance to Myanmar. The only Asian countries supporting any sanctions against Myanmar were the two Asian members of the OECD, Japan and the ROK.
Politically, the pro-democracy, anti-military regime activist campaign‟s global reach, intensity and content (in terms of accounts of human rights abuses it publicized) had a considerable impact on the attitudes of the international community, even in states which did not impose sanctions. It caused other countries including Myanmar‟s neighbours and fellow ASEAN members as well as India (and China) to be very
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cautious in reacting to the changes in Myanmar starting in 2011. Governments in these countries were conscious that the Burmese Army had a long track record of not relinquishing power, and that periods of positive change in Myanmar were often followed by more repression and bad “governance”. Many expressed concern that the reforms were not irreversible, whatever that meant. So during 2011 and early 2012 (until the by-elections on 1 April 2012), many foreign governments had still not firmly settled on their responses to Myanmar‟s reform program, although many reforms had already been announced, and in some cases fully implemented. International sanctions may have contributed slightly to persuade the Burmese Army to hand over power when it did, although only in conjunction with other policies (such as engaging with Myanmar and exposing it fully to international expectations). However, in all cases sanctions have nearly destroyed the substance of the international community‟s relations with Myanmar, leaving little more than the bare bones of relationships that originally benefited those countries as well as Myanmar. Thus, it is no easy task now for any of these countries to re-design and rebuild individual relationships with Myanmar, or to create new institutions for this purpose, and there is no way such tasks could be accomplished quickly. Ultimately, once again the main losers will be the ordinary people of Myanmar, who will miss out economically, intellectually, socially and even spiritually. Under pressure to restore relationships with Myanmar as expeditiously as possible, it is inevitable that mistakes might be made, that wrong directions might be chosen, and that unnecessary costs might be incurred as these states work at dealing more effectively with Myanmar. But at least, the international community would have stepped up to assist the people of Myanmar. Once there was clear evidence that a process of genuine reform was under way in Myanmar, especially when it was realized that the 1 April 2012 by-elections had been genuinely free and fair, the general reaction from the international community was to try to encourage and support this reform process, which was in fact something that international opinion had been requesting for a long time. Contrary to some of the commentary from the activist community, the general reaction was first to confirm and test the claims for reform, not just to “reward” the Thein Sein government unquestioningly. Obviously, the timing and nature of any international response called for careful judgements, and moving too quickly or too far was to be avoided. There was never much hard evidence that these initial international responses were premature, or represented unthinking assessments of actual changes, or that they had done any “harm”. Rather, there was a great deal of evidence that the people of Myanmar wanted strong international support for reform so that reforms could not be turned back or, worse, not succeed. Moreover, it was widely recognized that
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capacity building to carry out Myanmar‟s reforms was critically absent and that some international assistance directed at overcoming specific capacity deficits was urgently needed Indeed, one of the great risks generally was that Myanmar‟s reforms might fail, or that the Thein Sein government might lose its resolve, or that the Burmese Army might become frustrated and disillusioned and intervene, possible through a coup against President Thein Sein. Instead of Myanmar becoming a case study for what it was possible to achieve under the right conditions – even through much maligned “top-down” reform – Myanmar might have once again provided a lesson from its failures. Early international statements of support for the Thein Sein Government‟s policies during 2011–12 did not mean that international endorsement of reforms was simply a crude attempt at reassuring the military, or that the international community was turning a blind eye to ongoing problems, or that there was no pressure or desire for further reforms and for changes in areas not yet addressed. Indeed, pro-democracy activists themselves went to great lengths to remind the international community, and the international media, that domestic insurgency against the Kachin, Karen and Shan minorities continued, that human rights abuses had not stopped, that effective rule of law was still not prevailing, and that the army (and others who might have committed abuses in the past) were still not being brought to account. Indeed, for much of the first two years of the Thein Sein Government, the overseas activist movement was assiduous in publicizing residual problems and the shortcomings of announced reforms, and continuously challenged President Thein Sein (and to some extent Aung San Suu Kyi as well) to be more ambitious in pursuing reforms. In some cases, the overseas activist movement was actually slow, or reluctant, to acknowledge the significance and reality of changes. There was certainly a noticeable tendency on the part of the activist campaigns to believe that no retired general of the Burmese Army could be capable of genuine intentions regarding reforms. Yet in other cases, NGO groups such as environmentalists actually seized the opportunities of the new openness to assist Myanmar lawyers trying to secure better land-rights, and better workers‟ rights. The extent of such NGO assistance was not necessarily disclosed or acknowledged – perhaps for fear that it would be blocked if it did become more widely known. One of the most resounding endorsements, as testimony to the international community‟s response to Myanmar‟s reforms, was contained in the communiqué from the US-hosted G-8 Summit at Camp David in May 2012:
We pay tribute to the remarkable efforts of President Thein Sein, Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, and many other citizens of Burma/Myanmar to deliver democratic reform in their country over the past year. We recognize the need to secure lasting and irreversible reform, and
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pledge our support to existing initiatives, particularly those which focus on peace in ethnic area, national reconciliation, and entrenching democracy. We also stress the need to cooperate to further enhance aid coordination among international development partners of Burma/Myanmar and conduct investment in a manner beneficial to the people of Burma/Myanmar.i
Indeed, as late as October 2012 at the annual IMF meeting in Tokyo, donors were urged by Burma activists not to “rush into” Burma but to “tread carefully”.ii But the unexpected enthusiasm to re-engage with Myanmar was not only politically driven, but also commercially driven, as representative from international companies came to see Myanmar with their own eyes.
United States The single most important country in terms of potential influence in Myanmar has always been the United States, even when the military regime was at its peak strength. But it was also the country whose Burma policy was for many years after 1988 almost set in concrete, contained more separate elements in terms of sanctions, and was surrounded by most political hurdles (although it was never divided over simple Democrats vs Republicans lines). Successive US Administrations and especially the US Congress were never prepared to acknowledge the counterproductive impacts of sanctions (although the State Department did so occasionally, but was not recognized for this). Moreover, direct US influence over the policies and behaviour of Myanmar military regimes had been rather limited. At those times when US policy allowed US support for anti-narcotics programs, Washington could exercise some influence, and can probably claim some credit that Myanmar‟s military regimes actually adopted many anti-narcotics measures which reduced – even if it did not eliminate – drug trafficking from Myanmar. But effective political inter-action between Washington and successive Myanmar governments was minimal, and Myanmar‟s military leadership was only indirectly and rarely ever exposed to high-ranking US representatives (and vice versa). US policy was locked into unquestioning support for Aung San Suu Kyi, and was never able to stand up to lobbying from the pro-National League for Democracy lobby in the United States. A large proportion of world-wide funding for the pro-democracy movement came from the United State – from the National Endowment for Democracy and from the Open Society Foundations of financial entrepreneur George Soros.2 For many years these programs supplemented US sanctions as the preferred US approach to Burma. 2 NED funding alone over the six years to 2013 averaged US$4 million a year (based on NED Annual
Reports).
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However, US policy toward Myanmar was always going to change after Myanmar‟s November 2010 elections, once Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announced in September 2009 that previous US policies (both sanctions and limited engagement) had failed. The key factor underlying the final change was probably the fundamental US inability to counter China‟s apparently growing influence in Myanmar. Essentially, the United States had dealt itself out of the strategic card game by pursuing an approach of minimal contact with the Myanmar leadership3 and pursuing stronger support for activists in exile under President George W. Bush. Whereas the United States was potentially always the one country that could exercise real influence over the Myanmar leadership, by 2009 it found itself a virtual bystander as China‟s ties with Myanmar deepened and US sanctions were proving counter-productive. US policy had long been hostage to the wishes of Aung San Suu Kyi, who at that stage (throughout 2011) was not contemplating any form of cooperation with the new Myanmar Government. However, as soon as President Thein Sein announced his substantive reform agenda on 31 March 2011, the way was clear for US policy to change. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton‟s visit in November 2011 paved the way for a presidential visit by Barak Obama in December 2012, and the easing most – but not all – US sanctions. These moves were also accompanied by fairly low-key US offers of cooperation with the Thein Sein government. Many of the initial US policy changes were as much symbolic as substantive, but they nevertheless carried considerable impact in Myanmar and elsewhere: Yet the response to Aung San Suu Kyi‟s visit to the United States was emotional and extravagant rather than realistic.iii Obama‟s 2011 “rebalancing” of US strategic policy – or the “pivot to Asia” 4 – reinforced the US decision to shift policy on Myanmar. Things started to change when US members of Congress started visiting Myanmar for the first time in decades. Thus Senator John McCain (R–Arizona), who has been the Republican Party Presidential candidate in 2008. visited Myanmar in June 2011 and again in January 2012. Senator Mitch McConnell (R–Kentucky) who had been instrumental in shepherding most anti-Myanmar legislation through the US Congress for 20 years, visited for the first time January 2012. Thereafter, pro-Burma congressional figures, who for many years blocked any US engagement initiatives with Burma, shifted their
3 Bush‘s Secretary of State, Condaleeza Rice, had virtually stopped attending ASEAN meetings where the
Myanmar delegation was headed by senior Burmese military represetatives. 4 “US President Barack Obama's speech to parliament”, Canberra, 17 November 2011 (carried in full in The Australian 17 November 2011. (Link: http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/obama-in-australia/obamas-speech-to-parliament/story-fnb0o39u-1226197973237. Accessed 20 June 2013.)
ground on sanctions and on re-engagement. Derek Mitchell, who had since July 2011 been “Special Envoy”, was named US Ambassador in July 2012, becoming the first US Ambassador since 1990. The “re-calibration” of US policy towards Myanmar that resulted has been much more widely supported and praised than might have been expected.iv From April 2012, the United States began easing its economic and some other sanctions, but President Obama Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said broader laws on sanctions against Burma would remain in place to safeguard against "backsliding". "We will be keeping the relevant laws on the books as an insurance policy, but our goal and our commitment is to move as rapidly as we can to expand business and investment opportunities," she said. In May 2012, President Obama explained that said Washington would work to "ensure that those who abuse human rights, engage in corruption, interfere with the peace process, or obstruct the reform process do not benefit from increased engagement with the United States."
While the United States has great influence over Myanmar‟s policy directions, there are still limits on what any US Administration can do. As former US Charge d‟Affaires Priscilla Clapp has argued:
The Administration nonetheless will continue to pursue “pragmatic engagement”, anticipating that the gradual development of dialogue between the Naypyitaw presidency and Aung San Suu Kyi may lead to further positive political developments, especially significant release of prisoners of conscience and genuine efforts at reconciliation with both the NLD and minority nationalities. The fact remains, however, that U.S. policy has very little influence on this process.v
US Commercial Ties After watching developments in Myanmar for more than a year, the US government eventually started to introduce measures to clear the way for greater US business activities in Myanmar, following the easing sanctions in 2012. When announcing the easing of some US sanctions in April 2012, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton had said: ''Our goal is to move as rapidly as we can to expand business and investment opportunities''. By the time of President Thein Sein‟s visit to Washington in May 2013 several measures were ready to be announced, but the scale of this “cooperation” is small, and its actual commercial impact will be quite modest. One such measure was the “Joint (Ministerial) statement on good governance and transparency in the energy sector”5 which became a political issue after it was raised publicly by Aung San Kyi. In addition, Acting United States Trade Representative Demetrios Marantis and Deputy
5 For the text, see: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2013/05/209702.htm. Aung San Suu Kyi had raised
this issue after international NGOs singled out the Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) for
Commerce Minister Dr. Pwint San of Myanmar signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA) on 21 May 2013 in Washington, creating “a platform for ongoing dialogue and cooperation on trade and investment issues between the two governments”. vi Moreover, also during the visit of President Thein Sein to Washington in May 2013, the Myanmar-United States Trade Council announced that it had opened an office in Yangon.vii; On the other hand, the US commercial sector has been relative quick to take the first steps towards “normalizing” their relations with Myanmar, after submitting to wide-ranging unilateral US sanctions and negative US public opinion for so long. Following the easing of US economic sanctions against Myanmar during 2012–13, a number of major US firm have announced their “return” to Myanmar, beginning with Pepsi Cola (whose withdrawal in 1997 was in the headlines), General Electric, Deloitte, and Google. Several US firms used the May 2013 World Economic Forum meeting in Naypyitaw to announce their plans to re-engage with Myanmar – such as Microsoft (announcing a partnership with Myanmar Information Technology). Some signs had also emerged that US firms were beginning to worry that they might be missing out on the sheer commercial opportunities that Myanmar is seen as presenting. The optimistic view of Myanmar‟s prospects represented by the May 2013 report from consulting firm McKinsey could reflect this view.viii There is little doubt that US economic sanctions have worked against the commercial interests of US companies, some of whom are not currently well prepared to (re-) enter the Myanmar market. One of the motives behind the US business moves was the intention of countering China‟s commercial and strategic influence in Myanmar and Southeast Asia. Newly appointed US Ambassador Derek Mitchell wasted no time before seeking to stop such speculation. “China shouldn't worry about U.S. activities in the country, he said. "This is not a U.S. initiative in order to counter China or encircle China as some people in Beijing may fear," he said; a more stable Myanmar is in both superpowers' interests”.6
UK
6 Interview with Wall Street Journal, 19 August 2012. See:
British policy has always been caught between the pressure from the active Burma lobby (the Burma Campaign UK) – inspired emotionally by British policy has always been caught between the pressure from the active Burma lobby (the Burma Campaign UK) – inspired emotionally by Aung San Suu Kyi‟s British connections and politically by one of the most aggressive and effective activist groups in the world – and more pragmatic policy options. Even more than US policy, British policy has been hostage to Aung San Suu Kyi‟s views: at some points, British diplomats would not contemplate new policy initiatives unless Aung San Suu Kyi explicitly endorsed them. Underneath, however, there was still a great deal of integrity in British policy with its commitment to openness, fairness and democratic ideals, however much these might seem at odds with crude past colonial divide-and-rule policies that the UK had practised in Burma. Whatever transpired in Myanmar, the British Government retained considerable flexibility, potentially, to implement more even-handed policies if it chose to, and if circumstances required. The UK was one of only a few countries where parliamentary reports had long questioned the efficacy of economic sanctions.7 Some British investment continued in Myanmar after the EU sanctions came into force, and while British tourism was “discouraged”, British travellers were frequent visitors to Myanmar. David Cameron was the first Prime Minister from a “western” country to visit Myanmar in late April 2012, when – with what at the time seemed unseemly haste – he foreshadowed the suspension (not rescinding) of UK sanctions against Myanmar. Their official “suspension” was announced at the annual EU meeting on the EU Common Policy a few days later, but their full abolition would await a formal EU decision a year later. The Cameron visit, as well as some later UK decisions in the next 12 months, gave the strong impression that the British Government was trying to make amends for UK business missing out on opportunities in Myanmar because of EU/UK sanctions. First, the British Board of Trade organized a “blue-chip” business delegation to Myanmar in July 2012, including companies such as Anglo American, BP, British Gas, Ernst & Young, Rolls Royce and Shell. Soon afterwards, the UK Board of Trade and Investment opened an office in Yangon. ix In June 2013, the Foreign Office announced the establishment of a “Myanmar Centre of Responsible Investment”. Also in June, 2013 UK Trade Minister Lord Green headed another British trade delegation.x
7 See House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs, Report on ―The Impact of Economic
Sanctions‖ 24 April 2007.
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Meanwhile, in a joint British/Danish initiative, a Myanmar Centre for Responsible Business was set up from June 2013 in the British Embassy, Yangon. Headed by a former British Ambassador to Burma, Vicky Bowman, this centre will facilitate responsible business activities by the UK commercial sector. xi It is not clear how exactly the centre will operate, nor how its performance will be judged. No other country is seeking such a mechanism; no other country is so openly dismissing the various voluntary codes of conduct for international business (endorsed by the United Nations or the OECD). (The UK is also the base of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, which the Thein Sein Government has said it will join.) Recent British Government statements refer (regretfully?) to the low level of UK-Myanmar trade and investment.
EU The backdrop to the EU‟s response to changes in Myanmar during 2011-12 was the EU sanctions regime, first adopted in 1996 under the EU “Common Policy on Burma”. The annual review of these sanctions was to become the only factually-based regular review of sanctions anywhere in the world that was sustained throughout their operation. By as early as 2012, EU high-level officials were foreshadowing increases in assistance and the relaxation of EU sanctions.xii Britain and France had agreed in February 2012 to call for "a gradual revision of European sanctions" and would propose at the next scheduled EU talks "the first measures in the very short term". The April 2012 review of EU policy was said to be taking place in order to “encourage signs of reform” in Myanmar. But Britain's Foreign Secretary, William Hague, and his French counterpart, Alain Juppe, in a gesture to appease activist hardliners had also agreed “that the EU must remain vigilant, with the democratic standards of partial legislative elections 1 April 2012 impacting the „new approach‟".xiii The official “suspension” of EU sanctions against Myanmar was announced at the annual EU meeting on the EU Common Policy on April 2012, fell short of what was desired by many. xiv In some ways, suspension of sanctions was the worst of all options: it did not convey clearly whether suspension was a prelude to abolition or a prelude to the re-imposition of sanctions; it did not make clear what it would take to end the sanctions; it gave no certainly at all to EU business, and therefore effectively stopped them from planning ahead for any business with Myanmar that would be possible after sanctions were lifted. As a political response, it just looked as if the EU could not make up its mind about what had happened in Myanmar. It was a strong disincentive to EU business firms, unless they were prepared to gamble on the sanctions not lasting much longer whatever else happened.
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Interestingly, EU policy had already relaxed to some extent. The EU rapidly responded to the opening of the country after 2010 and the government's commitment to reform by significantly increasing the amount – and scope – of assistance to €150 million over 2012-13, and to sectors of health education and “livelihoods”. As retired UK diplomat, and long-time critic of EU sanctions, Derek Tonkin, explained, it was a case of: “the politically inadmissible absence of effective sanction targets faced by the need to be seen to take action of some kind in the face of serious human rights issues”. xv EU assistance was appreciated because it was generous, innovative and effective. However, the EU was never able to exercise political leverage over Myanmar, because of the retention of sanctions, and the inept approach the EU took to its political relationships with Myanmar. When the EU “Troika” sought to engage with Myanmar leaders after 2000, it was always led at a low level, while the EU continued to prevent Myanmar ministers from participating in EU-ASEAN meetings held in Brussels. President Thein Sein finally visited Brussels in March 2013, before he visited any other major European capital. At the time of his visit, it was announced that the EU would restore Myanmar status under its Generalized System of (Tariff) Preferences, from which Myanmar has been suspended as part of the EU‟s first round of economic sanctions in 1997. (This had become a symbolic problem for the Burmese, probably much more than the benefits Myanmar would receive by readmission to the scheme.)
China Over recent decades, China has had to work hard at developing its strategic relationship with Myanmar alongside the need for a full day-to-day productive relationship. 8 During the sanctions period (1988-2011), China became Myanmar‟s main source of financial and technical support, in the process moving a long way from the pre-1988 days of a semi-hostile relationship because of China‟s longstanding direct and overt support for the Burma Communist Party. According to the official Myanmar media, Chinese investment over this period had indeed been large in terms of volume, although some of it took the form of concessional loans, and the
8 An accurate Chinese perspective on its relations with Myanmar can be found in an article by Professor
Li Chenyang (jointly with his associate Liang Fook Lye). Professor Li is the pre-eminent Chinese scholar
on Myanmar whose views closely reflect official Chinese thinking. The article is boldly entitled ―Chinese
policies towards Myanmar: a successful model for dealing with the Myanmar issue?‖, in China; an
Independent Journal. Singapore: East Asian Institute, 1 September 2009.
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conditionality applied was often not disclosed. For example, by October 2012 the cumulative level of Chinese investment was US$14 billion9
While China had little choice but to support Myanmar economically in this way, the Chinese government was often dissatisfied with the Myanmar military regime‟s policies and political management. China always urged Myanmar to pursue “stability”, which was code for asking the Burmese army to commit itself to genuine reconciliation with the political opposition and with ethnic groups. They also wanted Myanmar to have effective policies against all potentially harmful trans-border activities narcotics trafficking, smuggling, and people trafficking. China would have been pleased that the Thein Sein government made such a strong and early commitment to reform. Myanmar‟s reform agenda would quickly turn out to be rather different from the largely economic reforms China itself had undertaken after 1988. (China did not regard multi-party parliamentary democracy, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and freedom of association as important for China, and within one year, Myanmar‟s press freedom was arguably ahead of China.) China‟s official reactions to the dramatic changes in Myanmar were predictably prompt and proper. China‟s response to the content of Thein Sein‟s reforms was measured but supportive. China ensured that, as it was always at pains to do, it hosted Thein Sein on an official visit to China in May 2011 to demonstrate its support for the new Myanmar leadership. xvi China‟s clear commitment at that time to a new “comprehensive strategic partnership” with Myanmar was deliberate, but also conveyed that China was not about to walk away from its longstanding strategic interests in Myanmar – as a source of energy and for access to the Indian Ocean for Chinese commercial activities (not for military purposes). Thein Sein‟s September 2012 visit to Beijing was clearly intended to show that Myanmar wished to sustain its relationship with China even though it now enjoys strengthened diplomatic ties with the United States. 10 In other words, Myanmar's transition to democracy will not change the country's traditional friendship with China, Myanmar President Thein Sein was cited as telling Chinese Vice President Xi Jinping, supposedly amid concerns in China its neighbour could become a U.S. “ally”.11 Overall, not only is Thein Sein someone who is well known in Beijing, there are no suggestions to date that Thein Sein has any doubts about China‟s continuing importance to Myanmar (despite his 9 ―China Puts US$14 billion investment into Myanmar‖, New Light of Myanmar 5 October 2012.
10
―Thein Sein Cements China Ties Before US Trip‖, The Irrawaddy, 14 September 2012.
“suspension” of the Myitsone Dam), or that any occasional “issues” between them can be resolved.,
Yet, China was certainly unhappy about the September 2011 sudden and unexpected “suspension” of its controversial Myitsone Dam on the Irrawaddy River (which had previously been agreed to by the Myanmar military regime); and by the November 2012 break-down of law and order at the Chinese-run Letpadaung copper mine in central Myanmar. Not surprisingly, China is finding that it now must treat Myanmar as a normal close friend, rather than as a special case: it has had to engage in “public diplomacy” to persuade the Myanmar media of its good intention with regard to Myanmarxvii; a succession of senior Chinese commercial leaders have been unusually visible visiting Myanmar since 2012 to meet Myanmar government leaders; and generally, China has had to shift its behaviour towards Myanmar to appear more sensitive, more compliant and less aggressive. China had expected US relations with Myanmar would improve, and probably finds this better than to have Myanmar treated as a “pariah” by the United States, as well as better than China being Myanmar‟s sole source of financial support. xviii However, China may not want Chinese and US interests in Myanmar to be reduced to crude “strategic competition”, and may see the US policy shift as “opportunistic”.xix Yet China seems to be more comfortable with gradual and limited US engagement with Myanmar than closer Japanese and Indian engagement (both of which are often driven by overt anti-China sentiment). China seems to view Japanese and Indian policies toward Myanmar as self-centred, shallow and cynical. Here again, China‟s policy approach is rather heavy-handed and reflects its own prejudices against (for example) Japan and India. This is not unlike some of China‟s other regional policies since 2010, which often seem to be “all elbows” and more indicative of changing Chinese
Seemingly, out of respect for the Myanmar government in power, China long kept its distance from Aung San Suu Kyi, although it also sought to avoid alienating Suu Kyi unnecessarily. However, Suu Kyi‟s changed political role creates an unprecedented problem for China. Now, China‟s apparent reluctance to deal directly with Aung San Suu Kyi is a significant hurdle for better relations between China and Myanmar. Contacts between the two have occurred, but they are rare and indicate that China has problems with Suu Kyi either personally or politically, or both. Suu Kyi has tried to establish publicly that she sees no barrier to maintaining close relations with China, and that believes Myanmar should be friends with both the United States and China. She has herself (publicly and privately) called for “dialogue” with China, and China‟s
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Ambassador in Yangon finally met her in December 2011, without any publicity.12 There could be many reasons for China‟s apparent unhappiness over Aung San Suu Kyi, not the least of which might include her closeness to the United States. Suu Kyi has occasionally criticized China‟s role in Myanmar (recently, over its dam construction, its unregulated mining projects, etc), but she has always been measured in the criticisms, and she has often acknowledged Myanmar‟s appreciation for China‟s support over the years. Suu Kyi‟s criticisms of China have not been without foundation, and represent her response to public attitudes about China which are widespread in Myanmar. Yet curiously, the uncompromising stance of successive Myanmar military leaders against Aung San Suu Kyi was presumably one reason for China‟s continuous calls for political stability in Myanmar. China has of course, been alert to the impact of its presence on popular attitudes in Myanmar. China has, for example, been noted engaging in “public diplomacy” in Myanmar, something they felt little need for in the past when popular attitudes did not have much impact. The Chinese Embassy has in recent years launched public relations campaigns in Burma, centred around China‟s assistance towards building village schools, medical clinics, drilling water wells and providing other community improvement projects designed to show goodwill. This resulted in China being relegated to be more on the same footing as other foreign embassies than it had been previously. 13
Japan Japan‟s relationship with Burma/Myanmar has undergone many ups and downs since Burma‟s independence. Japanese policy towards Myanmar has always been fraught with problems, because it was – at several levels – caught between conflicting policy options. Japan‟s Liberal Democratic Party, which has mostly been the governing party, has always been split over Myanmar. At different times, political and economic ties were placed under stress from different quarters, and despite Japanese sentimentality about Burma, Japan‟s recent role there has been unremarkable. During the period 1996-2010, Japan‟s commercial presence in Myanmar contracted visibly.xx
12
According to an AsiaNews IT article, ―Aung San Suu Kyi calls on Beijing to dialogue with Burmese
opposition‖, 31 May 2011. Suu Kyi commented on this directly in this article: ―Answering a question
from the South China Morning Post (SCMP) on relations with Beijing, Aung San Suu Kyi said she has
"long sought" contacts with the Chinese leadership, which "has always shunned us."
13 “Jane Perlez And Bree Feng, “China Tries to Improve Image in a Changing Myanmar”, New York Times, : 18 May 2013.
Japanese investment slumped, and the Japanese Chamber of Commerce in Yangon had only about 50 participating members in 2010. A clear statement of Japan‟s “middle-of-the-road” policy was contained in a letter from then Prime Minister Hashimoto to ASEAN in 1997.
"Japan does not feel international isolation is the optimal way for the improvement of domestic situation in Myanmar. Rather, Japan thinks it important to give Myanmar incentives to behave in line with international norms by drawing it out as a member of the international community. From that point of view, Japan appreciates ASEAN's recent agreement to grant official membership to Myanmar sometime in the future. On the other hand, Japan also thinks that ASEAN membership should not provide a smokescreen for oppression in Myanmar. Accordingly, Japan hopes that ASEAN will handle the membership issue in such a manner as to contribute to the improvement of the domestic situation in Myanmar." 14
However, once the pattern of reform in Myanmar consolidated, Japanese semi-government agencies such as the Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO) were quick to reverse their earlier cautious policies: in September 2012, JETRO opening a new Business Support Centre in Yangon – a concrete example of injecting confidence back into Myanmar-Japan commercial relations. In February 2013, on the occasion of a high-level delegation visit, the leading Japanese business organization Keidanren signed an MOU with the Union of Myanmar Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry (UMFCCI). From early 2012, Japan‟s semi-government Institute of Developing Economies (IDE) has intensified its research program on Myanmar, under the rubric of “Policy Review on Myanmar Economy” and has already produce more than 10 separate research reports. According to Myanmar immigration figures, Myanmar received more Japanese business visitors in the year t May 2013 than from any other country.xxi Leading Japanese firms re-appeared to set up their offices – a KDDI office opened April 2013, The pattern of Japanese ODA to Myanmar over this period (1996-2010) was also somewhat erratic, as political problems and political openings alternated from time to time, and Japan was forced to adjust its Myanmar aid program. Thus, after Aung San Suu Kyi‟s release in 1994 and again in 2002, the Japanese Government sought to seize opportunities to diverge from strictly humanitarian assistance to continue long-
14
Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (under Regional Affairs): http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-
paci/myanmar/myanmar.html (accessed 15 June 2013).
running but interrupted Japanese infrastructure projects, such as the upgrade of Yangon International Airport (1998-2000) and the refurbishment of Baluchaung power station (2001-03). xxii Each time this happened, Japanese intentions and solidarity were called into question. Whereas most donors to Myanmar readily share information about their ODA activities, this is not generally the case with Japan, so there is often the possibility of Japan being “out of synch”. After this patchy and changeable pattern of ODA, Japan now looks to have made some substantive long-term ODA commitments with considerable strategic importance on the basis of understandings with the Myanmar Government. These include committing to upgrade the mobile telecommunications network, to upgrade the Thilawa Special Economic zone near Yangon, and Japanese support for stock exchange. xxiii These activities are all vital to bring Myanmar‟s woefully inadequate infrastructure up to scratch. Probably only Japan would have the financial resources, technical know-how and project management and coordination capacity to undertake such ambitious projects. The benefits when they are completed will be felt across the country and will benefit the whole society. It is not really accurate to say that Japan was making a pitch for an exclusive stake in Myanmar. Nor is it correct to claim that Japan was ahead of others in committing to Myanmar. 15 What happened during the previous two decades was a steady and substantial fall-off in Japanese trade, investment and aid to Myanmar. Many Japanese firms found the overall business environment during the period of the military regime was decidedly unfriendly for profitable Japanese business; Japanese trading companies – critical as facilitators of Japanese business – had reduced their presence, the only Japanese motor vehicle manufacturing operation in Myanmar was Suzuki which withdrew from Myanmar as late as 2010; Competition with China is an underlying element of Japan‟s drive to expand its activities in Myanmar, now that the environment for such activities is more propitious. Japan has historically taken a sentimental view of Myanmar, regarding it a special area of interest, and it was always a matter of regret that politically Japan was unable to achieve its aspirations in Myanmar. However, China‟s (officially controlled) media was quick to warn that Japanese proposals for strategic alliances with SouthEast Asia were aimed at “encircling” China.16 (Perhaps reflecting a similar bias
15
―How Japan Inc Stole a March on Competitors to Enter Myanmar‖, Anton Sldkowski 16
―Chinese Media accuses Japan of attempting to ‗encircle‘ China‖, Press Trust of India quoting the
Economic Times, 30 May 2013. The article followed immediately after Japanese Prime Minister Abe‘s
high-profile visit to Myanmar the previous week.
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from their vantage point, commentators in London were speculating about Sino-US strategic competition over Myanmar.17 )
Australia The Australian Labor Party Government (2007-2013) responded promptly and positively, but cautiously to Myanmar‟s reforms. 18 After limiting the easing of its sanctions in January 2012, Australia was the first country to terminate all its economic and travel restrictions in June 2012 (this had been announced earlier by the new Foreign Minister Bob Carr in April 2012). Kevin Rudd‟s July 2011 was the first by an OECD Foreign Minister and the first visit by an Australia Foreign Minister in 9 years. Rudd himself was cautious about embracing Myanmar‟s reforms, and continued to press for urgent improvement to human rights practices.xxiv Like other countries, the Australian Government realized the need to rebuild links with Myanmar, and especially to restore business confidence after so many years of a fairly ineffectual “neither encourage nor discourage” policy on trade and investment. A trade and investment mission led by Bill Shorten, the influential Minister for Workplace Relations, and including senior representatives from eight Australia companies, visited Myanmar in October 2012. The Australian parliament actively solicited visited from both Myanmar speakers during 2012, and Australian non-government groups had promoted “second-track” exchange visits after 2010. Australia also increased its aid to Myanmar quite substantially. In quantitative terms, it already reached US$80m in 2013-14. But more significantly, as well as joining several multi-donor programs in health, livelihoods and peace support, Australia is also seeking to play a lead role in education. All of these programs are aimed at strengthening overall Myanmar capacity (government and non-government) in accordance with Myanmar‟s reform agenda. They have strong political support in Australia, and won endorsement from both the Myanmar Government and opposition. They also closely reflect Myanmar‟s considerable needs currently and looking ahead.
India How does India‟s response to Myanmar‟s reforms seem when compared to Myanmar‟s other major international partners (apart from ASEAN)?
17
Jurgen Haacke ―Myanmar; Now a Site for Sino-US Geopolitical Competition‖, in London School of Economics .
18
A new direction in Australian policy had been announced by then Foreign Minister Stephen Smith as
early as February 2010, in which the scope of Australian aid was broadened and Australian government
scholarships were provided for students from Myanmar for the first time since 1988.
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Since India‟s approach to Myanmar changed around 1993, self-interested Indian policies have generated numerous high-level visits between the two countries (political and military delegations mostly, but relatively few business delegations). Moreover, in the last 20 year, many bilateral agreements have been concluded between India which should have provided plenty of ballast for substantial productive relationships. Indeed, Indian probably had more formal agreements with Myanmar than any other country. However, India‟s policies under Prime Minister Narasimha Rao‟s quintessentially pragmatic 1993 “Look East” policy not only meant turning away from the democracy movement in Myanmar, but it also was without positive outcomes for India-Myanmar relations. All of this meant that India was left in a rather lonely position in 2011 when the Myanmar military regime relinquished power of its own accord. Over the years, Indian commentators have written extensively about “the strategic importance” to India of Myanmar, but this is largely rhetorical and based on shibboleths about the need for India to counter perceived Chinese footholds in Myanmar. However, Indian business has consistently ignored Myanmar, other than its interest in Myanmar‟s off-shore gas deposits. Moreover, cross-border trade and investment – occurring between the poorest and most inaccessible parts of both countries – is predictably small. In addition, despite having a sizeable border with Myanmar, India is the tenth largest investor in Myanmar with an investment estimated at a mere US$273.5 million in 2013 (compared to $2.3 billion in Chinese investment). In reality, the facts indicate that India‟s pro-military regime policies have not really “delivered” and indeed have disappointed many seeking a strengthening ties with Myanmar. This sad history of past India-Myanmar relations has probably complicated India‟s to responses to the Thein Sein government‟s reform program since 2011. Indian responses have been somewhat cautious, and have largely reacted to dramatic policy shifts by other countries. But neither Myanmar‟s current leaders nor India‟s current leaders can be blamed for this situation. When Indian President Manmohan Singh (who had been former Prime Minister Rao‟s close associate) visited Myanmar in May 2012, as usual a large number of bilateral agreements were signed between the two governments with the aim of fostering stronger linkages and “connectivity” between the two countries. So far India has only completed a relatively short “Friendship Highway” between Tamu (in China State) and Kalaymyo (in Sagaing State), while a much more ambitious Kaladan River infrastructure project in Rakhine State, agreed in 2008, remains unfinished and well behind schedule. An important element of
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President Manmohan Singh‟s May 2012 visit was his attendance at a forum hosted by the new Myanmar think tank, Myanmar Resources Development Institute. India‟s previous lack of principled support for political change in Myanmar was exposed more clearly than usual during Aung San Suu Kyi‟s November 2012 visit to India.xxv Suu Kyi herself had previously hinted at the disappointment she felt over India‟s policies since the mid-1990s Indian decision to shift to “engagement” with the military regime. Curiously, India‟s military cooperation with Myanmar is an undeveloped side of bilateral relations, although this is caused partly by India‟s reluctance to export lethal military materiel to Myanmar.
Conclusion It is immediately obvious that a pattern of cautious, and sometimes somewhat slow, but positive responses to the changes in Myanmar emerged from the international community, even though no organized response took place. Just as the United Nations did not initiate formal sanctions against Myanmar, so no international agency took responsibility for concerting or coordinating the international community‟s responses. Yet across the UN system – and more widely – transgressions by the military regime in “Burma” had occupied a great deal of attention throughout the United Nations over the last 20 years. Now, instead, the international financial institutions whose presence had been so missed – the World Bank, IMF and Asian Development Bank – led by example: quickly setting up their own offices in Myanmar, formulating their own medium-term assistance strategies, and agreeing on specific sectors they would each target for “rebuilding”. It was also clear that donors and developed countries in some ways were competing for an edge in offering capacity building to Myanmar, and in pursuing commercial opportunities for their own business interests. Many governments which had long boycotted trade and investment linkages with Myanmar, suddenly became ardent promoters of business in Myanmar. Not surprisingly, the Myanmar side was hard pressed to manage all these promises and opportunities. Other countries, who had never sought to isolate or punish Myanmar through unilateral sanctions, could only look on with amused irony – especially China, which had become Myanmar‟s main source of external support, and other Asian countries. In the background, however, a chorus of warnings and critical reports from human rights groups, pro-democracy activists and exiled Burmese groups continued to point out ongoing problems and abuses inside Myanmar. Some commentators and international media kept up a barrage of demands of Myanmar‟s reformers,
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reinforcing the impression that international expectations of Myanmar‟s leaders were perhaps higher than of any other country. Many of the fears and concerns being expressed were exaggerated or anticipated rather than real, but some are warranted. What is essential is that Myanmar not be distracted or diverted by these particular problems from its important nation-building reform agenda. Undeterred, on the whole, Myanmar‟s reformist leadership has adhered to its long-term ideals, struggled with unexpected realities on the ground (such as inter-communal violence), openly acknowledged its deep-seated capacity gaps, and courageously confronted awkward issues exposed by their new-found freedoms of expression, assembly and association. Remarkably, reforms are still occurring in a more open environment than ever (which is how critics can find so many activities to criticize), in a general atmosphere of stability and cooperation, and with a new realization that completing the tasks will be a long-term endeavour. Thein Sein, as well as Aung San Suu Kyi, have been amazingly active in appreciating and maintaining their international support through extensive travel schedules. (The only striking omission at this point – mid-2013 – is the absence of a visit to China by Aung San Suu Kyi. This is perhaps something that China needs to attend to.) The establishment of official representatives of the lead international financial institutions – the IBRD, the IMF and the ADB – after a gap of more than two decades is, of course, reassuring for donors generally. But their presence, and more particularly their unique ability to undertxxviake substantial cross-cutting programs with wide-ranging normative impact, are likely to become a turning point for the trend of both ODA flows and of long-awaited improved policy settings. Each of these has moved quickly to set out medium-term strategies in support of the reforms, with little obvious overlap or duplication. But they are starting virtually from a clean slate, and all donors will have to cope with the ongoing issues caused by inadequate and inaccurate data for some time. The Myanmar Government is naturally delighted with their return, and would be justified in feeling vindicated in the success so far of this home-grown transition in inducing their return. Hopefully, they will also take on board the urgent need for improved national information, beginning with the 2014 census which they committed to some time ago and which is now being undertaken with technical support from the United Nations and from donors such as Australia. Not surprisingly, the international community continues to be quite prescriptive about its expectations of Myanmar in the period ahead. In its June 2013 final report on Myanmar, for example, the Washington-based Asia Society identifies ten “challenges” ahead for Myanmar:
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1. Redefining and professionalizing the military‟s political and economic role 2. Firmly establishing the rule of law and strengthening the judicial branch 3. Protecting individual rights 4. Developing effective formulas for ethnic equality 5. Instilling social and religious tolerance 6. Rooting out corruption 7. Addressing the “missing middle,” a capacity void across the spectrum of the
government and the economy 8. Delivering the benefits of reforms to the broader population 9. Addressing land and property rights 10. Developing mechanisms for negotiating trade-offs between economic
development on the one hand, and social development and environmental protection on the other.
There is not a great deal of debate about the importance of these issues. Moreover, the Thein Sein government remains highly receptive to well-meant advice, and normally seeks to demonstrate its determination to make gradual progress towards widely agreed objectives, however awkward this might be. Fortunately, most international responses are also increasingly reflecting the need for long-term commitments of support. Donors are beginning to be more active in support programs, and are working more directly with the Thein Sein government not only though NGOs, with the objective of delivering long-term strategic progress. But critical capacity gaps in Myanmar at different stages in the “supply chain” of assistance is posing major challenge all round. And international donor agencies seem to be similarly suffering from over-crowding of their capacities to analyze, fund and manage programs and projects in Myanmar. It is significant that several of Myanmar‟s key international partners are equally interested in commercial prospects. Here they might also hope to see positive progress on reforms, including above all the political reforms that should bring improved governance, transparency and accountability. But the high level of commercial risk associated with Myanmar – which is currently a hot topic among prominent business analysts – means that trade and investment may not flow as quickly as some expect, especially if media reporting of domestic problems is exaggerated or melodramatic and sets off “alarm bells” among prospective business partners. It may turn out to be important that international donor community avoids falling into the trap of prematurely arriving at a mass conviction that Myanmar has failed, when it is just struggling to cope.
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Notes i G-8 Summit Statement, Camp David, 18-19 May 2012, para 35. ii See Johanna Son ―Donors Urged to Tread Carefully in Myanmar‖, 14 October 2012, Inter Press Service.
iii “A moment in history no one could imagine”, Burma News International ,Written by Tom Stuart, Tuesday, 18 September 2012. http://www.bnionline.net/index.php/analysis/13733-a-moment-in-history-no-one-could-imagine-.html iv See for example, Calibrating U.S. policy on Burma Link: http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/calibrating-us-policy-on-burma/2013/05/18/45cf6ca8-bf05-11e2-97d4-a479289a31f9_story.html. v Clapp, Priscilla. ―US policy toward Burma in the Post-Election Era‖ 2011.
Simon Roughneen ―Trade and Investment Key Issues During Thein Sein‘s US Visit‖, The Irrawaddy, 21 May
2013.
viii
―Myanmar is a High Risk, High Reward Investment‖, McKinsey, June 2013. ix See Alex Spillius “UK opens trade office as Western firms eye Burma riches”, Telegraph, 12 July 2012. x Link: https://www.gov.uk/government/world-location-news/uk-trade-minister-lord-green-to-visit-burma
xi Sponsored by the London-based Institute for Human Rights and Business and the Danish Aid Agency, Danida. Link: http://www.ihrb.org/news/2013/myanmar-centre-for-responsible-business.html xii
See Reuters article following a visit to Myanmar by Development Commissioner Andris Piebalgs. ―EU offers aid,
review of sanctions after talks with president‖.
xiii
―EU mulls lifting Burma sanctions‖, Agence France Presse (AFP), 18 January 2012.
xiv The full abolition of sanctions would await a formal EU decision a year later. xv
Derek Tonkin putting the case against sanctions as chair of Network Myanmar 2012. xvi
See reports on signing of a "comprehensive strategic cooperation partnership" agreement.
xvii Jane Perlez and Bree Feng, “China Tries to Improve Image in a Changing Myanmar”, New York Times, 18 May 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/19/world/asia/under-pressure-china-measures-its-impact-in-myanmar.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 xviii
David Steinberg, ―China counter-pivots on Myanmar‖, Asiatimes Online 18 March 2013.
xx Kudo, Toshihiro “Myanmar and Japan: How Close Friends Become Estranged”, IDE Discussion Paper. No. 118. 2007.8 Institute of Developing Economies, JETRO xxi
Patrick Strefford, ―Japanese ODA diplomacy towards Myanmar: A Test for the ODA Charter‖, Ritsumeikan
Annual Review of International Studies, 2007. Vol.6, pp. 65-77.
xxiii Slodkowski, Antoni. “Daiwa looks to lead $380 million investment in Myanmar”, Reuters, 23 July 2012. xxiv Kevin Rudd, “First signs that Burma will improve human rights”, The Australian 14 October 2011. Link: www.foreignminister.gov.au/articles/2011/kr_ar_111014.html
xxv
Andrew Buncombe, ―Did India betray democracy in Burma?‖, The Independent (New Delhi), November 2012.
The World Bank‘s Board of Executive Directors endorsed an Interim Strategy for Myanmar in November 2012;
the Asian Development Bank developed an interim country partnership strategy (ICPS) for Myanmar for the period
2012–2014 in October 2012.
See: http://www.adb.org/countries/myanmar/strategy; in December 2012 the IMF announced a Staff-Monitored
Program during January-December 2013.
References Asia Society. Advancing Myanmar's Transition: A Way Forward for U.S. Policy, by Priscilla Clapp and Susan di Maggio. Washington DC: 2011. Egreteau, Renaud. “India and China Vying for Influence in Burma – A New Assessment”, India Review, Vol 7, Issue 1, 2008. pages 38-72. Kudo Toshihiro. “Myanmar and Japan: How Close Friends Become Estranged”, Institute of Developing Economies Discussion Paper No 118, August 2007. Myoe, Maung Aung, In the Name of Pauk-Phaw – Myanmar’s China Policy Since 1948. Singapore: ISEAS (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies), 2011. Seekins, Donald M. “Burma and U.S. Sanctions: Punishing an Authoritarian Regime”, Asian Survey, Vol. 45, No. 3 (May/June 2005), pp. 437-452. Steinberg,D.I. “Aung San Suu Kyi and U.S. Policy toward Burma/Myanmar”, Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, Vol 29 No 3, 2010.
Steinberg,D.I. “Burma: Feel-Good US Sanctions Wrongheaded“, Yale Global Online, 2004. http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/burma-feel-good-us-sanctions-wrongheaded Steinberg, David and Fan, Hongwei. Modern China-Myanmar Relations Dilemmas of Mutual Dependence, Copenhagen: NIAS (Nordic Institute of Asian Studies) Press, 2012.
Rohingya is not the case of Citizenship but that of Human Rights
(An Ethnic attempt to solve the Rohingya Crisis)
Prof. Kanbawza Win
formerly, the Foreign Affairs Secretary to the Prime Minister of Burma Kanbawza Win, (a) Prof. Ba Thann Win Ph.D. the incumbent dean of the AEIOU (All Ethnic
International Open University) programme in Chiang Mai University (Thailand) is formerly, the Foreign Affairs Secretary to the Prime Minister of Burma, when he joined the pro democracy
movement in 1988 and identified himself with the dissident groups in Diaspora.
He has worked in the University of Manitoba, Institute of Socials Science & Humanities
and later accepted the post of a Distinguished Visiting Professor at MSC, University of
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
He was called by the European Institute of Asian Studies, EU, Brussels, for sometimes before joining his better half in Thailand to inaugurate a Burmese University in Diaspora.
He had served as an Adjunct Professor at Simon Fraser University of British Columbia,
Canada. He has written several books and numerous articles on Burma. His writings and
speeches can be seen in the internet.
__________________________________
Executive Summary
This paper analyses the Rohingya issue as having a historical foundation. It has received global attention in fits and starts, whenever it has contributed towards destabilizing either existing or emerging power configurations in the region. Several articles are available on line putting their respective hypothesis and arguments but there is not a single party attempting to find the solution as one always blames the other. The Burmese Government sponsored Official Rakhine Committee is not so helpful either. This is an attempt to find the conflict resolution to at least stop the human rights violations and later to sort out the problem piece by piece. The paper traces the history of these migrant Rohingya from the Treaty of Yandabo ( & EWWWWWydkpmcskyf) signed on Feb.24th 1826 and listsfive solid reasons of why the Rohingya became stateless. He also highlighted the xenophobic Myanmar attitude (r[m jrefrm) towards the Non Myanmar ethnic nationalities and spearheaded by the various Burmese administrations and implemented by the Tatmadaw (Burmese Army) including the on- going ethnic cleansing policies. The paper also dissects the Rohingya community, the simple poor farmers and working people against the elites in Diaspora fanned by the foreign intelligentsia to carve out the Arakan border area with Bangladesh, as something distinct, in order to have a place in the sun. Hence, the responsibility for the outbreak of the crisis should be shared equally by these self -appointed Rohingya activists as well as the Arakanese Buddhist zealots with the military hardliners and the ruling party controlling from behind. The conspicuous aspect of this piece is that the crisis is placed in the backdrop of Burmese National Identity Crisis with the international communities and the United Nations scrutinising the country’s change from military dictatorship to democracy. Economics, trade and business which are the components of Realpolitik will decide the fate of the Rohingya and it is suggested that a compromise solution in which both the Rohingya and the quasi military administration including the Arakanese Buddhist can came out with dignity.
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1. Introduction
Modern Burma since its inception in 1948 had to grapple the issue of the people now calling themselves as
―Rohingyas‖ even though an average Burmese have barely heard this word. They are the people of Mayu Frontier
area adhering the Muslim faith (present-day Buthidaung and Maungdaw Townships of Arakan State) somewhat
isolated province in the western part of the country across Naaf River as boundary between Burma and Bangladesh. 1
The Rohingya issue has historical foundations, but it has only received global attention in fits and starts,
whenever it has contributed towards destabilizing either existing or emerging power configurations in the region. In
this sense, the interest in the new influx of Rohingyas into Bangladesh in June 2012, a trend that continues to date, is
connected to the broader politics of Burma‘s democratic ‗opening‘. The new refugees are fleeing bloody clashes
between the Muslim Rohingya and Rakhine Buddhists as armed gangs from both communities go for each other
throat while the Burmese security forces have stood by watching or, in some cases, targeting the Rohingya siding
with the Rakhine Buddhist.
Lots of articles are available on line putting their respective hypothesis and arguments for pro or against the
Rohingyas both by the Burmese nationals and foreigners. Some of them are well intentioned to find the truth but
most of the antagonist sides especially written by the Bangladeshi intellectuals are pro Rohingyas while the
Buddhists both Arakanese and Burmese nationals put up their arguments with no end in sight. But there is not a
single paper attempting to find the solution as one always blames the other.
The present paper is just a humble attempt to solve this problem taking into consideration of the national
sovereignty of Burma, as well as the humanitarian conditions of the these people categorize by the UN as the most
persecuted people of the world. The term ―Rohingya‖ came into use in the 1950s by the educated Bengali residents
from the Mayu Frontier Area, while most Burmese have not heard it before 1950.2 But there were claims that the
term "Rohingya" comes from Rohang, the Rohingya word for the Arakan state much earlier.3
2. The First Cause of Statelessness
(The British Colonialist Instigation of Mass Migration of Chittagonians)
After the first Anglo Burmese War (5 March 1824 – 24 February 1826) the British occupied Arakan, the
Western part of the country which was very scarcely populated 4 At that time the fertile land of Kaladan and Lemro
Valleys germinated nothing but wild plants.5 The British policy was to encourage the Bengali inhabitants from the
more populated Chittagong areas to migrate into fertile valleys in Arakan as agriculturalists which later produced
high-yield paddy fields. As the British East India Company extended the administration of Bengal to Arakan, there
was no international boundary yet between the two countries and no restriction was imposed on the emigration. A
superintendent, later an assistant commissioner, directly responsible to the Commissioner of Bengal, was sent in
1828 for the administration of Arakan Division, which was divided into three districts respectively: Akyab,
Kyaukpyu, and Sandoway with an assistant commissioner in each district.6 Therefore many hundreds, indeed
thousands of coolies came from the Chittagong District by land and by sea, to seek labor and high wages.7 By 1879,
the descendants of the coolies are already resident for the most part in the Kyauktaw and Myohaung (Mrauk-U)
townships, while Maungdaw Township has been overrun by Chittagonian immigrants. Buthidaung is not far behind
and new arrivals will be found in almost every part of the district.8
At first most of them came to Arakan as seasonal agricultural laborers and went home after the harvest was
done. R. B. Smart estimated the number at about twenty-five thousand during the crop-reaping season alone. He
added that about the same number came to assist in plowing operations, to work at the mills and in the carrying
trades. A total of fifty thousand immigrants coming annually were probably not far from the mark.9 This is also
because the colonial administration of India (at that time there was no East Pakistan or Bangladesh) regarded the
Bengalis as amenable subjects while finding the indigenous Arakanese too defiant raising in rebellion in 1830.10
The
flow of Chittagonian labour is the main impetus to the economic development in Arakan and within a few decades
along with the opening of regular commercial shipping lines between Chittagong and Akyab became an economic
success. The arable land expanded for four and half times between 1830 and 1852 and Akyab became one of the
major rice exporting cities of the world. Indeed during the century of British colonial rule the Chittagonian
immigrants became the numerically dominant ethnic group in the Mayu Frontier region. Thus the origin of
Chittagonian immigrants became Rohingya. (Please see Annex I)
During the colonial period the anti- Indian riots broke out in Burma because of the resentment against
unhindered Indian settlements particularly in Arakan, Tenasserim and Lower Burma (Yegar 1992:29-31). But those
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81
riots that took place in Rangoon and other major cities in 1926 and 1938 never had had any effects on the peoples of
Arakan. A peaceful coexistence was possible for the two different religious, ethnic groups in the Mayu Frontier till
the beginning of the World War II. British administration to a certain extent gave the Muslim village communities
religious and cultural autonomy. So the new comers from the Chittagong District set up their village communities in
the frontier area. They occupied the villages deserted by the Arakanese during the Burmese rule and established
purely Muslim village communities. The village committee authorized by the Village Amendment Act of 1924
paved the way for the Imam (In Burma it is called Moulovi) and the trusteeship committee members of the village
mosque to be elected to the village council. They were also allowed to act as the village magistrates and Shariah was
somewhat in effect in the Muslim villages11
. At least the Islamic court of village had the jurisdiction over familial
problems such as marriage, inheritance and divorce. There was no internal sense of unrighteousness and presence of
nonbelievers in their community, and accordingly they believe no internecine struggle was for the time being
necessary.
After the Yandabo Treaty, (the end of the hostilities between Britain and Burma on 24th
Feb. 1826) the
British endeavour to take a sort of a census in the late 1851 to see how many ethnic races were their subjects
residing in Burma, 12
it listed nearly 200 ethnic races but did not categorise the immigrants from Chittagong as an
ethnic race because they essentially came from Chittagong and speak the same language and maintain their own
customs and laws which are all peaceful and co existing. This became the basis of the 1982 Citizenship Act. This act
states that as per the Treaty of Yandabo, signed during the First Anglo-Burmese war, anybody who was not a part of
Burmese kingdom, he/she and his/her descendents cannot be given the citizenship of Burma.13
3. The Second Cause of Statelessness
(The British promise an independent country to the Muslims)
In the Second World War together with the Japanese army came Bogyoke Aung San and the legendary 30
comrades the embryo of the Burma Independence Army. The British shows a clean pair of heels and withdrew to
India and when the British administration was withdrawn to India in 1942 the Arakanse hoodlums began to attack
the Muslim villages in southern Arakan and the Muslims fled to the north where they took vengeance on the
Arakanese in Buthidaung and Maungdaw townships.14
Hundreds of Muslim inhabitants of Southern Arakan fled northward, and that there were cases of robbing
the Indian refugees on the Padaung-Taungup pass over the Arakan Yoma mountain ranges after the retreat of the
British from the Pegu Division and southern Arakan. The British left all these areas to the mercy of both Burmese
and Arakanese dacoits. Most of the estimated 900,000 Indians including several Rohingyas living in Burma
attempted to walk over to India…100,000 died at the time. Practically all Indians except those who were not
physically fit were utterly helpless, began to move from place to place in search of safety and protection until they
could reach India.15
The Japanese air force attacked Akyab on 23 March 1942 and the British moved their
administrative headquarter to India on March 30th
. The administration by martial law began in Akyab District on 13
April 1942 and with this racial tension burst to the surface, giving way to the public disorder. 16
The British were desperate and tried to marshal the support of the majority Muslims in that area to resist the
Japanese promising them an independent country in that area once the allies win. It tried to raise the Volunteer
Force. The V Force, as it is called by the British Army, was formed in 1942 soon after the Japanese operations
threatened the British position in India. Its principal role was to undertake guerrilla operations against Japanese, to
collect information of the enemy‘s movements and to act as interpreters. But the volunteers, instead of fighting the
Japanese, destroyed Buddhist monasteries and Pagodas and burnt down the houses in the Arakanese villages.17
They
killed the deputy commissioner of Akyab District and then massacred thousands of Arakanese civilians in the towns
and villages.
For most of the Chittagonians (who later will claim to be Rohingyas) it was a religious issue that would
necessarily lead to the creation of a Dah-rul-Islam, or at least to being united with their brethren in the west. It also
aimed at the extirpation of the Arakanese or being forced them to migrate to the south where there were
overwhelming majority of Arakanese Buddhists. The events during the war contributed the Chittagonians‘
immigrants later became known as Rohingya fervent sense of alienation from the heterogeneous community of the
Arakan. Probably the dream of an independent country in this Muslim enclave was kept alive by these Chittagong
immigrants that give rise to the fate of Rohingyas now. Hence the first culprit was the British colonialist. Just like
the Arab-Israel conflict it was the British that started the flame of the conflict when it promised both to the Jews and
the Palestinians a homeland if they fought the Germans from their side.
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82
4. The Third Cause of Statelessness
(No allegiance to the Union of Burma)
Arakan was actually an independent kingdom with a king of its own until the Myanmar king Bodawpaya
annexed the country in 1784 and inflicted much cruelty carrying away the pride of the Arakanese Buddhist, the
image of Mahar Myamunni.18
Several Arakan Nationalist ran away to India and when the British occupied Arakan
they came back to their native land. However, the British had already installed a Zamindary System in which the
Bengali landowners were given thousands of acres of arable land on ninety-year-leases.19
The Arakanese peasants
who fled the Burmese rule and came back home after British annexation were deprived of the land that they
formerly owned through inheritance. Nor did the Bengali zamindars (landowners) want the Arakanese as tenants on
their land. Hence there was much resentment by the local people. Thousands of Bengali peasants from Chittagong
District were brought to cultivate the soil.20
Most of the Bengali immigrants were influenced by the Fara- i-di
movement in Bengal that propagated the ideology of the Wahhabis of Arabia, which advocated settling ikhwan or
brethren in agricultural communities near to the places of water resources. The peasants, according to the teaching,
besides cultivating the land should be ready for waging a holy war upon the call by their lords.21
For the
convenience of Chittagonians seasonal laborers the Arakan Flotilla Company constructed a railway between
Buthidaung and Maungdaw in 1914. Their initial plan was to connect Chittagong by railway with Buthidaung, from
where the Arakan Flotilla steamers were ferrying to Akyab and other towns in central and southern Arakan. 22
After the third Anglo Burmese War, the county was finished as a sovereign state, on Feb 26th 1887 Burma
became part of the British India, and Arakan was absorbed into Bengal state , so these Bengali immigrants feel quite
at home in Arakan. So also the Tavoynian residing in of Tenasserim were placed under the Commissioner of Penang
(now Malaysia).23
However, the world was moving on. The First World War came in 1914 and some of the British
Burma troops saw action in Mesopotamia and many of the Burmese youth‘s eyes were opened and the nationalist
movement in Burma was germinating.
It should be noted that all the Chittagonians and all the Muslims are categorized as Mohamedan in the
census reports. There was an increase of 206.67 percent in Mahomedan population in the Akyab District and it was
clear that only a few numbers of the transient agricultural laborers went home after the plowing and harvesting
seasons and most of them remained in Arakan, making their homes.24
The heyday of the migration was in the second
half of the nineteenth century after opening of the Suez Canal, for the British colonialists needed more labor to
produce rice which was in growing demand in the international market. In the 1921 Census, many Muslims in
Arakan were listed as Indians.25
But the colonial admiration had repealed the traditional patron-client relationship in the Arakanese villages
and the unanimously elected village headman had little influence on the elected village council because of the
British government policy of forbidding the village headman to take part in the activities related to the nationalist
movements.26
The Buddhist monks were vigorously active in the movements just like today. On the other hand
British administration to a certain extent gave the Muslim village communities religious and cultural autonomy. 27
In 1931, the Simon Commission was appointed by the British Parliament to enquire the opinion of Burmese
people for the constitutional reforms and on the matter of whether Burma should be separated from Indian Empire.
The spokesperson of the Muslim League advocated for fair share of government jobs, ten percent representation in
all public bodies, and especially in Arakan the equal treatment for Muslims seeking agricultural and business
loans.28
But in education, the Chittagonians immigrants were left behind the Arakanese throughout the colonial
period. According to the census of 1901 only 4.5 percent of the Bengali Muslims were found to be literate while the
percentage for the Arakanese was 25.5. Smart reported that it was due to the ignorance of the advantages of the
education among the Chittagonian agriculturists. Especially Butidaung and Maungdaw were reported to be most
backward townships because the large Muslim population in that area mostly agriculturalists showed little interest in
education. In 1894 there were nine Urdur schools with 375 students in the whole district.29
However, towards the middle of twentieth century a new educated and politically conscious younger
generation had superseded the older, inactive ones. In the period of the independence movement in Burma in 1920s
and 1930s when Bogyoke Aung San and his colleagues were active in independence movement, the Muslims from
the Mayu Frontier were more concerned with the progress of Muslim League in India. . This clearly proved that
their mentality is not with the Union of Burma but rather with the Muslims of India and from this thesis alone they
did not qualify in the ethnic nationalities of the Union of Burma.30
Before the beginning of the Second World War a
political party, Jami-a-tul Ulema-e Islam was founded under the guidance of the Islamic scholars. Islam became the
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83
ideological basis of the party.
31 The delegation went over to Mohammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan,
commonly called as Quaid-e-Azam (the great leader) and requested Ali Jinnah to take this Muslim enclave of
Buthidaung, Maungdaw and Ratheedaung into East Pakistan, as India and Pakistan were partitioned officially on 15
August 1947. They adopted the policy of irredentism in favor of joining East Pakistan with the slogan, ―Pakistan
Jindabad,‖ (Victory to Pakistan).32
Ali Jinnah replied that he had got enough problems in fighting for the dignity of
Muslim of India and turned it down.33
Evidently the Chittagonian Muslims were haunted by the specter of their
future living under the infidel rule in the place where the baneful Arakanese are also living. This policy faded away
when they could not gain support from the government of Pakistan. It also clearly proved that the Rohingya have
no inclination to be in the Union of Burma and is not one of the ethnic tribes of the Union.34
5. The Fourth Cause of Statelessness
(The Mujahid/Rohingya Muslim Rebellion)
After the central government refused to grant a separate Muslim state in the two townships, Buthidaung
and Maungdaw that lie along the East Pakistani (present-day Bangladeshi) border, Chittagonian from North Arakan
declared the jihad on Burma. They called themselves Mujahid. The name means "the founder and defender of
Islamic law" in Sunni Islam. In the early years of independence i.e. before 50s the words ―Rohingya‖ was not
popular yet and instead use this word ―Mujahid‖. Their revolt was intended to convert northern Arakan, especially
Buthidaung and Maungdaw Townships, into Dar al-Islam, the region under Muslim sovereignty where the Islamic
law prevails. Today these Rohingya Organizations still see the territory as Dar al-Harb, the territory of the Holy
War, and they believe that it is their obligation to wage Jihad on the Union of Burma. During the World War II, the
Arakanese inhabitants of Buthidaung and Maungdaw were forced to leave their homes. Even though the British
administration was re-established after the war, the Arakanese were unable to return to their homes.35
This tantamount to a direct affront and open challenge to the lawful authority of the Burma Government by
the migrated Chittagonians Muslim Community of Buthidaung and Maungdaw e Townships whose economic
invasion of this country was fostered during the British regime and dawn upon the Burmese government that unless
it deal with firmly and severely this alien community will rise again. Prime Minister U Nu and the Supreme
Commander of the Burmese Army, Lieutenant General Smith Dun, (at that time Ne Win has not replaced General
Smith Dun yet) to Akyab in October of 1948. It illuminates that the local officials in East Pakistan provided
information and aid to the insurgents from across the border. The Sub-Divisional Officer and the Township Officer
from Cox's Bazaar reportedly supplied the Muslim guerrillas with arms and ammunition. The wounded rebels were
apparently able to obtain treatment from the hospital in Cox's Bazaar. According to the report of the Deputy
Commissioner of Chittagong Hill Tracts, both the commissioner and the Burmese officials were informed that the
two Mujahid leaders, Jaffar Meah and Omra Meah, were hiding in Balukhali village in East Pakistan, near to the
Burmese border.36
The main financial source of the Mujahid Party was the smuggling of rice from Arakan to East Pakistan.
Their actions were part of an encompassing strategy to prevent the government forces from enforcing the prohibition
on exporting rice. To solve the problem of this rice shortage in the Chittagong District of East Pakistan, regional
officials seem to have sought cooperation with the Mujahid leaders. For many years the Mujahid Party leaders
monopolized this smuggling of rice across the border. The main objective of the rebellion was to absorb the western
frontier of Burma into East Pakistan. On May 18, 1949, The Hindustan Standard newspaper, reported the following
news about the Mujahids:
"A dangerous aspect of this fighting is its international aspect: the Moslem insurgents have been carrying
the Pakistani flag, and many of them clamor for the incorporation of this end of Arakan with Pakistan. The
great majority of Arakan Moslems are said to be really Pakistanis from Chittagong, even if they have been
settled here for a generation. Out of the 130,000 here, 80,000 are still Pakistani citizens."
These guerrilla operations are less a Muslim insurrection against the government than "communal action" against
the Arakanese - a prolongation of the Muslim-Buddhist riots of 1942. The Moslems, natives of Chittagong in what is
now part of Pakistan - fear oppression by the Arakanese. These Muslims are intensely clannish less than a million
strong, hate their Buddhist kith and kin, and are afraid of losing their identity in the growing Chittagongese
population coming in every day. Neither trusts the other.
But the cooperation between Burma and Pakistan improved the situation at the border after the instructions
from Karachi were strictly enforced. In order to advance their joint operation and communications, an agreement
was reached for the establishment of a Pakistani Consulate in Akyab and a Burmese Consulate in Chittagong. The
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84
Burmese Army mount a major offensive and all the towns and major cities under the control of the rebels were
recaptured. The Mujahid/Rohingya rebellion lasted one more decade until the Mujahid/Rohingya Party surrendered
in 1960. Then in 1962 the Tatmadaw (Burmese army) came to power with General Ne Win who embarked upon a
xenophobic policy of Myanmarnization with its Burmese Way to Socialism taking the country to the status of the
Least Developed Country of the world. All foreigners‘ particularly Indian origin whether Hindu or Muslim was
single out and deported to India and Pakistan.
6. East Pakistan Became Bangladesh
Then in 1971 came the Bangladesh War of Liberation (Bengali: Muktijuddho) which resulted in the
creation of Bangladesh as a sovereign state from East Pakistan. The war pitted East Pakistan and India against West
Pakistan and lasted over duration of nine months. It is one of the most violent wars of the 20th century and witness
large scale exodus of 10 million refugees and displaced 30 million. Obviously, many of those from Chittagong fled
to Arakan swelling the population of the existing Chittagonians and even after the war is over most of the people
went back a few remain as the grass is much greener on this side of the border. Soon the elite Chittagonians
immigrants began to complain that the term ―Chittagonian Bengali‖ had arbitrarily been applied to them however
the majority of the migrant Chittagonians were being illiterate agriculturalists in the rural areas still prefers their
identity as Bengali Muslims.
In 1973, Ne Win‘s Revolutionary Council sought public opinion for drafting a new Socialist Constitution.
The Muslims from the Mayu Frontier submitted a proposal to the Constitution Commission for the creation of
separate Muslim state or at least a division for them.37
Their proposal was again turned down. When elections were
held under the 1974 Constitution the Bengali Muslims from the Mayu Frontier Area were denied the right to elect
their representatives to the ―Pyithu Hlut-taw‖ (People‘s Congress). After the end of the Independence War in
Bangladesh some arms and ammunitions flowed into the hands of the young Muslim leaders from Mayu Frontier.
On 15 July 1972 a congress of all Rohingya parties was held at the Bangladeshi border to call for the ―Rohingya
National Liberation.‖38
This became the last straw for Dictator Ne Win, who launched the operation Na Gar Min (Dragon King)
on February 6, 1978 starting first in the village of Sakkipara in Akyab district, where there were mass arrest and
torture of alleged collaborators and sympathizers of the Mujahid rebels. Over three months, approximately 200,000
to 250,000 Muslims, consisting mainly Rohingya fled to neighboring Bangladesh, where the government of
Bangladesh offered them shelter in makeshift camps. The United Nations recognized them as refugees and began a
relief operation. Officially, this campaign aimed at 'scrutinising each individual living in the state, designating
citizens and foreigners in accordance with the law and taking actions against foreigners who have filtered into the
country illegally'. In practice, this meant mass killings of Rohingya civilians, rape, torture, religious persecution and
more. Rohingya children were killed for no greater an offense than the mother failing to show proper identity cards.
More than 200,000 Rohingyas fled the country into Bangladesh during this time.
The arrival of so many refugees in an overpopulated Bangladesh has strained the relations between the two
countries and Bangladesh govt. Appeal to the UN for assistance. 13 refugee camps were established
7. The Fifth Cause of Statelessness
(Raison d'être of Bangladesh Disowning the Rohingyas) During the Independence War of Bangladesh most of the Muslims in Arakan including several
Chittagonians supported West Pakistan. Naturally when Bangladesh gained independence Dhaka followed the
policy of disowning those immigrant Chittagonians. So the elite Chittagonians immigrants have had no choice but
to insist firmly on their identity as Rohingyas. A bilateral agreement between Burma and Bangladesh in July 1978
was concluded in which the Rohingya were repatriated and by 1979 more than 180,000 had returned to Burma. In an
attempt to improve the condition of the refugee the UNHCR spend $7 million and in 1982 new citizenship law was
promalgamated with three classes of citizenship and most of the Rohingyas were not qualified for it.
But it is a fact that Burma‘s successive military regimes persisted in the same policy of denying Burmese
citizenship to most of the Bengalis immigrants, especially in the frontier area. They stubbornly grasped the 1982
Citizenship Law that allowed only the ethnic groups who had lived in Burma before the First Anglo-Burmese War
began in 1824 as the citizens of the country. By this law those Muslims had been treated as aliens in the land they
have inhabited for more than a century.39
According to the 1983 census report all Muslims in Arakan constituted
Burma has vigorously carried on their ethnic cleansing policy all these years and since Rohingya are not even
recognize as one of the ethnic nationalities has embarked on their persecution.
In the abortive 1988 Democracy Uprising, the persecution in Burma capture the world media headlines
followed by Daw Aung San Suu Kyi attaining the Nobel Peace Prize, and so it was during the height of the ethnic
cleansing that the intellectuals of the Chittagonian migrants sympathizers together with some Bangladeshis
intelligentsia and political elite of these immigrants embarked on the identity of Rohingya and blew it to
unprecedented level what in Burmese we say (awmrD;avmifawma=umifvufckyfwD; ) meaning the wild cat take
the advantage when a wild fire broke out as it can easily pick out its prey. 55
In fact the term Rohingya is an old wine in a new bottle. What the Rohingya expert Jacques P Leider label
as
―An old noun in a new label. Old exceedingly rare in both Western and Asian sources---- unfamiliar to a
large part of the Muslim community of Arakan that is supposed to name.‖ 56
Even as I am writing this, most if not all of the Rohingya highlighting case was done in Al Jeezera (a Muslim News
Agency) by the Bangladeshi Professors, so it is no wonder that a Bengali will lobby for the Bengali immigrant and
supported by the Muslim News Agencies was very obvious and no wonder is abhorred by the Rakhine Buddhist.
The military regime launched another military operation mounted by the Burmese military in 1991-92
aiming at these Chittagonians immigrants, where more than 250,000 fled again to Bangladesh and the UN set up
some 20 refugee camps. The return of these refugees was again carried out by bilateral agreement. But by 1993
Burma has allowed the presence of UNHCR. The Arakanese construe that they fabricated the name Rohingya to
take advantage of the prevailing situation of the country especially in Arakan state, obviously any fabrication or
distortion done knowingly and willfully is a crime and is punishable by law. It was the common people that fled by
the thousands in 1996-97 and this time Bangladesh forcibly repatriated them until the UN intervene. As of 1999
some 22,000 refugees are still in Bangladesh.
Subsequently when the military Junta allowed the registration of the political parties they asked for their
parties to be recognized under the name ―Rohingya.‖ Their demand was turned down and they changed tactics and
formed a party, the National Democratic Party for Human Rights (NDPHR) that won in four constituencies in 1990
elections as eleven candidates of the Arakan League for Democracy (ALD) were elected to the legislature. However,
the Elections Commission abolished both the ALD and the NDPHR in 1991. Some of the party members went
underground and into exile. Recently, the main objectives of the movement of some groups have been to gain the
recognition of their ethnic entity in the Union of Burma and to obtain the equal status enjoyed by other ethnic
groups, even though some elements have adopted the radical idea of founding a separate Muslim state. The
following are the Rohingya organizations currently active on the Burma-Bangladesh border:-
1. RSO (Rohingya Solidarity Organization)
2. ARIF (Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front)
3. RPF (Rohingya Patriotic Front)
4. RLO (Rohingya Liberation Organization)
5. IMA (Itihadul Mozahadin of Arakan) 57
10. Dissecting Rohingya Community
(The elites and the mass)
There are two categories of Rohingyas, one, the majority if not nearly 90% of them are farmers, retailers,
petty traders and the working people most of whom can speak only Bengali and little or no education or knowledge
about Burma or the world. They lead a simple, contented life and want to live peacefully in their own place and have
little or no ambition, quiet happy with their way of life and the majority of them have no qualms when people called
them as Bengali Muslims or Kalar, the name which they have inherited traditionally indicating the place where they
came from. 58
A great many of them have not heard the word Rohingya and did not have the slightest idea what is all
about driven out of their traditional homes, or why they cannot live their peaceful life anymore as their predecessors.
The only thing they know is that they have become unbearable because of the Burmese security forces and the
unjust laws which were bestowed on them by the Burmese military in cooperation with the Rakhine neighbours.
The other less than 5% of the people are the elites and the radicals living either in Bangladesh, India,
Middle East and the West as most of the activists are. They want to have a finger in a big pie called the Union of
Burma, if not in the world. Considering themselves as distinct from the neighbouring Rakhines the want to make
their presence felt, and their golden chance came when General New Win started its ethnic cleansing policy not only
to the Rohingyas but to every ethnic who is not Myanmar. As describe earlier the educated one began to call
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89
themselves as Rohingya which the majority of the Burmese construe that it was first used only at the beginning only
in the 50s, was now very much highlighted.
Besides the big question that can be asked to the majority of the self style Rohingyas is what they have
done during their stay in Burma? Have they worked persistently and prominently for their people? Now, only in
Diaspora they are making a hue and cry with the help of their Bangladeshi counterparts. It seems that these self style
Rohingyas aided by their Bangladeshi counterparts are more of a problem than a solution.
In fact during the civilian government of U Nu, the first President Sao Shwe Thaik has recognize these
Muslims as one of the ethnic races but not confine to Rohingya only, many Muslims like Kaman and others are and
were bona fide ethnic Muslims and have not problems living in Arakan their traditional homeland up to this day.
Only when the new foreign word of “Rohingya” was coined it became problematic. Thus their demand for the
recognition of their rights sounds a direct challenge to the right of autonomy and the myth of survival for the
Arakanese majority in their homeland. 59
For example in the Rohingya Manifesto of the Arakan Rohingya National
Organization (ARNO) they refer to Arakan as Rohang indicating that Rakhine word which is universally accepted as
Arakanese does not exist.60
In other words to an average man it can be interpreted that all Rakhine people who is
acknowledge by the other ethnic nationalities and Myanmar must be compelled to call them as Rohang.
On the other hand most of these Diaspora Rohingya are radicals and know only what they want resembling
something like an empty vessels that makes the most sound e.g. they are suspected to be the ones that put up the fake
pictures of Tibetan earthquake victims as Rohingyas being killed by the Rakhine Buddhists circulated on social
networks is but one example of how these zealots Diaspora Rohingya ended up causing them more harm than good. 61
These Diaspora Rohingya highlight the Rohingya case so much that groups hitherto unknown suddenly
noticed the existence of the Rohingya crisis and one of them was the Taliban. A spokesman for Taliban made threats
to Burma over the treatment of the Rohingya, and an Al Qaeda spokesperson later did the same. Having these
extreme terrorist organisations speaking up for the Rohingya played exactly into the hands of the racist nationalists
in Burma who are now busy stirring up anti-Muslim and anti-Rohingya sentiments. Already from the beginning of
the violence these nationalists have been calling Rohingya as terrorists, now link Rohingya with terrorists Al Qaeda. 62
In other countries, such as Belgium, extremist Muslim organisations supporting the cause of the Rohingya
has led some in that country to be cautious about supporting the Rohingya, for fear of being associated with this
extremism. On January 19th
Iran‘s Press TV quoted an Iranian MP saying an agreement had been reached for Iran to
set up a refugee camp in Burma for Rohingya people displaced by violence last year. It also reported that Iran was
putting forward a proposal on the Rohingya situation. Help from an authoritarian regime like Iran‘s, a major violator
of human rights of its own people, is an example of the kind of help the Rohingya could do without.63
Once and for
all, especially to the people of the Burma and the world Rohingya is somewhat related to terrorism.
Another aspect is that very few people except in the major cities of Burma knew about them. To them they
are just some Kalars causing trouble and let the government, whoever is in power, takes the necessary actions. To
the majority of the people of Burma the word Rohingya is an alien word trying to bestowed on them and some sort
of Islamic imperialism and have little or no sympathy for them. In fact they are being suspected of drawing up not
only the other local Muslims on their side but also the international Islamic community such as Arab and IOC for
help as they go shouting out for help and justice.
Besides most of these so called self appointed Rohingya leaders are radicals and extremist and have no
inkling for compromise or vision for the long term.64
In fact they are the ones that are exploiting the innocent
Rohingyas masses. I have very serious doubts whether they will ever go back to their people to serve once
everything is settling down. One of the major problems is how to placate these self appointed Rohingya that has no
relation with the mass of the Rohingya except to exploit them. Their motto is the name of Rohingya first where they
will have their say and the people of Rohingya became only second.
11. Rohingya‟s Identification with the Burmese Ethnic?
If the Rohingya belongs to the Burmese ethnic group, the big question is why does it not join or identifies
itself with the other ethnic movements when it is known that Burma has embarked upon the ethnic cleansing policy?
Way back in the 70s to be exact on May 10, 1976 at Manerplaw, the National Democratic Front (NDF) was
established by 12 different Ethnic political parties and organizations, such as the Arakan, Chin, Karen, Karenni,
Kachin, Lahu, Mon, Pa-O, Palaung, Shan and WA, but the Rohingya did not take part or even make an attempt to
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90
identify itself with the persecuted ethnic nationalities of Burma. The conspicuous aspect of the Rohingya if
compared with the other ethnic nationalities is that they don‘t have a liberated area.
It is to be remember that NDF is the first and most successful union of all of the ethnic groups who are
working together to develop the best strategy for a Federal Union and topple military regime. The NDF aims at
equality right and self-determination right for all ethnic nationals and the establishment of a Federal Union based on
democratic principles. Its aim is as follows:-
1. All ethnic nationals must enjoy political equality, regardless of the size of their populations, advancement
and backwardness, in order to establish genuine national unity;
2. A state should be established for the Myanmar ethnic national in order to ensure the equality principle of
ethnic nationals in Burma and self-determination right;
3. Ethnic conflicts originating from political causes could only be resolved by political means and not by
military means, which has been the course successive Burmese regimes have been pursuing; and
4. The military regime attempting to resolve the conflict only by the military means should be overcome and
for that the democratic forces must be organized for united struggle against the military regime.65
The NDF‟s principles are for the betterment of the ethnic nationals and uphold national democratic principles and
cooperate with any organizations or individual which promote World peace and oppose dictatorship and is against
any system that suppresses multi-ethnic nationals‘ unity. The NDF observes international standards as well as the
value of local traditions whilst realizing its aims and objectives. It vowed to uphold equality, democracy, mutual
understanding and cooperation; and that any disagreement would be resolved through peaceful negotiation.
Twelve years after NDF was formed there was a democratic uprising in Burma known as the 8888 revolution
where the people of all walks of life participated, and most of the pro democracy students run away to the
peripherals of Burma. So the Democratic Alliance of Burma (DAB) was founded November 1988 it includes the
National Democratic Front (NDF), the All Burma Students' Democratic Front (ABSDF), the Committee for
Restoration of Democracy in Burma, (CRDP, a Burmese Diaspora pro democracy group) the All Burma Young
Monks‘ Union (ABYMU), the Chin National Front (CNF) and many other groups; the aim of DAB is to free Burma
from the Burmese Junta and to establish peace, human rights and democracy. Again here we did not see any
semblance of Rohingya.
With a full support of the National Democratic Front, and the Democratic Alliance of Burma, the Burmese
exiled government better known as the National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma, NCGUB was
formed on December 18, 1990. However it leaves out the most important organization, i.e. the main opposition the
NLD, the National League for Democracy as several members including Dr Sein Win, the first cousin of Daw Aung
San Suu Kyi. So it become necessary again to form another United Front that shall include leaders from both
democratic forces and ethnic nationalities, to struggle against military dictatorship not only for democratic rights and
human rights but also for self-determination for ethnic nationalities. So In order to fulfil and realize this political
demand, the National Council of the Union of Burma, NCUB was finally formed on September, 1992, including
NLD (Liberated Area). But conspicuously Rohingya was absent. Thus it did not get the support of the struggling lot
of the Burmese ethnic nationalities which constitutes nearly 50% of the population of Burma. It seems that Rohingya
has alienated itself either from the majority Myanmar or the Non-Myanmar, the ethnic nationalities. In fact some
attempts were made by the Rohingya to join the opposition but was blocked by the Arakan. This compels both the
Juntas and the opposition that Rohingya is an alien race to Burma.
12. Rohingyas and the Burmese Muslims
Ethnic cleansing in Burma became more intensified after the democracy uprising of 1988 and Muslim were
no exception. Many of these Burmese Muslims fled to the Thailand-Burma border area and when I visited the Mae
La Refugee camp I was rather surprise to see 4 Masjid (Mosque) in that camp alone. I discovered that the Muslim
sector of the refugee populations is a significant and distinct minority centred, for the most part, in the Tak camps –
namely, Mae La, Umpiem, Mai La Oo and Nu Po; with a very small community also in Mae Ra Ma Luang.
Muslims have been part of the refugee setting on the Thailand Burma border since the first caseloads
arrived in 1984. 66
Despite strongly conservative elements within the Buddhist, Christian and Islamic faiths
represented within the populations, religious tolerance was, to a large extent, a universal facet in the refugee camps
as well as in Burma.
The All Burma Muslim Union (ABMU), formed in 1983, had its own battalion of troops and fought side by
side together with the KNLA (Karen National Liberation Army). After the outbreak of anti-Muslim riots in
Martaban, Moulmein and other towns in lower Burma, the Muslim Liberation Organisation of Burma (MLOB) was
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91
formed. Both the ABMU and MLOB are ‗active members‘ of the DAB.
67Yet Rohingya never identifies itself with
these Muslim groups to join the ethnic resistance. They are simply aloof and alien to the Burmese scene and no
wonder nobody in Burma accepted them.
From 1995-1998, Muslim communities, especially those close to markets, were targets of cross-border
attacks by Burma Army units and their proxies and in 1997 some 10,000 Muslims from Burma take refuge in
Thailand.68
This was confirmed when a member of a British human rights organisation who visited several camps
early in the year reported that ―10,000 Muslims from all over Burma now live in the border refugee camps‖. 69
Human Rights Watch reported that ―a disproportionately high number of Muslims joined ethnic Karen refugees
fleeing Papun and Dooplaya Districts during 1997, and that ―Muslim refugees reported that soldiers had destroyed
their mosques and schools and had ordered them to convert to Buddhism or leave the country‖.70
Muslims born and bred in Karen State who have fled to Thailand due to human rights violations associated
with the systematic oppression of, and specific operations against ethnic communities aligned to ethnic resistance
movements in Eastern Burma. In the main, they identify themselves as Karen Muslims or ―Karen Muslims‖
("K'Nyaw Thoo" in Karen) and closely associate themselves with the wider Karen struggle for recognition and
justice.71
This self-alignment is widely-held, as illustrated by a UNHCR survey, But the Rohingyas from western Burma, and who fled to Thailand due to a varying mix of economic
restrictions and associated human rights violations who has hitherto spent little or no time in Thailand were widely
engaged in trade, retail and service activities within the refugee communities, and more closely identify themselves
to their Indo/ Bengali ancestry. Generally, the main influx of this sector entered the camps during the 1990s and
early 2000s. These Rohingyas Muslims are not at all interested in identifying themselves with the other ethnic
groups even though they are refugees from the same country.
The other aspects which I also discovered in my research is that that even though there are several ethnic
groups in Arakan state such as Rakhine, Chin, Mro, Chakma, Khaman, Dainet and Mramagyi, Khaman adhere to
the Muslim faith and yet they seldom have any problem with the Rakhine. Hence we have to find out why Rohingya
was single out? Are they really alien?
13. Refusal of Accepting the Lingua Franca
For decades these ill-fated people calling themselves as Rohingya have been shunned, browbeaten and
subjected to ghastly physical and emotional abuse by the Burmese Military Juntas which indefatigably maintains,
the fact they are Bengali-Muslims who verbally communicate in a local dialect of Bengali is raison d'être –as more
often than not refused to speak the lingua franca which most of the ethnic nationalities of Burma do and stay in the
Union of Burma. Most of the ethnic nationalities residing in the Union of Burma can at least understand, if not speak
the Burmese language, as it is accepted as a lingua franca and this make it one of the most conspicuous aspects of
not accepting as one of them. It is also construe that the Bengali language which the Rohingya speaks, just like any
other Indian subcontinent language is not a Tibeto-Burman language.72
However, Burmese is spoken as a second language by most educated members of other ethnic groups
including the Rohingya elites, but some of those groups residing in remotes parts of Burma have little contact with
the national language and it seems that Rohingya is included in it. But as it stands today the majority of the ethnic
nationalities have recognized the need of the common language, if they were to continue to stay in the Genuine
Union of Burma and have accepted the Burmese language as a Lingua Franca a common language among them. To
deal not only with the Myanmar group but also to communicate with the other ethnic groups they were being forced
to use Burmese language. But Rohingya are not in this category. One of their justifications is that because General
Ne Win had kept them so isolated that they don‘t have any chance to communicate with the majority of the people
who speaks Burmese.
14. National Identity Crisis
The Rohingya crisis needs to be view from the perspective of modern Union of Burma since its founding is
still faced with national identity crisis, the word ―Burma‖ or ―Myanmar‖ still cannot be decided although the world
including the United Nations has to acquiesce to the word ―Myanmar‖ for obvious reasons. It has been argued by the
military that ―Burma‖ refers only to the majority Myanmar population, whereas ―Myanmar‖ is more inclusive and
therefore, more appropriate because it refers to all the peoples of Myanmar. Ironically, Burmese nationalist fighting
British colonialism in 1936, argued the reverse. Even in the contemporary history of Burma, Bogyoke Aung San, the
architect of modern Burma, (the father of the Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, Burmese Nobel laureate and leader of the pro
democracy movement) who initiated the independence movement founded Doh Bama Asaiyone and not Doh
fill through another colonial legacy: a ‗Burmese ethnic nationalism‘ that evolved in the independence struggle,
based on ‗memories‘ of a former Burman polity at Ava, rather than on ‗a newer identity which would incorporate
the divers peoples inhabiting the modern state‘.81
It has also left an unhelpful historical narrative, rarely challenged
by leaders in the military or democratic opposition, of a successful war fought against colonial government by
Myanmar nationalists who then simply needed to unite with other indigenous ethnic groups to restore a historic
Myanmar state. He could not even comprehend that it is a Pyidaungsu a union of volunteers to form the Union of
Burma to get independence from the colonial power and as a test case would join the Myanmar ethnic group how
can an average Myanmar could think about it?
The military likes to say that there are 135 races or tribes in Burma implying that it is impossible to cater to
everyone and therefore, it is necessary to have a strong military to hold the country together. In fact 65 of the so
called 135 races are all from the Chin State, which makes up about 3% of the population and they live in an area that
makes up about 5%of the whole nation. In other words, the military is exaggerating the problem. According to
the current Junta, people who speak different dialects are classified as being of a different race. 82
It would be like
saying that somebody from Oslo is of a different race from somebody from Bergen. We all have differences but both
are of the same race.
A nation and a national identity are the outcomes of a process combining historical memory, cultural and
religion-dominated discourses, ontological experiences and rationalized action; they are not natural properties
primordialized in groups and individuals, although such claim of primordial attachment often are politically
important. Their representations are the result of political conjunctures and the distribution of power, and their
classification are always contested and reformulated.
Burma is located in a strategic location of India and China and the latter is seeking a way out to the Indian
Ocean, while the US wants a partner to balance China. What more, Burma has attracted some radical Islamic ideas?
Just before the riots in Rakhine State, Muslim insurgents were given a full autonomy opportunity in a milestone
agreement with Manila over Mindanao in the Philippines. The Muslim uprisings in Thailand and Bangladesh have
also concurred. Maybe all these could not be just coincidences but it plays an important part in the psyche of an
average Burmese. It must also be considered that after an Arab Spring, radicals have a chance to switch their
strategies and would probably be hunting for easier targets like Burma, where there is a chance as Burma is trying to
shake off the shackles of military dictatorship.83
Contemporary Burma is located in a contradictory and complex place- at the juncture between the
competing forces of globalization and localism, between the forces of Western capitalism and ―the Burmese way‖ to
development, and at the intersection of competing and sometimes contradictory notions of who, and indeed who and
what may constitute a modern Burmese polity. These contradictions and tensions are not exclusive to Burma, but
can be seen in conflicts within and between nation-states all over the world. Some social theorists argue that this
tension between an ever tightening of global interconnectedness, simultaneously with a fragmentation of social
relations in and between people in their local communities is the underlying and central theme in world politics at
the end of the millennium. With this in mind, where do we imagine Burma?
Buddhist monk-led demonstrations against the Muslim Rohingya are attempts to form a national identity on
Burmese Buddhist chauvinism.84
The monks were supporting a suggestion by President Thein Sein that the
Rohingya Muslim minority, numbering close to a million, should be segregated and deported. These generals are
considered monk killers but the quasi military government have successfully refashioned themselves as defenders of
Buddhist faith. Buddhism has been influenced by a racist nationalism that occasionally re-surfaces.
―In this particular instance it seems to be a case where there is a lot of debate
about what constitutes Burmese identity. And, the saying, you know, ‗to be Burmese is to be Buddhist‘ is
one that was first articulated in the early 1910s when the initial struggles for independence became and it
was a way of asserting Burmese identity vis-à-vis British colonial rule.‖ 85
Buddhism is treated as the defacto state religion, with a special recognition in the constitution, they don‘t have any
written laws and regulations, but practically, in the military if you are a Christian or if you are a Muslim you won‘t
be promoted more than colonel ranks. You won‘t be a senior leader in the military. Burma is fostering a xenophobia
that, if left unchecked, could get out of control somewhat similar to the Sinhalese in Sri Lanka. While attempts at
achieving this unity have become increasingly brutal and repressive of Burma‘s complex ethnic (and political)
diversity, in recent times there has been a shift away from the ethnic nationalities demands for self determination
and autonomous space, to an sense that the current crisis can be resolve, not through armed struggle but by a
reconciliation process. A genuine willingness to embark on a political process whereby peace can be restored to
Burma, and a process for determining reconciliation, restoring confidence and negotiating difference must be
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94
encouraged at all levels. In addition, the healing and unifying forces of politically engaged Buddhism can play a
pivotal role in bringing about the necessary change in Burma required for a genuine national reconciliation process
to begin. International pressure must continue to be maintained on the regime, as well as on opposition forces, to
carefully address and resolve these issues.
15. Why did the Rohingya Flee?
The root causes of the humanitarian crisis in Northern Arakan State and the driving force behind refugee
exoduses lie in the Burmese government‘s policies of exclusion and discrimination against the Rohingya. The
combination of abuses -- from the denial of legal status to restriction of movement and economic constraints --
creates food insecurity and makes life in Arakan unbearable. The military regime uses food as a weapon, and its
strategy has proven effective in compelling Rohingya to leave Arakan. The poor are the main target, while the
wealthy enrich the authorities through bribes and taxes, and act as agents to oppress the poor in exchange for
personal benefits.86
Many Rohingya, desperate to flee persecution and starvation, have attempted to escape to Thailand and
Malaysia in overcrowded boats not suited for ocean travel. 87
Human traffickers and human smugglers promise them
a better life and good jobs. The Rohingya find themselves in boats with faulty engines and an inadequate supply of
food and water to make the long trip. Many boats never reach their destination. Engines often fail several hours after
leaving port and the refuges are taken to destinations determined by ocean currents. In the most tragic situations, the
boats sink in the Bay of Bengal or in the Andaman Sea. An estimated one million Rohingya live in Bangladesh,
Thailand, Malaysia, the Middle East, and beyond.88
Bangladesh, Thailand, and Malaysia are not parties to the 1951
Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol. As a result, Rohingya refugees receive little or no legal protection in these
countries
The policies of ethnic cleansing practiced by Burma, are creating push-factors for forced migration and
therefore constitute the root causes of the ongoing refugee exodus. They can be summarised as follows: (1) Denial of citizenship: The Rohingyas have been rendered stateless through Burma‘s Citizenship Law
of 1982, which states that citizens are those whose ancestors settled in the country before 1823, the
start of the British colonisation of Arakan.
(2) Restrictions on freedom of movement: They are virtually confined to their village tracts. This lack
of mobility has devastating consequences, limiting their access to markets, employment opportunities,
health facilities and higher education.
(3) Obstacles to family development: Obstacles has been imposed to control birth and to limit expansion
of the Rohingya population. The Rohingya must apply for permission to get married, which is only
granted in exchange for high bribes and can take up to several years to obtain. Polygamy has been
prohibited, and widows must wait at least 3 years to remarry.
(4) Construction of “model villages‖ to resettle Buddhists onto Muslim land has been going on since the
1950s. Such demographic engineering is designed to alter the ethnic composition of the
region. There are already 26 such model villages of about 100 houses each in Northern
Arakan. Rohingyas are compelled to build houses for the new settlers. In addition to land confiscation
and forced labour, these programmes contribute to the exacerbation of inter-communal tension. In
addition to these policies of exclusion specifically targeting the Rohingya, economic policies are being
pursued to maintain underdevelopment. These are also practised in other ethnic areas, but considering
that 60% of the Rohingya population are landless and depend on a hand-to-mouth existence, the related
loss of income greatly contributes to food insecurity. It is a deliberate attempt to induce starvation and
trigger departures.
(5) Forced labour, Compulsory labour continues to be exacted by the army and the Na Sa Ka for
construction and maintenance of their camps, portering, sentry duty, the establishment of villages for
new settlers, for military-owned shrimp farms and plantations, for brick-baking, for collection of wood
and bamboo, etc.
(6) Arbitrary taxation, Arbitrary taxation and other forms of extortion are common practices. The tactic
of arresting people for minor offences and demanding high bribes in return for their release is also
widespread.
(7) Control of the economy through a monopoly system. All economic sectors are controlled through a
monopoly system based on licences, which totally forbids any free-enterprise initiative.89
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95
The distressing realities in which the Rohingyas live in Arakan are the outcome of the policies listed above, and
demonstrate that there is no willingness on the part of the Burmese government to integrate this population. As long
as these policies remain in exodus will not be stemmed.
The systemic and discriminatory practice of forced labour against the Rohingya, has continued, or even
intensified, across large areas of North Arakan State in Burma, since deadly communal violence broke out in June
2012...in areas not directly affected by the June 2012 violence, i. e. North Maungdaw and Buthidaung Township,
forced labour remains much the same as in previous years and has even intensified in some areas. Large contingents
of army troops have been deployed after a state of emergency was declared on 10 June. As a result, there was a
substantial increase in demands for porters and guides in North Maungdaw and North Buthidaung to carry additional
rations or to accompany soldiers on patrol in border areas. Villagers were forced to remain 4 to 5 days at a time in
the hills along with army patrols. Large groups of forced labourers have also been summoned for road clearing and
emergency camp repair damaged by monsoon rains and forced cultivation in army camps and paddy fields has been
reported in many parts of Buthidaung. 90
Despite the reform agenda pursued by the Government of Burma and the Memorandum of Understanding
signed between the ILO and the Government aiming at the elimination of forced labour by 2015, there has been little
progress toward this objective in North Arakan and no effective measures have been implemented there to eradicate
forced labour. Forced labour continues to be widely and systematically practiced in North Arakan and little has
changed for the Rohingya population. Forced labour remains a major cause for flight.91
16. International Responsibility
The issue of the Rohingyas was created in course of time. Considering their present condition, it is surely a
case of stateless and refugees. They have been becoming subject to persecution, discrimination and torture since
long and unfortunately with due international attention. But so far there are little or no fruitful steps taken by human
rights protectors despite with severe maltreatment and sufferings imposed by the Burmese Military administrations.
For a long time the US and other countries also maintained a surreptitious silence.92
In contrast to the Thai-Burma border, very little international attention has been given to conditions on the
Bangladesh-Burma border. Consequently, Arakan State has remained a largely ignored region of Burma. Awareness
is generally limited to the, cycle of exodus and repatriation of Rohingya refugees.93 The international community did
not utter any word when the Rohingyas were denied of their citizenship rights, freedom of movement and many
other civil, political and economic rights. They were made stateless in the place which they call their own home.
They were subject to force labour and worst of all forced portering (forced to carry arms, ammunitions in military
operations and often walk in front of the soldiers so he will be the first to be blown up in case of a land mind). They
have lost their own home, land, property and all other tangible and intangible property.
In addition to this, physical violence, torture and other form of persecutions have prevailed over the years
on that community. They were always been subject to threat. The international community did not take any extol
their initiative to ease the situation in Burma.94
The UN or any other international community cannot force the
Burmese military to stop this systematic killing and genocide over there. Their counseling does not work there and
the Burmese authorities do not pay heed to their recommendations at all.
There is no denying that the calamitous ordeal of this Rohingya community of Burma has received
woefully inadequate media coverage over the years despite having been declared one of the most hectored, and
aggrieved tribal minorities in the world by the United Nations.95
This observable fact can be unswervingly attributed
to the thought-out recalcitrance of the media oligopolists to underlining the copious atrocities being committed
against Muslims in different parts of the world in general as part of a ploy to legitimize the ongoing war on
terrorism.
The neighbouring countries especially ASEAN which include three Muslim countries of Malaysia,
Indonesia and Brunei did do nothing if it is not related to economics and trade that will benefit them. In fact ASEAN
has been aware of the Rohingya‘s plight since the early 1990s, when nearly 250,000 fled to Bangladesh. In March
1992, Malaysian Foreign Minister Abdullah Badawi later Prime Minister said that the Rohingya refugee crisis
―Could no longer be regarded as Burma's domestic problem because the action by Burmese troops has burdened
neighboring countries and may disrupt regional stability.‖96
Singapore‘s Foreign Ministry said that the influx of
large numbers of refugees from Burma into Bangladesh was creating ―a potential area of instability for the region
and human suffering.‖ 97
“ASEAN cannot expect to be involved in more effectively—the issue of citizenship; and if a government of a
country says ‗These people are not [our] citizens,‘ I don‘t think it‘s ASEAN‘s role to go in and say, ‗You
change your law! You change your Constitution!‘ Accept these people as your citizens!‘‖ was said by Dr.
Surin Pitsuwan, the General Secretary of ASEAN.98
ASEAN despite launching a new human rights body at the ASEAN summit in Phnom Penh in November 2012—
including a clause acknowledging ―universal‖ human rights norms—the group has largely stuck to its non-
interference mantra.99
Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono visited Burma on 22nd
April 2013, despite
telling journalists in Jakarta before his departure that he would ―continue helping to reach a positive outcome‖ on
the issue of the persecution of Muslim Rohingyas in Burma, the Indonesian president apparently made no attempt to
meet with Burmese Muslim or Rohingya representatives. 100
No doubt the Rohingya crisis has stirred sentiments among their Muslim brethren in the Middle East.
Several Muslims believe that the Western governments‘ normalisation with the Burmese government is unfair.101
In
1991, the Muslim world condemned the Burmese regime‘s actions. Prince Khaled Sultan Abdul Aziz, the
commander of the Saudi contingent in the 1991 Gulf War on his visit to Dhaka, strongly recommended Desert
Storm-like actions against Burma due to the atrocities committed against the Rohingyas.102
In 2008, Prince Khalid
Al Faisal, announced in Mecca that King Abdullah had approved a plan to grant legal-resident status to the
refugees.103
Mehrdad Baouj-Lahout, an Iranian Parliamentarian said that non-binding resolutions adopted by the UN
will not help to improve the situation of the Rohingya Muslims in Burma.104
―Kuwait deplores in the strongest terms acts of violence, including killing, displacing, and terrorizing, the
minority Rohingya Muslims in the western state of Rakhine in Burma, a high-placed source at the ministry
of foreign affairs commented.‖105
Many countries in the Middle East are expressing their concern over the human right violations committed against
the Rohingyas and are urging the Burmese government to take necessary actions. ―The full suspension of sanctions imposed on Burma by the United States hinges on addressing ongoing US
concerns over ethnic conflicts, the release of political prisoners and an end to the country‘s longstanding
ties with North Korea, It is going to require action for the release of political prisoners, to ensure human
rights for all in the country, whether citizen or not, to achieve national reconciliation.‖ said Patrick
Murphy, the US special representative for Burma.106
Thirty US-sponsored ―Coastal Crisis Management
Centers‖ will be set up in Bangladesh that would help with humanitarian relief and tackle crime along the
sea border. At last the US seems to be wakening that Burma alone cannot solve the ethnic crisis. Of late the
Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) officially launched the Global Rohingya Center (to advocate for
the rights of the Rohingya people and to improve their living conditions in their places of residence.107
The
center also plan to be a media resource providing crucial knowledge and up-to-date information to facilitate
an accurate and in-depth reporting on Rohingya issues. It will also try to assist international organizations
in developing plans to deliver assistance to alleviate the plight of the persecuted community.
The international community can and must help the violence against Muslim, widespread prejudice, and
complex historical background will make addressing religious tensions incredibly difficult, but no matter how
daunting the challenge is, these issues must be addressed. Many nations around the world have faced problems with
religious and communal tensions, including where such tensions have led to violence and widespread killings. The
experiences are wide and varied, including the experience of some ASEAN countries and the experience in Western
countries after 9/11.108
Since violence erupted in Rakhine state last June, the international perspective has changed. Communal
violence evolved swiftly into state sponsored abuses against the Rohingya, and these abuses have grabbed the
attention of the Muslim world. Muslim countries and organisations have expressed their concern, offered aid, and
the Organisation of Islamic Co-operation has been outspoken.109
Other individuals and organisations have also taken
up the cause of the Rohingya.
There is undoubtedly a great many difficulties in setting up some kind of task force or mechanism whereby
the international community provides assistance to Burmese political and religious leaders on promoting racial and
religious harmony. Not least of these is that it touches on so many sensitivities with the government and with
Burmese society. Burma‘s government and some members of Burma‘s democracy movement can be highly
sensitive about what they see an external interference.
But the fact that these issues are so sensitive is exactly why it is so important to try. There are reasons for
hope that the current crisis and deep rooted causes behind it can be addressed. Burma is lucky to be one of the few
countries with political and religious leaders who are widely admired and who carry real influence. That influence
can be used to calm the situation and confront prejudice. We have already seen how Islamic and Buddhist leaders in
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97
Burma have met and pledged mutual understanding on religious freedom, and respect for each-others religion. They
need assistance and advice on how to make sure that trickles down and that the message reaches their followers.
They need to be ensuring that there is discussion and education that reaches the people on the street. Mutual
understanding must happen at the grassroots level, not just the leadership level. We have also seen how willing some
members of the 88 Generation Students have been to engage on this issue. They also need support and advice on
how to address these complex issues.110
But the main factor is that foreign powers, many of them hungry for a share of Burma‘s market and
resources, have also been treading carefully so as not to provoke the government. This is equally true of regional and
Western powers eager to tempt the country‘s rulers away from the influence of China, which has dominated the
Burmese economic landscape since the era of international sanctions and is increasingly seen as trying to project its
power further into the ASEAN countries and beyond. Given these circumstances, it is little wonder that the
international obligation to protect the Rohingya is often sidelined in favour of economic and geo-strategic
considerations. Unfortunately, the impetus for humanitarian action often comes more from the dictates of realpolitik.
The Irish Centre for Human rights Report finds that there is a reliable body of evidence pointing to acts
constituting a widespread or systematic attack against the Rohingya civilian population in North Arakan State. 111
These appear to satisfy the requirements under international criminal law for the perpetration of crimes against
humanity. After being hounded for decades, it is time that adequate attention is given to the plight of the Rohingyas.
The root causes of the situation of the Rohingyas must be further assessed, as failure to do so will undoubtedly lead
to a bleak future for this ethnic minority group. People committing, allowing, aiding and abetting these crimes must
be held accountable. The international community has a responsibility to protect the Rohingyas, to respond to the
allegations of crimes against humanity, and to ensure that violations and impunity do not persist for another
generation.
India is the only country that has opened its door to the Rohingya refugees. The United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees says ―India with its history, culture, traditions, is today an example of generosity in the
way it has opened its borders to all people who have come looking for safety and sanctuary. There are Tibetans,
Afghans, Myanmarese in India and it has maintained an open door policy for all. India has a generous approach in
relationship to all people and a proof of that is the granting of long term visas and work permits to refugees. We
consider India a more reliable partner in the world to guarantee that people who need help will find a place. And
more importantly at a time when there are so many closed borders in the world, and many people have been refused
protection, India has been generous‖.112
It should also be remembered that while prejudice is widespread, it most certainly isn‘t representative of
all of Burmese society, and that there are a great many people who reject nationalism, racism, religious prejudice
and intolerance. As one Muslim leader told Burma Campaign UK, even while riots in Meiktila and surrounding
towns were taking place: ―I don‘t want the international community to think all the Buddhist people in our country
are like that because they are not. Only some people have created this hatred against Muslims.‖ Buddhist Monks
helped Muslims fleeing the attacks in Meiktila, and Buddhists came onto the streets when there were fears of further
attacks against Muslims in Rangoon. There are a great many people who are willing to put themselves at risk to
confront prejudice. There is no quick fix and there are no easy answers in addressing these deep rooted problems in
a society fractured by decades of dictatorship and conflict. The challenges in addressing these problems are immense
and will require a wide variety of approaches. But the potential consequences if the current tensions continue to rise
and violence spreads are unthinkable. Everything that the international community can do must be done.
If violence continues to spread, it will increase instability across the country, there is the danger of the
military seizing power again with their rationale as that they alone can hold the country together and keep law and
order. We have to remember that the Nargis Constitution of 2008 allows the military to seize power if it decides
that:
‗If there arises a state of emergency that could cause disintegration of the Union, disintegration of national
solidarity and loss of sovereign power or attempts therefore by wrongful forcible means such as insurgency
or violence, the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services has the right to take over and exercise State
sovereign power in accord with the provisions of this Constitution.‘
The military could attempt to apply the catch all phrase ‗disintegration of national solidarity‘ and the danger of a
military coup outside the Constitution, from an officer or officers using the same justification of restoring law and
order as the State Law and Order Restoration Council used in 1988. We are quite positive that the international
community would not want to see a new Burmese Junta again.
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17. Rohingya Crisis Can Delay the Reforms
―Arakan State is going through a profound crisis that threatens to spread to other parts of the country and
has the potential to undermine the entire reform process in Burma‘ While the process of reform is continuing in the
right direction, there are significant human rights shortcomings that remain unaddressed, such as discrimination
against the Rohingya in Rakhine State and the ongoing human rights violations‖ said Quintana, the UN
representative. 113
―They must not become entrenched and destabilize the reform process,‖ added Quintana, an
Argentine human rights lawyer. Also on June 10, 2012 President Thein Sein addressed the nation.
―If we are sticking to endless hatred and revenge by killing each other, it‘s possible that the danger will be
more widespread, not only in Arakan State, if that happens, make no mistake, it would cause a severe loss
to our fledgling democracy—stability and development.‖
Thein Sein was right that this unrest and continuing abuses by the security forces could derail the democratic reform
process and spread to other parts of the country, as other ethnic nationalities groups could become increasingly wary
of the government‘s proclaimed commitment to improving relations with ethnic populations. Today it would be
Rohingya‘s turn and the next who knows may be their turn as Burma has a good record of ethnic cleansing policy.
U Shwe Maung, a Member of Parliament for Burma‘s ruling Union and Solidarity Party (USDP) has
warned that simmering tensions between Buddhists and Muslims in Arakan State could lead to another outbreak of
communal violence.
―Only after proper analysis, I am telling you that we need to control it, not let it happen. We can see a lack
of the rule of law. Action taken by the local government is very unfair‖ 114
He called for the amendment to Burma‘s 1982 citizenship to be reviewed.
Washington which has been in the forefront in encouraging reforms worry Burma risks backsliding toward
military rule that ended two years ago. The rapid pace of change has also been accompanied by chaos, as ugly
sectarian tensions have surfaced and is afraid that the military may step in and set back the reform process. ―That
risk is very real,‖ said a Senior State Department official.115
Priscilla Clapp, a former US charge d‘affaires said the
presence of outside provocateurs could be part of a campaign to strengthen the military‘s hand and keep it involved
in maintaining order in the country.―The army clearly wants to remain a strong force and there are probably
divisions between the uniformed army and the ex-generals who run the government,‖ Clapp said.116
In fact it was suspected that the hard liners among the army work hand in glove with the ruling Union
Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) usually referred by the people of Burma as United in Slaughtering
Depaeyin Participants 117
deliberately created this incident just to prove that without the army, the country would go
to the dogs. In this sly way the hardliners in the army and cronies inside USDA want to get back power. A U.S.
government commission recommended that Burma remains on a State Department blacklist of 15 governments
responsible for "systematic" violations of freedom of religion Ongoing and important political reforms in Burma
have failed in the situation for freedom of religion and belief," the commission said.118
Quintana who visited Burma for five days last month and held talks with ministers, opposition leader Aung
San Suu Kyi and prisoners and also visited camps for displaced people uprooted by ethnic clashes in Arakan and
Kachin states and commented.
―Arakan State is going through a profound crisis that threatens to spread to other parts of the country and
has the potential to undermine the entire reform process in Burma, There remains a large gap between
reform at the top and implementation on the Ground‖ 119
Both Muslim and Buddhist Arakanese communities continue to suffer the consequences of violence that the
government has finally been able to control, though question marks remain over the extent to which excessive force
has been used. ―The Nasaka, a border security force accused of committing serious violations against Muslims,
should be suspended,‖ he said. More than 1,100 people, the vast majority of them Rohingya men and boys, are
reported to be detained, the UN envoy said, urging authorities to ensure that they are not mistreated. He saw ―no
evidence that the judiciary is developing any independence from the executive branch of government.‖ The quasi-
civilian government of President Thein Sein must address serious abuses by the junta and prosecute perpetrators.
Measures to ensure justice and accountability, and access to truth, must therefore remain part of Burma‘s reform
agenda.
Another aspect to be considered is that there is a danger that some donors could inadvertently cause more
tension between the communities. Some Muslim countries have pledged aid just for the Rohingya. 120
How will
local Rakhine people feel watching truck-loads of aid passing them on their way to Rohingya villages or camps? Aid
delivered in the wrong way could exacerbate tensions, hurting the Rohingya in the long term.
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There has been a growing international recognition and response to the reforms process and the chances of
losing track on this will be critical. The need to address the ethnic divide is a crucial component of the national
reconciliation process. Over the past year, the conflicts between the majority community backed by the military and
the ethnic groups is causing a deep divide within the reconciliation process that needs to be critically addressed if the
process is to continue smoothly. This unwillingness to address the problem is critical as it will impact Burma‘s role
as the ASEAN Chair in 2014.121
18. Prognosis
History has prove it that the Malay peninsular now Malaysia and Indonesia were once Buddhist countries
in history, but the Muslims being a dynamic religion used their various methods to proselytise their religion so
successfully that they have become Muslim countries; Buddhism has almost disappeared if not have become a
minority in these countries. Hence it is our historical task to defend Buddhism and Arakan is just the frontline of
Burma before the whole country will be devoured by Muslim. 122
This is the belief of the majority of the people in
Burma. In fact a whole book can be written to substantiate the anti-Muslim movement existing in Burma and the
responsible authorities turning a blind eye, not realising that this can lead to very dangerous and disastrous
consequences.123
The Burmese have long misinterpreted 786 as an International Muslim conspiracy to take over the world in
the 21st century including Burma, as they see 786 to represent 21 (7+8+6=21).124
But a meticulous research reveals
that it is a movement to follow the model of the Muslim 786, which is only used in South Asian Muslim tradition, a
representation of a Quranic phrase ―In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Ever Merciful.‖ In opposition to
786, the movement invented 969 as a symbol of a religious movement. In a country where numerology has a
powerful appeal, it is a mass-based Buddhist movement led by extremist monks including a firebrand named U
Wirathu, 125
usually known as Burmese Bin Laden. The number, 969, is derived from Buddhist tradition in which the
Three Jewels or Tiratana is composed of 24 attributes (9 Buddha, 6 Dhamma, 9 Sangha).
The average Burmese construe that the Burmese Muslims especially the alien word Rohingya is a
representative of a much wider imperialistic Muslim world of the most sinister design. What more proof is more
wanted then the World Muslim organization such as the Jeddah based OIC is using pressure by appealing to the
UNSC to intervene will strengthen the Buddhist extreme hands. 126
―Security Council must protect rights and lives
of Rohingya Muslims,‖ said Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu, the OIC Secretary General. 127
He told Saudi Gazette that the
OIC will ask the UN Human Rights Council to send fact-finding mission to investigate all human rights violations in
Burma.
Hence to the campaigners, 969, is about protecting race and religion by peaceful or violent means. In
practice, it is explicitly an anti-Muslim campaign, not about preaching people the Buddha-nature of all beings, as
taught and practiced by Lord Buddha himself. In many townships across Burma, including capital regions, there are
local 969 committees that organize events and religious summons and distribute anti-Muslim materials such as CDs,
books and leaflets.128
The 969 campaign targets economic aspects by alleging that Muslims are dominating the
Burmese economy and that therefore Buddhists must not trade with Muslims. Instead, the campaigners recommend
that Buddhists buy and sell at Buddhist shops that display 969 signs and stickers. In Karen state, Buddhists are even
forced to trade only with Buddhists. There are local reports about Buddhists being beaten by members of 969
civilians and monks for trading with Muslims.
Muslims in Burma are portrayed as dangerous foreigners who came to the country only to dominate its
every aspect. They are accused of dominating the economy, destroying the cultural fabric of society by spreading
Islam in every way possible, luring women into Islam, and then monopolizing political power. The prime anxiety is
that the Burmese race/nation will become extinct if liars, aliens, ruthless people, and those who bite the hands of
their masters (often referring to Muslims as dogs) if they are not expelled. There are other important elements.
Different volumes of anti-Muslim books written by Buddhist monks are all similarly titled: "Fearful of losing
race/nation". These books, being circulated for the past few years, are the guidebooks of the campaign, featuring
stories of dangerous and hateful Muslims unfairly marrying Buddhist women or marrying without consent,
attempting to replace Buddhism with Islam, and undertaking universal missions to dominate the world
economically, politically and culturally. Muslims allegedly will take over the Buddhist nation unless effective actions
are taken to neutralize them and destroy every Muslim establishment seems to be the philosophy of the Burmese
mob. Citizenship is supposed to be defined in term of bloodline, as Immigration Minister Khin Yi indicated.129
But
this neo-Nazi movement doesn't work without popular support. That hundreds of people listen to the 969 summons
attests to its rise. This is not just public acceptance, but follow up to actions such as destroying Muslim shops in
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Mon state early this month after a 969 summons. On social media websites, particularly Facebook, various groups
relate to the 969 movement can be seen.
Nobel Peace Prize laureate and anti-apartheid leader Desmond Tutu has described the racist attacks against
Rohingya Muslims and wars in ethnic areas, as a ―new apartheid. And the most important thing is that this is a
moral universe. Right and wrong matters.‖130
Abu Tahay, a Rohingya community leader said Tutu‘s words offered a
guide to help Burma reach its goal of peace and harmony. ―If you see people as human, our goal is quite close. If
you base on nationality, our goal will become far away,‖131
he said. Daw Aung San Suu Kyi has called for a review
of Burma‘s controversial 1982 citizenship law, which renders the Muslim Rohingya stateless, during a trip to
Japan.132
―We have to find out whether our citizenship law is fair or not; if it meets international standards, and
based on the findings, if necessary, the [law] must be revised. We should also determine if certain laws are
a hindrance to equal rights among citizens in the country, and revise them if we can.‖
It was on this backdrop that the Rakhine Buddhist population, public opinion in Burma as a whole, as well as in the
pro-democratic movement, are not disposed toward recognising the Rohingya Muslim population of Arakan as a
people of Burma. No doubt Rohingya organisations have been consistently blocked from joining umbrella
groups; opposition leaders, both inside and outside Burma, consider that the communal situation in Arakan can only
improve with a transition to democracy, but they suggest that under a federal system of governance, ethnic States
would enjoy self-determination and, therefore, the fate of the Rohingya could be decided by the people
of Arakan State, until and unless the Rohingyas became more friendly with the Rakhine. After one year of the flaring up of the Rohingya crisis, the government report on recommends that the
government upholds the controversial 1982 Citizenship Law and that it beefs up its security presence in Arakan
State, while also tightening immigration controls along Burma‘s border with Bangladesh.133
The report only pointed
out that the rapid population growth had led to the communal clashes with Buddhist communities, and
recommended voluntary family planning. It also recommends promoting peaceful co-existence between two
communities and resolving the refugee issue. The commission interviewed hundreds of members of both
communities and discovered that 96% of the Arakanese feel that the government had failed to protect them, while
more than 92% of the Rohingyas thought that it was because of the Arakanese Buddhist superior complexity.134
It
also recommended urgent humanitarian aid so that they can get ―access to safe and secure temporary shelters prior
to the monsoon season. The government needs to ban the use of hate language against any religion, to ban extremist
teachings and activities. The commission puts a heavy focus on strengthening the security government forces in
Arakan State and control immigration from Bangladesh into the state, located on western Burma‘s border.
An investigation by the New York-based group Human Rights Watch, released, accused Thein Sein‘s
government of ―ethnic cleansing‖ and crimes against humanity, and it said government security forces, local
Buddhist monks and Arakanese politicians, had played a key role in the violence. It is evident that the security
forces had failed to end and in some cases supported Buddhist attacks on Rohingya communities during the violence
on October, while they were also actively blocking aid deliveries to Rohingya refugee camps. 135
Evidently Rohingya leaders and activists have reacted angrily to the findings of the official investigation
Myo Thant, a Rohingya representative of the Democracy and Human Rights Party, told The Irrawaddy that the
report did not present a completely accurate picture of the Arakan situation.136
The commission recommended that
the Burmese government increase security in the troubled western region and said that resettlement of more than
100,000 displaced people should be held off until reconciliation measures are implemented. This will take time as
the government considered that it was more important in the short term to address humanitarian needs in the region.
The report said that ―it is extremely urgent to provide the Bengali IDPs with access to safe and secure temporary
shelters prior to the monsoon season.‖ The commission proposed that the Burmese government set up a ―truth-
finding committee‖ to look into the deeper causes of the 2012 violence, which began as rioting between Arakanese
Buddhists and local Muslims, and this was welcome by the Rohingya community.137
As expected, the commission
did not recommend any amendment to Burma‘s widely criticized 1982 citizenship law, which denies the Rohingya
Burmese citizenship. Phil Robertson, the deputy director of Human Rights Watch‘s Asia division, said that
―The commission missed a critical point when it failed to include reform of the 1982 Citizenship Act to
strip out discriminatory provisions and ensure that the law complies with international human rights
standards.‖138
As it stands now it is evident that on the Rohingya side there is
(1) History, (still debateable)
(2) Morality and
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(3) International Sympathy full stop.
On the Arakanese side
(1) The entire Myanmar ethnic Buddhist Community
(2)The government of the Union of Burma
(3) The entire ethnic nationalities and most importantly
(4) Realpolitik.
19. Just an Attempt of Solving
It is easy for an outsider like me to give a series of solutions to the Rohingya problem. But it is very
difficult to be on the ground in Arakan and imagine the authorities in Burma to implement them – for the ground
rules are very different from theory that is the problem. No doubt these Rohingyas are essentially stateless people –
(1) Bangladesh does not want them
(2) Burma in many respects also does not want to have them.
(3) There is tremendous discrimination on both sides. But the fact is that many tens or hundreds of thousands of people of Rohingya descent live territory and they are
not going to go away any time soon and one cannot ethnically cleanse them out of there, as Hitler did to the Jews.
On the other hand Burmese people desire to become global players and want to see it interacting far more
with non-Myanmar, non-Buddhist ethnicities. But the treatment of Muslims as the 'other' persists despite the
country's push to embrace the outside world and everything it offers.139
Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity and
Islam have flourished in Burma for centuries and those who professed the religions have been living through thick
and thin in the country. The Burmese government has rejected attempts to politicize and internationalize the
community unrest as a religious issue, saying the Arakan State clashes was not connected to religious oppression nor
discrimination.140
International groups have called for a solution to the unrest and efforts to bring the communities
closer together.
“Rohingya,” a term not accepted by the government of Burma141
as well as the people of Burma
particularly the Rakhines will have to be tackled. The case had been exploited by the extremist Rakhine local leaders
and Buddhist monks but also by the extremist Rohingya leaders based abroad fanned by some Bangladeshi
intellectuals and sympathise by some Islamic countries. In Arakan state, where tension between Buddhists and
Rohingya Muslims often spills over into violence, hypocrisy is very much evident in attempts by Arakanese to goad
public opinion against the Rohingya in the name of "nationalism" in as much as the Rohingya leaders try to force
this alien word to the Rakhine. These are the same Arakanese who, ironically, regularly accuse the government of
attempting to aggressively assimilate Arakanese into the Myanmar way of life.
The international community, the governments of the world, the world bodies such as the United Nations
General Assembly (UNGA), Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), South Asia Association for Regional
Corporation (SAARC), Association of Southeast Asian Countries (ASEAN) Non Aligned Movement (NAM),
International Non Governmental Organization (INGOs) and Human Rights Organization or name any associations
can do nothing or impose a solution to this problem. It all depends on the government of Burma for the decision.
The United Nations can decide anything but it is not binding until and unless it was imposed by the UN
Security Council and probably no one will take it to the UNSC and even if it is on the agenda can be vetoed by
Russia and China, the staunch patrons of Burma. Their findings may be pro and cons but it has to be decided by the
Government of Burma (Junta, Quasi military government of even a civilian government) and more or less will be
decided by the state‘s national interest. So the decision must be practical on the ground.
The 1982 law guarantees citizenship only for those who can prove that their family has lived in Burma for
at least three generations. But many Rohingya, who have lived in limbo along the Bangladeshi border for
generations, lack the necessary documentation and birth certificates to qualify. In November last year 2012, a
representative from the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) submitted a proposal to
revise the 1982 Citizenship Law but it was ―put on record‖, meaning that it was indefinitely postponed.142
Thein
Nyunt, chairperson of the New National Democracy Party, insisted that the law should not be revised. The United
Nation‘s Special Rapporteur for Human Rights in Burma, Tomas Quintana, recently called on the law to be revised,
but faced an immediate backlash from parliamentarians and political parties who say the law is meant to protect
Burma from ―illegal immigrants‖.
The solution to the Rohingyas‘ problems requires that new policies be put in place to eradicate their
statelessness and respect their fundamental human rights. Political will is required to end these policies of exclusion
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and discrimination. As long as they are considered illegal immigrants from Bangladesh, there is little hope of a
significant betterment of their status and living conditions.143
But the most important aspect is that the Buddhist, be
they Rakhine or Myanmar must have a forgiven heart. One could not take revenge on the current innocent Rohingya
simply because their fathers and grandfathers have bullied the Buddhist years ago.
However the most important aspect is that not only the issue of Rohingya but also of all the ethnic nationalities
related civil wars and violence in Burma will never be resolved unless the elite in the country especially the
generals adjust their attitude towards this ethnic nationalities and include them in the notion of a state.144
The Rohingya have to be integrated into the community. They must be persuaded to coexist with Rakhine
residents as before. Who destroyed this coexistence? It is the successive military Juntas. The people of Burma knew
that these Rohingya cannot be put into refugee camps as they do not want creating religious extremists. It is almost
impossible to send them back to their country or to a third country. Separating them from other ethnics would cause
problems at the times of implementing federal ideas. As secondary citizens, they cannot get the vote or cannot win a
seat in parliament. So what is needed to be done is to integrate them into the society. 145
Economical and educational
sectors need to be improved. Problems can be lessened if the areas are more developed and the locals become more
educated. However, they have to wait for at least two generations to get the vote and in the meantime should be
given permanent residence.
Still, Rohingyas are the burden not only on Arakan state, but also on the locals and the country itself .146
Once they
are officially registered as citizens or permanent residence, they can go freely throughout the country and enjoy the
rights of a citizen. The occurrences in Arakan State are a national issue, not international. The problems should be
solved by speeding up development projects to result in peaceful solutions. The more developed the area is and the
more the people are informed, the less likely such conflicts can emerge. The country leaders should take advices
from different perspectives. There are classic examples in the history. This crisis highlights the current political
changes, geo-politics and political circumstances in Burma.
So my humble or at least in my perspective is the right path of action is simply to confer them Permanent
Residence and make them comply with the national law of Burma and give them a chance to live peaceful with their
neighbours especially with the Arakanese and of course will have to bestowed on them perhaps some degree of
autonomy a little less similar to what the other ethnic nationalities are enjoying. 147
Make them adhere to the terms
of peace and peaceful coexistence agreed by them and help them to realize that they all belong to the same country
and owed allegiance to the Genuine Union of Burma. On the part of the Rohingyas, they will have to call themselves
as Arakanese Muslims not only to be more compatible with the mass of the people of Burma but also to show that
they really belong to the Union of Burma. In fact they have called themselves as Arakanese Muslim as far as 1913.
(See Annex III) and there was no problem at all. But the sad fact which I discovered in my research is that the so
called Rohingya leaders or activists are bent on coining the word Rohingya at any cost even at the extermination of
the whole of Rohingya population. Hence, the major share of the crisis can be blamed on them.
Some people proposed that any people residing in Burma prior 1948 should be given citizens. That is a
universal truth. But basing on the circumstances e.g. the Karen rebelled but KNU never utter a word that they will
join with any neighbouring country. They will fight for autonomy. The Shan started the resistance but they never say
that they want to be part of Thailand even though they speak a similar language, there are many Kachin in China but
KIA never uttered a word to be part of China, the Chin but CNF never say that they will join Mizoram even though
they speak the same language, the same religion and the same values. It was only the Rohingya/ Mujahid that
professed to join Pakistan and at one time fought under the banner of Pakistan flag. So before giving them full
citizenship let us test it with permanent residence for a couple of years and only when we discovered that they give
their allegiance to Burma and live according to the law we should give them citizenship.
This new coined word Rohingya which most people in Burma construe is very much anathema to the
Burmese Buddhist nationalist especially to the Rakhines. The Rohingya dream of setting up a small Islamic
township in Arakan state with the technical advice and financial support from religious extremists from foreign
countries like Bangladesh and Pakistan, and other Islamic countries is not feasible at all as it will infringe upon the
national sovereignty of Burma, according to a report from a commission set up to investigate the incident.148
If
Burma continues to be a democratic country may be in another generation or two the younger generation will be
more amenable to accept the word Rohingya and may grant them a full citizenships provided they prove to be one of
them. Let us leave it to our grand children and great grandchildren to decide. In the meantime the Rohingyas
especially the elites must realise that they cannot have the cake and eat it.
We will all have to recollect that this is but one aspect of Burma's numerous problems .So it would be hard
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to isolate it just to that one particular issue because it is a very difficult and is very complex. One may unwittingly
say the wrong thing and suddenly violence breaks out.
A careless word may kindle strife,
A cruel word may wreck a life;
A timely word may lessen stress,
We need, a loving word that will heal and bless.149
But I construe that overall, the issue, combined with all the other ethnic groups, together with the treatment of the
poor and the farmers in the rural areas and the clear bias of so many of the new laws in favor of investors and
businesses instead of ordinary people, a lot of things are pointing in the wrong direction.150
The Genuine Union of Burma could be an equitable country, a country where everyone had land rights, it
could be a county where everyone has security of tenure, where displacement was relegated to the past, where you
had economic distributed equally, that they built green and sustainable cities with proper mass transit and all these
things. It is really easy to imagine really beautiful, pro-people, pro-human rights, pro-justice future for the country.
These are my utopia for my beloved native country but as Scott Leckie, the director of the Switzerland-based NGO,
Displacement Solutions has said in his Burma's human rights issues said. ―But there are just an ever-growing
number of events and policies and laws, and other things that are making those who wish for a happy future quite
worried.‖151
Even as I am writing this paper the Burmese government is systematically restricting humanitarian aid and
imposing discriminatory policies on Rohingya Muslims in Arakan State, writes Human Rights Watch ―The
government seems untroubled by the dire humanitarian conditions in the camps in Arakan State,‖152
There is no
action plan to resolve the crisis and continued inaction will only make the crisis worse.‖ On March 18, 2013, the
European Commission warned the situation would turn into a ―humanitarian disaster‖ if the internally displaced
people living on paddy fields and sand banks were not relocated to safer sites within weeks. In fact this was also
pointed out by the Rakhine Investigation Committee (see Annex IV).
The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) likewise warned of a ―potentially
devastating‖ effect on displaced Rohingya when the rains start.
The government‘s failure to put forward plans or make efforts to return displaced Rohingya and other Muslims to
their original towns and villages heightens concerns of a long-term intent to segregate this population, It seems that,
―The unfortunate lesson from the violence in Arakan State is that so far the government does little to hold
accountable those who violate the rights of Muslims in Burma. By failing to stop violence and prosecute those who
incite it, the country‘s leaders are failing the test of reform.‖153
A small fountain of love which in Burmese we say ―Metta San Chaung Gale‖(arwWmprf; acsmif;uav;) is the centre piece of thriving relationship. Every religion either Buddhist or Muslims makes it clear to be people
who love- Love your religion, Love yourself and Love your neighbours are the basic facts.154
But it‘s hard to love
when we don‘t feel love. Hence make a little effort to love one another e.g. Rakhine and Rohingyas. Once you
become a practicing Buddhist or Muslims you will discover that- even towards those who don‘t show you love, and
these basic tenants will solve the problem between Rakhine Buddhist and Muslim Rohingyas.
End Notes 1. Dr Chan; Aye the Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan State of Burma. Kanda University of International
Studies. SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, Autumn 2005, ISSN 1479- 8484 2. The creators of that term might have been from the second or third generations of the Bengali immigrants from the
Chittagong District in modern Bangladesh; http://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/burma/burm for the report to the
UNHCR. As a matter of fact The Muslims in the Arakan State can be divided into four different groups, namely the
Chittagonian Bengalis in the Mayu Frontier; the descendents of the Muslim Community of Arakan in the Mrauk-U
period (1430-1784), presently living in the Mrauk-U and Kyauktaw townships; the decendents of Muslim mercenaries
in Ramree Island known to the Arakanese as Kaman; and the Muslims from the Myedu area of Central Burma, left
behind by the Burmese invaders in Sandoway District after the conquest of Arakan in 1784
3. Though some Rohingya historians, like Khalilur Rahma, contend that the term Rohingya may be derived
from Arabic word Rahma meaning 'mercy', They trace the term back to a shipwreck in the 8th century CE, where an
Arab ship wrecked near Ramree Island, Arab traders were ordered to be executed by the Arakanese king. Then, they
shouted in their language, 'Rahma'. Hence, these people were called 'Raham'. Gradually it changed Rhohang and finally
to Rohingyas. Some say, Rohingyas were descendants of inhabitants of Ruha in Afghanistan.]Another historian, argued
that among the Muslim populations in Myanmar, the term 'Mrohaung' (Old Arakanese Kingdom) was corrupted to
Rohang. And thus inhabitants of the region are called Rohingya. But whatever the case they have been living side by
side amicably until the new word ―Rohingya‖ was introduced in Arakan.
4. The Burmese has to cede, Assam, Manipur, Arakan and Tenasserim to the British refer to Maung Htin Aung (1967). A
History of Burma. New York and London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 212, 214–215 5. Look Charney 1999:279
6. Look at Furnivall 1957:29
7. Phayre 1836:696
8. Smart 1957: 89
9. Smart 1957: 99
10. Win;Kanbawza, Killing two birds with a stone a win win situation Euro Asia 19-7-2012 and in Asian Tribune
11. Charter 1938:34-38
12. See U K census 1851
13. Rajiv Sikri:Amb, Rohingya crisis a historical overview. Implications for national reconstruction, regional and
human security 14. Yegar 1972:67
15. Yegar 1972:67
16. Owen 1946: 26
17. Irwin 1946: 7-8, 16.
18. It is still stood today in Mandalay known as Arakanese Buddha
19. Zamindary System brought from Bengal
20. Report of the Settlement Operations in the Akyab District 1887-1888: 2, 21
21. Rahman 1979: 200-204
22. According to Dr Aye Chan‘s The Development of Muslim Enclave in Arakan State in Burma. In and Maungdaw
Township alone, there were, in the 1910s, fifteen Bengali Zamindars who brought thousands of Chittagonian tenants
and established Agricultural Muslim communities, building mosques with Islamic schools affiliated to them. However,
all these villages occupied by the Bengalis continued to be called by Arakanese names in the British records (Grantham
and Lat 1956: 41-43, 48-51).
23. The Roots Burma through the passage of time
24. Smart 1957:83
25. Bennison 1931: 213
26. Cady 1958: 172-273
27. See the writings of Maung Nyo, a kyun- ok (headman of the village tract) of Maungdaw Township recorded in History
28. Cady 1958: 294
29. Dr Chan; Aye the Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan State of Burma. Kanda University of International
Studies. SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, Autumn 2005, ISSN 1479- 8484
30. Win;Kanbawza,: Killing two birds with a stone or a Win, Win Situation in Asian Tribune 18-2-2012 31. Khin Gyi Pyaw 1960: 99
32. Dr Chan; Aye the Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan State of Burma Kanda University of International
Studies. SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, Autumn 2005, ISSN 1479- 8484
33. Interview with U Maung Tin the former
34. Win;Kanbawza,: Killing two birds with a stone or a Win, Win Situation in Asian Tribune 18-2-2012 35. Only 277 out of about 2400 indigenous Arakanese, could be resettled on the sites of their original homes
36. See Burma ‗s Western Border Report by the Diplomatic Correspondence
37. See Kyaw Zan Tha 1995:6
38. Mya Win 1992: 3
39. Dr Chan; Aye The Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan State of Burma Kanda University of International
Studies. SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, Autumn 2005, ISSN 1479- 8484
40. Immigration and Manpower Department 1987:I-14
41. International Herald Tribune Global Opinion 19-6-2012
42. India Today No country for Rohingya 22-4-2013
43. Read more at:http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/rohingya-muslims-rakhine-myanmar-bordering-
bangladesh/1/259014.html
44. Cady; John F -A History of Modern Burma p 636
45. Michaels; Samatha, Burma Govt Accused of Ethnic Cleansing Against Rohingya Muslims Irrawaddy 22-4-2013
46. Ye Htut the Deputy Information Minister said that it is not acceptable
47. Perspective of Dr. Maung Zarni
48. Brown, David: The State and Ethnic Politics in Southeast Asia, London school of Economics p36
49. For example displacing of all the ethnic commanders and replace with the Myanmar ethnic group
50. La Raw Dr.Maran: The Nation-State of Burma and the Victimization of Its Co-founders Burma Debate Nov./Dec
51. La Raw Dr.Maran: The Nation-State of Burma and the Victimization of Its Co-founders Burma Debate Nov./Dec
1996
52. Dr Chan; Aye the Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan State of Burma Kanda University of International
Studies. SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, Autumn 2005, ISSN 1479- 8484
53. The Mon has been in Burma much earlier than the Burman/Myanmar
54. The 1st military coup was in 1958 label as a Caretaker Government, the 2nd in 1962 as the Revolutionary Council and
the 3rd in 1988 as SLORC (State Law and order Restoration Council)
55. The word Bangladeshi was used instead of Bengali to be more specific. India‘s West Bengal is a fourth most populous
state in India with a population of 91 million Bengalis far numerous than Burma itself.
56. P Leider;Jacques, ―Rohingya,‖Rakhaing and the Recent Outbreak of Violence A Note
57. Mya Win 1992: 3
58. The people of Burma usually call a person Kalar if his complexion is dark
59. Dr Chan; Aye the Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan State of Burma Kanda University of International
Studies. SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, Autumn 2005, ISSN 1479- 8484
60. Manifesto of Arakan Rohingya National Organization p 1
61. Burma Briefings Burma‟s Rohingya Could do Without Burma Campaign No 20 March 2013
62. Burma Briefings Burma‟s Rohingya Could do Without Burma Campaign No 20 March 2013
63. Ibid
64. Once a person is elected to a Rohingya organization he holds that post for life
65. NDF Manifesto
66. TBBC Paper 3 Sides of a Story, a Profile of the Muslim communities in the refugee camps of the Thailand Burma
Border July 2010 67. Rianne ten Veen, ‗Myanmar‟s Muslims: The Oppressed of the Oppressed‟, Islamic Human Rights Commission
(IHRC), Wembley, UK,
68. ‗Burma Says No to Return of Muslims‟, Bangkok Post, 11 August 1997
69. http://www.jubileecampaign.co.uk/world/bur3.htm. See also Burma‟s Great Betrayal and another tragedy waiting
to happen. 24-2-98
70. Human Rights Watch Report 1998: Burma‘, at http://www.hrw.org/worldreport/Asia-01.htm
71. TBBC Paper 3 Sides of a Story, a Profile of the Muslim communities in the refugee camps of the Thailand Burma
Border July 2010
72. The majority of the people speak Tibeto-Burman languages. Tibeto-Burman speakers in Burma can be divided into six
distinct groups. The Burmish constitute the largest of these groups by population Nungish speakers live in upland areas
in Kachin State. The main Baric-speaking group is the Jingphaw in Kachin State. The Kuki-Naga-speaking peoples
include a large number of ethnic groups in the mountains along the border with India and Bangladesh. The Luish group
includes the Kado, who live near the border with the Indian state of Manipur. The Karen groups live in the hills along
the border with Thailand and the southern lowlands. The Lolo-speaking groups tend to be the most recent immigrants
to Burma; they live in the highlands of Shan and Kachin states.
73. Houtman, G., Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia
and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 1999, pp.137–56.
74. For a discussion, see Brown, op. cit.
75. Area of Burma is 676,600 sq.k, while Bangladesh has only147,600 sq but has a population of 161 plus million while
Burma has only 55 million
76. Zaung Htet;Tha Lun Rohingya Citizenship, a Burmese Decision; Suu Kyi to foreign Critics Irrawaddy26-2-2013
77. Working People‟s Daily, 6 August 1991
78. SPDC, Information Sheet, Yangon, Myanmar, No. C-2103 (I), 30 January 2002.
79. The others three are forged by the warrior king of Anawrahta, Bayinnaung and Alaungpaya, who lived 700 years apart
between the eleventh and eighteenth centuries.
80. The ethnic identities of rulers in pre-colonial Burma are, in fact, not always clear. Kingdoms were poly-ethnic and
evolving, so it is questionable how far back modern ethnic identities can be attributed. The kings of Pagan, for
example, wrote in several languages, including Mon and Pali as well as Burmese. A comparison would be claims today
that King William ‗the Conqueror‘ in eleventh-century Europe was ‗French‘ or ‗English‘ rather than Norman.
81. Thant Myint-U, The Making of Modern Burma, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 254; for a
discussion of Buddhism in Burmese politics, see also Min Zin, ‗The power of Hpoun‟, The Irrawaddy, vol. 9, no. 9,
December 2001.
82. Yawnghwe; Sao Harn :The Non-Burman Ethnic People of Burma 83. Waia; zwell, Is radical Islamic idea forming in Burma? 3-11-2012 by an 18-year-old young editor of EMG
84. Authorities Nurture Burma‘s Buddhist Chauvinism, VOA Broadcast 8-9-2012
85. Juliane Schober, Juliane: is a scholar studying Burma‘s Buddhist traditions at Arizona State University
86. Lewa; Chris, Conflict, discrimination and humanitarian challenges in Northern Arakan State, Brussels 8-10-
2003
87. Kaladan News (26 Jan 08) BDR pushes back 19-Burmese national to Burma
88. Refugees International (19 Dec 08) Rohingya: Burma‘s forgotten minority
89. Lewa; Chris, Conflict, discrimination and humanitarian challenges in Northern Arakan State, Brussels 8-10-
2003
90. An overview of forced labour practices in North Arakan, Burma (June to August 2012) submitted to ITUC by ILO
on Aug 2012
91. Forced labour still prevails: (An overview of forced labour practices in North Arakan), May 2012) ILO
92. International Herald Tribune Global Opinion 19-6-2012
93. Lewa; Chris, Conflict, discrimination and humanitarian challenges in Northern Arakan State, Brussels 8-10-
2003
94. Lewa; Chris, Conflict, discrimination and humanitarian challenges in Northern Arakan State, Brussels 8-10-
2003
95. The Express Tribune BLOGS 23-7-2012
96. FEER (10 Mar 92) Title unknown
97. New Straits Times (12 Mar 92) Islamic nations slam Myanmar for persecuting Muslims 98. Mizzima News ASEAN cannot support Rohingyas‟ citizenship claims: Surin 18 Nov.2012 in Phnom Penh
99. Roughneen;Simon, A Sad State of Affairs as ASEAN AWOL Over Rohingya Issue Irrawaddy 19-4-2013
100. Pye:Daniel, Indonesia President Visits Burma, Fails to Meet Muslim Leaders Irrawaddy 23-4-, 2013 |
101. Arab News, 5 March 2013
102. The National, 23 August 2012
103. Govindankutty; Janani Myanmar: Print Media Analysis Of The Rohingya Unrest – Analysis IPCS -- 5-4- 2013
104. The Iran Daily, 30 December 2012
105. Kuwait Times, 30 October, 2012
106. Boehler; Patrick ,US Envoy to Burma Says Peace Needed if Sanctions Are to Be Lifted 15-3-2013 Irrawaddy 107. Soudi Gazette; OIC launches Global Rohingya Centre 25-3-2013
108. An International Task force is needed to help tackle growing religious violence in Burma. Burma Campaign UK
No 19. March 2013
109. Burma Briefings Burma‟s Rohingya Could do Without Burma Campaign No 20 March 2013
110. An International Task force is needed to help tackle growing religious violence in Burma. Burma Campaign UK
No 19. March 2013
111. The Irish Centre for Human Rights Reports Crime Against Humanity in Western Burma, The situation of
139. Wade; Francis Islamophobia and the fear of 'the other' in Myanmar Aljazeera
140. Mizzima News 20-3-2013
141. The word Burma will be used as dictators cannot change the name of the country according to their whims and fancies
without the consensus of the people
142. Ibid
143. Lewa; Chris, Conflict, discrimination and humanitarian challenges in Northern Arakan State, Brussels 8-10-
2003
144. Ganjanakhundee; Supalak Myanmar elite must alter their thinking on the Rohingya The Nation 27-2 2013
145. Waia; zwell, Is radical Islamic idea forming in Burma? 3-11-2012 by an 18-year-old young editor
of EMG
146. Ibid
147. Permanent Residence enjoys rights like any other citizens except the voting rights is the international norms.
148. Eleven News; Bengalis fancy a "Muslim state": Rakhine ethnic community 3-5-2013
http://elevenmyanmar.com/national/3330-bengalis-fancy-a-muslim-state-rakhine-ethnic-community 149. McCasland;David, Who Owns My Lips In Our Daily Bread April & May
150. Link: http://www.dw.de/myanmars-worrying-transition/a-16678063?maca=en-rss-en-world-4025-rdf 151. Burma‟s Worrying Transition in Deutche Welle
152. Drummond;Andrew Just what is going on in Arakan State? And how reformed in Burma really? Human Rights
Watch Bangkok 27-3-2013
153. Ibid.
154. O Love that will not let me go. Our Daily Bread 3-4-2013
Annex II Message from White House to Free Rohingya Campaign (FRC)
We remain deeply concerned about the situation in Rakhine State and continue to urge the Burmese government to
ensure that actions are taken to maintain calm and increase security and accountability, as these actions are essential
to prevent the recurrence of violence. We recognize the helpful role the military has played in restoring calm, and
we encourage the government
Annex I
The Assessment of the Census Reports for 1871, 1901, and 1911
to invite assistance from international human rights monitors to ensure respect for human rights and international
humanitarian law. We further encourage the Government of Burma to enable safe, timely, and unhindered
humanitarian and medical access across Rakhine State to all persons in need.
We urge all parties to work together to restore security and stability according to international standards, and to hold
those responsible for the violence fully accountable under just and transparent procedures, adhering to the rule of
law.
We urge the Government of Bangladesh to respect its obligations under international law and to respect and to
reinstate its long-standing policy of non-refoulement, as persons fleeing the violence in Rakhine State may be
refugees or have other protection needs. We encourage the Government of Burma to also work with the international
community on confidence-building and reconciliation efforts. Achieving a long-term solution will require
addressing the of citizenship for the Rohingya population and ensuring their rights are fully protected.
Annex III
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Annex IV
Executive Summary of the Rakhine Investigation Committee (Official)
Therefore, to address the root causes and problems, the Commission recommends the following:
- Agencies responsible for security should heighten cooperation and collaboration with one another.
- The number of security forces in Rakhine should not be withdrawn or reduced in any significant numbers.
- Border security must be increased. A skilled force especially trained and prepared in preventing and resolving
conflicts needs to be put in place as a preventive measure. Such a force must be trained and equipped with modern
and appropriate means of conflict resolution.
A bomb squad also needs to be established to guard against actions by extremist groups.
- In the event that intervention by the Tatmadaw (Armed Forces) is needed to prevent or stop sectarian violence,
those forces must be adequately equipped with weapons for conflict resolution.
- The security forces to prevent the violence must be fully prepared and able to access all areas rapidly. To this end,
they should be equipped with modern telecommunications systems, all-weather vehicles, speedboats and other
suitable transport.
- The role of the Navy needs to be expanded and strengthened. To this end, coastal radar stations and patrol aircraft
should be established. Close circuit television cameras and manmade barriers are needed for 24-hour surveillance
along the border.
- To work closely with the Navy, a marine or coastal patrol force should be established and equipped with assault
boats, in order to ensure effective patrolling of the Rakhine Coast.
- A Special Team comprising a civil-military mix needs to be established and made responsible for gathering
intelligence on extremist organizations and violent groups.
- As a matter of priority, the organization of Immigration service personnel (La-Wa-Ka) in Rakhine State must be
strengthened.
- The Border Immigration Headquarters personnel (BIHQ or Na-Sa-Ka) in Rakhine State have issued certain
administrative orders pertaining to control of the territory. Such control must be continued.
- The authorities should ensure that Rakhine State has an excellent transportation network.
- Bangladesh has scheduled general elections in December 2013. Spill-over effects – such as unrest and infiltration
by extremist groups – may affect the border regions in Rakhine State.
Accordingly, security and other necessary arrangements should be made well in advance.
- The authorities need to set up systems for conflict resolution, for analysis and implementation of Myanmar laws
and regulations, and for prevention of illegal immigration.
- The communities on both sides need to be educated on the relevant laws, regulations and policies and on the nature
of sanctions for those who break the law. Rakhine State‘s civil service needs to be strengthened, in particular, the
Office of General Administration and the Department of Religious Affairs.
- The authorities need to ensure that those who break the law are tried and punished swiftly following due process,
without discrimination between different groups, who should all be equal before the law.
- All who live in Myanmar, including civil servants, are subject to the country‘s laws, regulations and legal
procedures and should follow these rigorously. Those who break the law or act outside the procedures and
regulations should be prosecuted according to the law.
The Government and various organizations are now implementing emergency relief and recovery/rehabilitation
programmes that provide food, shelter, health and education services, and
livelihood opportunities. Although there have been some modest achievements, the response still has many gaps. An
estimated 15% of food needs are still unmet. Some 90% of needs are unmet in the construction and provision of
shelter. The need for shelter is all the more urgent because of the imminent arrival of the rainy season. Basic and
preventive health measures need to be improved and expanded. In the education sector, teachers are urgently
needed, as are other measures to re-open schools and provide a safe learning environment for children. To address
the above problems, the
Commission recommends the following measures as urgent priorities:
- The authorities need to assess and address child malnutrition in Rakhine State. The Inquiry Commission on the
Sectarian Violence in Rakhine State: Executive Summary of the Final Report 23 April 2013.
- Livelihood opportunities for families need to be urgently created and expanded.
- Before the arrival of the monsoon seasons, the IDPs who are in inadequate temporary shelters must be moved into
more secure buildings, and the overcrowding in IDP camps must be reduced.
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- The authorities need to ensure safe water and adequate numbers of sanitation facilities in IDP camps and amongst
the IDP population.
- The frustration, trauma and anxiety experienced by communities need to be addressed, including through
psychosocial support and counselling.
- Concrete measures must be undertaken to reopen schools and to ensure that children are able to go to school.
- Civic education needs to be implemented to counter extremist teachings, especially in religious schools for the
Muslim communities in Rakhine State. As well, Muslim communities must be able to function in the Myanmar
language; to this end literacy courses3 need to be implemented amongst these communities.
- A local FM radio station broadcasting in local languages should be established, followed by a TV channel.
Rakhine State‘s economy and business environment need to be enhanced, so that livelihood and employment
opportunities are created and expanded. However, this will happen only if the two groups are able to live side-by-
side without conflict and tension. Accordingly, to promote peaceful coexistence, the Commission recommends the
following measures:
- All groups must be able to speak the Myanmar language, and understand Myanmar‘s traditional cultures. Measures
to promote such learning need to be implemented.
- Communication and interaction should be promoted between the Rakhine people and Bengali people.
- Measures need to be taken to instil a sense of loyalty and allegiance to the Union of Myanmar.
- The human rights of all groups must be protected.
- In dealing with illegal immigrants, the government should ensure adherence to human rights principles, taking into
account the international conventions and human rights laws ratified or acceded to by the Republic of the Union of
Myanmar.
- The government needs to urgently initiate a process for examining the citizenship status of people in Rakhine
State, implementing the provisions of the current 1982 Citizenship Law.
- The authorities need to ensure that justice and the rule of law prevail in resolving problems.
- Authorities will need to convene a Task Force comprising moderate leaders from both sides of the divide, to
oversee the implementation of the recommended measures.
- The Government needs to ban the use of hate language by against any religion. In particular, it needs to ban
extremist teachings and activities.
News media influence public opinion and have a special responsibility not to incite further hatred and violence.
Consequently, the Commission recommends the following:
- The responsible authorities need to ban language and actions that inflame tensions and create conflict. The
government needs to issue accurate and fact-based news to ensure openness and transparency and to counter
rumours and falsehoods.
- All villages and communities should be able to receive correct and factual news via radio programmes, news
bulletins, and public address systems. ***************************
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India-Myanmar relations
P.M. Heblikar Managing Trustee,
Institute of Contemporary Studies Bangalore (ICSB)
P.M. Heblikar retired as Special Secretary to Government of India in September 2010 after over 38 years of service. He was twice decorated by the Government for Meritorious and Distinguished service besides other commendations. He specialized in insurgency and counter-insurgency related developments in India’s northeast region and its external ramifications. Areas of interest included South Asia and South East Asia and Africa. He held several prestigious and sensitive appointments whilst in service at very high levels and on specialist government committees. He is currently Managing Trustee, Institute of Contemporary Studies Bangalore (ICSB). He is a Visiting Professor at the Department of International Relations and Strategic Studies, Manipal University, Manipal (Karnataka), He teaches at the Christ University, Bangalore and at St Josephs College, Bangalore. He is an Adjunct Faculty at National Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS) Bangalore. The main focus is India’s national security, its interests and objectives. He has contributed articles on national security to several leading Indian magazines and newspapers and addressed seminars in India as well as overseas.
____________________________________________
India-Myanmar relations The return of the military to barracksin 2010 in Myanmar has changed the politico-strategic picture not only in India’s northeast but also equations in Southeast Asia. In the Indian context it has a significant meaning especiallysignaling the end of five decades long “cold war” or “trust deficit” that presided over bilateral relations between India and Myanmar. The fact that the changes in Myanmar were a result ofinternal forces rather than external agentsis important and underlined the maturity of its powerful elite. It is heartening to note that the present ruling dispensation, led by President TheinSein, is in the middle of its five year parliamentary tenure, barring some anxious moments,which is a matter of some satisfaction. In present context Myanmar has an important role in ensuring the security and safety of the northeast region of India especially containing the ethnic insurgency.This is mutually advantageous. Northeast India has a strategic international dimension. It is resource rich. It is not only India’s land bridge to Myanmar but also a gateway to Southeast Asia and beyond. Close proximity to international markets of southwestern China and Southeast Asia makes this region an important base for foreign and domestic investors and in Tandem with the Look East Policy (LEP) gives it’s the ability to tap into the markets of the Association of South East Asian States (ASEAN), South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-sectoral Technology and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC). Effective linkages with both Myanmar and Bangladesh will give this landlocked region access to the ports of Chittagong, Sittwe and of-course, Haldia, India could always look at Homalin in Sagaing Division as yet another port for multi-modal transportation giving a new meaning to tourism, trade and commerce of this region. Development of a dedicated air services network is essential especially to parts of India and Myanmar which have cultural and social links as also business destinations.
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The internal developments in Myanmar continue to be watched by the Indian strategic community with due care and caution. India has great stakes in ensuring that the nascent movement towards multi-party democracy and rule by Constitution remains on track. Any setback in this process is bound to affect the security on India’s northeast region in particular. Senior Indian political analysts opine that the efforts towards democratization initiated by U Thein Sein and his reform minded colleagues are a challenge of major proportions. One of the major hurdles is the nature of the present constitution, though controversial and heavily tilted in favor of the military. The analysts note that the second and arguably very serious obstacle is the preamble of the Constitution that favors the majority community without providing safeguards to the ethnic and religious minority. Further, the ethnic civil war has been contained by several patch work ceasefire agreements and this animated relationship has often witnessed violence and ending in major military skirmishes. The religious intolerance between the Rakhine Muslims and the majority community has been a test of the fragile law and order machinery and patience of the minority groups. Events in the past have left an impression that the authorities lacked vision and ability to heal the wounds, the situation has worsened in recent months. Continued neglect of this sensitive and emotional subject could have graver repercussions and deteriorate into violence as witnessed twenty years ago and recently. Support to the Rohingya community could come from its traditional support base and introduce a new element into this sensitive region. This cannot be administered by laws made in Nay Pyi Taw or by sheer military might, China faces the same problem in Xinjian and is using methods that are widening the gap rather than addressing issues. Continued tensions could negate efforts of Bangladesh Prime Minister, Sheikh Hasina, who has dealt Islamic fundamentalism a massive blow in her present tenure. This has seen telling results. Myanmar authorities could well provide grounds for revival of Islamic extremism if they continue to ignore the problem. Reports emanating from Myanmar point to the upcoming government sponsored conclave of ethnic groups, which is expected to address several outstanding issues. No political event in Myanmar is complete without either a reference to DawAung San SuuKyi (ASSK) or the National League for Democracy (NLD). Despite efforts by the erstwhile State Peace and Development Committee (SPDC) to marginalize the NLD, it even today remains a powerful political force across the political spectrum and its role and influence cannot be underestimated. Like-wise, the role of ASSK in the national political context needs to understood, she has expressed a desire to run for the presidency. This is the scenario that Indian political establishment will need to keep in mind especially in the run-up to 2015 and 2020. In bilateral terms India has responded with alacrity to post 2010 developments in Myanmar. This has been underlined in political terms by the exchange of high level visits at the level of Head of State and Head of Government and others. The visit by ASSK several months ago to India was another manifestation of the desire to strengthen relations with high value political individuals. It will be remembered that India awarded her the prestigious Jawaharlal Nehru peace prize in 1993 even as the Indian army was flushing out Indian rebels operating in areas opposite Mizoram. The Myanmar army withdrew support to its Indian counterpart thus allowing the Indian Insurgent groups to escape capture. This commenced a period of extreme cold war between the two countries, which lasted till 1996. India needs to look to 2015 when the current dispensation will have to seek renewal of its mandate. President TheinSein has not indicated whether he will be a candidate at the 2015 polls, this is important and needs to be kept in mind especially the succession issue. ASSK has already announced her decision. The possibility of new equations emerging should be kept in mind as also the thinking in the powerful military establishment. More evidence is still needed to assess whether the process of democratization is on track and whether there is the stamina to move forward despite problems of ethnic and religious nature. India’s equation with the senior leadership of the NLD is well known. It is important also to gauge the mood of the “middle class” to recent developments. There is political vacuum in the countryespecially of leaders most of whom fell victims to the policies of Ne Win and that of his successors. India has every reason to increase its outreach to include the younger generation of the NLD, the future leadership of Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) and the various ethnic groups. This is very important. The Indian origin community too requires attention. India has
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contacts with some ethnic groups namely the Kachins and their southern cousins – the Chins.Sizeable bodies of students from these two groups have been to educational institutions in India. Myanmar’s military has dominated national life for over six decades and is well entrenched in the body politic. It not only controls the political scene but also the economy of the country to a large extent. The military will not cede reins of power in the absence of iron clad guarantees assuring its central role and therefore its interlocutors, both national and international, will have to live with this realism. In the Indian context, it must be said that the military of both countries have enjoyed excellent equation as witnessed by regular exchange of high level visits and other developments. The same is true in respect of the intelligence and security agencies. On the trade and investment side, Commerce and Industry minister, Anand Sharma’s June 6, 2013 stated at Nay PyiDaw that India will invest USD. 2.6 billion in next 2-3 years and bilateral trade is to reach USD. 3. billion 2015 from USD. 1.872 billion in 2012. India is currently Myanmar’s fourth largest trading partner after Thailand, Singapore and China. More obviously would need to done in critical infrastructure, social and agriculture sector. The involvement of the northeastern states in the trade and business activities of Myanmar is important. In fact integration of efforts is even more important. Northeast region should become a Special Economic Export Zone (SEZ). The involvement of the Chief Ministers of each of the states in this region is important and there is every reason for their presence in delegations to Myanmar or Bangladesh. This will augur well for the Look East Policy (LEP) and help expedite the development of the region. India has an enormous role in capacity building activities in Myanmar given the strength of the private and corporate sector especially in the education, family health, medical, research and referral in specialist medical services, law and judiciary, media and banking. India could also consider offering its police training and higher institutions of learning to Myanmar police department. In a country that is striving towards a civilian parliamentary democracy, strengthening of civilian police establishment is important. It is imperative that India too looks at various options to strengthen its presence and influence in Myanmar. One major priority is to look at joint ventures with Japan, Vietnam and South Korea which are already in the ambit of the Look East Policy, India’s LEP could enmesh with that of Japan’s Look West Policy (LWP). Taiwan is another major business partner in this region and should come within the expanded LEP. The efforts of the West bloc to re-engage Myanmar after decades of isolationis moving in the right direction and will take several years to achieve results. China will remain a key partner of Myanmar despite the winds of change, Myanmar is the key to China’s Look South Policy and it is unlikely that this will undergo major changes in the short-medium term. China has invested over USD.17.billion in Myanmar directly and indirectly and is unlikely to allow this to be threatened. The area surrounding India’s northeast region is gradually becoming internationally active. Myanmar’s return to the international fold has opened up many challenges for India. The most important one is to keep the process of democratization on track.Myanmar holds the key to peace and security in the region and especially on our side of the border. A sustained approach is now unavoidable and must become a comprehensive part of India’s national security policy.
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Myanmar’s Integration to the International Community
Dr. Rajaram Panda Dr. Rajaram Panda, an alumnus of the Jawaharlal Nehru University, is a leading expert from India on East Asia and the Asia-Pacific region, with focus on Japan and Korea. He was formerly Senior Fellow at the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, and is currently Visiting Faculty at the Centre for Japanese, Korean and Northeast Asian Studies, School of Language, Literature & Culture Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University and Visiting Fellow at the Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, New Delhi. He is the author of seven books (2 sole-authored and 5 co-edited) and published over 100 research papers in professional journals. He has rich presence in websites, print and electronic media. He was Visiting Fellow at Hitotsubashi University, Tokyo, (1979), Australian National University, Canberra (1979), and Asahi Shimbun Foundation Fellow (1992-93) at Reitaku University. Dr. Panda will take up the Japan Foundation Fellowship from January 2014 at the Toin Yokohama University, Yokohama, for 10 months. Dr. Panda is widely traveled throughout Asia to present papers in conferences. E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction Myanmar’s tryst with democracy, however managed it may be, seems to be bearing fruits as the international community is losing no time to embrace and also woo the country. After Myanmar’s military leaders formally stepped down in 2011, leaders from democratically elected countries have flocked to the country to encourage further political and economic changes. Leaders from the US, South Korea, India, Japan, Britain, and the United National Secretary General Ban Ki-moon made beeline to cultivate the leadership in Myanmar. While South Korean President Lee Myung-bak visited Myanmar in May 2012, accompanied by several business leaders, including the president of Daewoo International Corp., which is spending $1.7 billion to develop a natural gas field in Myanmar and sell its production to China, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh became the first Prime Minister to visit Myanmar in 25 years. In particular, President Lee’s visit was significant in the sense that he travelled to Myanmar from Beijing, where he had met Chinese and Japanese leaders for an annual trilateral summit. This shows that both South Korea and Japan are on board so far as their countries’ Myanmar policy is concerned. In other words, there is recognition in the two East Asian countries about China’s incursion and growing influence in Myanmar, which has a large strategic connotation as well. Even India cannot ignore this fact. South Korea is the fourth largest foreign investor in Myanmar after China, Hong Kong and Thailand. Apart from pledging economic support, Myanmar’s military ties with North Korea and alleged links for nuclear weapon programs are not only worrying to South Korea but to India as well. So far as India is concerned, the single most factor that is driving both India and South Korea is geo-strategic and economic considerations. Besides Myanmar’s geo-strategic significance, both the countries have taken note that Myanmar is a resource rich country where China alone accounts for more than 70 per cent of FDI in the hydrocarbon sector. In India and elsewhere, the victory of Suu Kyi’s party, NLD, in the by-election is seen as further opening the doors for political reforms in the country.
In the past, Suu Kyi has always urged New Delhi to play a more active role in democratization of Myanmar, insisting that India should not be driven purely by commercial considerations. While India always supported the pro-democracy movement, it also simultaneously courted the military junta as it tried to rein in rebels in the northeast and also to ensure that it did not lose out to other nations in tapping Myanmar’s considerable energy sources.
Myanmar and Europe On its part, Myanmar too has responded positively to outside world’s readiness to embrace into its fold and to integrate to their economies. This was demonstrably clear during President Thein Sein’s five-nation European tour in February 2013. President Thein Sein’s five nation tour of Europe was a clear indication of the Myanmar government’s eagerness to re-engage with the EU and its members. President Sein visited Finland, Austria, European Council, and Italy from 2 February to 7 March. While in Finland, President Sein held meetings with Finnish President Saului Niinisto and Nobel Laureate Martti Ahtisaari and held discussions on Myanmar’s on-going political reforms, peace-keeping processes and assistance in promoting human development tasks. The Finnish President promised to assist Myanmar in the establishment of good governance, rule of law and peace-keeping processes in the country. Nobel Laureate Ahtisaari discussed the role of the Crisis Management Initiative Group’s efforts in urging EU to engage with Myanmar. While in Austria on 5 March, Austrian President Dr. Heinz Fisher discussed with the Myanmar President political reforms, nation-building endeavours, peace-keeping processes with national races armed groups as well as the full lifting of sanctions imposed on Myanmar by the EU. President Sein also had discussion with Austrian Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament and discussed further strengthening of ties at the inter-governmental, inter-parliamentary and people-to-people levels. He also attended the Myanmar-Austria Economic Forum and urged those present to invest in Myanmar.
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In Brussels, President Sein called on the heads of the three EU institutions and discussed democratic reforms, peace-making processes with ethnic groups as well as promoting cooperation in education, health, tourism and exchange of culture between Myanmar and EU. What was significant was that the issue of human rights and lifting of sanctions were also raised. He also attended the signing ceremony on cooperation in Crisis Response between EU and Myanmar on 6 March. Whilst in Rome, President Sein discussed with his counterpart Giorgeo Napolitano about ongoing political economic reforms, promotion of human rights, peace processes, closer cooperation in trade, culture and other sectors, assistance in Myanmar’s agricultural development drive and microfinance works, and cooperation with two armed forces. During the visit, the Agreement on the Treatment (Cancellation and Rescheduling) of the Debt and Agreement on Debt-for-Development Swap was also signed. The Italian President and Prime Minister recognized the positive changes taking place in the country and promised to offer more help and closer cooperation and agreed that EU should lift the overall sanctions against Myanmar. What it transpired in concrete terms was that Myanmar was now eager to re-engage with the EU and its members. In the past, due to the sanctions imposed by EU, engagement at the highest level was unthinkable. The meetings in Brussels with the presidents of the EU Council, Parliament and Commission are signs that cooperation and readiness to engage with Myanmar are now gaining momentum. In his meeting with his counterparts and EU officials, President Thein Sein urged for the complete removal of sanctions as well as reinstating the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) to Myanmar. In return, EU committed more flow of aid, while at the same time adopting a wait and see approach. As part of its re-engagement policy, the EU has been in the forefront in providing assistance to end the conflict between the government and ethnic armed groups. Myanmar’s critical role in ASEAN Once a divisive pariah, Myanmar is increasingly being seen as the key to unity in Southeast Asia. The members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations once disagreed with the West over Myanmar sanctions. Now the opening of the country's economy could help ASEAN attain a big prize. With Myanmar’s openings, the ASEAN hope to use this opportunity to form a Southeast Asian economic community by the end of 2015. These countries expect that an economic community would help cut costs and make it easier to do business across the region, thereby adding to the region’s already burgeoning appeal to outside investors.
Do these expectations reflect the ground realities? Much howsoever optimistic the ASEAN’s stand may be, it transpired in the ASEAN foreign ministers meeting in Brunei in early July 2013 that even a small-scale Southeast Asian version of the EU looks increasingly unlikely to happen soon.1 This is because disagreements over who is at fault for a throat-clogging haze blanketing parts of Malaysia and Singapore as well as saber-rattling over the disputed South China Sea overshadowed discussion on economic integration. It is a pity that despite more than four decades of cooperation, the region's countries are suspicious of any development that appears to trump national sovereignty. If ASEAN is going to become an economic bloc, member states will have to overcome this reluctance, given that any process of regional economic integration, and particularly the far-reaching project of a single market and production base, requires regional institutional and decision-making structures which go beyond the traditional sphere of the national autonomy and sovereignty. Another
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deterring factor could be the uneven economic development in ASEAN member countries. For example, Singapore is too wealthy vis-à-vis Myanmar which is newly reforming. However, so long as Myanmar keeps its doors open for business, investors will not remain shy of bringing investment money. Since the 2008 economic downturn in the West, the ASEAN countries have posted strong growth and the US-ASEAN Business Council, a US business-backed lobby group in the region, feels that if the cumulative economy of the region is measured as a whole, the ASEAN could create the world’s ninth biggest economy.
IF ASEAN succeeds to create a sort of mini-EU by 2015, the role of foreign businesses will be crucial. In this scenario, Myanmar will be a key driver of the proposed economic community. Myanmar was appointed as ASEAN chair for the first time in 2014, the pivotal year before the bloc is supposed to be established. The US removed the sanctions against what was a military dictatorship and likely to grant some of the same concessions to Myanmar as it gives to 127 other countries. The opening up of the US market, along with new curbs put on imports from neighboring Bangladesh means a good opportunity for the Myanmar garment makers. It would allow Myanmar’s vital garment sector, which employs around 150,000 people, to regain a foothold in the US market lost during the sanctions era. Yet, there still lurks a fear that once the economic bloc is created, it will benefit established companies from richer countries such as Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand over businesses from the poorer nations. Myanmar may have a critical role in pushing economic union plan but commercial rivalries could still disrupt that role. The fact that ASEAN economies are characterized by competition than complementarity cannot be ignored.
President Thein Sein’s visit to the US
When President Thein Sein visited the US and had a summit meeting with President Obama in May 2013, he became the first leader of Myanmar to do so in nearly half a century. It marked the latest US effort to reward him for introducing reforms after decades of military rule. The White House meeting with President Obama also represented a rapid diplomatic boost for Thein Sein, whom the US removed from a blacklist of foreign officials denied entry to the country in 2012. Obama previously recognized Myanmar’s reform efforts by making the first visit to that nation by a sitting US president in November 2012. The White House said Obama was committed to supporting countries such as Myanmar that make a decision to “embrace reform.”
The US policy towards Myanmar, however, does not have universal approval both in the US and Myanmar. Rights groups accused Obama of sending the wrong message to Myanmar. According to them, Thein Sein’s White House invitation reduced pressure on him to release political dissidents and stop alleged rights abuses against Myanmar’s ethnic minorities. Some US lawmakers also said they will try to slow the process of lifting US sanctions on Myanmar to keep the pressure on Thein Sein to address those concerns. But Obama’s intentions are long term. He wants to help Thein Sein to overcome resistance within the Myanmarese military toward further democratic change. By embracing Myanmar, Obama wants to strengthen his strategy to boost ties with Southeast Asian nations as a counterweight to China’s growing regional power.2
Myanmar’s leaders do indeed face critical challenges in restoring the country to full democracy. The decades of influence and control of the military would not go away so soon from the system. While further developing democracy, the leadership had to address communal and ethnic tensions and there have been excesses at times while controlling them. But a mix of strengthening democracy while creating economic opportunity is a double-edged sword. Controlling political dissent are addressing civil strife are new challenges to the leadership in Myanmar.
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But human rights activists do not buy this argument. The US-based group for Human Rights released a report in May, accusing the Myanmar authorities of standing by while militants attacked an Islamic boarding school in the central town of Meiktile in March 2013. It said assailants killed at least 20 children and four teachers.3 The report’s lead author, Richard Sollom, urged Obama to “persuade Burma’s leader that the only path from tyranny to democracy is through the promotion and respect of human rights.” Sollom also called on Thein Sein to support an independent investigation into the Meiktila killings and to “bring perpetrators to justice and speak out forcefully against ongoing anti-Muslim violence.”
On its part, the US has continued to advocate for continued progress on reform by Thein Sein's government, in close cooperation with Aung San Suu Kyi, civil society leaders, and the international community. The two leaders discussed the "many remaining challenges" and focused on how to develop democracy, end ethnic tensions particularly with the Rohingya Muslim minority in the Rakhine state, and improve the economic, social and human rights environment in Myanmar.
A point often overlooked is if the US has accepted the change of the country’s name from Burma to Myanmar. This time Obama and his Press Secretary Jay Carney called Burma as Myanmar, implying the US might have accepted the decades-long demand by the authorities of Myanmar that Burma be called Myanmar. It transpired soon that the US government over time has begun to allow limited use of the name Myanmar as a diplomatic courtesy, reminding that "Burma has undertaken a number of positive reforms, including releasing over 850 political prisoners," therefore the US government has responded by "more frequently using the name Myanmar".
Thein Sein did admit and Obama acknowledged that the transition to democracy is a long journey and that more has be to done regarding the establishment of a fully democratic system that respects ethnic minorities and subordinates the military to civilian oversight. Notwithstanding the longstanding and still essential relationship it shares with China, Myanmar may count someday among the close partners of the US within the framework of the global rebalance toward the Asia Pacific region.4
Rewarding the former pariah state for progress on reforms, Obama named the first US ambassador in two decades in May 2013 and announced a further easing of economic reforms. Derek Mitchell, former Secretary Clinton’s special envoy on Myanmar and who played a lead role in formulating the administration’s response to Myanmar’s movement towards reform over the past year will be US ambassador to Myanmar in 22 years. Calling the moves “the beginning of a new chapter” in relations with Myanmar, Obama said the new steps were part of the US making good on a pledge “to respond to positive developments in Burma and to clearly demonstrate America’s commitment” to a continuing transition.5
However, the administration’s efforts to calibrate the lifting of US sanctions to the pace of reforms in Myanmar are not to everyone’s liking. Some US lawmakers say the administration should be moving faster to lift all remaining sanctions, while some human rights groups criticize the actions taken so far as too much for too little – particularly in the area of minority rights.
Assessing Myanmar’s reforms
For more than half a century, Myanmar’s military governments were synonymous with brutality and corruption. Accused of savagery in their prosecution of civil wars with rebellious ethnic minorities, drug running, forced labor on a massive scale, and other human rights violations,
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successive generals brought the country, once one of Southeast Asia’s most prosperous nations, to economic ruin. A year ago the military stepped aside, handing power to a nominally civilian government made up largely of former generals that have instituted political reforms, signed ceasefires with most of the ethnic minorities, and promised economic modernization. Here are four reasons why the military changed its course:
(a) Leaders protecting themselves Gen Thein Sein, the man who ran Myanmar until last year, may have had his eye on history when he handed over power. Traditionally, Myanmar's military dictators who handed over power to the successive dictator have soon found themselves in jail or under house arrest and their relatives stripped of the wealth they had accumulated. By paving the way to a nominally civilian government, Than Shwe made sure that power is no longer wielded by one man who would be strong enough to turn on him. Instead, power in Myanmar today is diffused among the military, different factions of the government, and an increasingly active and demanding parliament. Than Shwe is now quietly in the background, presumably enjoying the material fruits he gathered while he ran Burma and decided who should be granted lucrative business deals in the resource-rich country.
(b) Decreasing dependence on China
Isolated from most of the western world by its behavior and by economic sanctions, Myanmar has been forced to rely more and more on its giant neighbor China. Beijing did its diplomatic best to support Myanmar in international fora and became Myanmar’s indispensable ally: the generals get all their weapons from China (which can set the price and the quality, in the absence of competition), do 35 percent of their trade with China, and have let Chinese firms build controversial dams in Myanmar to feed the Chinese appetite for hydroelectricity. Chinese businessmen and traders have been flooding into northern Myanmar in recent years, and they are not popular with the local people. Indeed, the Myanmar people have long mistrusted China, and the military has not forgotten that it spent a lot of time, and lost a lot of lives, putting down a Communist rebellion supported by Beijing. The Myanmar government appeared to decide that the only way to lessen its humiliating and debilitating dependence on China was to introduce a little competition from western nations. But to do that, they had to persuade the US and the European Union to lift the economic sanctions imposed because of their human rights violations. The best way to do that was to launch a political opening, and persuade the world that Myanmar was on the road to democracy. Therefore, holding elections are important.
(C) Ending western sanctions and economic woes
For 26 years, until 1988, the military government led by Ne Win imposed what it called a “Burmese Road to Socialism” which bore many similarities to North Korea’s economic path and led to many of the same appalling results. Subsequent efforts to open up the economy bore some fruit, but as more and more senior Myanmar officials traveled around Southeast Asia, the realization of just how far behind this country fell sunk in. Fifty years ago Myanmar
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was the biggest rice exporter in the world. Today it is the poorest country in Southeast Asia. They see this as a matter for national shame. Myanmar has committed itself to joining the ASEAN common market in 2015; if it is going to be able to catch up and keep up it needs to bring its economy into the 21st century, and to do that it needs international help from as many directions as possible. That means an end to western sanctions – and that means democratization, or at least enough to satisfy the West.
(D) Little credit goes to "Arab Spring"
What is happening in Myanmar, however, is not an Asian version of the “Arab Spring.” The generals launched themselves on the road to political reform several years ago, albeit slowly – long before they might have been frightened into it by events in the Middle East. More importantly, the reforms have not come as a result of popular uprisings; in fact the government successfully (if brutally) put down uprisings in 1988 and 2007, when many observers thought Buddhist monks might be leading a “Saffron Revolution.” Instead, the reform process has been imposed from the top down. The generals decided for their own reasons that they wanted to leave power on their own terms. Of course, watching the “Arab Spring” unrest spread around the Middle East, they probably congratulated themselves for being prescient.
According to Vikram Nehru, a senior associate in the Asia program at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, “the progress in Myanmar is real, but that the country’s leaders have so far delivered more political than economic reforms”.6 While on political reforms, Myanmar can boast of releasing political prisoners, unmuzzling the press, allowing peaceful assembly of people, etc, in the economic realm, it has little to claim to feel proud. Among economic reforms, the Thein Sein government has passed a bill to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) and liberalized other imports. There are other reforms agenda that include a central banking law, and other laws that “would provide basic institutional and legal frameworks for a functional economy”.7 The biggest challenge is how to deliver results quickly as inordinate delay will disillusion the people. In terms of resource endowment, Myanmar is blessed with plenty of oil, gas, jade, gems and minerals. The government has to ensure that money is channeled through the budget in a transparent fashion and used to increase infrastructure and provide additional resources for health and education for the poor.
According to Nehru, two things continue to hold back Myanmar’s economy: the need to liberalize investment licensing, and the need to confront the vested interests in trade—what he calls “the cronies and large business groups that benefited from the earlier regime and still dominate the economy. He further says: “So far the reforms that have taken place have not necessarily affected the small interest groups in Myanmar, and that will be the litmus test of how far this government is willing to go”.8 Under the current licensing system, licenses are allocated based not on “whether you are particularly efficient, but whether you can work the system”. “The system lends itself to corruption, creates monopolies, stops growth and investment,” he continues. “This will be a test of whether the government is willing to put together policies in the national interest and not in the interest of a few small and very powerful groups.”9
The real test of democracy that Myanmar will face is when elections are held in 2015. The question that looms is whether the military will retain its current share of parliamentary power and, more
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broadly, whether the elections will be free and fair. As these elections approach, outside observers must watch closely to ensure that the government does not roll back its reforms “or put the genie back in the bottle”. So far the US is concerned, it must be patient as the complicated domestic dynamics within Myanmar may contribute to the delay in consolidating further reforms. A prosperous, stable and democratic Myanmar is in the US interests, particularly the US rebalance towards Asia. Two difficult states –Myanmar and North Korea – continued to threaten to destabilize Asia. But now with Myanmar opting for democracy, North Korea will remain the only other country in Asia without democracy. It will be in everyone’s interest to support democracy in Myanmar because it will lend to greater stability across the region.
Japan and Myanmar
Going along with the international community to accommodate Myanmar after it choose to reforms, Japan’s Prime Minister too paid a visit to Myanmar in late May 2013 for a summit meeting with Thein Sein. The aim was to accelerate Japanese efforts to promote economic development and democratization there. Abe’s visit was the first time in around 36 years for a Japanese prime minister to visit Myanmar. The last was Takeo Fukuda in August 1977. Abe’s visit will also help counter Beijing’s influence in Myanmar, which grew during its years of long isolation under military rule. Abe also met Myanmar opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi after the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize winner visited Japan in April 2013, the first time in almost 27 years at the invitation of the Japanese government.
In 1985-86, for nine months at Kyoto University, Suu Kyi did research on Myanmar’s independence movement and her father Gen Aung San, who was instrumental in achieving Myanmar’s (then called Burma) independence from Britain. When Myanmar was under the military rule and faced strong criticism from Western countries for its oppression of the democracy movement, Japan continued to have relations with the military regime. Suu Kyi criticized Japan for supporting the regime and expressed dissatisfaction with Japan’s economic assistance to Myanmar on the grounds that it would only benefit the military government. The Japan Times observed in an editorial thus: “The Japanese government should use Ms. Suu Kyi’s current visit to Japan as a good chance to strengthen channels of communication with her and the opposition forces in Myanmar so that Japan can have a broad-based relationship with the country.”10 After her election to the lower house of the Myanmar Parliament in April 2012, she visited Thailand, Switzerland, Norway, Ireland, Britain, the United States, India and South Korea but refrained from visiting Japan. Her decision later to accept the invitation meant she thought it would be in Myanmar’s best interest as Japan is a major donor of economic assistance. The editorial exhorted the Japanese government to establish a trustful relationship with her as her party might sweep the polls when held in 2015. Japan to support a leader who has been fighting for democratization for which she suffered 14 years in either jail or house arrest will be befitting for a country championing for rule of law, democracy and human rights.
Japan is aware that Myanmar has been attracting foreign investment since it started a transition towards democracy in March 2011 and does not want to lose the opportunity to participate. Myanmar is widely seen as Asia’s last untapped frontier with relatively cheap and abundant labour. Therefore, Abe decided to travel to Naypyitaw in May 2013 after the trilateral summit between Japan, China and South Korea in Beijing. During his summit with Thein Sein, Abe conveyed Tokyo’s intention to help improve the investment environment and infrastructure in Myanmar. He also announced plan to strengthen support for Myanmar’s ethnic minorities by building schools,
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providing technical assistance in farming and giving other forms of aid if a national reconciliation be reached.11 Abe pledged the support of the “whole of Japan”, its public and private sectors alike for the country’s reforms process to ensure its continued democratic and economic advancement. In particular, Japan’s assistance will be directed towards development of Myanmar’s infrastructure, such as its power grid, a high-speed communication network, transportation routes and waterworks, as well as thermal power operations and its legal system.12 Abe was accompanied with representatives of around 40 companies keen to explore a highly promising new market.
Abe inspected the Thilawa special economic zone near Yangon that is scheduled to open in 2015 with a fresh yen loan, and observed the signing of a memorandum of understanding between Japanese and Myanmar corporate representatives on the zone’s development. He later told a Japan-Myanmar business seminar attended by more than 400 people that his visit is not aimed at “simply calculating profits” that Japanese companies could rack up in the fast-emerging economy, but rather at “assisting the nation-building efforts of Myanmar, which is an old friend of Japan and overcame many difficulties.”13 The Thilawa economic zone is expected to draw a host of manufacturing companies, “symbolizes bilateral cooperation” between Japan and Myanmar and will generate significant new employment locally.
As a gesture of respect to history, Abe and his wife, Akie, laid a wreath at the Martyrs’ Mausoleum in Yangon to pay tribute to Myanmar’s independence hero, Gen. Aung San, Suu Kyi’s father, and his colleagues, who were assassinated at the site in 1947. He also visited a cemetery for Japanese who perished in the country during and after the war, as well as an elementary school on the outskirts of Yangon that was established with funds from a Diet lawmakers’ group headed by Abe in 2004.
Thus it transpired that Japan’s strategy towards Myanmar which had been one of “watching and waiting” during the long spell of military rule and international sanctions were now replaced by active economic engagement. Japanese aid has manifested itself in numerous ways, but not least in capacity-building via advice and support to the Myanmar government in areas such as banking budgetary and monetary policy. Significantly, Japan has also been a buyer of Myanmar’s rice export crop.
There is no doubt Japan's Myanmar is driven by economic consideration but it is also very closely aligned to the country's broader foreign policy goals. Like many countries, Japan has been concerned in recent years about the degree to which Myanmar had begun to fall under the sway of China, to the extent indeed of becoming a client state of this rising global power. Accordingly, Japan has been quick off the mark in providing Myanmar with strategic alternatives. Given Japan's long historical ties to Myanmar and the obvious strategic motivations, this was to be expected.14
Australia and Myanmar
Following other world leaders making effort to integrate Myanmar to the world community, Australia expressed eagerness to be partners in reforms. Prime Minister Julia Gillard (since replaced with Kevin Rudd) expressed to the visiting President Thein Sein in Canberra on 18 March that her government will be involved in Myanmar’s economic development projects.
Australia agreed to provide $20 million over two years for the first phase of the Myanmar-Australia Partnership for Reform. This Partnership will support the Myanmar Government to deliver its reform agenda—strengthening democratic institutions, promoting human rights, improving
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economic governance and advancing the rule of law. Thein Sein also met a dozen Myanmar students, studying in Canberra on Australia Awards scholarships. Their degrees range from Bachelors to PhDs, across subjects as diverse as health, education, and international relations, and will give them the skills needed to contribute to development and reform their country.
Australia’s existing aid program to Myanmar is set to increase to $100 million per year by 2015, improving health outcomes, increasing incomes of the rural poor and supporting the peace process. Out of this funding, $80 million over four years will support basic education and tertiary scholarships, and in 2013 alone Australian aid will help more than 34,000 children access early childhood education, train over 9500 teachers and provide supplies to 62,000 primary school students.
The Partnership builds on the Memorandum of Understanding on Development Cooperation between the two countries—the first such agreement Myanmar has signed with a Western nation. The Memorandum allows for close consultation to determine activities that will best support Myanmar’s reform agenda.
The partnership will contribute to sustainable and equitable economic development in Myanmar. Australia is supporting the Government of Myanmar’s commitment to join the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative to help ensure that the benefits of growth are felt by all Myanmar’s people. It will also support the Myanmar Human Rights Commission in its efforts to train government officials and civil society to be more accountable. Strengthening the Commission will help it build awareness of human rights issues in Myanmar.
Through its Australia Awards, Australia offers scholarships funded by the Australian Government, offering an opportunity to study, research and undertake professional development for the next generation of leaders from around the world. There has never been a more important time to provide this support for Myanmar. The ambitious program of reform being undertaken by the Myanmar Government cannot be realised without development of the nation’s human resources. The Australia Awards are keys to building the necessary skills to realise this goal.
Total Australian Government expenditure for the Australia Awards in 2012 was $334.2 million enabling more than 4900 recipients from more than 140 countries to undertake further study, research and professional development. There are 33 Myanmar students currently studying in Australia and another 30 are due to start in 2013. Australia Awards build enduring people-to-people links between Australia, its regional neighbours and the broader international community. Among the Awards Alumni are government ministers, members of parliament and ambassadors, as well as leaders in the fields of education, public health, trade, agriculture, education and economic development.
Google makes move
Google’s Executive Chairman Eric Schmidt, pressing his belief in the advantage of being a first mover, visited Myanmar in March 2013, the country with the third-lowest rate of Internet access in the world. The trip followed his controversial visit in January to North Korea, where there is no discernible Internet at all. But there is more to the difference between North Korea and Myanmar than 1 percent (the proportion of people in Myanmar with an Internet connection.) Pyongyang is showing no signs of opening up, while Myanmar has transformed itself through a wave of economic
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and political reforms into a potential fount of opportunity for foreign business people. Those reforms have unchained the Internet, for a start. Once among the most heavily censored in the world, Myanmar’s websites are now effectively free.
The reforms have also induced the US and other Western countries to lift almost all the economic sanctions they had imposed on the former military government. That has made business possible for Western firms that are now chomping at the bit to get a piece of the action in Asia’s last virgin market – one that is 60 million strong.
In Myanmar, Schmidt made a speech to entrepreneurs, computer enthusiasts, and business leaders before meeting government leaders. Though greater access to information will help business, one cannot expect immediate results. In the longer run, the prospect of a more prosperous Myanmar carries with it a rapidly expanding market for information technology products, but the country is currently the poorest in Asia, where even electricity supplies are unreliable. Internet access is not only paltry – ahead of only North Korea and East Timor in World Bank ratings – but also excruciatingly slow and prone to sudden cuts. “
Mobile phone access is also among the lowest in the world; only 9 percent of Myanmar’s citizens had a mobile phone at the beginning of 2013, compared to 70 percent in nearby Cambodia. And in neighboring Thailand there were more cell phones than citizens. The government hopes to increase access in Myanmar to 80 percent by 2016. The number of mobile phone owners is limited both by inadequate network infrastructure and the high price of SIM cards, which cost $226. But Thein Sein has made mobile telephones a key element of his government’s policy. In January 2013 the authorities invited international tenders for two telecoms licenses, which should be granted anytime in 2013.
SIM cards could cost just a few dollars, putting them within reach of most consumers, if the president has his way. Improved telecommunications would increase broadband speed and make Internet connections faster and more reliable. Cheaper SIM cards would open up the telephone handset market. Google, as the largest Internet company in the world and the maker of the Android platform for smartphones, stands to profit from both developments.
China and Myanmar
China had a leadership change in early 1013 but this is unlikely to dramatically change China’s Myanmar policy, notwithstanding Myanmar’s opening up policy. Myanmar occupies an important position in China’s long term plans to access the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean for strategic reasons. China has so far invested over $ 17 billion in Myanmar since the commencement of its “Look South” policy in the early eighties mainly in the infrastructure sector comprising communications, road, rail, shipping, ports and power generation. There is also the military cooperation component. The period 1990-2003 is considered to be the best in their bilateral relations during which Beijing successfully prevented international isolation of the military regime in exchange for economic and other opportunities.
China’s Look South policy was aimed to develop its poorer land-locked southern provinces and subsequently integrated them into that of Myanmar for economic benefit and to “create a north-south corridor” to gain access to the Indian Ocean through the Bay of Bengal. The oil and gas rich potential of Myanmar in the Bay of Bengal was one important consideration, the other was to reduce its dependence on the long and uneconomical South China Sea route to reach the Indian
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Ocean via the Malacca Straits. The carefully crafted plan began when China forced, its proxy, the Burma Communist Party (BCP) to cease its anti-Myanmar military operations and nudged sixteen other ethnic armies to “swap arms for peace” with the military junta to create peace and stability in the border regions so vital for its plans. This was followed by a period of honeymoon between the two countries.15
When the Myanmar leadership removed Lieut-Gen. Khin Nyunt, from three most powerful posts in 2004, it was a severe blow to China as he was distinctly pro-China. The rising chorus of anti-Chinese feeling within the armed forces and among the people is believed to be a significant reason along with the clamour for diversification away from China. Indian foreign policy planners, military experts and intelligence officials who interacted with Khin Nyunt at many levels will no doubt recall him as an astute and shrewd tactician. It may well be that Khin Nyunt’s ouster augured well for India.
Recently, Chinese influence in Myanmar has considerably waned. The military has returned to barracks, a new but controversial constitution is in place, parliament is in position, the civilian government of Thein Sein is in power and it has taken several important decisions including the much celebrated cancellation of the Chinese funded multi-billion dollar Myitsone power project. It has distanced itself from North Korea as seen in reports of Thein Sein-Hillary Clinton talks. There are many developments in Myanmar that would have been impossible to imagine few years ago.
Now that the world community has realized that the reforms are irreversible, China’s influence and leverage in Myanmar will considerably wane. So far, it is a “managed democracy” and the process of democratization is still way off. The present constitution is tilted heavily in favour of the military and this will gradually be changed. These changes in Myanmar present a serious dilemma for the new elite in Beijing. Beijing will certainly not rejoice the US “presence” as it would be detrimental to its long term interests. The monopoly of twenty years would be reduced with multiple players presently involved in Myanmar. China obviously values security, stability and absence of tension on its borders with Myanmar – this has been the corner stone of its Look South policy. It also has been an important player in helping to resolve ethnic issues especially of the Kachins, Shans and Karens with the federal authorities. Both sides have exchanged several high level delegations that are seen as confidence retaining measures. On its part China has cultivated political parties including NLD and kept its lines open to all shades of public opinion in Myanmar and outside. China will need to adjust to changing realities in Myanmar from its perspectives.
Though the West is injecting funds for infrastructural projects and modernizing Myanmar’s science and technology sector, it will take quite some time to balance the influence of China given China’s deep economic entrenchment in Myanmar over the years.16 To meet the increased Western influence in Myanmar, China too has started a new strategy: charm offensive whereby Beijing has ordered secretive state-owned Chinese companies to do something they have rarely done before – publicly embrace Western style corporate social responsibility practices and act humbly towards the people who live near their vaunted projects. In the long term, it is difficult to see a Myanmar where China is not important. But there is a chance that China will no longer be the dominant actor in Myanmar, and that worries China.17 Even the political section of the Chinese embassy in Yangoon has been urging the Chinese companies to retain support of the local communities. Although Facebook is blocked in China, the Chinese embassy in Myanmar created a Facebook page, a tool the Chinese officials in Yangoon are using to reach citizens. Whether China’s outreach efforts will quell anti-China protests is an open question.18
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Conclusion
Myanmar’s movement towards democracy and economic reforms are welcome signs for the ASEAN, Asia and the world. China may not be happy to see one of its two allies (the other being North Korea) is drifting away from its sphere of influence and in the process losing some of the strategic edge that it has been enjoying in this part of Asia for some time. From India’s point of view, a democratic neighbor with market economy is welcome as Myanmar is the gateway to its Look East policy. Myanmar remained the beneficiary of Chinese aid and assistance as well as maintained close military relations during the years when it faced international sanctions. These will not go away so soon. Therefore, the Myanmar leadership has taken pain to clarify to China that Myanmar’s opening up to the West will in no way dilute the strength of Myanmar’s relations with China. To what extent the Chinese leadership believes this is difficult to know but Chinese concerns would remain. From the US perspective, the addition of Myanmar as another spokexxvi in its Asia rebalancing policy will strengthen the US’ Asia strategy. China will find it compelling to readjust its own foreign policy strategy.
ENDNOTES
1. Simon Roughneen, “Once a divisive pariah, Myanmar may be key Southeast Asian key to unity?”, 2 July 2013, available at http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2013/0702/Once-a-divisive-pariah-Myanmar-may-be-key-Southeast-Asian-key-to-unity?
2. “Burma’s Thein Sein White House visit is reward for reforms”, VOA, 20 May 2013, http://www.eurasiareview.com/20052013-burmas-thein-sein-white-house-visit-is-reward-for-reforms
4. “President Sein’s visit adds Myanmar to President Obama’s foreign policy achievement”, 23 May 2013, http://www.diplonews.com/intro/2013/20130522_ObamaSeinUSAMyanmar.php
5. Howard LaFranchi, “Obama names ambassador to Myanmar: Is US moving to slow or too fast?”, 17 May 2013, http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Foreign-Policy/2012/0517/Obama-names-ambassador-to-Myanmar-Is-US-moving-too-slow-or-too-fast?nav=466548-csm_list_article-itemRelated
6. Catherine Cheney, “Myanmar’s Thein Sein Delivers Political Reforms, Lags in Economic Liberalization”, 21 May 2013, http:// www.worldpoliticsreview.com/trend-lines/12966/myanmar-s-thein-sein-delivers-political-reform-lags-in-economic-liberalization?
7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid
10. “Ms Suu Kyi Visits Japan”, The Japan Times, editorial, 18 April 2013,
15. For a Chinese perspective on China’s drive towards the Indian Ocean, see Fan Hongwei, “China’s Look South: hina-Myanmar Transport Corridor”, Ritsumeikan International Affairs, vol. 10, 2011, pp. 43-66. Available at http://r-cube.ritsumei.ac.jp/bitstream/10367/3399/1/asia10_fan.pdf
16. P.M. Heblikar, “Leadership Changes in China and its impact on Myanmar”, C3S Paper No. 1113, 23 March 2013, http://www.c3sindia.org/eastasia/3478
17. See, Thant Myint-U, Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2012, pp.400
18. Jane Perlez and Bree Feng, “China Tries to Improve Image in a Changing Myanmar”, The New York Times, 18 May 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/19/world/asia/under-pressure-china-measures-its-impact-in-myanmar.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
National Security and the Eastern Promise of Myanmar in Transition
Dr. Alistair D. B. Cook
Visiting Research Fellow at the East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore
Dr. Alistair D. B. Cook is a visiting research fellow at the East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore. He research interests focus on non-traditional security in the Asia – Pacific and has a particular interest in the economic and political development of Myanmar. He regularly appears in the media to discuss regional security issues and Myanmar current affairs, and is a resident analyst on Channel News Asia. He tweets regularly @beancook, his website is www.alistairdbcook.com and email is [email protected]
Since the controversial 2010 national elections and the widely lauded 2012 by-elections in Myanmar, many countries have re-engaged with the once pariah nation.There is now a laundry list of countries that have embarked on removing or suspending many trade sanctions (an arms embargo remains) from the European Union to the United States and Australia. Other countries like Japan and South Korea almost immediately awoke their business networks in and around Yangon to promote trade and investment; whereas China has leveraged its position of non-interference to promote its own business and national security interests in Myanmar to become its number one foreign investor with its total injection of US$9.6 billion since 1988, which surpassed Thailand’s US$9.56 billion in early 2012. However, less clear is the Indian foreign policy strategy. While India promoted a Look East policy since 1992, in reality its policy remains overwhelmingly focused on traditional security concerns rather than a comprehensive engagement strategy. However, since the mid-2000s an increased number of economic investment projects in Myanmar are at various stages of development; yet there remains a real need to develop and pursue a comprehensive Look East policy towards Myanmar to unlock its position at the crossroads of South, East and Southeast Asia and assist in securing the transition to democracy in Myanmar. Indeed, the Look East policy remains wedded to rhetoric rather than reality on the ground. Initially the Look East policy recognized the post-Cold War period and the emergence of a strengthening China in Indian strategic calculations. Yet rather than shifting engagement from a focus overwhelmingly on traditional national security threats to a more comprehensive strategy that drew on economic cooperation and non-traditional security concerns with its neighbours through the opening up of its many federal states, particularly in the Indian North East, its focus remained in a framework that prioritized responses to military threats over and above the opening up of other potential avenues. While the economic relationship plays second fiddle to political security considerations, trade is still a major and strategically important relationship for Myanmar to tap into the growing wealth and consumer base that India holds and as an avenue to economically develop the Indian North East. The Indo-Myanmar trade relationship has grown from $87.4 million in 1990 – 1 to $557.68 million in 2005 to $1067.05 million in 2010 – 11, which ranks much below that of China and Thailand, Myanmar’s other neighbours. However, most recently India has provided more soft loans such as the announcement in August 2012 of a $500m loan, part of which will be used to construct a 3,200 kilometre trilateral highway, linking India, Myanmar and Thailand, which are promising signs that India is moving beyond its overwhelming focus on traditional national security concerns. This project is crucial within the
regional development strategy to establish a Trans-Asian highway project which runs from Iran to China. It is important to note that the driver is the Indian government rather than the non-government sector based in India, which is an important spoke in the development of a comprehensive strategy and a needed shift away from the traditional security mindset. While the government remains the major driver behind the economic relationship, it must ensure that it creates a scenario conducive to promoting a multi-stakeholder environment to ensure greater stability and increase the opportunities available to the greatest number of people. As Myanmar is the only ASEAN member state to share a common land and maritime border with India, it is of significant strategic importance to advance the Look East policy. Myanmar’s position bridges ASEAN with India and also one connection between India and China, and China with ASEAN. Myanmar’s location between China and India is of geo-strategic importance to both countries and ASEAN member states. It shares 1,331 kilometres of border with India to the west and northwest and 2,204 kilometres of border with China to the east and northeast where significant cross border trade has formally and informally been taking place over the years. It is for these geographic reasons that there is great potential to further develop and integrate the peoples and economies of India and Myanmar. Indeed, compared to the significant cross border trade between Yunnan province in South western China, the cross border trade between India’s easternmost states remains low even with the 1994 border trade agreement and the operationalization of two border points.1A clear example of the reliance on the central government to drive forward economic interactions is the historic visit of Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to Myanmar in May 2012, which heralded the first official bus across the border from Imphal in India to Mandalay in Myanmar. There is a clear intention to further develop the economic relationship between India and Myanmar as witnessed at the June 2013 World Economic Forum meetings in Naypyidaw where several bilateral agreements were signed between the two governments. As with China, as India develops its economy significantly it needs access to more fuel and Myanmar provides one avenue to realise this.2 However, there are lessons to be learnt from the Chinese experience. China focused its relationship since 1988 in the military and economic realms, as a result of its non-interference policy. However, as the transition in Myanmar began, this focus did not prove to have solidly embedded the relationship. While it appears that China will remain at the top of the foreign investors, significant recalibrations are afoot. Since the 30 September 2011 suspension of the Myitsone dam project, a joint venture between China Power Investment Corporation and Myanmar’s Asia World Company, Suntac Technologies, Myanmar Electrical Power Enterprise, and Kansai Electric Power Company, the relationship between China and Myanmar has entered a post-Myitsone phase. Under the military junta, Chinese interests in Myanmar went through its capital city as part of its non-interference policy. However, since the opening up of political space, public protests and vocal opposition to Chinese investments have emerged, destabilizing the investments and sending reverberations back through China resulting in a ‘wake up’ call for Beijing. In response Chinese investors and public policy officials have revisited the relationship with local communities around the investments and realized community concerns need to be addressed directly to secure the investments. This is particularly the case as the TheinSein government responds to public concerns in some fashion with the potential for significant changes to the investments themselves and the regulatory regime that governs them.
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This rhetorical shift at present in the Chinese approach to its investments in Myanmar illustrates the limitations to an overwhelming focus on the military and economic spheres, and the need to engage the wider public. India is well positioned to have greater leverage than China in this regard because of its position as the world’s largest democracy and historical connections to the democratic movement in Myanmar. Indeed, the development of Indian smart power, empowering its civil society to lead its interactions with Myanmar and its people is essential. The linkages between the two peoples through Buddhism and the movement of peoples are key examples of this leverage. Within Myanmar, it is the Sagaing region, Chin and Kachin states which share borders with Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Assam, Manipur and Mizoram states of India. However, while on either side of the Indo-Myanmar border many share the same ethnicity, the underdevelopment and low policy ranking in Delhi has left this potentially fruitful exchange embryonic and stymied by other national security considerations such as clamping down on insurgency and the rise in Islamic extremism along its other borders in South Asia. While these are of clear concern, particularly given the Bodh Gaya temple blasts in July 2013, it is important to fully develop a comprehensive strategy to ensure a longer term and stable relationship, which will limit the impacts of short term policy challenges and security threats. Ultimately, India can provide Myanmar with some strategic necessities that China cannot. While these are often trumpeted in bilateral meetings and joint statements, they have yet to progress beyond mere rhetoric and symbolic policy into a functional legacy. Nonetheless, in this regard, India is well-placed to offer support to the Myanmar leadership and to assist in promoting Myanmar’s further integration into the international community3 and develop strong relationships across the developing world and its democracies. It is also well placed to offer technical assistance particularly in the IT sector for which India has become a major international hub, illustrated during Prime Minister Singh’s visit in May 2012, when the creation of an IT training institute was announced. While the shared history between Myanmar and India bodes well for future relations, internal dynamics will ultimately determine its fate if the current policy mindset remains unchallenged. It is time to develop Indian smart power which will reorient a traditional security approach to regional relations hinged on responses to short term threats and challenges, and move towards an engagement that seeks to nurture its relationships. Through the development of a multi-pronged and comprehensive approach that draws on all sectors within India to engage in varied ways from supporting the emerging democratic institutions in Myanmar through parliamentary exchanges and the sharing of institutional knowledge to the increased people-to-people interactions such as university student exchanges it will provide the building blocks to re-engage with the Myanmar people and promote a stronger and healthier long –term and comprehensive approach. Indeed, alongside the development of people-to-people interactions there is also a need to further trade links and develop closer economic ties drawing on the expertise not only of government but also the private sector. It is through this multi-faceted approach that will secure the interests of the peoples of both India and Myanmar. Finally the development of Indian smart power necessarily also develops the military relationship. There are several potential ways that the militaries can interact with one another to promote a stable relationship, most notably through the development of closer exchanges and training particularly given the potential shift in role of the military in Myanmar. It is now twenty years since the launch in 1993 of India’s Look East policy, yet India has failed to Move East in a comprehensive way and as a result, while India rises within the global system, their impact within Myanmar has remained limited. With a reorientation of the Look East policy to develop Indian smart power not only with Myanmar but further afield in East and Southeast Asia,
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there is a much greater chance to strengthen India’s hand in negotiations through building a longer term comprehensive and strategic policy that benefits the peoples of India and Myanmar as well. It is with the implementation of smart power adding in the important civil society role that the Eastern promise of Myanmar can be realized.
_________________________
1. Yhome, K. 2009. ‗India – Myanmar Relations (1998 – 2008): A Decade of Redefining Bilateral Ties‘,
ORF Occasional Paper, no. 10, January. New Delhi: Observer Research Foundation.
2. Egreteau, R. 2011. ‗A passage to Burma?India, development, and democratization in Myanmar‘,
Contemporary Politics, vol. 17, no. 4, December.
3. Borah, R. 2012. ‗India's huge stakes in Myanmar‘, Russia and India Report, April 23. Available at
Gilgit and Baltistan, Buddhism in Himalayan belt, Soldiers role in peace making. Most of his
writings are peace oriented with emphasis on resolution of disputes with neighbors. His
current research interests are resolution of India-China border dispute, Maritime security in
Indian Ocean, resolution of Tibet issue, area studies in Himalaya region. He is member of
International Study Association USA, Member Institute of Defence Studies and Analysis,
New Delhi, Member International Intelligence Ethics Association, Washington DC, Member
Advisory Board Research Institute for European and American Studies, Athens Greece,
Member International Editorial and Advisory Board, London Security Study Series. Colonel
Verma is a peace activist and social worker. He is co-founder and Vice President of India-
Pakistan Soldiers’ Initiative for Peace which has a chapter in Delhi and Lahore. He
is President of 900 member Kulshrestha Kalyan Samiti which is providing financial
assistance to poor and unprivileged in society for the last 25 years.)
_____________________________
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Since the advent of civilian rule in March 2011 the relations between these neighbors have been drawing universal attention. In 1988 through coup d’état the military government had established bilateral relationship with China which was literally “Paukphaw” ( blood relations in Burmese) a term used by them. China had become a guardian of Myanmar. New President Thein Sein has sought to bring some balance in international relations. The suspension of Myitsone dam on 30 September 2011 by President Sein, which was planned to be constructed by China Power Investment Corporation, has been noted by Chinese as a beginning of a new phase. This was a very popular step by the civilian government as the hydroelectric dams were being opposed by the people, a quote by the President, “As our Government is elected by people, (our purpose) is to respect the people’s will.” Myitsone had become in 2011 the national symbol of unbridled foreign extraction of resources. Myanmar after two decades of intensifying relationship is now reducing it’s over dependence on China. Notwithstanding the above incident, China has substantial strategic interests in Myanmar and has invested heavily on its infrastructure. China ‘s main concern would be to protect their strategic interests and assets. It would be a diplomatic challenge for China that Myanmar leaders are not alienated. Mynamar would remain strategically important to China and reasons are summarized as follows:-
1. Energy Security. Chinese are exploring the ways around to avoid Malacca strait which could be a possible blockage in case of trouble with India or USA. Indian Navy‘s Andaman & Nicobar islands are termed by Chinese as ‘Iron Curtain’. Chinese economy is heavily dependent on fuel shipped through Malacca strait. Chinese are building new oil and gas pipelines across whole of Myanmar to transport crude oil from Middle East and Africa. The lines pass through Mandalay-Ruili on the border and then to Kunming the capital of Yunan province. ( see Map) They are building a new deep sea port and a airport terminal at Kyaukphyu, near Sittwe.This will avoid choke points of Singapore and South China Sea. China is putting $ 200 m towards upgrading airport at Cox’s Bazar, the country’s southernmost tip. Shweli Hydro Power Plant (600MW), largest in the country built by China is already supplying electricity to China. China’s Power Investment Corporation is planning to construct six hydro power plants on upper basin of River Irrawaddy which remain on board even after suspension of Myitsone dam by the President. These projects would give substantial presence of Chinese in power sector.
2. Border Trade. Myanmar is biggest trade partner of Yunnan province. There are four ‘first class gates’ for border trade between them and other countries. Twelve ‘second class gates’ serve exclusively Myanmar and China. However, the trade balance is unfavorable to Myanmar:- 2.01 China’s Export to Myanmar $ 4825 Million, China’s Import from Myanmar $ 1677 Million.
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3. Security of Border Areas. Myanmar has 135 ethnic groups though Burmese account for 70 % of population. Some of the ethnic groups are very powerful and have own armies. After persistent infighting amongst ethnic groups, the military government in 1997 brought cease fire and the ethnic groups were given autonomy in their respective regions. Some of the ethnic groups are still fighting with Government troops. Most of these regions are in border areas with China. It creates in China worst fears about the fragmentation of an unstable Myanmar. Kachin , a majority Christian in north, for instance resumed fighting in 2011 after 17 year ceasefire. Yunnan has reportedly drawn an emergency plans in case there is influx of refugees from south. China is keen to protect its vital assets of gas and oil pipelines in north of Myanmar. The Chinese Minister for Public Security visited Myanmar in January 2013 to express Chinese concern of security in border areas. Another problem which Chinese face in Myanmar, similar to other countries where they have constructed major projects, is lack of trust by local population and they see it as form of colonialism. Chinese Ambassador to Myanmar recently conceded that, “Myanmar is into a transitional period. There is new situation we have to face….. Chinese state owned enterprises shared some blame for negative view of China held in Myanmar.” Chinese are noting growing US relations with Myanmar being 2012 as the most eventful year. US investments sanctions were lifted on 11 July followed by suspensions of import bans on goods from Myanmar. This has enabled international agencies like World Bank and International Monetary Fund to begin re-establishing links with Myanmar. It also has enabled US Agency for International Development (USAID) mission to lend support for UNDP country programmes. The positive diplomacy was culminated with President Barack Obama’s visit to Myanmar on 19 Nov 2012. The long term perspective of Sino-Myanmar relations depends upon how democracy progresses inside Myanmar. If the democracy takes roots, the Chinese hold on their neighbor would be weaned. In by-elections held in April 2012 pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi’s National League for Democracy had won 43 of 44 seats it contested. It is expected she would continue her spell in national elections due in middle of 2014. However, Chinese would strive hard to keep the relations at least left of the centre. Virendra Sahai Verma, a former army officer, is Hon. Fellow Institute of Chinese Studies, Delhi. [email protected] http://virendrasahai.com
Born in 1952 in Santiniketan, B.A in Sanskrit Hons and Political Science subsidiary ( 1971) M.A in Sanskrit, 1973, both at Visva Bharati, Santiniketan. M.A and Ph.D in South Asian History(1980 & 1985) University of Heidelberg, Germany. Ph .D . Supervisors: Professor Dr. Hermann Kulke and Professor Dr. Dietmar Rothermund. The Ph.D work sponsored by the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (Friedrich Ebert Foundation), Germany. Also studied and passed examinations in German language, German history, History of Southeast Asia, Indology, Pali,Modern South Asian Languages and literatures, Latin and Myanmar language. All exams at Visva Bharati & Heidelberg passed with Ist class. Since 1986 has been working in the Department ( formerly known as Centre for SSEAS) of South & Southeast Asian Studies, University of Calcutta. Worked as the Head of the Department during (2003-2005) and also as the Director, Centre for South & Southeast Asian Studies, served another term as the Head during Nov 2011-Feb 2012, supervised M. Phil Dissertations on Myanmar and Bangladesh in the Dept, acted as external Ph.D examiner at various universities in India, gave and still giving a number of UGC sponsored lectures as Resource person , presented papers , also chaired sessions in various national and international conferences and seminars on South and Southeast Asian Studies in India and abroad. Area of Specialization: Myanmar and Bangladesh. Being granted a leave from the University (Jan 2006- to Jan 2009) worked as a Fellow at the Maulana Abul Kalam Institute of Asian Studies (MAKAIAS), Kolkata, under the Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India, on a project on the Rakhine (Arakan) State of Myanmar from South Asian Perspective. Published Ph.D Dissertation .Landschenkungen und Staatliche Entwicklung im fruehmittelalterlichen Bengalen 5-13 Jh..n.Chr. (Land Grants and State Formation in early medieval Bengal 5th-13th century), published by Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden 1985 taken note of various international experts. The second book ( translation from Wolfgang Mey’s German book ) in Bengali is Parvatya Chattogramer Kaumasamaj Ekti Arthasamajik Itihas ( Tribal Society of Chittagong Hill Tracts: A Socio-Economic History) published by Firma KLM, Kolkata 1997 also reviewed widely. The third book is India-Myanmar Relations 1886-1948, pub. By K.P Bagchi, Kolkata 2007 too received attention worldwide. The author has published about 60 articles covering the following areas: Buddhism in Myanmar and N.E India, British colonialism & Frontier Policy in South & Southeast Asia, synchretic ( mixed) traditions and acculturation in Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism, Rabindranath Tagore’s understanding of the Sino-Tibetan world and Southeast Asia with special reference to Myanmar, Indian Diaspora in Myanmar, Mahatma Gandhi’s understanding of colonial Myanmar, Myanmar Buddhist Pilgrim Centers in India & Nepal, Refugees and Human rights, the role of the United Nations in Peace process in conflict areas, Peace and Reconciliation in Myanmar from 1988-2012, Northeast India-S.E Bangladesh & western Myanmar, neo-Buddhist Revival
in India and contribution of Myanmar Theravada monks . At present teaches Southeast Asia besides in her own Department also at the Department of History, Institute of Foreign Policy Studies ( IFPS), and self-financed Buddhist Studies courses ( M.A & Post-Graduate Diploma) of Calcutta University. As invited Guest Lecturer also taught the History of Southeast Asia ( 19-20th centuries) at the P.G Department of History, University of Burdwan , M.A in Human Rights at the University of Calcutta. Member of a large number of International and National institutions of repute, former member of the Advisory Board of the SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research, University of London, engaged in various academic and social welfare oriented, public awareness activities (through writings and T.V interviews) as Advisor, Patron, active member, regional coordinator etc in India and abroad, mostly govt. sponsored. This essay is somewhat different in scope and presentation from my earlier writings on Myanmar.
Over the last 25 years or so I have been studying, teaching and writing on Myanmar, though my
attention fell on the country through my Doctoral research works on early medieval Bengal ( 5th to
13th century) which I did along with a study of medieval Germany, at the South Asia Institute and
the Institute of History, University of Heidelberg. I have since then come a long way in my quest to
understanding of what actually means “ History” and what lesson one can learn from History? The
Buddhist routes, used by traders, pilgrims, fortune makers, knowledge bearers and knowledge
traders connecting the culture centres in Bengal-Bihar-Assam with similar centres in Myanmar---
attracted my attention in those days of 1980s. Studying the Sanskrit inscriptions, documenting land
grants given to Buddhist monasteries, Hindu temples and individual Brahmins, issued by the kings
of Bengal from the post-Gupta to Pala-Sena period( 5th-13th century A.D) was a fascinating
experience. The Hindu-Buddhist milieu of eastern India and Myanmar consisted of people who felt
united by the conviction of a single value; the message of renunciation, creativity and immortal
peace bound them together. In no other object than in art and architecture this common spirit, for
which I use the term “Indo-Myanmar Cultural Continuum,” examples of which I have given through
many other elements, movements, developments in various writings of mine, has been reflected.
But, most convincing is to study the archaeological sites in Mainamati, Paharpur, modern
Bangladesh, in Bodhgaya -Nalanda area of India and simultaneously the objects in Pagan in
particular, as also in various other sites in the Rakhine State( Arakan) and in Prome area. While the
Rakhines ( Arakanese) were closely connected with the Indian civilization, the Pyu people were
Sinitic in genre, but Indic in faith. The history of Myanmar can be characterised by a single feature,
that is the highest degree of accommodation with the “outsiders” , yet, not surrendering politically
to the outsiders. This is perhaps why, even an invader so powerful as Kublai Khan, had to retreat
and ultimately withdrew from Pagan. In no other country (besides India and Sri Lanka ) Buddhism
had such a strong root and continuity as in Myanmar. In no other country Buddhism showed the
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degree of tolerance and accommodation that Myanmar Buddhism showed in its long history.
Though Theravada in nature, it accommodated with various faiths popular in Mahayana school and
Hinduism. This is why during ancient time, Gods and Goddesses (Vishnu, Ganesha, Saraswati,
Lakshmi) popular in India also found immense popularity among ordinary people. In one way or
the other such legacies continue even in modern time among a section of Buddhist Myanmar
people. At least, this memory of culture sharing came up frequently while I entered in to
conversation with my Myanmar friends.
This faithful adherence to one’s own faith and ways remains till today very strong. This is reflected
in all elements of material and spiritual life: from the handicraft, textile, colour of the lungyis, the
art of cooking to, how the Myanmar people think about their life and about the world in general.
The Myanmar language, rich in vocabulary, indicates the process of constant interaction with the
outside world, yet, consolidation of her own identity.
Unfortunately, we, the Indian people, who have shared a wonderful past with the people of ancient
Myanmar, have hardly tried to ravel the charm of this relation. This loss or gap creates confusion
and quick conclusions. For example, there is a tendency among Indian scholars to interpret the
political struggle ( 1988- 2011- 2012) in Myanmar in terms of a conflict between Daw Aung San
Suu Kyi and the Army. In Myanmar, the struggle is actually between the evil versus the
righteousness, which can be seen as Adharma versus Dharma. The way President Thein Sein and
Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, as someone sitting in the opposition, worked together for various national
causes can certainly be taken as an example. As I have discussed in a recently published article “
Myanmar’s Own way to Democracy, Peace and Reconciliation: Introspective Observations from a
Friend of Myanmar” in considerable detail the peace process, I need not repeat the same. The
enthusiasts can refer to the newly published book Searching for Non-0Western Roots of Conflict
Resolution: Discourse, Norms and Case Studies edited by Shantanu Chakrabarti, published by the
Institute of Foreign Policy Studies of Calcutta University.
Back in early 1980s when I was a student of Saya U Tin Htway at the South Asia Institute (
Suedasien Institut), Heidelberg University, I realized that Myanmar as a country and her people
could not be properly understood unless we feel what Metta ( loving kindness) means to a
Myanmar. My teacher, who is not only a true Buddhist, but also a renowned Pali scholar, quite
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often stressed the fact that one has to develop equanimity ( Upekskha) to find a solution to one’s
agony. In my quest to understand the minds of the Myanmar people I have learnt a lot not only
from great scholars and monks ( Sayadaws), policy makers, ministers, diplomats, librarians,
teachers, whomever I met in Myanmar, I have enriched my soul through interactions with very
ordinary people, many of whose dream is to visit India, especially Bodhgaya, at least once in life
time, for achieving the eternal merit. For the Indian and Myanmar people this punya will result in
having eternal peace, not to come back to this world of pain ( dukkham).
It is even more painful to see that while western scholars have been motivated to follow the
Buddhist way of metta and upeksha, a considerable number of Indian scholars mixed up academic
mission with personified views of Myanmar’s future. After all, as I have argued in one of my recent
writings, Myanmar would have her own form of Democracy, which may not be acceptable for all.
Yet, after 2014 only that form of government will be accepted, for which the mandate will be given
by the people in an expected free and fair election. The Red Army and Single Party System of
communist China and her allies, military backed or military controlled countries of South Asia (
Pakistan in particular) have created a situation under which Myanmar suffered a lot. Though India
has not experienced Army Rule, yet, democratic institutions, of which we are so proud of, may face
difficult time in days to come. No one can deny that Asia, the seat of the earliest civilization, is going
through an extremely challenging time. Like any other country, let therefore Myanmar choose her
own way to civil liberty, democracy and economic prosperity.
I must though submit that Myanmar govt. and Myanmar people consider India and the Indian
people as one of their most trusted partners. The length and breadth of the Agreements and MOUs
signed during last year’s visit of our Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh to Myanmar indicate the
degree of the trust that India enjoys from her closest partner. India’s rapid integration in to
ASEAN, of which Myanmar is a member since 1997, has directly contributed to this process of
building of mutual trust. A glance over the press release during Dr. Manmohan Singh’s visit
indicates that there is no area left in which India and Myanmar would work together for regional
peace and stability. Our University (Calcutta University) has signed a MOU for future collaboration
with Dagon University. The Vice Chancellor of Calcutta University Professor Suranjan Das, was one
of the members of this high level team and signed the MOU with his counterpart of Dagon, the
Rector, Professor Hla Htay. During my visit to Myanmar in October 2012 I could enjoy the fruit of
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this landmark event. I was one of the very few invited guests from outside who could participate in
the session of the Myanmar Academy of Arts and Sciences Conference, held at Yangon University.
The two universities are very closely connected, and the faculty members get transferred to either
of the universities as situation requires.
In my paper “ The University of Calcutta and Myanmar: Urgent Need for revisiting the golden era” I
pleaded for creating a better platform for interaction between scholars from Calcutta University
and universities of Myanmar, Yangon and Dagon in particular. The paper addressing the rich legacy
of intellectual and academic intercourse between the Pali Department of Calcutta University and
Yangon University stressed the need to include such subjects in the policy making process of both
the countries. During the colonial period, a considerable number of university Professors,
doctors, lawyers, civil servants in various posts were drawn from the Indian community. Their
contribution is however often remembered by Myanmar scholars of older generation. During the
visit to Yangon University, which was for the fourth visit to that renowned university, the names of
N.C Das and K.N Kar were referred by senior Professors, retired faculty members from Yangon
University. These Indian Professors from Calcutta taught ( 1948-1962) subjects like Eastern
Philosophy, Western philosophy, Ethics, advanced Logic, Language and Semantics. During my
earlier visit in Yangon University in 1995 and 2005 I remember meeting senior scholars who
remembered Professor Niharranjan Roy, who taught Buddhism and History at Yangon University
during 1950s. His love for Myanmar he has expressed through three major works on Buddhism
(each on Theravada and Mahayana) and Brahmanical Gods of Myanmar. I met also Myanmar
scholars who happened to be students of W.S. Desai, an Indian Professor of eminence who taught
History at Yangon University during the colonial period and after, and is also remembered for his
several books on the History of Myanmar.
Noble Laureate writer and Pro-Democracy leader Daw Aung San Suu Kyi has presented two
important books which have considerably generated important discourses: Burma and India: Some
Aspects of Intellectual Life under Colonialism and Freedom from Fear and other Writings. In both the
books one can read hitherto unknown narratives from the field of intellectual encounter between
the two countries.Yet, the close academic network binding Yangon College, Judson College, Calcutta
University appeared to be a forgotten chapter altogether. Yangon University was a part of Calcutta
University until 1920-21. The patronage of Sir Asutosh Mukherjee, the Vice Chancellor of Calcutta
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University, in this mission of promoting Pali and Buddhist studies brining Calcutta closest possible
centre of learning for Asian neighbours, should be remembered in this regard. As a follow up
process of the two governments’ collaboration in the academic field conferences and seminars are
taking place now in both the countries. This is quite inspiring and should continue in future. The
Buddhists of modern Bangladesh ( Baruah community in particular) had a strong base in Yangon
and in Sittwe ( former Akyab). They were active in promoting people-to people contact through
their noble works: academic and social. The Yangon based Dharmadut Vihar stands witness to that
rich legacy of Bengal-Myanmar relation. It was nice to see the renovation-cum extension works
going on in this particular monastery during my last visit to Myanmar in April, 2013. Almost all the
great Indian reformers of Buddhism active in modern India maintained closest possible contact
with Myanmar. Some of their names are as famous as Dr. B.R Ambedkar. But, at the same time we
should remember the contribution of the great monks like Kripasharan Mahathera, U Chandramani,
Punnyachar among others. Enthusiasts can turn to one of my writings India and Myanmar: People,
Pilgrimage. Histories and the Present, published as an Occasional paper from the Centre for South &
Southeast Asian Studies, Calcutta University in 2010.
It is interesting to note that western countries, led by the U.S and her closest allies in
Europe (U.K in particular) imposed economic sanction on Myanmar in and from mid 1990s.
Though, now with the progress in democratic practices and reform one by one those countries
are withdrawing their sanctions, and extend their help in re-building the ruined economy, yet,
it may take sometime to bring back the lost trust. But, what I personally find very encouraging
that an active group of scholars from US.A (Cornell, Northern Illinois) and Europe ( U.K,
France, Holland & Germany) continued their academic engagement with Myanmar
throughout the period from 1988 till this day. The policy makers and think tanks in India could
consider starting similar academic forum in India like the US based ‘ Burma Study Conference’ that
could bring under a single umbrella all scholars of South Asia After all India’s existing potentiality
in scholarship on Myanmar is richer than that which exists in other countries from the region.
The United States and Germany have developed close academic contacts with the Myanmar. The
landmark event remains the visit of US President Barrack Obama to Yangon University on his way
to Cambodia, last year. The virulence of the American policy of constant warning on account of
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violation of human rights is no more to be witnessed at least in that form; it is being gently
transformed in to a relation of mutual respect.
Two regions of India were in closest contact with Myanmar: Bengal through land (Arakan-
Chittagong) and also through water, and the coastal Andhrapradesh, through maritime trade and
Buddhist network. In this regard I invite all Myanmar scholars in India to read the book Historical
Sites in Burma by Aung Thaw, former Director of Archaeology, who in describing almost each and
every archaeological site, brings Indian parallels, highlighting thereby the living contact between
the Indian and Myanmar people through trade, merit searching, adventures or otherwise. The Mons
( previously known with the name Telaings ) and the Rakhines ( Arakanese) of Myanmar showed
maximum accommodation with those, who actually emerged as the most powerful people, indeed,
the victor, precisely the Bamars ( the Burmans). As the eminent Myanmar scholar and an
important friend of India rightly says, driven by the cold and dry weather, the Bamars came down
from the North ( China) and eventually emerged as the most powerful race. Most fascinating part of
Myanmar history is the centrality that Buddhism played in the struggle for legitimacy, to rule over
the people. Buddhist scriptures, the Tripitakas, thus emerged with a special significance. And, here
also lies the importance of the Pali language for the Myanmar people. The importance of Chinese
language in modern Myanmar appears to me quite unnatural and imposed from above due to
economic dependence of Myanmar on China, while Pali as ancient language of Buddhism has a
special significance, of which the new generation of both the countries are not adequately informed.
While the Indic people went up to Brahmadesh, to preach the eternal truth, the Sinitic people, who
came down and settled along the Irrawaddy, in search of a better life and also as a result of the
constant struggle between various clans within their own territory. The Sinitic people came down
as deep as up the valley of the river Brahmaputra in Assam and what is known as Northeast India,
comprising the states of Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. In the classical
Sanskrit literature, the Sinitic people are called the Kirata, as hunting was one of their major
professions. One only has to read the excellent work by the great linguist Suniti K. Chattrerjee,
Kiratajana Kirti: Indo Mongoloid and their contribution in Indian culture. Abraham Grierson’s
Linguistic Survey of India, still considered as one of the most important reference works, also gives
detailed information on the movement of the Sino-Tibetan people, to which the Tibeto-Burmans of
Myanmar and Assam and adjoining regions belong. Even, the works of P.C Bagchi, the greatest
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sinologist of India, can be extremely enlightening to understand the spontaneity with which the
Sinitic people and the Indic people exchanged their ideas in the domain of Mahayana Buddhism
which actually triumphed over Theravada faith. That in Myanmar the faith remained Theravada, in
spite of intensive interaction with the Sinitic elements, indicates that in the minds of the Myanmar
people the message of renunciation and sacrifice received preference over business and enjoyment.
The poorest of the poor in Myanmar believe in the merit making through donation, Dana. This is
why in Myanmar people hardly go to bed with empty stomach. In the monastery there is always
something to eat. Even the big hotels have some system to feed monks with much dignity.
The culture of Myanmar embracing all aspects of material and spiritual life of an individual could
become so rich since it took the best from both the immigrant people, without loosing her own
treasure. As I see the Kula people (Indic) and Cina ( Sinic/ Sinitic) people interacted on the soil of
Myanmar, giving shape to grand cultural centres which is visible from the Rakhine coast up to
Upper Myanmar. While most of the Indians are almost totally ignorant of this rich cultural heritage
of Myanmar, it is so pleasing to see young scholars in Myanmar interested to study various schools
of Indian art ( like Amaravati, Gupta, Pala-Sena etc), and eager to come to India. Or, for example, to
meet friends in Myanmar, who would invite me each time on the last day of my departure, to
make a Pradikshin round the Shwedagon Pagoda, to pray for peace and prosperity for the people of
our two countries. Our joint prayers have not gone in vain: India and Myanmar have come closer in
various fields, science & technology, defence cooperation, business openings, banking, health
sectors, English language learning, exchange of scholars at university level, exchange of cultural
groups, celebration of Tagore birthday jointly, chanting of Pali Tripitaka with Myanmar monks
leading the procession, as witnessed in Bodhgaya in last winter.
More Memories:
I was invited by Professor Mahendra Gaur ,Director,FPRC, to contribute in this particular issue
on Myanmar, an article which should, as desired by him, focus more on my personal experiences
with the country. My first visit took place in 1995 while the last one was in April, 2013. This
request from the editor strengthened my hand, has given me the legitimacy to bring under
discussion quite a few memories from my days in Myanmar where I went back again and
again, not only driven by an unfeigned curiosity for the country and my academic
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commitment, but also being deeply impressed by the love showered on me by a wide range of
Myanmar people from various walks of life.
The list is impressive: from the Ministers, Directors of various govt institutions, Rectors of three
major universities, Yangon, Dagon and Mandalay, Policy making bodies, retired ambassadors with
military as well as civil background, scholars of international repute, high officials from the field of
Trade and Commerce- down to ordinary students, staff members of academic institutions and
simple shop keepers in markets across the country. Except on one occasion in 2006, when I was
part of an official delegation from MAKAIAS, on every occasion I planned extended stays beyond
the dates of my official duties ( conferences, field works etc) and then, with the help of my host
institutions ( Yangon University, Myanmar Institute of Strategic and international Studies, Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, Dagon university) could fulfil my dream in visiting quite a few places of
historical importance in Upper and Lower Myanmar. During the 2006 trip (good will visit organised
by MAKAIAS/Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies in collaboration with
MISIS/Myanmar Institute of Strategic and International Studies) the experience was so very
pleasant, that many of my former colleagues from MAKAIAS started loving the country and her
people.
My country’s Embassy in Yangon also extended its kind cooperation especially on the occasion
when I was invited by our Ambassador H.E. Dr. V.R Seshadri to take part in an impressive
celebration. That impressive event was the joint celebration of Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore’s 150
years birthday. It was jointly organised in August 2011, by the Indian Embassy Yangon, ICCR (
Indian Council of Cultural relations) and Yangon University. I was amazed to see the wide
popularity of Tagore’s writings in Myanmar. It was even more inspiring to observe how the new
generation in Myanmar is following the footsteps of their elders carrying forward the rich legacy of
the thoughts of Tagore.
Indians came to Myanmar not only to work as labourers or in connection with money lending
business. Our countrymen had a great share in building institutions of governance, legal systems,
teaching professions and bureaucracy in colonial Myanmar, with much love and patience. As has
been mentioned in the beginning, the generation of scholars who remember the excellent teaching
of Indian professors, even during 1950s and 1960s, are quite senior. But, fortunately age has not
stopped them in sharing their memories with me.
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In the section that follows I will share with my readers my own experiences of observing the
people of Myanmar from the following aspects: a) colonial experience of Myanmar people and the
trauma of subjugation b) Influence of Buddhist morale and Buddhist rationale on the society c)
the experience of civil rule under U Nu with special reference to the 18 months caretaker
Government d) General Ne Win’s rise to power in 1962 d) end of Ne Win era and also end of the
isolation period e) Immediate ( 1988-89) ups and downs with a view to struggle within the army f)
Presence of US Navy on the Indian Ocean: in the Andaman Sea. g) Short interim period of civil rule
under President Dr. Maung Maung h) Khin Nyunt and his 7 point roadmap to democracy i) Fall of
Khin Nyunt ) Aung San Suu Kyi’s withdrawal from the Convention j) the achieved stability through
passing of the Constitution, ethnic rehabilitation through cooperation of the neighbouring
countries.
From the hard time ( 1960s-early 1980s) when only a few monks and a few dal ( pulse) traders
kept the flam of age old relation between India and Myanmar ( Burma) alive, to the recently
concluded MOUs, Agreements signed during Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh’s visit to
Myanmar, to which mention has already been made-- is a long way. I remember when I first visited
Myanmar in 1995 at the invitation of the Myanmar Historical Research Centre, I was so warmly
welcomed at their Conference—the first of its kind, where many big names from the arena of
Myanmar Studies assembled. General Khin Nyut opened the Conference and when I greeted him in
Myanmar language and told that I would like to come back again ( pyan la may ), he and all the
members of the host felt so happy that I spoke Myanmar language. Professor Daw Ni Ni Myint,
renowned historian, the then Director of the Universities Historical Research Centre, the author of
the book Burma’s Struggle against British Imperialism took personal care of me.
She and her whole team saw to it that I could undertake my trip to Upper Myanmar ( Pagan ,
Mandalay, Sagaing Hills ) with proper guidance etc. Even at that depressed economic condition,
the Myanmar Govt. paid for my stay in a city Hotel during the conference days. It indicates for me
the importance that the government and people of Myanmar gave to India, for; I was then really a
very junior scholar with very limited knowledge and publication on Myanmar. It was
communicated to me that along with two very eminent scholars from Thailand and U.K my name
was recommended by the Education Ministry to be accepted as the invited guests at the very first
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International Conference that took place at Yangon University in 1995, after a long spell of closure
and isolation. Needless to add that I felt very honoured and privileged. I gratefully remember the
kind help I received from the Ambassador H.E U Wynn Lwin, who is still active in his own way in
the field of policy making, consultation etc. and is one of the members of the “Most Eminent Group”
from the Civil Society. Ambassador U Wynn Lwin served his country as Ambassador to India
during 1990s. I gratefully remember his and his wife’s contribution in enriching my understanding
of their country.
Even after so many visits and so many experiences, in my memory ever so fresh remains the
statement of an old liftman in Shwedagon Pagoda who refused to accept me as a “ foreigner” as I
was telling him in Myanmar language that, “but I was one!” He simply invited me to come to his lift
which was actually for the Myanmar citizens. Of course I humbly refused, just to respect the then
prevailing rule of the country. This practice of separate lift is no more; the Myanmar nationals and
foreigners share the same lift and are led to the height of the Shwedagon Pagoda premises.
Let me share with you my experience of visiting the Prome ( Pye) archaeological site, called
Srikshetra, in Upper Myanmar in the year 2009. The year 2009 saw my longest stay in Myanmar
in connection with my project work at MAKAIAS. During this trip to Prome and adjoining areas I
met archaeologists, committee members of the Pagoda Management Body and site staff members,
museum staff etc. All of them have impressed me with their knowledge in Buddhism, Indian
religious traditions and one of them shared his experience of training in Archaeology in N.Delhi. I
forgot his name though. Yet, I remember his deep knowledge in Indian Art and Archaeology, and
also his regard for Indian historians like Niharranjan Ray, Dinesh Chandra Sircar, Nilakanta Shastri
and others.
I, as an Indian, felt ashamed thinking how many Indians would know that Myanmar is the
richest country in terms of art and archaeology! It is however nice to learn that a team of
archaeologists from India is engaged in the repairing of the Ananda Temple of Pagan. The
MOU between Dagon University and Calcutta University has also opened up opportunity for future
collaboration in areas such as: Archaeology and Art, Oriental Studies, including pali and Buddhist
Studies, Sanskrit, Indian Philosophy etc.. The entry of Myanmar in SAARC as observer, and her
membership in BIMSTEC strengthen the foundation of future collaboration between Bangladesh,
Myanmar and India in the field of art and Archaeology.
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My trip to Pegu ( Hamsavati ) and adjoining areas, Mandalay, Pagan and all places left a lasting
impression. Though basically Theravada, the worship of Hindu Gods and Goddesses as they were
incorporated in the pantheon of Mahayana influenced Buddhism, were widely practiced, not only
in bordering state of Arakan ( the modern Rakhine State ), but also in Upper Myanmar, among the
Pyus, at Pagan Empire, among the Bamars, and not to speak of among the Mons of Lower Myanmar,
from whom actually the Bamras learned their Buddhism. The concept of Punnya ( achievement of
merit) through pious works of various kinds which the Lord Buddha and his followers preached,
was so very common to Indian and Myanmar civilizations. The word Phongyi ( monk) is derived
from the word Punnya. There are several words in Myanmar language, which through phonetic
twist take a different shape, and unless one having knowledge in Pali, Sanskrit as well Myanmar
explains you, you cannot understand the meaning of not only that particularly word, but also the
meaning of the entire civilizational world of Myanmar and India. I suggest that every scholar in
India, whoever is seriously interested to understand the country, should learn Myanmar language,
to be able to enter in this fascinating world of Indo-Myanmar cultural continuum. And such
realization will give the right dimension of Policy formation at the highest level of bureaucracy.
I was fortunate to have a teacher at Heidelberg University, U Tin Htway, who, being a solid Pali
scholar, opened for me this vast door of what I have just stated as “Indo-Myanmar cultural
continuum”. After all, languages make an important component for culture anywhere in the world.
The very word Saya ( teacher) in Myanmar has its origin from Sanskrit Acharya or for example,
Takatai meaning University, has its origin in Taksasila, the famous Buddhist university, which
since 1947 has fallen under the political domain of Pakistan, but once part of this Indic world. The
impact of Buddhism in the Myanmar society was ( is still) so penetrating that a place name has
become a noun in Myanmar language! In the minds of the Myanmar people India has a very
privileged position. But, we, the Indians, are largely ignorant of our own past, of our own
history.
Remarkable is the appreciation of the Myanmar scholars for the works of Mahatma Gandhi,
Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Arabindo, Dr. Radhakrishnan, Swami Vivekananda, just to name a few
thinkers of modern India. We know that during the last phase of the nationalist movement of
Myanmar which is known as the Thakin period (1930s until the outbreak if the Second World
War), the works of Jawaharlal Nehru was widely read. Quite notable was the influence of
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Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose and M.N Roy on the nationalist
movement of Myanmar. This was one of the themes which attracted the attention of an eminent
German scholar Hans Bernd Zoellner who called me to join his panel at the Burma Study
Conference at Marseilles, in 2010. Of course, there were other areas of political, social and
economic developments in Myanmar which came under the purview of that particular
panel/session.
During my last two visits I witnessed enormous changes in various fields. But, among many things
what impressed me most was the huge number of newspapers in Myanmar language which were
coming out every day, or weekly. That in the tea shops, the people sat, read and discussed was a
common scene. But, now they sit with the newspapers and discuss among themselves the themes
that find coverage in the newspapers. The Myanmar people were and are still passionate readers.
Indeed, once the country was famous for its free press; newspapers in Myanmar (Burmese),
English, Indian languages and Chinese were coming out regularly.
Observations on Myanmar’s Crisis and Reconstruction: Lessons learned
Before going in to the core issue, i.e., the crisis and reconstruction in Myanmar 1948-2012, let me
share with you a few hard facts of the history of Southeast Asia which would help us to understand
the subject of our prime discussion in a wider context. This will explain the course of History as a
flow of events as they were anywhere else in the realm of South & Southeast Asia. But, it will also
highlight the “Myanmar Exceptionalism”. Of all the countries of S.E Asia, Thailand ( the kingdom of
Siam), remained “independent” even during heyday of imperialism and colonialism. In spite of
constant struggle between various ideologies, especially communism versus western capitalism
and civil-military skirmishes, Indonesia developed a relatively stable foundation on which she
could build a secular democratic republic. Quite often it is said that Indonesian democracy and
constitutional structure could offer a model for future Myanmar. During 1940s, Indonesia, India and
Myanmar ( then called Burma) indeed worked together in various Asian (Asian Relation
Conference, Conference for Indonesia, Colombo Plan Bandung Conference) platforms. I strongly
believe that the present political and economic condition within Asia and internationally is very
conducive to go back to that India-Myanmar-Indonesia Axis. The Philippines got massive support
(1898-1946) from the United States to become a modern state with a strong national identity.
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Malaysia was lucky to have a national leader like Tunku Abdul Rahman, who, prudently negotiated
many knotty problems of state building. On the other hand, China-backed communist insurgency
which found sympathy with the domiciled Chinese in Malay, delayed the process of independence
in Malaysia. Such communist insurgency in form of CPB (Communist Party of Burma), and later BCP
( Burma Communist Party) along with their sympathizers from various ethnic groups showed its
ugly face. Singapore emerged out of many complex developments, and also due to a strong anti-
Chinese sentiment of the Malay people, who developed the idea of Bhumiputra. Vietnam became a
sad story, as the French showed their neo-colonial aspiration, which unfortunately got support
from the United States. No less unfortunate was the case with Cambodia where things became
extremely complicated due to, once again, proxy wars fought on its soil. Indeed, in each and every
country we can observe a rotational existence of crisis, reconciliation and reconstruction, and then
again a new crisis. Like all other countries, Myanmar too fell prey to the cold War, communist
insurgency, constitutional crisis, vacuum in leadership due to the ghastly death of the father of the
nation, Bogye Aung San along with his cabinet just a few months before the country got her
independence. Added to it were the devastating effect of the World War Second and neo-
imperialism of communist China. Nehru could have played a greater role than he did play, in the
affairs of Asian countries, for he enjoyed a mass popularity in Asia. Yet, that was made impossible
by the emergence of an aggressive power, namely China, and constant conflict with Pakistan over
Kashmir. In the midst of all these, Myanmar, preferred--- call it a “crisis” or call it a “measure of
reconciliation”-- to increase her friendly distance from India.
Myanmar: The Exception?
It is in the backdrop of the above cited scenario that one has to understand the founding of the
ASEAN in 1967, with a philosophy of free market economy, relation based on free trade with
Europe, with an anti-communist posture and distance from the Soviet Block. It is no wonder
therefore that the ASEAN took quite a long time to bring durable order within her own domain, and
then to achieve the goal of regional peace and prosperity. Given a membership in 1997, Myanmar
today is well integrated in the ASEAN, and is going to be the host country in the 2014 ASEAN Meet.
But, Myanmar had already gone to “the other block” before the birth of the ASEAN in 1967. Ne
Win’s advent in the political arena had already decided Myanmar’s destiny. That Ne Win’s “
Positive Neutralism” was just another name of “ not annoying China”-- has been very clearly stated
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by none other than David Steinberg, when he was describing in his book Burma: A Socialist Nation
of Southeast Asia, the background considerations of Myanmar ( Burma) in 1979 when in the Havana
Session Myanmar withdrew from the NAM.
Let us see what was the Crisis during the period 1948-1962, that led to the fall of a civil
government in 1962, widening the path for such an autocratic and longest sustaining military
ruled state as that under General Ne Win?
Prime Minister U Nu had already experienced a break of Care taker Government” ( 1958-1960)
when he had to handover power to General Ne Win. Call it a crisis or a preventive
measure for avoiding total disintegration of the state itself, the fact remains that in spite of the
existence of a Constitution ( Constitution of 1947), the biggest challenge before U Nu
remained finding out ways and means to integrate the majority Bamars ( Burmans) with the
non-Bamars, the Karens in particular. To the second category however belong the Kachins,
Karens, Shans, Mons, Rakhines ( Arakanese), Chins, Karennis ( Kayas) , and smaller groups like
Pao, Wa, Naga, Lahu, Kokang etc. Having failed to cope with the armed insurgency that was
aiming at, not only autonomy, but also achievement of freedom・ U Nu made Buddhism the
state religion. In a country of a sizable Muslim and Christian population, this official change in
favour of Buddhism, the religion of the majority Bamars, disappointed the Karen, Kachin and
Chin Christians and a large number of Bamar and Arakanese Muslims. Source of further crisis
became U Nu’s denial to grant Statehood to culturally advanced two races: the Mons and the
Rakhines ( Arakanese), two of the major ethnic groups sharing cultural kinship with Indian
civilization. In external relations my understanding of U Nu’s foreign policy compels me to state
that he made too many experiments with his principle of friendship with all nations. Further at
home he rejected communism in favour of a Buddhist socialism and idea of welfare state, but,
continued a very friendly relation with communist China. This wooing China policy encouraged
China to get further involved in internal affairs of Myanmar. On the other hand, the hapless KMT
remnants, backed by the USA, got involved in drug and small arms business, making northern
Myanmar an extremely vulnerable area. Yet, I believe that without sincere cooperation from China,
Myanmar ‘s problem along her border and Kachin dominated North Myanmar as a whole is not
possible.
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Reconciliation though Reasserted State: 1962-1988
The “Re-asserted State” to use Robert Taylor’s phrase, under General Ne Win ( 1962-1988) is an
equally discussed chapter in History, as the period of Pro-Democracy Movement ( 1988-2010). The
first phase of the Revolutionary Council ( until 1974) fashioned after the model of Maoist China,
centralized everything within the state. The massive nationalization process not only pauperized
the once rich and culturally advanced Indian community, it made things so difficult that the Indians
left Myanmar altogether. The free press disappeared, so also English medium schools. Higher
education became irrelevant with the justification that the students might pose a challenge to the
state. It is all too common that an autocrat wanted some kind of legitimization of his power.
Therefore, the One Party Constitutional System through the establishment of BSPP (Burma Socialist
Program Party) and the propaganda of “ Shared Poverty” were in the air. However, neither the
drug problem, nor the proliferation of small arms, nor the insurgency and black marketing saw any
sign of disappearance. Out of this confusion the country which benefited most was again communist
China. Through gradual encroachment to Myanmar’s natural resources and occupation ( in one
form or the other) of strategic areas of northern Myanmar and Lower Myanmar ( Bay of Bengal
Area), and infiltration of her own people, it greatly controlled, at least indirectly many key areas.
Instead of choosing India, a section of Myanmar people chose communist China as their closest
partner. They seemed to have forgotten the fact that India stood by them during the most difficult
days of 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s. Since 1962 Myanmar developed a strong state machinery
with a strong Army (Tamadaw). Surrounded regionally and globally by countries with strong army,
why not? But, distance from India can only be explained by her preference for China as a closer
partner.
Period of Crisis, Reconciliation and Reconstruction: 1990-2012
The Constitution of 1974 has been replaced in 2010 by a new Constitution, which was compiled
through a long process of convention. It was not only a negotiation between the armed insurgent
groups who agreed to negotiate for a peaceful ceasefire, but it was a meeting of a large number of
civil society members from various works of life, quite a number of them are known to me
personally. The first Meeting of the Convention was in 1992. But, several breaks delayed the
process, leading its conclusion only as late as in 2008, when through a Referendum the constitution
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got the consent of the people. It happened in the time when the country was devastated by the
cyclone Nargis. So, the year 2008 can be considered as the year of crisis as well as reconciliation.
Valuable help from India during the post-Nargis period is gratefully acknowledged by the people of
Myanmar.
Myanmar today has achieved much of what she aspired to: almost insurgency free state, secure
border, lifting of economic sanctions by western countries and some old friends like Japan and
Australia, emerging private press, assurance of foreign direct investment, free market with some
restrictions, good relations with all neighbours, indeed all countries. The problem of the northern
Rakhine Muslims, I am sure, will also be solved in near future. The common people suffered a lot,
but, they are happy now, especially since they can go outside the country without much state
intervention, for example, on pilgrimages to India, a land of their beloved Buddha.
Throughout the period from 1988 to the present Myanmar has gone through various phases of ups
and downs. The SLORC ( State Law and Order Restoration Council) rule of 1988, election of 1990,
denial on the part of the Junta government to handover power to NLD leader Daw Aung San Suu
Kyi, consolidated challenge posed by the NCGUB ( anti-govt non-communist force backed by the
US) , repeated arrest ( protective custody) of Aung San Suu Kyi, fall of General Khin Nyut ( 2004),
capital shift from Yangon to Nay Pyi Taw ( 2005), demonstration of the monks ( 2007), the change
of SLORC to SPDC ( State Peace and Development Council) in 1997, and appearance of USDA (
Union Solidarity and Development Association 1993 ) and step by step implementation of Seven
agendas included in the “ Road Map to Democracy”. For all the members of Pyithu Hluttaw (
House of Representatives) and Amyotha Hluttaw ( House of nationalities) which includes not only
the majority party , USDP ( Union Solidarity Development Party) , but also Aung San Suu Kyi and
his colleagues from the NLD, following agendas get the maximum priority: the ensuring of law and
order, public livelihood, non-disintegration of the Union, nation’s sovereignty and solidarity. A
peaceful and prosperous Myanmar can contribute a lot in brining the badly needed stability in this
region, South Asia in particular.
After visiting Myanmar so many times and engaging myself with the country and her wonderful
people I am of the opinion that the time has come for India to learn the practice of Metta ( loving
kindness) and preaching and practising of Dhamma. The long desired peace and stability in
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Myanmar has not been achieved only through official means at highest level of the government. A
large number of civil society institutions and organizations, religious or otherwise, have
contributed a lot in this process. The name of Dr. Ashin Nyanissara, who is widely known as
Sayadaw Sitagu, should be mentioned in this connection. This great monk and his Sitagu
International Buddhist Academy based in Sagaing Hills, with branches in other cities, have a major
share in peace building process of Myanmar with India as a major partner. The Dhamma practised
by many other monks across Myanmar and religious leaders from other faiths too, is, what
Mahatma Gandhi described as “ Truth” and in Gurudev Tagore’s concept the “ Religion of
Humanity”. To young scholars of India and Myanmar my sincere appeal is to read what these two
creators of modern India wrote about the Myanmar people.
References:
Aung Thaw.1978. Historical Sites in Burma. Published by the Ministry of Union Culture, Govt of the Union of Burma. Bhattacharya, Swapna. 2005.’History of Buddhism in Myanmar: Interpretation from Indian Perspective’, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. Vol XLVII. No 4. : 65-81 Bhattacharya, Swapna. 2006.’Rabindranth Tagore in Myanmar ( Burma) and Tagore’s Perception of Southeast Asia India Relations’ in Panda, Shishir & Brandtner, Martin eds. Interrogating History: Essays for Hermann Kulke. Delhi: Monohar:212-229 Bhattacharya, Swapna.2007. India-Myanmar Relations 1886-1948. Kolkata: K.P Bagchi Bhattacharya, Swapna. 2009.’ Experiencing the Depth of Bond between India and Myanmar’ . Dialogue , vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 160-183. Bhattacharya, Swapna.2013.’ Myanmar’s Own Way to Democracy, Peace and Reconciliation: Introspective Observations from a Friend of Myanmar’ in Chakrabarti, Shantanu ed. Searching for Non-western Roots of Conflict Resolution: Discourses, Norms and Case Studies. Institute of Foreign Policy Studies, Calcutta University, Kolkata in association with Knowledge World N.Delhi: 129-162 Bhattacharya, Swapna. Forthcoming. The University of Calcutta and Myanmar: Urgent need for Revisiting the Golden Era’. Paper presented at the Annual Congress of Myanmar Academy of Arts and Sciences 2012, ( 24.10-27.10.2012) , held at Yangon University. To be published by Myanmar Academy of Arts & Sciences. Chakravarty, Nalini Ranjan. 1971. The Indian Minority in Burma: The Rise and Decline of an immigrant Community. London: OUP Charney, Michael. 2009. A History of Burma. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
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Chattopadhyay, Suniti Kumar. 1974. Kirata Janakirti. The Indo Mongoloid: Their Contributions to the History and Culture of India. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society Chronicle of National Development: Comparison between Period preceding 1988 and after ( up to 31-12-2007) , Printing and Publishing Enterprise, Yangon 2008 Daw Aung San Suu Kyi. 1991. Freedom from Fear and other Writings ( Introduction by Michael Aris) N. Delhi: Penguin Books Daw Aung San Suu Kyi. 1990. Burma and India: Some Aspects of Intellectual Life under Colonialism. Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Shimla in association with Allied Publication Dr. Ashin Nyanissara ( Sayadaw Sitagu). 2009. The Buddha and His Noble Path. Sagain Hills: Sitagu International Buddhist Academy Das, Suranjan. 2012. Interview published in The Hindu, 31.05.2012. found in http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-otherstates/articl Devare, Sudhir. India and Southeast Asia towards Security Convergence. Singapore: ISSEAS. Fundamental Principles and Detailed basic Principles adopted by the national Convention in drafting the State Constitution, pub by Printing and Publishing Enterprise, Ministry of Information, Govt. of Myanmar Ganesan, N. & Kyaw Yin Hlaing eds. 2007. Myanmar State, Society and Ethnicity, Singapore & Japan, ISSEAS ( Institute of Southeast Asian Studies and Hiroshima Peace Institute Gutman, Pamela. 2001. Burma’s Lost Kingdoms: Splendour of Arakan. Bangkok: Orchid Press Hla Tun Aung, Myanmar : The Study of Processes and Patterns, published by the National Centre for Human Resource Development, Ministry of education, Myanmar Hlaing Yin, Kyaw, Taylor, Robert H. & Maung Maung, Tin Than eds. 2005. Myanmar: Beyond Politics to Societal Imperatives. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS). Koh Kim Seng, 2011. Misunderstood Myanmar: An Introspective Study of a Southeast Asian State in Transition., Singapore: Humanities Press Luce, Gordon. 1969. Old Burma Early Pagan. Vol. I: New York: JJ Augustin Publisher Locust Valley Manguin, Pierre-Yves, Mani, A, Wase, Geoff. 2011. Early Interactions between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross Cultural Exchange. Singapore, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies & Delhi: Monohar Maung Maung (Dr. Maung Maung). 1961. Burma’s Constitution. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff
Maung Aung Myoe. 2009. Building the Tamadaw: Myanmar Armed Forces since 1948, Singapore, ISSEAS Ni Ni Myint. 1985.Burma’s Struggle against British Imperialism 1885-1995. Rangoon: The Universities Press Roy, Niharranjan. 1936. Brahmanical Gods in Burma. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press ( reprinted by Orchid Press , Bangkok 2001) Seshadri ( H.E Dr. ), V.R. ‘An Invitation from a neighbour’ published in Opinion Lead, The Hindu 22.4.2013 Silverstein, Joseph. 1997. ‘Five Years of failure in Burma’ in: Brown, Michael E. & Ganguly, Sumit. eds. Government Policies and Ethnic Relations in Asia. CSIA Studies in International Security in cooperation with PBRC. Cambridge Massachusetts: MIT Press Singh, Uma Shankar. 1979. Burma and India 1948-1962. N Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Company Smith, Martin. 1991. Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity, London Zed Books Soe Saing. 1990. ‘United Nations Technical and Economic Development in Burma’ in Than, Mya & Tan, Joseph L.H eds Myanmar: Dilemmas and Options: Challenges of Economic Transition in the 1990s , Singapore, ISSEAS Stadtner, Donald.M. 2011. Sacred Sites of Burma: Myth and Folklore in an evolving spiritual Realm. Bangkok: Rover Books. Steinberg, David I. Burma: A Socialist Nation of Southeast Asia. Boulder Colorado, West view Press Steinberg, David I.2010. Burma/Myanmar: What everyone needs to know. Oxford: Oxford University Press Taylor, Robert H. 2009. The State in Myanmar. London, HURST: London. 2009 Distributed by Foundation Book. Trager, Frank. 1966. From Kingdom to Republic. N. York: Friedrich A Praeger U Khin Maung Nyunt (Dr. Khin Maung Nyunt). 1994. ‘Balance between Tradition and Modernity in Myanmar History’ in Gaertner, Uta & Lorenz J eds Tradition and Modernity in Myanmar. Muenster: Lit Verlag ( Berliner Asien Afrika Studien, Humboldt Universitaet vol III/pt 1): 5-14 Conclusion: Myanmar is a country of various faiths and races. Like a few other countries from Asia such as Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, India, Myanmar too has a very strong base of nationhood and state bureaucracy. The country suffered most during the last World War, and on every occasion the people of Myanmar looked at India for help and guidance. It is fascinating to see that not only the Buddhists of Myanmar, the non-Buddhist religious communities, Hindus, Muslims and Christians have a strong India- link. This makes an Indian in Myanmar at home. The opportunities of all the openings that has made things easier than ever before, should be utilised by both the countries. Let me conclude by arguing that honouring India’s most ancient practice of “knowing the world”
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around to “know yourself”, the people from all sections of India should visit Myanmar. Only then they will be able to feel the true rhythm of a common History. Historians, indeed, social scientists in general from both the countries have a great role to play for the cause of mutual peace and prosperity. Acknowledgement: I am deeply indebted to the following institutions for valuable cooperation and support: Govt of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, Ministry of External Affairs, Govt. of India, the University of Calcutta, the University of Yangon, the University of Dagon, University of Mandalay, and Maulana Abul Kalam Institute of Asian Studies, under Ministry of culture, Govt. of India. It is not possible to name individually those who helped me in course of last 20 years or so. The list will be too long. But, I must acknowledge the interest of Professor Mahendra Gaur in my contribution and warm invitation to write about my understanding of Myanmar. I dedicate this article for all the people of Myanmar, mentioned or otherwise, but due to whose Metta I could enjoy a spiritual pleasure whenever I went back.
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Myanmar‟s democracy, a work in progress
Col.R Hariharan
(Col R Hariharan, a retired Military Intelligence officer of the army, is a strategic analyst and commentator on South Asia and its neighbourhood as well as terrorism and insurgency. He is associated with Chennai Centre for China Studies and the South Asia Analysis Group. He has written over 180 analytical articles in national and international print and electronic media since 2004. He is also featured regularly as an expert commentator on strategic issues in Indian and international news channels. His writings have been included in over a dozen publications in his areas of interest. E-mail: [email protected];website:www.colhari.org Visit Hariharan's Intelligence blog at: www.colhariharan.org )
Myanmar surprised everyone with its early success in ushering in democracy – despite the
constraints of 2008 Constitution that legalised army‘s role in parliament and executive - within
two years of holding the first multiparty elections in two decades. President Thein Sein‘s far
sighted leadership has enabled the government to transform its image from a stodgy, insensitive
military dictatorship of yesteryears to an increasingly people-friendly one.
Theoretically this should make it easy for democracies like India to deal with Myanmar.
Americans have stepped in a big way in Myanmar. The successful visit of President Thein Sein
to the White House in May 2013 – the first ever by a Myanmar President in 47 years – with the
U.S. President Barak Obama‘s assuring American support to Myanmar's political and economic
reforms is a testimony to it.
The renewed U.S. presence in Myanmar brings an end to their skewed relations. The signing of a
bilateral trade and investment agreement with the U.S on the occasion of Thein‘s visit has
triggered the flow of international businessmen to Yangon. Greater U.S. presence in Myanmar,
considered for long as the pocket borough of China, is likely to create its own strategic ripples in
the region. And India would also considering these strategic changes in Myanmar in shaping its
overall Asia-Pacific policy.
International recognition for President Thein has come the hard way. He has brought in radical
changes in the approach to politics and governance. He has freed most of the political prisoners.
Restrictions on the media have been lifted.
Above all, he managed to bring into politics Mrs Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for
Democracy (NLD), who had boycotted the 2010 general elections. They are now back into
mainstream politics despite their objections to the continued role of army, legitimized by the
2008 Constitution. So there is an air of positive vibrations in the country about its future; and
there are greater expectations among the international community about Mynamar‘s future role.
This was evident at the first ever summit of the World Economic Forum on East Asia hosted by
Myanmar on June 6-7, 2013 with the participation of 10 heads of state and 550 business leaders
However, these welcome developments should not cloud the fact that democracy in Myanmar is
still in the half-way house. It is a work in progress. The military now lurking in the backdrop still
has a say in deciding the survival of the government both in the legislature and executive. There
are political prisoners still in prison. The economy lacks fiscal discipline and structures for
monetary control and investment conforming to international norms are not yet in place. And
Kyat, the national currency, is yet to be stabilized.
Though President Thein has been addressing most of these issues, he has a long way go. He has
the daunting task of overcoming traditional animosities and prejudices to evolve democratic
solutions. Unless, the country has a period of social and political stability free from ethnic and
sectarian strife it would be difficult for him to carry through the economic reforms and energise
development activities. And he needs the support of all stakeholders – the army, political parties,
youth, and the international community – in this task.
In a nut shell, the future of democracy is very much dependent upon rebuilding Myanmar‘s
national identity to galvanise the people to take them on the road to prosperity. It is not a simple
narrative because the nation‘s democratic experience since early years of independence in 1948
was marred by lack of strong leadership, political infighting, factionalism and rampant
corruption resulting in chaos, poor governance. The country was in with itself fighting ethnic
insurgents without respite. Democracy failed to deliver what it promised – improve the quality of
life of the people. In fact it provided the opportunity for General Ne Win and the army to take
over power in 1962.
After four decades of army rule the country had no political assets when it went for elections in
2010, except for the idiom of controlled political activity approved by the army. People have
had no exposure to multiparty democracy except for its short but disastrous debut in the 1990
parliamentary election which was disowned by the military rulers. As a result Myanmar has now
woken up to democracy without the tools to manage peoples‘ power.
And in Myanmar it translates into 40 percent of the population in productive age. The youth of
the country, who had historically spearheaded the struggles for independence against the British
and Japanese and the military junta in 1988, suddenly find they have a small say in deciding their
fate. Internet freedom has given them access to socially networked world where they find youth
power on the rise. They are becoming more conscious of their democratic rights than ever
before. It is logical that their aspirations for fundamental freedoms, rights to livelihood,
education, health and articulation of their voice would continuously rise and they would expect
the democratic government to deliver them now.
Unless the government and political parties manage to constructively channelize youth power to
build a national identity, we might see it morphing into an extra constitutional pressure group.
This phenomenon is already taking place in the streets of Cairo, Delhi, Athens, Paris, and
Istanbul. Can the disparate political parties, with their own private and public agendas, lacking
charismatic leadership – perhaps barring Aung San Suu Kyi - manage this?
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If they cannot, it would provide an opportunity for yesteryears‘ military predators to stage a
comeback to power to ―bring back order and stability‖ as they did in 1962. So far, President
Thein appears to have managed the situation quite well, evidently with the blessing of military
leaders. Though Ms Aung San Suu Kyi and the NLD have extended their support to President
Thein, they have not given up their opposition to the participation of army in the legislature and
executive. They have only deferred it after talks between Ms Suu Kyi and President Thein Sein
to enable him to go ahead with the democratic reformation process.
However, this issue could come back to haunt when the country goes to polls in 2015 to elect a
new parliament with the NLD as the strongest player. It is unlikely the military would allow any
threat to its favoured status to go unchallenged. And that could cramp the progress of democratic
reforms. There are two other intractable issues that could threaten the onward progress of
democracy – ethnic insurgency and the rising tide of Theravada Buddhist activism.
Ethnic insurgencies have been a perennial problem of Myanmar since independence. After going
through a cycle of demand for independence and armed struggle, ethnic communities of
Myanmar were hopeful of finding a satisfactory solution to their demands. However, their hopes
were belied when their armed cadres were required to come under the Myanmar army under the
2008 constitution even before a political solution to their demands for autonomy in terms of the
Panglong Agreement signed at the time of independence was found. This has led to sporadic
clashes between the army and ethnic insurgent groups between spurts of ceasefire.
Though there is an uneasy ceasefire in force with major ethnic insurgencies of Kachins, Karens,
and Shans, they have not been brought to a logical conclusion with a win-win solution. The
reason for this is the trust deficit existing between the ethnic communities and the government
that had been sustained by years of armed struggle and exploitation at the hands of the army.
Even the ceasefires effected after a number of rounds of talks are short lived. The most recent
example is the ceasefire agreement the Kachin Independence Organization (KIO) entered into
with the government in May 2013. According to news reports, KIO spokesman had confirmed
that 21 separate armed clashes between government troops and the KIO have taken place since
both sides reached a 7-point agreement, under which they pledged to decrease military tensions
and work towards a future agreement. The reports claim that most of the 100,000 refugees
displaced by the conflict are yet to return home.
Though a lot of goodwill exists on both sides to live amicably, President Thein faces the difficult
task of selling his solution to the majority Burmans (Bamar) who form 70 percent of the
population – a sizeable ―vote bank‖ in the elections. And to add to the problem is the economic
exploitation of minority areas rich in natural resources. A lot of foreign investment particularly
from China, is being made to develop energy and mineral resources in these regions. And they
would like to have a say in resolving issues in ethnic regions. For instance the Shwe gas pipeline
being developed by the Chinese runs through the KIO controlled area; so Chinese want to be
present in the peace talks between the government and KIO representatives.
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Myanmar‘s Citizenship Law 1982 has a xenophobic character, weighted against people of
foreign origin, even third generation descendents, living in the country. Because of its
discriminative clauses thousands of people of Indian origin were deprived of their citizenship. It
also denied citizenship to Rohingyas – Muslims of mixed Indian and Arakanese origin – though
they had been living in Myanmar for hundreds of years. Periodically, violence unleashed by
Buddhist majority against them had resulted in driving over 200,000 of them to seek refuge
overseas, particularly in neighbouring Bangladesh. The 2012 anti-Rohingya riots left about 140
killed and rendered 100,000 homeless.
Perhaps emboldened by the passive state response to anti-Rohingya riots in 2012, anti-Muslim
violence is staging a comeback. In March 2013, Buddhist activists killed a total 43 people and
injured 93 in Meikhtila in Central Myanmar. In all 1227 homes, 77 shops and 37 mosques were
destroyed. The riots quickly spread to six other townships in Thayawady district in Bago Region
in Lower Myanma and to 11 townships in Mandalay and Pegu divisions, where Muslim
neighbourhoods were ransacked.And the army had to be called to restore order rather belatedly.
The anti-Muslim sentiments have some political and social support which has helped stoke
Therawada Buddhist vigilantism. These elements are heading for a showdown with the
government after senior Buddhist leaders expressed their support a controversial draft Law for
the Protection of Race and Religion. The draft law also requires any Buddhist woman seeking to
marry a Muslim man to get the permission of her parents and local government officials. Any
Muslim man who marries a Buddhist woman is required to convert to Buddhism.
As these are socio-political issues both President Thein and Mrs Suu Kyi will be finding it
difficult to resolve. They would need to combine their energies to evolve a game plan to keep
these issues within manageable levels to ensure the progress of democratic reforms. In the
coming months, we can expect only slow progress in the reform process, facing challenges at
every step from divisive political and social forces. It will be a true test of national leadership‘s
ability to deal with these challenges.
India‘s relations with Myanmar are likely to become more broad-based as Myanmar‘s
investment and business environment enlarges and becomes structured. A closer relationship
with India enables Myanmar to balance China‘s overwhelming influence better, particularly as it
complements India-U.S. strategic relationship. Indian leadership of all political hues is aware of
the importance of Myanmar in India‘s overall strategic spectrum.
Myanmar's historical cultural and religious experience and shared colonial history with India
makes dealings between the two countries easier. A number of projects to improve infrastructure
connectivity among BCIM (Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar) and Indo-ASEAN connectivity
are in the offing. India‘s Sittwe multi-modal project is also making progress. However, their
success would depend upon democracy firmly establishing itself in Myanmar. It is essential that
India shows a lot of understanding and paly an active role in helping Myanmar achieve success
in its journey to become a vibrant democracy.
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India-Myanmar Relations - Wuthering Heights
Syed Ali Mujtaba
(Syed Ali Mujtaba ,Ph.D, is a senior journalist based in Chennai,India. His career has spanned over 20 years in different facets of journalism. He taught media studies for six years in institutions in Chennai. He was Chennai Correspondent for an Australian Radio.He was a Jefferson fellowship at the East West Center, Hawaii in fall 2003. As part of this fellowship programme he visited US, South Korea, Vietnam and Singapore. He visited Thailand twice to present paper atthe media conferences. Mujtabacontinues to write for several newspapers, news syndicates and websites.He is a member of International Federation of Environmental Journalist Association (IFEJA).He has shot two documentary films “Beyond Empires” and Making a Difference.”He has taken doctoral degree from School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. He was on India’s grant to pursue doctoral research in England.He has authored two books and contributed a chapter each to four edited volumes.He has qualified National Education Test (NET). Mujtaba was in the AMU Aligarh Muslim University’s Football team from where he has taken the Bachelors and Master’s Degree. He is the founder and moderator of South Asia Contact Group. He can be contacted at [email protected] He has a blog Mujtabas-Musings: URL: http://mujtabas-musings.blogspot.com
____________________________________________ Introduction India Myanmar relation is steeped in history. The moment we talk about Myanmar, it's all history that comes to our mind. Whether it's being the mortal abode of the last Mughal King, Bhadur Shah Zafar, or the stories of the splendour of Rangoon where Indians once flourished, or the hazardous trek of many Indians from Burma after its occupation by the Japanese during Second World War, all these forms the part of our folklore. The last powerful memory that remains encrypted in our mind is the 1962 coup in Burma following which Indians were ordered to leave that country empty handed. History seems to have frozen after that; there is hardly any news what's happening on the Burma front. The endeavour of this paper is to update the audience on the contemporary developments of India - Myanmar relations and the effort is to bring out the nuances of India's foreign policy towards Myanmar. This paper begins with a peep into Myanmar's land and people, goes on to trace its political history since independence and analyses the problems faced by Myanmar. It highlights the history of India-Myanmar relations and talks about gas pipeline and issues that surrounds Indo - Myanmar relations. The paper updates on the developmental activities going on between the two countries and touches upon India- Myanmar Naval Cooperation and the China factor. It finally wraps up with a summery and a conclusion.
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Burma since Independence The post-independence history of Burma can be divided into three phases. First phase from 1948 to 1962, second from 1962 to 1988 and third phase from 1988 till date. After the Word War II, General Aung San, architect of Burma's independence and revered as the leader of the independence struggle, was able to win the trust of the ethnic nationalities and unified them with the Burmans at the Panglong Conference in February 1947. All the nationalities participated in that conference and demanded independence of Burma from the colonial rule. The British Government acceded to their demand and a Constitution was drafted in 1947 and Burma was granted independence on January 4, 1948. However, before the Constitution could be put into effect, General Aung San was assassinated along with most of his cabinet members on July 19, 1947. The period from 1948-62 was marred by widespread conflict and internal struggle emanating out of constitutional disputes. There was persistent division among political and social groups that undermined any democratic system of governance to strike roots in Burma. A strong leadership at this stage could have checked fissiparous tendencies but weak constitutional authority contributed to the erosion of trust among the nationalities. The military was called on several occasions to assume the role of caretaker government and through military campaigns the control of the central authority was reinforced. The military took over power in 1949 and 1958 but handed it back to the civilian government after restoring law and order. In 1958 it stepped down after remaining in power for almost 18 months. This trend however was halted in 1962 when General Ne Win staged a coup on the pretext of saving the country from the break up and displaced Prime Minister U Nu. The military General assumed absolute power and abolished the 1947constitution and established a military government with socialist economic priorities. Like any other military ruler, Ne Win too sought to dominate every aspect of the Burmese life. He crushed all the parties except his own the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) and hobnobbed with socialism. This meant tight control over the economy, denial of liberty, and enforced isolation from the rest of the world. This hardly provided any relief to the economically bedraggled country. The year 1962 saw the first demonstration against the Ne Win regime. Henceforth, things did not move on a happy pace and the mismanagement of the economy added up to the people's woes. General New Win tried to address these issues by nationalizing banks, demonetizing currency but could not improve the situation. There was a wide spread demonstrations in 1964, 1974, 1987 and 1988. In March 1988 economic situation worsened and student unrest broke out in Rangoon. The demonstration increased in size, despite repeated military crackdowns. On August 8, 1988, military supposedly killed more than 1,000 agitators, mostly students. However, this did not dampen their spirits and in September 1988, the agitation reached a point that General Ne Win had to resign.
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A military junta called State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) took over the power from General Ne Win and in a bid to restore order sent the army to suppress the on-going agitation. It's estimated that more than 3,000 people were killed during the military crackdown from 1988 to 1990. It was during this time that Aung San SuuKyi, daughter of General Aung San, made her first political speech at a public rally in Rangoon and assumed the role of the opposition leader in Myanmar. The SLOARC around this time ruled Myanmar through martial law. It abolished Ne Win's constitution abandoned his socialist practices and also deposed his Burmese Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). In 1989, the SOLARC changed the English name, Burma to Burmese name, Myanmar. It also changed Rangoon to its Burmese name Yangon. The SOLARC finally announced national parliamentary elections on May 27, 1990. The successor to the BSPP and military patronized party called the National Union Party (NUP), and the Aung San Suki led National League for Democracy (NLD) was the main contender for the election. The NLD routed the junta supported NUP party and registered a landslide victory, winning 392 of the total 485 seats.However, belying all fair play and justice, the SOLARC refused to call the Parliament and quashed the electoral verdict on the ground that Aung San-Suukican not hold power since she was married to an English man. The SOLARC also disapproved her idea to make Myanmar a federal state, reasoning that it would lead to the disintegration of the country. The military rulers defended their action calling national interest to be higher than an individual and reminded the people of military's role in saving the country from breaking up in 1949, 1958 and 1962. The SLORC also started propaganda through state controlled media. It launched a campaign against the civilian government alleging it to be conspiring with the insurgents. To gain legitimacy, history was rewritten denying any role of the military in the civilian massacre of 1988. The SOLRC further tried to gain legitimacy by extending state support to the Buddhist Sangha. Since 1990's Myanmar under SOLARC has been moving away from socialism and started limitedly opening up the economy. As a result India, Thailand, South Korea, has entered into Myanmar in a big way. The new trend was given legitimacy in 1997 when SOLARC changed its name to SPDC (State Peace and Development Council). In the same year, Myanmar was admitted to the grouping ASEAN or Association of South East Asian Nation. Myanmar 1990 was series of cease-fire pacts singed between the insurgent groups and the military Junta. It's reported that out more than 17 insurgents groups signed the ceasefire agreement. However, some major groups refused to give up their armed resistance. In 1993, General ThanShwe announced establishment of a National Convention or a reconciliation process aimed at drawing up a new constitution for Myanmar. He also outlined a seven-point plan to restore democracy in Myanmar. The drafting of such constitution is going on since then and all democratic process has been put on hold till its completion. Recent developments have seen a general election in 2010 and by-elections in 2012 which were contested by some opposition parties.The main opposition party National League for Democracy was re-registered for the by-elections on 13 December 2011 as part of the
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reforms in Burma since 2010. NLD leader Aung San SuuKyi ran in the seat of Kawhmu, which she won and her party won in 43 of the 44 seats they contested. The 2011–2012 Burmese democratic reforms are an ongoing series of political, economic and administrative reforms in Burma undertaken by the military-backed government. These reforms include the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San SuuKyi from house arrest and subsequent dialogues with her, establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, general amnesties of more than 200 political prisoners, institution of new labour laws that allow labour unions and strikes, relaxation of press censorship, and regulations of currency practices. India- Burma Relations India enjoyed friendly relations with Burma from 1948 to 1962. Prime Ministers Jawaharlal Nehru and Prime Minister U Nu were instrumental in cementing initial political and diplomatic ties between two countries. India provided Burma with military and economic assistance during this period. India's relations with Burma totally froze after its military takeover in 1962. General Ne Win who seized power, nationalized all private enterprise in Burma and ordered expulsion of the Indians. This created a bad blood in India-Burma relations. India had to arrange ferries and aircrafts to lift its citizens out of Burma. India's war with China in 1962 and military regime siding with the Chinese too had repercussions on India -Burma relations. General Ne Win's idea of cocooning Burma from the rest of the world further distanced India from Burma. During Indira Gandhi's rule, India avoided any contact with Burma and was critical of its suppression of democratic movement and maintaining a poor human rights record. There was no change in India's policy towards Burma during Rajiv Gandhi's regime. Rajiv Gandhi criticized the SOLARC for assuming power in 1988 and extended moral support to the pro-democracy movement in Burma. His government also provided thousands of Burmese citizens with "refugee status" in India after they fled Myanmar in wake of military repression. India's policy of engaging Myanmar However, due to changing realities, Indo - Myanmar relations saw a major shift during NarshimaRao's regime. There were three stated reasons for the shift in India's policy towards Myanmar. One was to contain China. Second was to check insurgency, drug trafficking, and smuggling in India's northeastern states. Third was the Look East policy, where Myanmar played a central role if India had to reach out to the South East Asian countries. So it's with these stated objectives, India started to cultivate friendly relationship with Myanmar. In the ensuing dialogue, India assured Myanmar that it would not interfere in its domestic affairs and Yangon assured New Delhi that Myanmar's proximity with China would not be directed against India.
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India- Myanmar relations once again deteriorated in 1995, when New Delhi conferred Jawaharlal Nehru Award for promoting international understanding on Aung San SuuKyi. Myanmar's military junta protested New Delhi's move but despite such irritants, India kept open the political and diplomatic channels with Myanmar. During Gujaral period, India slipped back to its old policy of supporting the pro-democracy movement in Myanmar. The National Front government laid emphasis on human rights and restoration for democracy for improving India- Myanmar relations. The real shift in India Myanmar relations came when the BJP led government assumed power in 1998. Since then a new momentum was infused in the dormant Indo-Myanmar relations. Fresh diplomatic engagement with Myanmar was made to achieve India's stated objective outlined during NarshimaRao's regime. The two countries signed a protocol to establish regular bilateral ministerial consultations and agreed cooperation in projects related to infrastructure, energy and information technology. Several agreements like setting up cultural exchanges, cooperation in non-traditional security issues, Tamanthi hydroelectric project in Myanmar were signed in further course of time. The two sides are exploring how to expand cooperation in areas like, industry, energy, rail transportation, communications, science and technology and health. India's pressure to curb insurgency bore results when India Myanmar jointly held military operation to flush out the rebels inside Myanmar's territory in January 2006. After that the two sides took stock of the common security challenges posed by the insurgents in the northeast region. Reconstruction of the Settwe port in Myanmar, Kaladan Multi-Nodal transport project and Tamu-Kalewa-Kalemyo road project are currently underway and strengthening the bilateral relationship. India and Myanmar Gas pipeline controversy Myanmar supposedly has world's tenth-biggest gas reserves estimated to be more than 90 trillion cubic feet. India has evinced keen desire to procure gas from Myanmar to meet it energy needs. India's ONGC Videsh Ltd and Gas Authority of India Limited together hold 30 per cent stakes in the exploration and production of gas in Myanmar's A1 and A3 off -shore blocks located in Sitwe area of the Arakan state. India however faced the problem of the transportation of the gas from Myanmar. A Bangladeshi company Mohona Holdings Limited mooted the idea of tri-nation pipeline project involving Myanmar, Bangladesh and India way back in 1997. Under this proposal, the 290 Kilometer pipeline would run through the Arakan state in Burma, via Indian state of Mizoram and Tripura and to cross over to Bangladesh, before entering back into Indian state of West Bengal. The three countries signed an agreement on this project estimated to be $ 1 billion plus in Yangon on February 2005. The construction of the India- Myanmar pipeline was scheduled to start in 2006 and the delivery of the gas was to commence from 2009.
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However, this project got entangled in political row after Bangladesh sought other concessions from India to allow the passage of the pipeline through its territory. India rejected Bangladesh's demands that bilateral issues cannot become part of a trilateral agreement and decided for an alternative route to bypass Bangladesh. A technical consultant company SUZTractebel from Brussels (Belgium) was engaged by the Gas Authority of India to prepare a detailed feasibility report for an alternative pipeline route to Myanmar. The European company has come up with the new route that would link Myanmar's Sitwe area with Jagdishpur-Haldia pipeline line at Gaya in Bihar. The 1,400-km pipeline would pass via Mizoram, Tripura, Assam, and West Bengal to enter Bihar. This route is almost three times the distance of the tri nation pipeline and may cost India $ 3 billion plus. India's decision to bypass Bangladesh was taken after Myanmar started raising doubts over India's seriousness to transport gas from its gas fields. Myanmar gave ultimatum to India that if it does not decide fast, it might consider selling gas to some other countries. Even as the pipeline project is still in its finalization stage, India has offered hard cash to buy Myanmar gas and import it through ship. India has invited bids for long-term chartering service of a CNG ship for the transportation of the Myanmar gas. Such ship when operational may become first of its kind to ferry such huge amount of gas in the Bay of Bengal. However, to the utter surprise of India, Myanmar allotted the gas blocks to China, saying that India has not taken the call and was delaying the commitment. Indo-Myanmar relations - major issues India - Myanmar shares 1,643 kilometer-long common border along the Potkai Hills. India's four states; Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh share international border with Myanmar. Issues that surround Indo-Myanmar relations are; cross border insurgency, narcotics trade, border posts, border fencing border trade etc. Cross border militancy: India faces insurgency problem in its states of Nagaland, Manipur and parts of Mizoram across the Myanmar borders, whereas Myanmar faces insurgency from Naga (Khaplang group) from the Indian side. India-Myanmar Army has agreed to strengthen the mechanism to exchange intelligence along the international border to check cross border crimes. In January 2006, Myanmar and Indian Army conducted joint operation to flush out NSCN-K rebels where helicopter gun-ships were reportedly used. Narcotics Trade: India faces the problem of narco-terrorism through the porous Myanmar border wherein drugs are smuggled to India and exchanged for arms and ammunition. According to a report, the Indian army last year alone, seized drugs worth over 30 crore rupees in the international market from the Myanmar border. Myanmar remains the primary source of drugs problem in Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland. Number of agreements has been signed between India and Myanmar since 1993 to collaborate to fight the drugs menace along their common border. Border post: India- Myanmar army is currently holding border post meetings at regular intervals at Moreh-Tamu in Manipur. The two countries have recently agreed to open four
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more border posts to facilitate army meetings. They are at Lungwa in Nagaland's Mon district, Bihang in Manipur's Churachandpur district and at Sapi and Zokawathar in Mizoram. Among the border posts, Zokwathar, Moreh and Lungwa are also international trade centers. Border Fencing: Border fencing is important to check narco-terrorism along India-Myanmar border. Recently, India has sanctioned to raise the iron fencing, along Mizoram's 404-km border with Myanmar. It has also ordered the fencing of the 14 kilometers of the porous international boundary at Moreh in Manipur. Infrastructure Development There has been flurry of activity going on in the field of infrastructure, development between India and Myanmar. India has offered $35million as financial assistance to Myanmar for its various development projects. This includes multi-modal transport system, road, railways and telephone network. Road: India is exploring a transport corridor through Myanmar, a potential gateway to East Asian countries to form a free-trade region. The 'trilateral highway' connecting India, Myanmar and Thailand is being discussed. The National Highway-39 that connects Manipur with Myanmar is considered as gateway to ASEAN nations. Currently a road from the border town of Moreh in Manipur to Kangla that's 110-kms-long is operational. With plans to build another road via Mizoram, another gateway for bilateral and regional trade promotion is in the offing. Another road connecting Zakhaotar in Mizoram with the Chin state of Myanmar is being talked about. India's Border Roads Organization has started the survey work of the 225 km stretch road that would connect Mizoram to Tidium in Myanmar. Rail: India is playing a big part in helping Myanmar to augment its rail infrastructure needs, supplying rails and rolling stock and assisting in upgrading its rail network. This assistance is part of the ambitious Mekong-Ganga Cooperation (MGC) project that would link New Delhi with Hanoi. India has made available a line of credit of US $ 56 million to Myanmar to build a modern railway utility along the northwestern and central flanks of its neighbor. India is also assisting in upgrading the Yangon-Mandalay sector of Myanmar railways. Indian Railways has initiated the preliminary tasks to extend the broad-gauge track from Jiribam in southwest Manipur to Moreh that's scheduled to be complete by March 2010. Waterways: The Kaladan multi model transport project between India and Myanmar is a combination of rivers, transport, building of highway and natural gas pipeline projects. It's commissioned in the southern part of Mizoram with total outlay of $ 100 million. As a part of this project, India is planning to rebuild Myanmar's Sittwe port, situated on the mouth of the Kaladan River. The port is intended to link Mizoram to the Bengal Sea via Arakan'sKaladan River that connects to Assam's river in India. India is keen to rebuild this port for the transportation of gas and other natural resources from Arrakan to its northeastern states. India Myanmar Naval Cooperation The strategic importance of Myanmar in the Indian Ocean has made India initiate naval cooperation with Myanmar. A number of Indian naval personal have been visiting
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Myanmar off late. Indian Navy chief Admiral ArunPrakash first visited Myanmar in 2003 and then again in January 2006 where he presented a consignment of communication equipment to his counterparts. His visit became controversial when it was reported that he discussed the sale BN-2 Islander aircraft to Myanmar. This was objected by Britain that originally supplied it to India. The British High Commissioner to India, Sir Michael Arthur issued stern warning that if New Delhi went ahead with the sale, Britain would stop the supply of spares for Indian Navy's Islander aircraft. He added that Britain was bound by EU guidelines that no military dealings have to be done with Myanmar either directly or through third party. In spite of such hiccups India and Myanmar naval cooperation is forging ahead. Two Indian warships, INS Ranjit and ISN Kuthar did joint naval maneuvers with Mayanmar's navy in December 2005. Since then India and Myanmar are regularly naval exchanges and joint naval cooperation is gaining strength to strength. The China Factor China has always been the key element in India-Myanmar relations due to strategic location of Myanmar. As a result, security and strategic interests of India and China seem to clash with each other over Myanmar. While China has gained a lot by siding with the military regime since 1962, India has lost all its leverage supporting the pro-democracy movement in Myanmar. China taking advantage of Myanmar's splendid isolation with rest of the world has developed a deep involvement in Burma. Much to India's strategic nightmare, China on Myanmar's Coco Island has built its naval listening and weather posts. Also, China and Myanmar have agreed to establish a 30,000-square-mile offshore economic zone to facilitate exploitation of natural resources. This may have bearing on India's maritime and economic interests in the Indian Ocean. India's strategic thinking towards Myanmar is also guided by Sino-Pakistan, Sino-Myanmar relations. India's warming up relation with Myanmar is to check Chinese free run in that country. Although China and Myanmar have drawn closer for various reasons, Myanmar is keen to develop ties with India since it does not want to remain isolated with the rest of world. Myanmar is aware of its strategic importance to both India and China and but when it comes to selling of its natural resources it has preferred China over India and this is something New Delhi needs to take into account in dealing with Myanmar. Conclusion There are few salient features in the India-Myanmar relations. There are three key factors that are compelling India to develop a proactive relation with Myanmar. First 'Look East Policy' to reach out to the ASEAN, second coordinated effort with Myanmar to develop its northeast region and third strategic policy to contain Chinese influence over Myanmar.
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In India's look east policy, the trilateral highway between India, Myanmar and Thailand plays a major role to reach the South East Asian countries. So is the Trans Asian railway that is to connect New Delhi with Hanoi. A deep economic relationship with Myanmar in India's view would give a tremendous boost to the development of its northeast region. The planned infrastructure development of road, rail and waterways are all steps in this direction. India sees China's involvement in Myanmar having geo- strategic implications for the region and does not want to give it a free hand. It therefore would like to engage Myanmar through greater economic strategic cooperation. Apart from bilateral relations India is also engaging Myanmar through ASEAN and BIMSTEC. India's engagement with Myanmar through ASEAN began in 1997, when it was admitted as its full dialogue partner and in the same year Myanmar became its full member. The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) set up in 1997 is another forum through which India is engaging Myanmar. It’s not only India that is after Myanmar, it’s also Myanmar that's after India. Facing sanctions from European Union and America, Myanmar wants to develop deep relations with India for economic reasons. India is one of Myanmar's major trading partners and fourth largest market for its goods. The most startling fact is bilateral trade between India and Myanmar has grown nearly eight-fold in recent years. In 2004-05 bilateral trade has reached over $500 million and two sides have set target of $1 billion for the year 2006-2007. India's policy of engaging Myanmar has definitely paying dividends.
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Indo Myanmar Relations: Looking East from the North east
An alumnus of Delhi School of Economics he has been actively engaged in research for the last thirty years on various aspects of the economy of the North Eastern region of India. He has completed a number of projects from the Planning Commission, the UGC and the ICSSR. He was consultant to NEC sponsored RIS study on Indo Myanmar Border trade and Government of Manipur sponsored NIPFP study on Fiscal Reforms in Manipur. He was a member of Manipur State Planning Board. Currently he is co-ordinating the UGC-Special Assistance Programme in Economics department and conducting an ICSSR sponsored study both on Indo Myanmar Border trade. He is the Deanof Social Science,Manipur university and director of the Internal Quality Assurance Cell, Manipur University. He was the vice president of the North East Economic Association, president of Manipur Economic Association and is currently an executive member of the Indian Econometric Society.
_______________________________
Myanmar is emerging from five decades of economic and political isolation. India‘s North east
,yet to recover from the massive dislocation in its connectivity at the time of independence, and
also on the lookout for a developmental paradigm , is seeking a place in India‘s Look East
policy. Ambassador RajivSikri had admitted in a recent seminar that the north east indeed was
not in the picture when India‘s Look East Policy (LEP) was initiated in the early 90s.1Myanmar
was a closed economy boycotted by the international communityfor her undemocratic practices.
Now the boycott has been withdrawn and every country is competing to develop good relations
with Myanmar.2Has the right time for India‘s north east arrived ? of the eight states in the north
east, only four i.e. Arunachalpradesh, Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland have common border
with Myanmar extending over 1640 km. though each of them has an approved land customs
station, most of the trade is happening at Moreh in Manipurxxvi
. Fig 1 shows the LCSs on the
Indian side along Indo-Myanmar border.The scriptures of Manipur , a key player in Indo
Myanmar relation through the north east, had prophesied the return of prosperity once the
eastern gates were opened. Myanmar is considered the eastern gate which will usher in an era of
prosperity. For Manipur there is also nostalgia for a period when this kingdom had engaged
Myanmar on equal terms.This essay tries to identify the parameters of Indo Myanmar
relationship taking into account the history of the region and expected changes in Myanmar.
Predicting the future of Myanmar which is literally on a roller coaster ride to reforms is indeed a
challenge. Some of the significant economic reforms undertaken since the elections in
November 2010 are as follows:
i. An overvalued peg of 8.51 kyat/SDR has been replaced by a managed float and
steps are being taken to unify the remaining exchange rates. Since 1977 an official
peg to the SDR at 8.50 kyats per SDR (5.35 kyats per US $) has been in place.
ii. A central bank has been approved by the cabinet and awaits passage in the
parliament.
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171
iii. Deposit rates have been made more flexible and some administrative curbs on credit
extension relaxed
iv. The budget began to be debated in parliament for approval.
v. Legislation aimed at strengthening the agricultural sector and the business climate
has been adopted.3
.
Fig.1 : Indo Myanmar Border
Source: RIS(2011) Expansion of North east India‘s Trade and Investment with Bangladesh and
Myanmar: An Assessment of the opportunities and constraints ;Delhi (p-38).
NER and Myanmar in History:
The interactions among the kingdoms in this region are not studied in depth. Even the four
waves of LEP described by Muni(2013) donot mention this interaction . According to Muni
(2013) the first wave of LEP( first to twelfth century) was characterised by cultural and
commercial engagements, second phase( twelfth century to colonial period)by strategic and
commercial interests ,third phase( post independence period)by decolonisation and Asian
resurgence and finally the fourth phase ( early 90s onwards) was driven by economic and post
cold war imperatives of India‘s foreign policy.
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The north east used to be connected with Myanmar for centuries in many ways. The Manipuris
used to refer to the Myanmarese as Awa, a corruption of Ava, the capital of Myanmar for a long
time. From 1648 onwards CheitharolKumbaba, the chronicle of the royal court of Manipur
referred to Myanmar as Awa.Stressing that Manipur was already a gateway even in the eighth
century, Hall (1981) wrote:
―His ( Kolopheng of the kingdom of Nanchao 748-79) campaigns opened an old road to India
across Upper Burma . one of the routes passed through the Pyu capital…whence it proceeded up
the Chindwin to the borders of Manipur .‖4
About the relation between Manipur and Myanmar Grant (1960) wrote
― during the reign of Tarokpyemin in the thirteenth century, when Burmese kingdom lost many
of its outposts, it was subdued by the Manipuris and it seems to have paid tribute to Manipur
until the conquest of that state by Alaungpaya(1753-60)‖5
Hall (1981) further wrote
‗…the little mountain state of Manipur began a series of raids upon upper Burma which the
enfeebled rulers ofAva were quite unable to check. In the sixteenth century Bayin-naung had
forced Manipur to recognize his suzerainty, but later it reasserted its independence and … in the
reign of Minrekyawdin succeeded in encroaching upon the kabaw valley running alongside the
upper Chindwin. Under GharibNewaz(1717-54) its expert horseman became the terror of upper
Burma. .. in 1738 they camped near Sagaing‖6
In 1702 a Burmese mission arrived in Manipur to ask for the hands of some Manipuri princesses
for the king of Myanmar7. This matrimonial alliance was one of the many reasons behind the
deterioration in Manipur-.Myanmar relation. GaribNewaj who ruled Manipur during 1717 -49
repeatedly invaded Samjok(Thangdut) during 1717-1748.Irrawady was the eastern boundary of
the dominion of Manipur. In 1738 king GaribNawaj crossed the Irrawadyriver and attacked the
stockades around the ancient capital of Sagaing. He occupied Sagaing in 1738 when the
Toungoo dynasty was ruling from Ava. Alaungpayaof the konbaung dynasty changed
everything.He had been a great leader who had restored the self respect of the Burmese after the
disasters they had suffered at the hands of the Manipuris, the shans and the Mons8. Writing
about the reverses Manipur suffered in the hands of Alaungpaya Hall wrote ― Alaungpaya‘s
expedition against Manipur[1758-59] , from which he had been recalled by the Mon rising ,
inflicted upon that country [Manipur]one of the worst disasters in its history. Thousand of people
were deported and settled in the Sagaing and Amarapura districts of upper Burma. From this
time the astrologers at the court of Ava were Manipuri Brahmans, while Manipuris formed a
cavalry regiment in the Burmese army‖9
Manipur occupied the Kabawvalley , the region between the current Indo Myanmar border and
Irrawady river ,known as the Ningthee river to the Manipuris off and on. There were two routes
connecting Manipur valley with the Kabaw valley. One was from Heirok, a Manipuri village in
south –eastern extremity of Manipur valley. The second was from Pallel.10
Bagyidaw who
became king of Myanmar in 1819 pursued a forward policy and occupied both Assam and
Manipur . During 1819-26 Manipur had to suffer ignomity of the seven year devastation in the
hand of MahaBandula, the myanmarese general. The treaty of Yandabobetween Myanmar and
the East India Company signed in 1826 ushered in an era of stability in the relation between
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173
Myanmar and a region that was to become india‘s north east.However subsequent to the treaty
of yandaboo in 1826, the disputed land of Kabaw valley was handed over to Myanmar on
payment of an annual payment Rs 6000 to the Rajah of Manipur till it was reverted back to
Manipur .Now Kabaw valley has been ceded to Myanmar permanently.
Manipur thus was a key player in the power struggle among the Mons, the Burmese and the
Shans in the region. The pong kings also allied with Manipur king to counter Myanmar. The
French and the British were also entering the scenario. The repeated Myanmarese incursions
made Manipur look west resulting in contact with the people of India. Manipur also contacted
the British in 1762 at Chittagong in search of firearms to counter the Myanmarese superiority in
firearms. What is to be stressed at this point is that engagement with Myanmar is not going to be
a new experience. When we frame the policy for this region, the history of the region may
provide useful insights
Opportunities in Myanmar and beyond :
It is estimated that Myanmar exploited only15% of its(gravity) potential on average during
2006-10.11
Thailand,India and the people‘s republic of China account for more than three
quarters of myanmar‘sexports.PRC,Thailand and Singapore together account for nearly three
quarters of Myanmar‘s imports. Myanmar‘s export basket is dominated by fuels(natural
gas),food and other primary commodities ( including precious stones and gems). Exports to India
are mostly vegetable and timber.Its import basket is dominated by manufactured goods which
account for more than 70% of Myanmar‘s imports.12
Manufactured goods constitute more than
90% of its imports from PRC, the Republic of Koreaand Japan. India is Myanmar‘s main source
of medicaments and bovine meat. India can import the following items from Myanmar:timber
especially teak wood, cane bamboo, Tin, Zinc, Gold and silver, Coal ,Bauxite, Dolomite,
Precious stone ,Burmese rubby, Sapphire and jade etc. India can export the following items to
Myanmar :medicine, medicinal equipment ,consumer goods, textiles and various types of yarn.
machinery equipments for industries including spare parts, building materials like cement, CGI
sheets and electrical items, various types of motor vehicle, motor cycle and bicycle and its spare
parts, stationery and printing materials, agriculture and horticulture, tractor, fertilizer and
chemical and trained manpower.
Table 1 shows the top ten items Myanmar exported to and imported from India during 2006-10.
Export to India Import from India
1 Vegetables,fresh,chilled,frozen
Medicaments
2 Wood in the rough or roughly squared
Flat rolled products of iron or non alloys
3 Veneers,plywood,particle board
Meat of bovine animals, fresh , chilled
4 Crude animal materials
Rubber tyre,interchangeabletyre trade
5 Sugar,molasses and honey
Electrical apparatus for switching
6 Hides and skins( except furskins)
Textile yarn
7 Spices Feeding stuff for animals
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174
8 Natural rubber,guttapercha
Other plastics in primary form
9 Fruits and nuts
Petroleum oils
10 Wood simply worked and railway sleeper
Household equipment of bell metal
Source :Ferrarini (2013)
The share of manufactured items in Myanmar‘s import is very high. The import basket will
become more diversified and bigger as the economy gradually opens up. Some major
investment opportunities coming up in Myanmar are consumer goods,Education and health care,
low cost manufacturing, construction, banking and financial services,retail sector,telecoms and
travel & tourism13
.Thus NER also needs to examine the feasibility of producing goods and
services which will be in demand . The size of local market has been a major constraint in any
attempt to industrialization in this region. Producing for the bigger and dynamic south east Asian
market will enable the region to reap economies of scale.
What exactly constitutes the Look East policy ?
It is often said that activating the land route with Myanmar can make the ―Look East‖
policy to start from the North-eastern region. It can provide a transit route to Southeast Asian
countries and end the NER‘s disadvantageous land-locked condition. It can also help to initiate
joint venture enterprises and bring cross-border investments for the development of
infrastructure, manufacturing, and services. Cross-country initiatives for economic cooperation
such as the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation
(BIMSTEC) and Mekong-Ganga Cooperation (MGC) should supplement LEP. The important
infrastructure initiatives to promote NER trade with Southeast Asian countries through Myanmar
include, the Asian Highway link and Asian Railway network. While the NER will have access
to the Asian Highway through the Imphal- Tamu feeder road, the railway systems of India and
Myanmar are planned to be linked at the Dibrugarh railhead, which will give the region access to
Asian Railway Network. India already constructed a Friendship road in 2001 in Myanmar
linking the township of Tamu with the railhead at Kalemyo which connects Mandalay, the
commercial hub of Myanmar. There is also a time bound proposal to construct a 1,360 km
Trilateral Highway from Moreh (India) to Mae Sot (Thailand) through Bagan (Myanmar). With
the signing of India-Thailand Free Trade Agreement (2003), the steady rise in two-way trade
with Myanmar and spectacular growth in Sino-Indian trade, this region can become a hub for
transit trade. Arguing for the need to see the region as an asset rather than a liability Madhav
argued ―its hydropower potential, oil and gas resources, its forest wealth, if prudently used with
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175
linkages with South east Asia can benefit the whole country‖
14 Hope in the region resurged with
the thrust on new Asia and Sarma wrote ―the underlying thrust on ‗A new Asia‘ makes one think
of ‗A new North East, too‖15
. As we talk of the Asian century, we start looking where we fit in
the emerging power equation. It was the change in international relations that prompted a
reconsideration of India‘s erstwhile view of the region .Jairam Ramesh (2005) opined that
political integration with the rest of India and economic integration with East and Southeast Asia
is certainly one direction that the NER should be looking to, as a new way of development.
Ability to access a new market is not the only spin off. That looking east meant much more is
aptly summed by the following quote ―…looking east wasn‘t only about economic policy and
political strategy, but related as well to issues of identity and a search for fresh connection16
More and more studies are beginning to find the similarities between the social practices of the
region and the countries like Myanmar and Thailand. Such findings will help policy makers
understand the region better and further help in identifying policy measures acceptable to the
people. Regaining faith in the self is equally important for a people who have lost faith in the
self. The work culture too will change. Sarma argues that ―…long run gains from integrating the
Northeast with east and South East Asia heavily outweigh the risks involved‖ . The advantage of
being trapped in a vicious cycle is that once a break is initiated anywhere in the cycle, it will
build cumulatively. Thus India‘s LEP has several dimensions : being a new way of development,
issues of identity and connection and creation of an enabling environment.
Does the LEP exist in amanner as concrete as the Industrial policy or the Export
Import policy ?
According to Rao (2009) ―From the early 1990s, there has been an emphasis on forging closer
commercial and economic links with markets in the Southeast Asian countries and beyond
through the Look East policy .‖17
This emphasis constituted LEP. LEP might have had little
impact on North Eastern region(NER) for three reasons: first there is not much for the NER in
LEP and therefore the little impact is expected. Second there is much for the NER but
inadequacies of infrastructure and institutions deprive of the region of its benefits. Third the
policies about the NER are based on outdated understanding of the region.
Commenting on the impact of LEP on NER . Rao (2009) wrote
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―Given the geographical contiguity, cultural ties, and proximity to the countries in Southeast
Asia, the policy should have helped to break the economic isolation of the NER states. However,
even though the Look East policy has been in existence for more than a decade and a half and
even as it has benefited other parts of India, its benefits to the NER have been negligible. For the
region, the policy has remained a slogan and has never evolved into a harmonious and productive
economic relationship with Southeast Asia.‖18
While Indo Myanmar trade grew substantially , the share of NER both in import and export
stagnated around 1-2%. This is in contrast with the close to 50% share of China‘s border trade in
China-Myanmar trade.
The economic progress of the NER would require a radical change in the relationship with the
neighbouring countries as part of a Govt. of India initiative for developing economic links with
neighbouring countries on mutually beneficial terms and strengthening historical ties. Indeed, in
economic terms, the LEP should go beyond the immediate neighbourhood of Myanmar and
reach out to markets in East Asian and Southeast Asian countries. This calls for significant
initiatives to strengthen connectivity and infrastructure within the region and open the natural
transportation networks through the sea, inland waterways and land routes. No less important is
the improvement in quality of governance without which even the most ambitious schemes are
likely to fail. Central funding with good governance only can do it otherwise it will degenerate
into another quicksand of vested interests. Otherwise it will remain mere slogan.
Rao (2009) outlining the strategy for LEP to enable the region grow writes
―Accelerating growth based on the resources of the region, however, requires massive increases
in investment and opening up the region for trade with neighbours and beyond. Much of the
increase in investment will have to be made by the private sector. Similarly, opening up the
region for trade with neighbours requires a paradigm shift in the relationship with these
countries. It requires Increases in investment and trade with neighbours, creation of enabling
conditions which, among other things, entail, improvement in the governance, diplomatic
initiatives, creation of market oriented policies and institutions and, most of all, creation of state
of the art infrastructure—particularly for internal transportation and connectivity and border
trade.‖19
The Vision 2020 document, in NER, has identified the tremendous potential to
develop horticulture, floriculture, organic food items including tea, spices, forest-based and
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
177
environmentally sound wood-processed goods, handloom, including sericulture and handicrafts,
as well as mineral-based products such as coal and limestone and industries such as cement, oil
and gas. With an enabling policy environment, connectivity and infrastructure, it should be
possible to move up the value chain in these products and export the processed products to
several markets in East and Southeast Asia, Europe and the United States. Moving up the value
chain and expanding exports requires opening up for trade. The question is – should we
concentrate in activities where we have comparative advantage due to natural endowments
?should we go for activities where we have comparative advantage due to economies of scale ?
Industrial activities in this region have been constrained by the size of the local markets. Once
the opening up process removes this constraint by enabling us to access the vibrant markets of
east and south east Asia, economies of scale can become a driving force. One need not be
constrained in the choice of activity by local availability of raw materials. Such activities can be
nurtured even if the raw materials are not locally available and hence have to be imported. The
initiation of such activities will usher in a development friendly environment which will ,in turn,
take care of issues like poverty ,unemployment and social unrest. Such investment is justified in
this region where nation building is yet to be completed..
ASEAN connectivity is expected to emerge as an external driver of economic growth and vision
of its integration with Southeast Asia is going to be realized. According to Kimura et al ―taking
this into strategic consideration, development strategies for Myanmar and Northeast India can be
the core of the regional strategy to enhance ASEAN-India connectivity‖ .Dey (2010) reflecting
on India‘s hope in this regard writes:
―development of the ASEAN-India Connectivity would throw up significant opportunities to
industrial development in India and its trade potential with South and East Asian countries‖ 20
In the long run ASEAN-India connectivity would help to unlock the tremendous potential of the
region by removing constraints and bottlenecks to growth. Trade and connectivity between India
and ASEAN may be seen as ushering in enormous opportunities generated by the dynamic
growth centres which otherwise would have stopped at the border. Dey commenting on the
locational advantage of the region wrote
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178
―North Eastern region‘s locational advantage and rich natural resources provide a backdrop to its
development as a base for cooperation not only with ASEAN, but also with neighbouring
countries such as Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal and through Myanmar, regional cooperation
centring the NER can be extended to Mekong region, comprising Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand
and Vietnam‖ 21
ASEAN-India connectivity is an important theme of the Comprehensive Asia Development Plan
(CADP) which provides a master plan of economic infrastructure and industrial placement in
Asia to deepen regional integration, stimulate economic growth and narrowing the development
gap.It provides immediate policy guidance for industrialization through the development of
logistics and other economic infrastructure. The growing importance of connectivity amidst the
on-going restructuring of economic activities has been rightly recognised. With the strong
support of the government and the business activities of the private sector, China has been
aggressively penetrating into ASEAN. In comparison, the exposure of India in ASEAN is rather
limited despite the Free Trade Agreement. The CADP applies a conceptual framework that is
widely different from traditional development theories and proposes a novel program based on
new development strategies. To take advantage of the globalizing forces, one should not depend
on trade protection, but rather on free trade, proceed not only with tariff removal but also
progressive trade liberalization and facilitation, and not limit to selective acceptance of FDI but
engage in the aggressive attraction of all sorts of FDI. The plan provides a clear picture of an
evolutionary process from simple, slow, and low frequency fragmentation to sophisticated,
quick, and high frequency fragmentation; from thin slices of a value chain without tight local
linkage to industrial agglomerations with active vertical links of production; and from
industrialization heavily depending on MNEs to innovative industrial agglomerations consisting
of both MNEs and local firms. East Asia has become the most advanced region in the
development of international production networks.
The novelty of the conceptual framework is that it is based on new waves of international trade
theory: the fragmentation theory and new economic geography. Both have immense potential for
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
179
influencing our foreign trade policy in general and for the NER in particular. It calls for a rethink
on our comparative advantage. ASEAN connectivity is going to give the region a chance for a
type of planning with which the people can identify themselves with.How the region benefits
depends on its competitiveness arising out of comparative advantage stemming from available
resources and government policy. It is also closely associated with the demand and supply
conditions in Myanmar and beyond which are changing fast.
To ensure that the benefits of LEP accrue to the region, enhanced trade between India and SE
Asia should also flow through the Northeast India–Myanmar corridor. Such trade through
forward and backward linkages can boost growth in this region. Though India‘s trade with its
Northeastern neighbours rose, the bulk of the increased trade has been shipped through
traditional maritime routes. The booming trade seemed to have bypassed Northeast. Share of
Indo-Myanmar border trade through the NER was dismally low due to inadequacy of physical
connectivity. The beneficiaries were the hinterlands of Chennai, Vizag and Kolkata. Sarma went
to the extent of declaring that with closed borders and open ports and absence of proper
infrastructure and connectivity, Northeast India was yet to become a part of India‘s trade
expansion strategy . Questioning the centrality of the region in India‘s look east policy he writes
―India‘s participation in the Asian Highway doesnot reflect the centrality of Northeast in its
scheme of integration of India with Southeast Asia and beyond….the government of India has
shown greater interest in building a 1360km trilateral highway from Moreh in Manipur to Mae
Soi[Mae Sot] in Thailand via Bajan[Bagan] in Myanmar taking a more southern route away from
the emerging Yunnan-Northern Myanmar-South east Asia corridor‖ 22
Transport cost has not always been a major deterrent in the choice of activity and trade. Workers
and other requirements for the tea plantation sector in Assam were procured from outside the
state. Migrant workers from Bihar and West Bengal had played an important role in the growth
of tea industry in Assam. Migrant workers have an important role, not only in Assam but in all
Northeastern states where recent development work would have stalled without them. This
indicates the possibility of initiating an activity matrix based on inputs from outside the region.
Despite the availability of lime stone in Assam, Meghalaya and Manipur there are no large
cement factory in the region. Despite Assam having the largest non off shore deposit of oil in
India there was no petrochemical industry in Assam. Though there are no known reserves of
copper, industries for insulated wires and cables have come up. This has huge implications for
the possibilities freeing us from the natural resource based trap of industrialisation. The
existence of other disabling factors is further endorsed by the failure of industries whose
products are highly demanded in neighbouring countries.Export of bicycles and bicycle parts to
Bangladesh and Myanmar is met from factories outside the region at high transport cost. Local
bicycle factories both in Guwahati in Assam and Imphal in Manipur could not survive
competition despite higher transport cost. The possibility of importing inputs from outside and
neutralising the handicap of higher transport costs are highly encouraging.
Not much of the manufacturing exports from the NER originate in the region. The inadequacies
of infrastructure and law and order situation have led to persistent underinvestment in the region
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
180
and retailing of commodities from outside the region. Commodities from outside the region
have, despite the high transaction cost managed to establish their footholds in this region. Local
traders find themselves outcompeted. This is yet another example of transport cost not being the
most important factor. In most of the states Marwaris have significant trading interest which they
have protected at any cost.
The binding constraints epitomized by five I‘s i.e. Initial conditions, Infrastructure lag,
Insurgency, Imperfection/distortions in factor and product market, Indifferent governance have
to be addressed internally by vigilant citizens. The need for competition with better prepared
ones in the post ASEAN connectivity scenario should best be met with comprehensive
preparation. Apart from removing these constraints NER must aim at unifying as a common
market with an efficient transport and communication network as well as with policy
harmonization among the Northeastern states . Entering into the new scenario in this form will be
a better option than doing it as distinct states with separate rules and regulations which will make
trade much more complex. Economies of scale, attained by operating in such unified market, will
make manufacturing units in the region more competitive.
The strength of the ASEAN and East Asian economies is derived from the unprecedented
development of international production network. The international division of labour is not
industry-wise but production-process-wise, which differs from a standard setting of comparative
advantage models. What we observe is fragmentation of production and the formation of
industrial agglomerations. Such production networks have developed particularly in machinery
industries. This pattern of international division of labour and international trade requires a novel
analytical framework. The theory of fragmentation points out fundamental differences between
intermediate goods trade and finished products trade, particularly in the flexibility of firm‘s
decision making in carving out production blocks and the existence of service link costs.The
fragmentation theory argues that a reduction in service link costs may be a trigger for developing
countries/regions to attract FDI and participate in production networks. According to new
economic geography, a reduction in trade cost generates two countervailing forces:
agglomeration forces and dispersion forces. Agglomeration forces attract more and more
economic activities to agglomerations. External economies of scale within a geographical
boundary are generated in agglomerations due to vertical inter-firm production linkages for
assemblers and parts and components producers, proximity to market for final goods producers,
wholesalers, and retailers, and easy access to capital and human capital by firms. On the other
hand, dispersion forces make some economic activities move from agglomerations to
peripheries. As agglomerations become bigger, ―congestion‖ occurs in the form of wage hikes,
land price rises, traffic jams, and pollution problems so that certain kinds of economic activity
start considering moving out of agglomerations. Differences in location advantages such as low
labour costs in peripheral locations would provide more incentive for firms to relocate their
production sites. Controlling these two countervailing forces properly is the key for pursuing
both rapid economic growth and narrowing development gaps. To achieve this goal, policies to
enhance location advantages, which would work supplementary to a reduction in service link
costs, are often required in order to attract economic activities to countries/regions at lower
stages of development.
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
181
ASEAN-Indian connectivity will change the economic geography. Examples of changing
geography are the commissioning of the Suez Canal joining the Mediterranean and the Indian
Ocean and laying of the first transcontinental railways across North America. The dramatic
savings in transport cost brought about profound changes.With India‘s LEP, successive
governments have sought to revive and strengthen age-old ties with the far east, across the sea
and overland across Myanmar. The latter has never been pursued seriously. However there is no
doubt about its potential to change the region. The geography of Asia is changing. This may
change the matrix of comparative advantage drastically- with the region gaining comparative
advantage in entirely new activities.Commenting on the implication for such a change in
geography Thant Myint(2011) writes:
―when geography changes, old patterns of contact may disappear and new ones take hold,
turning strangers into neighbours, and transforming backwaters into zones of strategic
significance. Entire peoples face decline or vanish, others rise in importance‖ 23
Conclusion :
ASEAN-India connectivity over land through the NER holds out promises for a resurgent
Northeast. The connectivity is necessary but not sufficient. There are many challenges both
internal and external, the region has to tackle before the promises are realised. Helping the region
to prepare itself for the imminent contact with the ASEAN market and beyond will pay rich
dividends on both sides. Can we overcome the challenges? There is ample room for regional
cooperation and policy dialogues. Sharing experiences and information among policymakers and
stakeholders will be useful. There is a need to address behind-the-border barriers to market
access by looking beyond ―on paper‖ ratification of these commitments. A developed and
peaceful NER will enable the central and state governments to focus their efforts in
development programmes by cutting down the snowballing law & order expenses. A more
developed NER will generate a train of events that will launch the region on an ever growing
trajectory and will also enable the ASEAN countries to contribute towards the realisation of the
Asian century alongwith the NER.
Notes 1. ISAS workshop: Connecting India to ASEAN:Opportunities and Challenges in India‘s Northeast, NUS,
Singapore 20 March 2013
2. Union of Burma became Union of Myanmar in 1989.
1. M.P. Bezbaruah&AmiyaSarma, ‗India‘s ‗Look East Policy: An opening to Asian prosperity or a false Hope for
the Northeast‘ in M.C. Behera (ed) Northeast and Globalisation Issues betwixt and between. Guwahati: DVS
Publishers.
2. P. Dey, ‗ASEAN-India Connectivity: An Indian perspective‘ in Kimura,F. & So Umezaki (ed). ASEAN-India
connectivity: The Comprehensive Asia development Plan, Phase II ERIA research project Report 2010, No.7.
3. Ferrarini,B. (2013) Myanmar‘s Trade and Its potential ADB Working paper series no.325;Jan.
4. Grant,B. 1960: MyanmarGazeteer,upper Chindwin district vol A,Rangoon
5. Hall,D.G.E.(1981) A History of South-east Asia Macmillan Asian Histories series Fourth Edn.
6. Kimura, F.& So Umezaki (ed) ASEAN-India Connectivity: The Comprehensive Asia Development Plan, Phase
II ERIA Research Project Report 2010. (2011) No.7. Pg 11
7. Lall,Marie(2008) India Myanmar relations –geopolitics and energy in light of the new balance of power in Asia
ISAS working paper no.29; Jan.
8. Madhav,J. (1999) North East: Crisis of Identity, Security and Underdevelopment. Economic and Political
Weekly Feb.6. P- 321
9. Muni,S.D. (2013) India‘s ―Look East‘ policy: the strategic dimension in
D‘Souza,ShanthieMariet&RajshreeJetlyed Perspectives on South Asian security ; World Scientific
10. North Eastern Council (2008) ―North Eastern Region Vision 2020‖
11. Rao,M. Govinda (2009) ―Promoting Trade and investment in India‘s North eastern Region‖ ADB WPS on
regional Economic Integration No.30
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Assessment of the opportunities and constraints ;Delhi
13. Sachdev,G.(2012) Preparing the North east for ASEAN Linkage in Lianzela,R.S.Ratna&Vanlalchhawnaed
India-ASEAN Economic Integration: Opportunities and Challenges for India‘s North east Macmillan
14. Sarma, A. ‗The North east as gateway to South-East Asia: Big Dream and Home truths‘ in M.C. Behera (ed)
Northeast and Globalisation Issues betwixt and between. Guwahati: DVS Publishers
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16. Thant Myint-U(2011) Where China meets India: Burma and the new crossroads of Asia Faber & Faber. Pg 3
17. The Economist (2012) ―Myanmar: White elephant or new tiger economy? Executive summary‖ Economist
Intelligence unit
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India - Myanmar Economic Relations
C. S. Kuppuswamy
C. S. Kuppuswamy, Consultant with the South Asia analysis Group (SAAG) is a retired officer of the Indian Army and former Director of the Cabinet Secretariat. The SAAG is a group consisting of scholars and strategic analysts involved in advancing strategic analysis, promoting public understanding and highlighting the geo-political issues concerning India. Though his area of interest is South-East Asia, Kuppuswamy has specialised on Myanmar and India’s Look-East Policy and has been writing regularly on these subjects. He is a regular and an active participant in the discussions on Burma held by various think-tanks in India’s capital, Delhi.
__________________________________________
Introduction
There are many reasons for India‘s flourishing relations and increasing economic interaction
with Myanmar. India has a land border of 1643 Km with Myanmar and a long maritime
boundary in the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal. Myanmar is the lynchpin in the furtherance of
India‘s Look East Policy. The economic well being of the land locked North Eastern States of
India will be significantly enhanced by improving trade ties with Myanmar. The availability of
natural gas in abundance in Myanmar in close proximity to India‘s eastern borders is also an
important factor as India imports 70% of its oil and 50% of its gas requirements.
India has diversified its commercial interests in Myanmar in different sectors such as
infrastructure, hydro electric power, oil and gas, automobiles, banking, information technology,
agriculture and pharmaceuticals. The major projects completed or in progress are discussed
below.
Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project
The project will connect Eastern Indian seaports particularly Kolkata with the sea port Sittwe in
the Rakhine State in Western Myanmar – a total distance of 593 km. It will then link Sittwe to
the land locked area of Mizoram in North East India via river and road transport. This project in
three phases involves the development of Sittwe port, dredging of Kaladan river in Chin state
and construction of a 62 Km Highway up to the Indian border. The Indian Government will bear
the full cost of the project estimated at US $ 134 million.
On completion of the project (expected in 2014-2015) the bilateral trade will grow manifold and
the overall development of the North Eastern states especially Mizoram will take place.
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
184
Roads
The 160 km long Tamu-Kalewa-Kalemyo road also known as the India-Myanmar Friendship
Road constructed by Border Roads Organisation was handed over in 2001. Now India has taken
up the task of upgrading and resurfacing of this road.
India will also be constructing the 80 km Rhi-Tiddim road in Myanmar expected to cost $ 60
million and to be completed by 2014. The project has been undertaken by IRCON. This project
will help bolster trade at the Rhi-Zowkhatahar border trading point on the Mizoram border.
In February 2013 India agreed to construct a 120 km road from Kalewa to Yagyi in Myanmar at
an approximate cost of Rs. 1000 Crore. They survey for the road has been completed and
tenders are to be called for.
India and Myanmar have also agreed to work towards an early completion of India-Myanmar-
Thai Highway by linking existing roads and construction of bridges etc. with plans to extend the
highway to Laos and Cambodia. In August 2012 India granted a US $ 500 million loan to
Myanmar, part of which will be used to finance construction of this trilateral highway.
Proposals are also under consideration for renovation of the Ledo road otherwise known as the
Stilwell road connecting Assam with Kunming in China through Myanmar. The Chinese portion
of the road is functional and in use.
It is of relevance to note that all these roads except the tri-lateral (India-Myanmar-Thai) Highway
are close to India‘s North Eastern States.
Tamanthi and Shwezaye Hydro-Electric Power Project
Though an MOU for this project was signed as early as in 2004, it was only in September 2008
the National Hydro-Electric Power Corporation signed an agreement with the Myanmar
Government (Ministry of Electric Power-1) for development of the Tamanthi (1200 mw) and
Shwezaye (660 mw) Hydro Electric Power Project in Chindwin river valley, A detailed Project
Report on Tamanthi has been submitted by the NHPC while it is still working on the Shwezaye
project. Approximately 80% the electricity generated was meant for India‘s North-Eastern
States while the rest was to power the Monywa mining corporation.
Agriculture
In 2012, India assisted Myanmar with US $ 10 million for supply of agricultural machinery and
implements. A total of 300 tractors, 150 combine harvesters, 288 power tillers and 775
implements have been gifted to Myanmar. Apart from supply of this machinery and implements,
support is being extended by way of education and training in the agricultural as well as live
stock and fisheries sector. India had also assisted in setting up 10 disaster proof rice silos in the
cyclone prone delta region.
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185
Banking
United Bank is India‘s first bank to open a representative office in Myanmar in December 2012.
Though the representative office will not handle any financial transactions, officials will
maintain liaison with the government, banks and traders and will extend help and cooperation
toward resolving all issues relating to settlement of trade-related transactions between both the
countries.
Automobile
By an agreement with Myanmar Automobile & Diesel Industries limited (MADI) in 2010, Tata
Motors has established a heavy truck assembly plant in Magwe with financial assistance from the
Government of India. The plant has a capacity of producing 1000 vehicles per annum initially
with the capacity to augment the production to 5000 vehicles each year.
In June 2012 Tata Motors have signed a distribution agreement with Apex Greatest Industrial
Co. Ltd. (AGI) for supplying its passenger and commercial vehicles in Myanmar. AGI will be
distributing the Tata Trucks assembled in Magwe as well as the cars imported from India.
TATA Motors has opened an office and showroom in Yangon on 07 April 2013.
Energy
ONGC Videsh Ltd (OVL), GAIL and ESSAR have made investments in the oil and energy
sector of Myanmar. India‘s plans to have a pipeline for oil and gas from Myanmar to India
through Bangladesh had to be aborted due to lack of cooperation from Bangladesh. Though
India holds 30% stakes in the exploration and production of Gas in Myanmar‘s A-1 and A-3
offshore gas blocks, the gas produced have been sold to China to be sent through the dual
pipelines being constructed by China from Kyakphyu to Kunming.
ONGC and GAIL have also invested in the pipe lines being constructed by China. ESSAR has a
production sharing contract with the Myanmar Government for two contiguous offshore blocks
(A-2) and an adjoining land block (Block-L) since 2005.
India‘s Jubilant Energy signed a contract with Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise for the PSC-1 oil
and gas block in May 2012. The PSC-1 block is located about 125 km northwest of Yangon.
Paper
JK paper signed on MOU with the Myanmar Government in July 2012 to pick up equity and
revive the state-owned Thar Paung Paper and Pulp Mill. JK‘s plans are to use part of the
production in Myanmar and ship the rest to India.
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186
Health
Appollo Group of Hospitals launched a tele-medicine service in Myanmar capital Yangon in
December 2012. Apollo tele-medicine network will facilitate ready access to specialists and
super-specialists for referrals, consultation, second opinion, reviews, post-treatment follow-ups
besides facilitating tele-continuing medical education for the medial fraternity in Yangon.
India has upgraded the Yangon Children‘s Hospital and Sittwe General Hospital.
Railways
M/s Rail India Technical and Economic Services (RITES) is involved in development of the rail
transportation system in Myanmar and in supply of railway coaches, locos and parts.
Bilateral Trade
Bilateral trade has expanded significantly from US $ 12.4 million in 1980-81 to US $ 1371.02
million in 2011-2012. For the period April-October in 2013 the volume of trade was worth US $
773.31 million (Central Statistical Organisation, Myanmar).
India‘s imports from Myanmar are dominated by agricultural items (beans, pulses and forest
based products). India‘s main exports to Myanmar are primary and semi finished steel and
pharmaceuticals.
The trade balance is very much in favour of Myanmar (for e.g. in 2011-12 India‘s export was US
$ 333.9 million while India‘s import was US $ 1037.12 million). The Myanmar-India trade has
been steadily increasing. Presently India stands as the fourth largest trading partner with
Myanmar. India is aiming to step up the trade volume to US $ 3 billion by 2014-15.
Institutional Arrangements
An agreement on setting up a Joint Task Force between Union of Myanmar Federation of
Chambers of Commerce and Industry (UMFCCI) and Confederation of Indian Industries (CII)
was signed in 2004.
There has been regular interaction between CII, FICCI and other important chambers of
commerce from India and the Union of Myanmar Federation of Chambers of Commerce and
Industry (UMFCCI). The Joint Trade Committee (JTC) chaired by the respective Commerce
Ministers was set up in 2003 and has been effective in reviewing and setting policy objectives for
bilateral trade between the two countries. The Joint Trade Committee has met four times so far
(the last being in September 2011) and has successfully directed the rapid growth of commercial
relations between the two countries and agreed to double the bilateral trade to US $ 3 billion by
2015.
A Bilateral Investment Promotion Agreement (BIPA) and a Double Taxation Avoidance
Agreement (DTAA) were also signed in 2008. India and Myanmar are both signatory to India-
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187
ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement, which was signed in August 2009. Myanmar is also a
beneficiary country under India‘s Duty Free Tariff Preference Scheme for LDCs.
(Source: Ministry of External Affairs).
It is significant to note that President Thein Sein during his visit to India for attending the
ASEAN-India summit had a closed door session with CII on 21 December 2012. He invited the
Indian Industry to invest in agriculture and energy sector in Myanmar.
Border Trade
India and Myanmar signed a border trade agreement in 1994 and have two operational border
trade points: Moreh-Tamu and Zokhatar-Rhi on the 1643 km long border. A third border trade
point is proposed to be opened at Avakhung-Pansat/ Somrai. The estimated border trade
amounts to US $ 12.8mn in 2010-11. During the 3rd
India-Myanmar Joint Trade Committee in
October 2008, it was agreed that Border Trade at the existing points would be upgraded to
normal trade so as to promote bilateral trade between the two countries. First meeting of the
India-Myanmar Border Trade Committee was held in Moreh (Manipur) on November 8, 2012.
The meeting reviewed the current status of border trade and discussed border trade points/LCSs
along with the proposed expansion of items under border trade. The meeting also discussed
problems/ obstacles in smooth flow of border trade (Source: Ministry of External Affairs).
Presently there is a tacit agreement between India and Myanmar for the local population
belonging to the same ethnic groups to be allowed free passage within 40 km on both sides of the
international border for the purpose of local trade and social visits.
In December 2012 Indian Government announced that it will allow import of Burmese rice
through the border trade points on the Myanmar border.
Trade Fair & Market Promotion
The Following are the recent events:
January 2010 - Visits by the Indo-Myanmar, Chamber of Commerce and Industry (IMCCI)
Mumbai to Myanmar
September 2010 - North East India Connclave held in Yangon and Mandalay by the Indian
Chamber of Commerce, Calcutta and the UMFCCI.
2011- India Pharmaceutical Expo 2011 held in Yangon with the help of PHARMAXC1L and the
Myanmar Medical Association.
November 2011 – Enterprise India Show organised by CII in November 2011 in which over 60
Indian Companies participated.
March 2012 – India Product Show 2012 representing 19 companies.
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
188
October 2012 – Entrepreneurs from India and Myanmar met at the UMFCCI in Yangon to
discuss ways to promote bilateral trade and investment.
March 2013 – India-Myanmar Business Seminar followed by B2B meeting was held in Yangon
on 4th
March. Another Business Seminar was held in Sittwe on 7th
March. About 40 business
persons from ICC and FCCI attended these meetings.
April 2013—B2B meeting between Calcutta Chamber of Commerce and UMFCCI was held in
Yangon at the UMFCCI Headquarters on 04 April 2013.
The China Factor
In response to a query in an interview to a magazine, Rajiv Bhatia, a former ambassador to
Myanmar replied ―China has been able to leverage its strengths in Myanmar better than we were
able to do, and this really needs to change.‖
Even though India is expanding its economic footprints in Myanmar rapidly, it is no match to
China‘s standing in Myanmar. China is Myanmar‘s second largest trading partner, the biggest
investor and the top provider of the foreign direct investment. India-Myanmar trade is worth US
$ 1.3 billion (2011-12) as compared to China-Myanmar trade of US$ 4.4 billion. China‘s
investment in the energy sector alone is around US $ 8 billion which covers hydroelectricity,
coal mining, oil and gas.
―China‘s position is very strong in economic trade in Myanmar and South Asia. China
welcomes competition from India‖ – Jia Xiudong of China Institute of International Studies told
a group of visiting Indian journalists (New York Daily News – 02 July 2012). India has time and
again reiterated that it is not competing with China in Myanmar.
In view of India‘s rising economic potential and mutual strategic and security interests, Myanmar
has encouraged Indian economic involvement primarily to wean itself away from its near total
economic dependence on China. India has an opportunity and must embark on a broader agenda
of economic cooperation. It has to ensure timely implementation of projects and fulfil its
commitments at a much faster pace.
Conclusion
Consequent to the formation of a civilian government in March 2011 and with the introduction
of more and more political and economic reforms, the transition towards a democracy in
Myanmar is gaining momentum. India can be a catalyst towards this process.
India-Myanmar trade remains much below the potential more due to domestic reasons such as
the insurgency situation and lack of infrastructure in the North-East and lack of coordination
between the centre and the states.
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
189
There is lack of awareness about Myanmar in the Indian Industry. Thanks to the visits of Prime
Minister Manmohan Singh to Myanmar in May 2012 and President Thein Sein‘s and Suu Kyi‘s
visits to India in the later half of 2012, this has improved. Exchange of visits from institutions
such as CII, FICCI and NE agencies and their counter parts in Myanmar sponsored by GOI
through trade fairs and expositions will alleviate this weakness to a certain extent.
With abundance of natural gas in Myanmar, India may have to rethink on a pipeline either
through Bangladesh, or through the sea or through the North Eastern states to meet its energy
needs for the future. For this to fructify a stronger collaboration between the state owned and
private enterprises is essential.
With the removal of economic sanctions by the western nations, and the global companies lining
up for economic stakes in Myanmar, the economic climate in Myanmar has become all the more
competitive for India to expand its interests.
There is an urgent need for India to plan a concerted, broad based and long term economic policy
towards Myanmar and to review it periodically to ensure its effective implementation.
(C. S. Kuppuswamy is a consultant with the South Asia Analysis Group)
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US PENETRATION IN ASIA-PACIFIC, RISE OF CHINA AND THE PAWN CALLED
MYANMAR: THE INDIAN RESPONSE
Dr. SANTISHREE DHULIPUDI PANDIT PROFESSOR
Dept.of Politics and Public Administration University of Pune,India
Projects : Completed and Ongoing- Minor project on the “Politics of language and the medium of Instruction in Goa”, Goa University, 1988-89. Major project at the Centre for a New International Economic Order, Madras {NGO}, on “Caste and Power in Andhra Pradesh- A study of the intermediate castes and Dalit”, 1990-94. RCSS [Colombo], project on Non Traditional Security- [A South Asian Regional Initiative] – 1999 October to December 2000. I am working on the sub theme of Globalization, Security and Conflict in South Asia. Funded by Ford Foundation. Minor project on the “ Ideological roots of India’s Nuclear Policy”, CreNIEO, Madras. 1999-00. Non-Traditional Sources of Security- 1999-2001, RCSS and Ford Foundation. International project- “ Asian Security in the 21st century- Globalisation, Governance and Environment, 2001-2004 RCSS, Colombo and United Nations University, Tokyo and IDSS, Singapore . UGC- Major Research Project- “ Human Rights and Democracy- An Indo- Centric view”, 2002-2005. Women and International Security in South Asia- collaborative research with Nilofer Qazi, at John Hopkins University.2002-2007 Religious extremism and violence and South Asian Security- collaborative research with BIISS, Dhaka- 2004-06. ICSSR fellowship for a Ph.D scholar working under my supervision 2002-2005 Restructuring South Asia- collaborative research with Centre of Security Dialogue, Hyderabad, 2004-06. European Union –Asialink project [2004-2007] on “ Comparaing Asian and European Studies”, partnering with University of Murcia, Spain; University of Foggia, Apulia, Italy; and University of Changsa, Hunnan, China. Center for Inquiry,Amherst, USA and Hyderabad- A joint research project on “Religion and Child Abuse in India”. Capacity building in Post conflict states- USAID project, 2006-2008. Drugs and Security in the Golden Triangle, 2007-2008 Cultural Diplomacy in South East Asia: The role of Buddhism as an Ideology in foreign policy- UGC Major Research Project. 2009-2011. Migration and its impact on the Indian State and Democracy, under the Department of Politics and Public- Administration, University of Pune’s UGC-CAS, 2009-2014. Centre on the Asian Studies { Dept. of Politics and Public- Administration}- Initial thrust area South East Asia 2011-2016 under the UGC, Govt. Of India. Migration and its impact on the Indian State and Democracy- UGC- MRP 2012-2014. PUBLICATIONS:
- Parliament and Foreign Policy in India, New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers, 1990. - “Restructuring Environmental governance in Asia-Ethics and Policy”, [Sole editor] [Hongkong: City
University Press,2003]. - Cultural Diplomacy: Buddhism and India’s Look East Policy[ co-author Dr.Rimli Basu] [2012] Lambert
Academic Pub. [978-3-8465-8021-9]. - Retreat of the State: Implications of Drug Trafficking in Asia [ co-author Dr.Rimli Basu] [2012][978-3-
659-12896-7]. - Ethnicity and Nationalism in search of Nation-building, Yeravan: Armenia University Press, 1996 - Globalization, Security Technology and Conflicts in South Asia, Colombo, RCSS, 2000.
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
191
- Special Issue of Vimarsha Jul-Sept 2009 on India and her turbulent neighbourhood, in Marathi and
English. CHAPTERS IN EDITED BOOKS :
- “Processes in Goan Politics- the role of Caste, Language and Religion in Adi.H.Doctor [Ed.], Processes in Goan Politics, Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 1991.
- ”Caste and Fundamentalism” and “ Hindutva as a Political Ideology”, in Andreas Nehring [Ed.] Fundamentalism and Secularism: The Indian Predicament, Madras: Gurukul Publishers, 1995.
- “The Neo-Marxist era and the Efflorescence of Activism and Development”, in John.S.Augustine [Ed.] Rethinking Activism in the Post-Marxist era, New Delhi: Sage, 1996.
- “Indo-Sri Lanka relations in the 1990s” in A.K.Triparthy [Ed.] India’s Foreign Policy in the 1990s, New Delhi: National, 1996.
- “ Religion and Politics in South Asia- The Hindu Right”, in Stanley Jay Kumar and B.Muralidhar [Ed.] Communal Harmony and National Integration, New Delhi: M.D. Publishers, 1996.
- “Question of Peaceful settlement- Emerging paradigms” in R.C.Sharma [Ed.] Cyprus, United Nations and Conflict Resolution, New-Delhi:
- “The Rise of Hindu Nationalism in India”, in Mukesh Kayathwal [Ed.], Political Processes in South Asia, Jaipur: Rawat, 1995.
- “The Dravidian Movement and Women’s Emancipation: E.V.R.’s thought in the Post Modern Perspective” in R.Thandavan [Ed.] The Dravidian Movement: A reformulation, Madras: Poompuhar Publishers, 1996.
- “D.M.K. and Indian Federalism”, in B.Raghavan [Ed.], Reorienting Indian Federalism New Delhi: M.D.Publishers, 1997.
- “Ecology, Economy and Hinduism” in R.Pushparajan [Ed.] Economy, Ecology and Religion, Madurai, 1998. - “Identity, Ideology and Interest-The Dravidian Parties and Education in Tamilnadu –1967 –1997 ”, in
Swati Shirwadkar [Ed.] Education in India in fifty years- A Critical Review”. 1999]. - “ The Security Dilemmas of India’s Security Policy” in Abdur Rob Khan [Ed.] Globalization and Security in
South Asia [Colombo: RCSS, 1999]. - “ Geo-Politics to Geo-Economics- A Need for a Human Security Policy” in Gen. Mirza Aslam Beg [Ed.],
“Geo-Economic World Order” [Islamabad: Friends, 2000]. - Roberta Cohen and Omprakash Mishra [Ed.], “ Forced Migration in the South Asian Region”, a chapter on
“ The Construction of Identity and the outsider by the Shiv Sena”. [Brookings and Seagull, 2000]. - S.M.Rehman[ed], a chapter on “India and the SAARC”, in the book “SAARC in the New Millenium”, Friends,
Islamabad, 2001. - Abdul Rob Khan {Ed], Nontraditional Sources of Security- Globalisation [Dhaka, 2001] - Radhika Seshan {Ed}, Indian Diaspora in Canada [Jaipur: Rawat Publishers, 2003], a chapter on “ Tamil
diaspora in Canada- Some Reflections”. - Nilofer Afridi Qazi (Ed) Human Security. (Karachi, Oxford University Press, 2003). My paper is on
“International Security and women in South Asia”. - Subrahmanyam Raju.A., [Ed] South Asia: Vision and Mission [New-Delhi: Konarak, 2004] My paper is on
“ Democracy and Political Structures in South Asia”. - Sleebhoom, Margaret [Ed.] Genomics in Asia [ London: Kegan Paul, 2004] My paper on “ Hindu Bioethics-
Dharma and Female Infanticide”. - Subrahmanyam Raju.A., [Ed] India –Srilanka Partnership for the 21st century. My paper is on “ India and
Humanitarian Intervention in South Asia”[New-delhi:Manohar,2006] - Gautam Sen [Ed] Impediments to National Security- My paper is on “ Regional Identity Politics and
Security in South Asia”. [ Pune:NISDA,2007]. - Subrahmanyam Raju .A.,[Ed]., Reconstructing South Asia-An Agenda. My paper is on “Can Democracy be
designed in South Asia-The Politics of Instititutional Choices” [New-Delhi: Gyan Publishing House,2007] - Gautam Sen [Ed]., Conceptualizing Security for India in the 21st Century. My paper is on “ Beyond
Bananas, Beaches and Bases-Feminist Interpretation of Security and a Paradigm shift in South Asia”.[New-Delhi:Atlantic Publishers,2007]
- Madhu Bhalla [Ed] chapter on “ Identity and Conflict in International Politics”. { New-Delhi: Kalinga, 2010]
- Two Units for the University of Madras and Annamalai University Distance Education Centres, [ August 2010]
- Amulya Triparty and Jayanta Mohanty [Ed] US Non-Proliferation policy in South Asia, my chapter on [Aug-Sept2012]
Dr. [MS.] RIMLI BASU RESEARCH WORKS COMPLETED:
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192
- Completed UGC research project work title “CULTURAL DIPLOMACY IN ASIA: A CASE STUDY OF BUDDHISM AS AN IDEOLOGY OF FOREIGN POLICY IN SRI LANKA,THAILAND, MYANMAR, LAO PDR, AND VIETNAM” (20/4/2009 - 31/1/2011) - Completed European Union Asia-Link Project of “Curriculum Development and Comparing between Asian and European post-graduate programmes”. (June 2005 - December 2008). - Completed assisting publication of the book titled “Forced Migration In the South Asian Region-Displacement, Human Rights and Conflict Management”, editor, Prof. Omprakash Mishra, Former Director, Centre for Refugee Studies, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, in collaboration with the Brookings Institution – SAIS Project On Internal Displacement, USA. (2004). (2000-2001) CURRENT AND ON GOING RESEARCH WORK : - “Policy Issues: Migration and refugees and Its Impact on the Indian State and Democracy: A case study of Sri Lankan Tamil refugees in Tamilnadu and refugees from Bangladesh in West Bengal” (November, 2012 - 2014)
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Abstract
The onset of democracy , or in layman‘s language ‗opening up‘ seems to be the hallmark of 2000. The decade saw
the Arab Spring, and the subsequent quiet opening up of Myanmar. Although Arab Spring was accompanied with
bloodbath, the onset of freedom in Myanmar has been quite bloodless.
With several years of isolation, Myanmar indeed is in requirement of development and the core of development is
indeed investment. Two simultaneous international events also took place in the Asia-Pacific region. They are the
so-called peaceful economic and military rise of the People‘s Republic of China [PRC], and the shift of focus of US
from Middle-East to Asia-Pacific. With the rising concern of US related to her dominance in the region, countries ,
which intend to develop in this region peacefully will have to really juggle with all the finest diplomatic rhetoric to
balance both US and China , and march ahead with their development programmes. Security concerns , the neo-
realist stag and lion approach will all be interplayed in this region in the near future, the starting of which is the
closure of Myitsone Dam Project, jointly being built by Burmese government contractors (Asia World) and the China Power Investment Corporation (CPI) in the Kachin district of Myanmar.
While developments of countries of Asia was an age-old concern for India, as can be referred to the 1948 Indian
Constituent Assembly speech by Pandit Nehru ji, India is still viewed as one of the country for cooperation and
development in Asia, thanks to its long tradition of democracy.
As an ‗emerging power‘1 of the Asian region, India thus must concentrate on the immediate human problems facing
both India and Myanmar, in order to overcome all these. As understood, in order to comprehensively rebuild the
whole region, incorporation and cooperation with various nations, whether large and small is not only essential, but
also indispensable. In order to achieve this goal, concentrating constructively, with an effort to reduce the imminent
problems of the countries should be made the prime focus of India. By pursuing such policy, India could, under the
masquerade of ‗sustainable development‘, can pursue ‗strategic interests‘ too. To quote Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
from his speech in the Constituent Assembly of independent India way back in March 8, 1948, “… When we talk of
Asia, remember that India, not because of any ambition of hers, but because of the force of circumstances,
because of geography, because of history and because of so many other things, inevitably has to play a very
important role in Asia. And not only that; India becomes a kind of meeting ground between what might roughly
be called the East and the West…”
This paper thus, seeks to explore as to whether the opening up of Myanmar will transform her as a mere pawn in the
great big game of the regional and external powers, or whether Myanmar will be able to curve her niche in her way
Dr. Munmun Majumdar has three books, contributed chapters in edited books and a number of research articles in national and International Journals. She has been a visiting faculty to the South and Southeast Asian Centre, Calcutta University, & visting Prof, to the ASEAN Centre, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.
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“Positioning Myanmar in India‟s Look East Policy”
The evolving dynamics of the Cold War led India and the countries of Southeast Asia to take
sharply divergent paths. Pragmatic considerations and even realpolitik saw India‘s calibrated
shift in its foreign policy orientation when it pronounced the Look East Policy (LEP). This
ushered in a renewed effort at re-engagement with the Southeast Asian region in a climate of the
new wave of economic reforms and liberalization in the context of new parameters, which
witnessed a systemic shift in the overall geo-political international order. The LEP marked the
first time since independence that the Government of India turned its attention towards the
ASEAN region with economics in mind.1 An integral part of the policy was to develop trade
linkages and integration with the ASEAN region, greater connectivity through establishment of
air and land links. India became a sectoral dialogue partner with ASEAN in 1992 and a full
dialogue partner in 1995. A new dimension indicative of the economic drivers to India‘s strategic
considerations emerged in its Look-East policy2 when India became a Summit level partner of
ASEAN in 2002 and a member of the East Asia Summit in December 2005. Within recent years,
India has increased its interaction with the Southeast Asian region through political dialogues in
multilateral organizations, such as ASEAN, and through the growth of trade with Southeast
Asian nations. Although India‘s look east policy was premised more on economic rather than
strategic considerations the look east policy has expanded over the years to include political,
defense, maritime, strategic and hitherto unexplored areas of economic cooperation with the
Pacific Asia as well.3Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee stated: ―We are engaged in a process
National University of Singapore List of Publications:
Varigonda, Kesava Chandra (Forthcoming). "An Assessment of the Impact of Energy Insecurity on State Stability in India." Energy Policy. Varigonda, Kesava Chandra (2012). "India's Myanmar Fascination." Journal of Energy Security. July 2012.
9. The Nation, ―Dam Projects with India Scrapped,‖ June 11, 2013,
http://www.nationmultimedia.com/aec/Dam-projects-with-India-scrapped-30208005.html. 10. Animesh Singh, ―Indian Cos Checkmate China on Myanmar‘s Gas Blocks Bid,‖ Daily Pioneer, June 13,
Asian Development Bank, “Energy Sector Critical to Myanmar’s Transformation,” June 6 2013, http://www.adb.org/news/energy-sector-critical-myanmars-transformation-report. V.K. Chandra, “The Pipeline That Wasn’t: Myanmar-Bangladesh-India Natural Gas Pipeline,” Journal of Energy Security, April 19, 2012, http://www.ensec.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=348:india-bangladesh-and-the-myanmar-bangladesh-india-natural-gas-pipeline-how-not-to-achieve-energy-s&catid=123:content&Itemid=389. The Hindu Business Line, “Myanmar Completes 800-kilometre Gas Pipeline to China,” June 3, 2013, http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/international/myanmar-completes-800kilometre-gas-pipeline-to-china/article4778089.ece. Shivananda H., “TamanthiHydel Project: India’s Eastern Foothold,” Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, June 6, 2011, http://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/TamanthiHydelProject%3AIndiasEasternFoothold_shivananda_060611#footnote2_fz80e49. Brennan O’Conner, “Thousands Displaced by Myanmar Dam,” Al Jazeera, March 31, 2013, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/03/2013313165427804481.html. BBC, “Work Halted on Divisive Myitsone Project,” September 30, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15121801. Reuters, “Myanmar Seeks to Cut Gas Exports to Thailand to Meet Own Needs,” October 4, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/04/myanmar-thailand-gas-idUSL3E8L24ZM20121004. The Nation, “Dam Projects with India Scrapped,” June 11, 2013, http://www.nationmultimedia.com/aec/Dam-projects-with-India-scrapped-30208005.html. Animesh Singh, “Indian Cos Checkmate China on Myanmar’s Gas Blocks Bid,” Daily Pioneer, June 13, 2013, http://www.dailypioneer.com/business/indian-cos-checkmate-china-on-myanmars-gas-blocks-bid.html.
Research Analyst at Future Directions International Perth, Australia
Lindsay Hughes is a Research Analyst at Future Directions International (www.futuredirections.org.au), an independent think-tank in Perth, Australia. He has a B.A. (Hons.) in Security, Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism Studies, and a Master of International Relations and National Security (MIntRelNatSec) post-graduate degree. While specialising in India-China competition in the Indian Ocean Region, he also focuses on security in South Asia. His papers and analyses may be read and downloaded at the Future Directions International web site.
_______________________________________
Realists generally tend to dismiss moral certitude or, for that matter, most degrees of
morality, when dealing with international relations. Even Morgenthau, the intellectual
father of realism in IR, appears to have difficulty reconciling the issue of state power with
the morality of acquiring and using that power. He described the “concept of interest
defined in terms of power”1as the underlying motivation for a state’s actions. He, however,
also writes of “the moral significance of political action” as one of the six principles of
political realism, which leads to the “ineluctable tension between the moral command and
the requirements of successful political action”.2 Put simply, morality and the success of a
state do not necessarily follow the same path.
National leaders, on the other hand, seek to reconcile this divergence. For instance, Jawahar
Lal Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister, spoke of a “One World” principle, a world
commonwealth, before India acquired its independence, “It is for this one world that free
India will work”. Despite this lofty idealism, though, he was forced to articulate a rider, “We
may talk about international goodwill and mean what we say. We may talk about peace and
freedom and mean what we say. … [But] the art of conducting the foreign affairs of a
country lies in finding out what is most advantageous to the country.”3
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250
It is disappointing, therefore, that India’s subsequent leaders did not adhere to this
discourse in defining their relationship with Myanmar.4 They first took the high ground,
denouncing the military coup which brought the Generals to power there. India, they felt,
had to set moral guidelines; it had to stand by its principles. Relatively soon, however, this
attitude changed to one of pragmatism, brought about by the fear of being side-lined in
their own neighbourhood. Worse yet, it was China which led the process of making India
inconsequential in the region. Arguably more importantly, though, domestic security
concerns in the North-East region made it imperative that India begin talking once again to
Myanmar, no matter whether it was democratic or authoritarian. This attitude changed
again, however, when India realised it required energy products to fuel its growing
economy. Myanmar could provide part of India’s energy mix; so that extent, it had to be
courted so as to obtain some of those products.
Effectively, India’s attitude progressed from one where it believed Myanmar could assist in
its (India’s) localised security issues to another in which Myanmar could assist India
further grow its economy. Simultaneously, such a relationship could help India diminish
China’s hold on that state. This, in turn, would help India enhance its regional standing and
further its long-held ambition of becoming a major world power.
India has come full circle. It cast aside its idealised stand in favour of a more pragmatic
attitude based on its own requirements, and now sees Myanmar as a means of furthering
its own ambitions. It has,thus,returned to Nehru.
Genesis
There are broad, centuries-old cultural links between Myanmar and India. One tradition
has it that the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka sent two missionaries to spread Buddhism in
Myanmar in the third century BCE, while another claims they were sent by the Buddha.5 Pe
Maung Tin and Luce state that the kings of Myanmar were Kshatriyas who had their origins
in the Ganges Valley.6 These rulers ruled according to Hindu law, which was later modified
by the Konbaung dynasty. As Khosla narrates, the rulers of the seventeenth century Pyu
dynasty took for themselves Indian titles. Brahmin priests (ponna myo) officiated at
weddings, coronations, and marriages between members of Burmese and Indian royal
families were frequent.7It is ironical, therefore, that the last Konbaung king, Thibaw, was
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
251
forced to abdicate and was exiled to Ratnagiri by the British in 1885, while they exiled the
last Moghul Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, to Rangoon. 8
It is hardly surprising, given these antecedents and their commonalities, that when India
began its fight for freedom in earnest it sparked major interest in Myanmar. Thus, when
India became independent in 1947, the Union of Burma followed in January 1948 with U
Nu as its first Prime Minister. It was, however, not always smooth sailing.
In 1886 Great Britain placed Burma under the administration of the Government of India.
Thus, when separation was concluded in 1936, the most important issue Burma faced was
whether or not it should be separated from India.9 In 1927 the Indian National Congress
resolved that any separation of Burma from an independent India be rejected. Though later
reversed, this resolution caused a degree antipathy towards India among some members of
the Burmese independence movement. Again, in 1930, when rice prices fell at the start of
the Great Depression, violence broke out between Burmese farmers and Indian landlords
because the government refused to reduce taxes. Also, in July 1938, pre-echoing events in
2012 - 2013, Buddhist monks led a spate of rioting; “the ostensible cause of the riots was
the publication of an anti-Buddhist tract by a Burmese Muslim”. 10
These incidents notwithstanding, Nehru and U Nu shared a strong personal and political
relationship, holding as they did similar political views and interests. Indeed, so close was
their relationship that he writes that he “took a special delight in visiting India at least once
a year”.11 He would bypass official protocol, writing directly to Nehru to inform him of his
date of arrival.12 One consequence of this relationship was the growth of a close bilateral
relationship between the two states. In the wake of the signing of the Treaty of Friendship,
for instance, the Burmese press effused, “[y]et another brilliant chapter has been added to
the annals of Burmese history”, adding, “this treaty highlights the understanding and
mutual sympathy that has existed between the peoples of the two countries from time
immemorial … nearly twenty five centuries ago when Buddhism began to spread.”13
When in 1948 Burma passed the Land Nationalisation Act prohibiting non-cultivators from
holding more than fifty acres, the Indian Nattukottai Chettiyar community was the most
affected. For the most part money-lenders, the Chettiyars had over time come to hold
around three million of Burma’s 4.5 million acres of land which were held by non-
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
252
cultivators. Practicing the pragmatism of which he wrote (see page 1 of this paper), Nehru
emphasised the importance of friendly relations with Burma despite their differences. In
effect, Nehru refused to take the side of the Burma’s Chettiyars in the interests of the
greater relationship between the two states.
The situation changed, however, after U Nu was deposed in March 1962 in a military coup
led by General Ne Win, parliament dissolved and the constitution frozen.
Exodus
To best understand the deterioration of India’s standing in Burma, it is necessary to
examine some of Great Britain’s colonial practices there. The British moved Indian
labourersto Burma in the I830s, and more followed early in the last century. Labourers
aside, the railways, post and telegraph, the police and the civil service were dominated by
Indians.At the start of the Second World War, there were over a million Indians out of a
total population of about 16 million.
In order to best administer the state, Great Britain sought to dismantle and re-structure the
existing political and administrative constructs of Burma. British and Indian officials
replaced the Burmese royal family, the nobility, governors and even village headmen. The
Military Police, which organisation was used to carry out the punishment of individuals and
even entire villages, and numbered around 4,300 in 1941, was composed of Indians headed
by British and Indian officers. The Frontier Force, which numbered around 10,000, had
around 7,400 Indians and was again led by British and Indian officers. Indians almost
entirely made up the bureaucratic class in towns and cities and by 1900 almost the whole
of the Rangoon police department consisted of Indians. By the 1920s, Indians were the
majority in the Public Works Department, the railways, roads and ports departments, and
comprised half of Rangoon’s entire population.14Little wonder then, that Indians were seen
as the foreign rulers of Burma. Equally unsurprisingly, Indians were looked down upon and
referred to as kala, a pejorative term for “foreigner”.So animated was the resentment
against Indians that Caucasians were called kala pyu, or “White Indians.” 15
In the aftermath of the military takeover in 1962, many Indians had their property
confiscated. The nationalisation of the wholesale and retail trade left many Indian traders
and their Indian employees without livelihoods. No compensation was provided and the
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
253
Indians who decided to leave Burma were allowed to take only Kyats 75 per adult, Kyats 15
for each child, and Kyats 250 worth of jewellery.16 Indians lost their Burmese citizenship.
Between 1964 and 1968 it is estimated around 150,000 Indo-Burmese left Burma. These
were Burmese, not Indian, citizens. The Indian community in Burma turned to the Indian
government for help. New Delhi sent a representative to investigate but concluded that the
policy was an internal Burmese affair. 17 India’s concerns were genuine; any hint of a strong
stand against Burma’s military junta could have endangered the large –and vulnerable -
Indian community in Rangoon and other cities.
Despite previously-good relations, the ties between India and Burma began to deteriorate
after the 1962 coup. Engaged in its domestic security issues, including the growing China-
backed communist insurgency, the Ne Win junta de-emphasised relations with India; more
accurately, India became “more or less a non-entity in Burmese foreign policy”.18Trade
between the two countries diminished, as did the number of Burmese students who used to
study at schools in Assam and universities in New Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta.19 Burma
increasingly became self-isolated.
Despite this, India and Burma did come together in March 1967 to agree on a common
border. This was important from India’s perspective. In the 1970s, Mizo and Naga
insurgents in India’s north-eastern states would strike at Indian targets in India then
retreat to their bases in the hills of north-west Burma, where Indian troops could not
follow and Burmese troops had no intention of going.
This, though, was arguably the only coming together between the two states. With the
reduced trade and political ties, India had as little interest in Burma as that state had in
India. The degree of indifference may be gauged from the fact that between 1968 and 1978
China provided the Communist Party of Burma and ethnic insurgents such as the Kachin
with arms, ammunition and military training.20 China provided the same training and
materiel to Naga and Mizo insurgents from India who travelled to China via northern
Burma. Despite repeated requests from India to conduct joint operations against these
insurgents, Burma refused to do any such.21 Additionally, in 1982 the Burmese junta
legislated a new citizenship act, according to which only those people who could prove
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254
their ancestors had lived in Burma prior to the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824 – 1826)
would be given full citizenship. Indo-Burmese citizens were automatically relegated to
second-class citizenry.
Things changed drastically in 1988. In September of that year, Burmese citizens marched
against the junta’s rule. The nascent uprising was quickly and violently quelled by the
Burmese army. Before that happened, though, India was quick to offer the budding
democratic movement its support, praising the “undaunted resolve of the Burmese people
to achieve their democracy”. In the aftermath of the bloody crack-down on the
demonstrators, thousands of Burmese fled to India. P.V. Narasimha Rao, then India’s
External Affairs Minister, stated that “strict instructions have been issued not to turn back
any genuine Burmese refugees seeking shelter in India”.22 Refugee camps were built in
Mizoram and Manipur. All India Radio was used by the Indian government to convey its
support for the democratic movement in Burma (now Myanmar) in 1989 and 1990.
Unsurprisingly, this was denounced by the junta as interference in Myanmar’s internal
affairs.23
In 1990, the ruling junta called for general elections to be held. Despite virtually every
opposition leader being imprisoned, the National League for Democracy won 392 out of
485 seats in the National Assembly. The junta ignored the results and arrested those NLD
candidates who had been elected. Some managed to escape to the Thai border where they
set up the National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma. Soon, however, two
members of this group defected to Rangoon, where they held a press conference. One of the
two defectors, Than Kywe claimed India had given the NCGUB 300,000 Thai baht from its
embassy in Bangkok.24 The Indian authorities denied the charge but realised it really could
not support either side in Myanmar. Relations further deteriorated when two Myanmarese
students in Thailand hijacked a Thai International aircraft to Calcutta.25 After they
surrendered to the Indian authorities, the students were released by a court on bail,
leading General Than Shwe, Vice Chairman of the junta, the State Law and Order
Restoration Council, to cite India as a country that “encourages and supports internal
insurgents” and “interferes in [Burma’s] internal affairs, acts which are not compatible with
the expected behaviour of a friendly neighbour”.26
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
255
The Indian Government under Rajiv Gandhi had initiated the AIR campaign to give support
to Myanmar’s democratic movement. Though Rajiv Gandhi continued to give ex-Prime
Minister U Nu the same support he received from Indira Gandhi and Nehru, officials in
India’s Ministry of External Affairs who had no personal affiliations with U Nu decided to
shift their loyalties to other personages in the democracy movement in Myanmar. U Nu’s
party had failed to win a single seat in the 1990 general election whereas Aung San Suu Kyi,
daughter of General Aung San has won it.
Pragmatism, it would appear, had slowly begun to replace the principle of assisting old
friends in India’s foreign policy towards Myanmar.
Revelation
Apart from the issues noted previously several others played a part in the cooling ties
between India and Myanmar. At the political level, Myanmar refused to become a member
of the Non-Aligned Movement. Also, India’s ideological reservations about dealing with a
military junta overcame any economic benefits it could have accrued from a closer
relationship with Myanmar. In the late 1980s, Rajiv Gandhi’s government made a few
tentative approaches towards normalising its relationship with Rangoon, but suffered a
setback in the wake of the junta’s refusal to acknowledge the results of the 1990 election.
With the end of the Cold War, though, India had to re-evaluate its position in the
international system. Without the backing of the USSR, it had to stand on its own two feet.
Essentially, India had to open up its economy if it was to survive. This aside, as J.N. Dixit
relates, sheer pragmatism forced India to revive its relationship with Myanmar.27
First, Myanmar’s geo-strategic importance to India. Myanmar shares its northern and
north-western borders with India’s sensitive north-eastern states, Bangladesh and China.
Myanmar is also India’s immediate neighbour across the Bay of Bengal, close enough to
India’s Andaman and Nicobar Islands as to turn domestic issues in Myanmar security
concerns in India. Secondly, Myanmar’s help was required to curtail drug smuggling,
insurgency and other security threats in the north-eastern states. Arguably more
importantly in India’s perspective, it was important to ensure Myanmar did not become a
part of China’s area of influence as that would have meant Chinese influence there, to
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
256
India’s north and in Pakistan. The third factor was pragmatism: just because India was
democratic it did not have to ensure other states were of the same persuasion, previous
relationships notwithstanding. As Dixit notes, India could not create democracies; that task
was best left to the states concerned.
This thinking soon bore fruit: the Vice Foreign Minister of Myanmar visited India in August
1992 and outlined three points to India. First, Myanmar respected India’s commitment to
democracy and hoped it would be patient while Myanmar moved in that direction. Second,
Myanmar recognised the common security issues both countries shared and would take the
necessary action to meet those goals. Finally, Myanmar wanted to increase its trade and
technological co-operation with India. Furthermore, when the issue of China’s
infrastructure-building activity in Myanmar was raised, the Myanmarese delegation
proposed India also take part in re-building its infrastructure in parallel with the Chinese.28
This led to enhanced trade and co-operation between the two states and deepening
relations. In 2000 the Myanmarese Vice President visited India, a visit reciprocated by
India’s Foreign Minister, Jaswant Singh, soon after in early 2001. India also recognised that
it needed access to Myanmar for its Look East Policy to be successful, the more so since
Myanmar was now a member of ASEAN. Left unstated were India’s concerns about growing
Chinese influence in the region. India recognised it had no option but to make inroads into
South-East Asia in order to counter China.
By now, however, India’s economy, growing at close to ten per cent per annum required
fuel in huge amounts to keep it going. Myanmar had the gas India required. Furthermore,
its proximity meant lower transportation costs by sea and, if India could indeed help build
Myanmar’s rail infrastructure, it could also be transported by rail and pipeline via its north-
eastern states. On the other hand, India’s enhanced energy requirements were linked to its
growing population. A population estimated at close to 1.6 billion by 2030 demands that
India securitise its energy sources. This could best be done with proximate sources such as
Myanmar. Furthermore, while India relies heavily on coal, which will continue to be the
mainstay of its energy mix in 2030, elevated environmental concerns are forcing it to
ensure cleaner energy sources such as natural gas, of which Myanmar has plenty. Also,
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
257
coal-generated power is not, by itself, sufficient to ensure India’s energy requirements.29
India’s energy requirements took centre stage in India’s diplomatic efforts abroad. This led
to its “pipeline diplomacy”.
Jaswant Singh began negotiations to purchase natural gas during his 2001 visit to
Myanmar. Also, onshore oil and gas exploration were discussed as part of the
infrastructure development there. The A1 Block to Myanmar’s north-west is estimated to
hold reserves of 32 trillion cubic feet (tcf) and recoverable gas reserves of 22 tcf. If these
estimates are correct, the block can provide a peak production of around 60 million cubic
meters of gas a day for at least 2 decades. India’s ONGC Videsh Limited has purchased 17.5
per cent of this block and the Gas Authority of India a further 8.5 per cent.30
Several pipeline routes to transport the gas from Myanmar to India have been discussed.
These are listed by the Shwe Gas Movement:31
Underwater from Shwe to Yechaungbyi village Sittwe township; following the
Kaladan River valley through Rakhine and Chin states; into Mizoram and Tripura
states; entering Bangladesh at Brahmanbaria through the Rajshahi border into West
Bengal to Kolkata. Construction cost approximately US$1 billion.
Underwater from Shwe to Palechaung village Sittwe township; through Rakhine
state into the district of southern Bangladesh; entering West Bengal into Kolkata.
Construction cost approximately US$1 billion.
Underwater from Shwe to West Bengal into Kolkata. No cost estimate made public.
Underwater from Shwe to a Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) terminal on the Rakhine
coastline, freezing the gas to 161 degrees Celsius and shipping the LNG to West
Bengal and Kolkata by LNG tanker. Estimated cost for the LNG terminal is US$3–5
billion.
As in the first but bypassing Bangladesh totally and travelling through the northeast.
Construction cost approximately US$3 billion.
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
258
Conclusion
No matter the route taken or the logistics or costs involved, one fact stands out: India’s
Myanmar foreign policy has come full circle, exactly in keeping with Nehru’s observation of
pragmatism trumping idealism. India started out with a deep friendship with Myanmar.
This friendship fell when idealism got in the way of politics but was revived through sheer
economic and political pragmatism.
Nehru, it would appear, was ahead of his time.
End Notes
1. Morgenthau, Hans J., Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 7th Revised Edition,
McGraw Hill Education - Europe, London, 2005, p. 5
2. Ibid. p. 10
3. Nehru, Jawahar Lal, India‘s Foreign Policy: Selected Speeches September 1946 – April 1961, Publications
Division, Government of India, p. 2
4. It is to be noted that Myanmar, the present name of the state once known as Burma which derives from
1989, will be used interchangeably with the older name for historical reasons. Also note that ―Burma‖
derives from the largest ethnic group, the Barmar / Burman. Thus, the titles Burma and Burman are to be
read in their respective contexts throughout this paper.
5. Khosla, I.P., ―India and Myanmar‖, in Sinha, Atish, and Mohta, Madhup, (eds.), Indian Foreign Policy:
Challenges and Opportunities, Academic Foundation, New Delhi, 2007, pp. 586-587
6. Pe Maung Tin and Luce, G.H., The Glass Palace Chronicles of the Kings of Burma, Rangoon University
Press, Rangoon, 1960
7. Khosla, op. cit. p. 587
8. Interestingly, it was Thibaw‘s ancestor, Bodawpaya, who annexed India‘s currently-held states of Manipur
in 1814 and Assam in 1817, leading to later border issues with Great Britain
9. Singh, Uma Shankar, Burma and India 1948-1962: A Study in the Foreign Policies of Burma and India and
Burma's Policy Towards India, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1979, p. 22
10. Taylor, Robert H., The State in Burma, University of Hawaii Press, Hawaii, 1988, p. 200
11. U Nu, U Nu: Saturday‘s Son, Yale University Press, CT, 1975, p. 255
12. Ibid., p. 236
13. Desai, W.S., India and Burma: A Study, Orient Longman, Calcutta, 1954, pp. 107 - 108
14. Khosla, I.P., op.cit. p. 594
15. Lintner, Bertil, ―Burma and its Neighbours‖, in Mansingh, Surjit, (ed.), Indian and Chinese Foreign
Policies in Comparative Perspective, Radiant Publishers, New Delhi, 1998, pp. 225 - 259
16. Donnison, F.S.V.,Burma, Ernest Benn, London:, 1970, p. 240.
17. Joseph Silverstein, Burma: Military Rule and the Politics of Stagnation, Cornell University Press, New
York, 1977, n. 6, p. 182
18. Lintner, Bertil, op. cit. p. 235
19. Though these names have been changed to Mumbai and Kolkata, the older spellings are used in this paper
these were the names commonly used at the time
20. Lintner, Bertil, op. cit., p. 235
21. In 1980 Indian and Burmese troops conducted a joint operation against Naga insurgents in the Sagaing
Division of Burma; Indian troops unilaterally attacked the Naga headquarters in Mongkhwe, also in
Sagaing Division. This, though, was the exception rather than the rule
22. Lintner, Bertil, ―Different Strokes,‖ Far Eastern Economic Review, 23 February 1989
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
259
23. All India Radio‘s most important broadcaster in this context was Than Than Nu, daughter of former Prime
Minister U Nu
24. Kanewerayotin, Supapohn, ―Defectors Side with Burmese Junta in Public,‖ Bangkok Post, 1 February 1991
25. Zaw, Aung, Arnott, David, et. al., Challenges to Democratisation in Burma: Perspectives on multilateral
and bilateral responses, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, Stockholm, 2001
26. Westlake, Michael, (ed.), Asia Yearbook 1997: A Review of the Events of 1996, Review Publishing Co.,
Hong Kong 1992, p. 92
27. Dixit, J.N., India‘s Foreign Policy and its Neighbours, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 2001, pp. 325 -
333
28. Dixit, J.N., ibid.
29. For a more in-depth study of India‘s energy requirements in 2030 see Hughes, Lindsay, ―India‘s Energy
Concerns in 2030‖, 2013, available online at http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publications/indian-
ocean/1118-meeting-india-s-energy-requirements-in-2030-1.html; last visited 02.07.2013
30. Happymon, J. 2005, ―Indo-Myanmar Energy Cooperation‖, Observer Research Foundation,
http://www.observerindia.com/analysis/A022.htm
31. Shwe Gas Movement, available online at http://www.shwe.org/shwe-proect-basics/
So the revised triangular relations would be like:
That is to say, in an absolute triangular relation, the cooperation among three countries is
the best way to gain maximum benefit, but if in competitive situation, the revenue of
rivalry for three players would rank like: China (most), India (mid) and Myanmar (last).
Logically, the triangle relations among China-India-Myanmar will keep relatively stable
in the near future, however, with the further reform in Myanmar, the continuing influence
from America and potential national power, ―the Sino-Indian equation in Myanmar
India (94.5, 11)
China (94.5, 34.4) Myanmar (94.5, 6.75)
9 9.5
13
First number is cooperation revenue
Second number is competitive income
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
282
remains a ―quiet rivalry,‖ far from the image of a new ―Great Game‖ between the two
giants.
It also can be seen from the figures that the cooperation among three countries is the best
way to gain maximum benefit, Sino-Indian relations in the trilateral relations are
relatively low, but the revenue of rivalry for India will be low, and is also unfavorable to
China, though it is impossible for three countries to avoid competition in real politics,
cooperation is the best solution to serve interests of them. 1Theodore Caplow,“A Theory of Coalitions in the Triad”, American, Sociological Review,Vol. 21,1956,pp. 489-493;
Theodore Caplow,Two against One,Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall,Inc.,1968. 2 Lowell Dittmer, ―The Strategic Triangle: A Critical Review,‖ World Politics,Vol. 33,No. 4,1981,pp. 485-515.
Researcher, Institute for Defence Studies & Analyses, New Delhi
Dr Rahul Mishra is a Researcher associated with Institute for Defence Studies & Analyses, New Delhi. Dr Mishra earned his MA, M.Phil and Ph.D. from Jawaharlal Nehru University. His doctoral thesis was focused on role of China in India’s Look East Policy. In 2012-13, Dr Mishra was a Visiting Fellow at S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanyang Technological University (Singapore), where he worked on ‘India-Southeast Asia Defence Relations’. In 2011, Dr Mishra was affiliated with National University of Singapore (Singapore) as a Visiting Fellow. He was awarded the Junior Research Fellowship (2005-09) of the University Grants Commission to pursue research in international relations. Dr Mishra was a Visiting Fellow, Australian National University (Canberra), Curtin University of Technology (Perth), Monash University (Melbourne) and University of New South Wales (Sydney) in 2007- 2008. During his fellowship at Australian universities, he worked on politics over nuclear issues in Australia. He has been a Research Associate at Centre for Air Power Studies on a Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India Project. He has published widely and contributes articles in India’s leading Journals, magazines and newspapers including The Indian Express, Deccan Herald and the Tribune.
_____________________________
Introduction
After decades of self-imposed isolation and defiance of international norms, Myanmar is
opening up to the world through a range of reforms with the aim to embrace the world
community. The incumbent government led by the President Thein Sein is not only paying heed
to the global voices of concern regarding miserable economic conditions of the people,
widespread poverty, huge regional disparity and dismal human rights situation in the country, it
is also acting upon them to bring Myanmar back to normalcy. Clearly, Myanmar is heading
towards a new era of politico-economic and diplomatic engagement with the world. Though the
‗green shoots of recovery‘ are yet to mature, signs thereof are quite prominent, which have
enthused the supporters of a democratic Myanmar. Release of National League of Democracy
(NLD) leader and Nobel Laureate Aung San Suu Kyi and other political prisoners, ceasefire
agreements with rebel ethnic groups and swift economic reforms have further substantiated
President Thien Sein‘s claim that Myanmar is on an irreversible reform path.
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
285
So far as the external factors are concerned, the US has been by far the most important of
them in bringing about the turn-around in Myanmar‘s political dynamics. A multitude of reasons
substantiate that point. In the past two decades following 8888 incident and overthrow of
democracy, the US has tried to pressurise Myanmar by all means necessary to ensure the reversal
to democracy and greater respect for human rights in Myanmar. Needless to say, that the West,
led by the US, has achieved its objectives to some extent though not without Myanmar‘s own
willingness to change.
This paper explores the contours of Myanmar‘s relations with the US. The paper argues
that the US has been the most significant external factor that has driven Myanmar towards
democracy. It further argues that the pace of Myanmar‘s integration with international
organisations and the world community will, to a great extent, depend on its ties with the US,
and Myanmar must not miss the opportunity on that count.
Historical Background
After moving away from the clutches of the British Empire on January 4, 1948, the
Union of Burma, as it was called then, decided to have a parliamentary democratic system. Like
many other countries of Asia, it had to struggle with issues of poverty, inter-regional disparities
within the country and religious and ethnic strife while making efforts to strengthen democratic
values and achieve economic development and rebuild the nation. The people hoped that under
the leadership of father of the nation, General Aung San, the country would reach great heights
of development. However, unfortunately, Aung San was assassinated on July 19, 1947- six
months before Myanmar achieved independence. The years that followed Burmese
independence, remained peaceful until 1962 when in a coup d‘état the military wrested power
from the civilian government.
The Cold War Years: Years Leading Up to 8888 and Its Aftermath
Under the leadership of U Nu, Myanmar moved along the path of development.
However, the nascent democracy couldn‘t survive for long, and within a decade-and-a-half since
independence; in 1962 a military coup led by General Ne Win altered the situation, which
continued for good 26 years. In 1974, Ne Win introduced the ‗Burmese way of socialism‘ and
further isolated the country from rest of the world. Interestingly, in the first two decades since
Myanmar‘s independence, only 3 top leaders visited the US: Prime Minister U Nu (June 29-July
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
286
3, 1955), President U Win Maung (private visit for medical treatment- December 16-28, 1957),
and Chairman Ne Win (September 8-10, 1966). It took Myanmar 47 years to witness its top
leader visiting the US when President Thein Sein visited the country on May 20, 2013.
In the years that followed Ne Win‘s coming to power, Myanmar‘s relationship with the
US slipped on a downward spiral. In that context, it is believed that ‗since the start of World War
II the United States has engaged Burma for strategic reasons. Thousands of American airmen
died while flying the Hump; indeed, the search for their remains continues today with the
cooperation of the Myanmar military. Hundreds of U.S. soldiers parachuted into northern Burma,
where they gained safe harbor and joined Kachin guerrillas fighting the Japanese.‘1
According to
Badgley, ‗the Burmese refused further American aid in 1963, and rebuffed a U.S. offer of
assistance to Rangoon in the late 1960s when the Chinese Cultural Revolution spilled into Burma
and re-ignited a communist insurgency. Ne Win viewed the aid offer as running counter to
Burma‘s security interests, as it meant abandoning non-alignment, the cornerstone of Burma‘s
foreign policy. The First Party Congress of the Burma Socialist Program Party (BSPP) re-
affirmed this line in 1971. But at the Second Party Congress in 1973, a group of active army
officers from the field commands were elected to the Party‘s Central Committee, and they
brought a sense of the need to break out from Burma‘s isolation.‘2 Clearly, the Ne Win years
spoiled Myanmar‘s relations with the US, and both the sides were equally responsible for that.
At that time, US couldn‘t press Burma had enough for return to democracy owing to Cold War
politics.
The relationship received further jolt in the aftermath of the 1988 military coup. Brutal
suppression of democracy in the country left the US and the world community stunned. As a
retaliatory measure, the US started to diplomatically boycott Myanmar in the international
community. This was easier for the US in 1990s as the world had become ‗unipolar‘ with the
collapse of Soviet Union and global support to democratic movement in Myanmar. Over the
years, Myanmar found itself an outcast, at least in the Western world, with European Union also
taking tough posture on the military junta led Myanmar. Incidentally, the US never cut-off ties
with Myanmar as it did with countries such as Iran and North Korea; it had simply downgraded
relations with Myanmar in 1990.3 The highest-level US diplomat based in Myanmar has been a
charge d'affaires until Derek Mitchell was appointed as US ambassador to the country.
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
287
Washington downgraded its representation in 1990, when opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi's
party swept elections but was barred from power by the military.4In the 1990s, the United States
regularly impressed on the military government the need to recognise and honour the results of
the 1990 elections with an attendant transfer of power to a civilian government. The US has co-
sponsored the annual resolutions concerning Myanmar at the UN General Assembly, and the
UNCHR. For a brief period, from 2002-03, the US offered to look seriously at measures to
support constructive political change in Myanmar.5
For more than two decades since then the Myanmar-US relations remained strained. For
years preceding the Thein Sein era, the regime consistently rejected Western and Japanese calls
to start a genuine and inclusive national dialogue, and not hesitated to defy other political
demands. Since the Depayin incident, Myanmar and the US, in particular, have been firmly
locked in a battle of wills, although relations with the EU and Japan have also deteriorated.6
The
US imposed sanctions on Myanmar in 2003 through the Burma Freedom and Democracy Act.
The Act, which had the approval of both the Congress and the US President, provided for a
complete ban on all imports from Myanmar. Export of financial services to Myanmar was also
put to a halt. The Act was renewed even in 2010.
The year 2007 came as another shock to the Myanmar-US ties when the military
crackdown on peaceful protestors led to killings of hundreds of innocent monks. Several
countries including the US imposed sanctions on Myanmar in support of the ‗saffron revolution‘.
Recent Trends in US-Myanmar Relations
For almost two decades, US-Myanmar remained mired with mutual suspicion and
hostility. While the US had rightfully pressed the junta to restore democracy, the military junta
found that idea at cross-purpose. As a result, the military junta of Myanmar started taking extra
care in safeguarding its interests. Subsequently, the capital was also shifted to Naypyidaw.
According to Bertil Lintner, ‗the Junta‘s apparent fear of a pre-emptive US invasion by sea or air
strikes was at the time seen by some as a major motivation for the for the junta‘s decision to
move the capital to what they perceived to be safer, central mountainous location away from the
coast. After all, the US government had publically lumped Burma together with other rogue
regimes and referred to it as an ‗outpost of tyranny‘.‘7
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
288
2010 General Elections: Thein Sein in The Ascendant
The General Elections held in 2010 offered some hope to the country grappling with
repressive regime for decades. Though the elections were called rigged and couldn‘t achieve the
recognition of the West; nevertheless it was Myanmar‘s first step to democracy in several years.
The year is also significant because in 2010, Aung San Suu Kyi was released from house arrest a
few days after the General Elections were held in Myanmar. Though Aung San Suu Kyi and her
party- the National League for Democracy (NLD) boycotted the elections, she contested in the
by-elections in April 2012. Suu Kyi won her seat by a huge majority. These developments
naturally invited a lot of appreciation from the world community.
Evidently, the Myanmar‘s relationship with the US started looking up with Thein Sein‘s
coming to power and a range of reforms that he introduced in the country. In fact, since 2010,
slow yet steady changes in bilateral relations started to emerge and in 2011, the US government
begun the process of improving ties with Myanmar.
As mentioned earlier, though the November 2010 elections were vehemently criticised by
the US and other Western countries, yet the formation of a military-backed ‗nominally‘ civilian
government proved to be a turning point with President Thein Sein initiating steps towards
providing greater freedom and rights to its people. Among other things, it allowed people to hold
peaceful protest marches. The strengthening of provincial legislatures also showcases the
piecemeal changes were also set in motion. In addition, workers were also granted the right to
form unions.8 In the meantime, the US has been active in networking with pro-democracy
Myanmarese leaders based in the West. The US seems to be working on the idea that given
Myanmar‘s lack of experience with democracy and its weak institutional mechanisms, any
sudden military intervention or people‘s movement supported by external powers might not yield
the desired results.9
Obama’s friendly gestures and Hillary Clinton’s visit
Though at a nascent stage, the signs of a rapprochement between Myanmar and the US
were apparent even during President Obama‘s November 2009 Tokyo visit. Obama had then said
that the US would welcome Myanmar government‘s initiatives to restore democracy and steps
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
289
such as the unconditional release of political prisoners.
10 Although the signs of a transformation
in Myanmar were missing at that time, the Sein government did subsequently release hundreds
of political prisoners and even the torchbearer of the democratic movement - Aung San Suu
Kyi.11
The watershed event in terms of Myanmar-US relations has been the visit of the US
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in November 2011, making it the first visit by a Secretary of
State since 1955. In fact, Hillary Clinton‘s visit had indicated the possibility of the US wooing
the military backed Thein Sein government and securing political maneuvering space for Suu
Kyi. It appears that the US has realised that sanctions were not effective in bringing Myanmar on
to the democratic path. Additionally, anxiety over a possible North Korea- Myanmar axis may
also have played a part in America‘s changed stance.12
Reforms in Myanmar and USA’s reciprocal measures
As Myanmar started agreeing to the US demands, particularly that of release of political
prisoners, things started to change towards a more cordial relationship. Consequently, it was
announced on January 13, 2012 that US would appoint its Ambassador to Myanmar again,
thereby elevating the diplomatic representation in Myanmar. Subsequently, in 2012, the White
House appointed Derek Mitchell as the first ever US Ambassador to the country after 1990. In
July 2012, the US eased sanctions on Myanmar. In fact, Hillary Clinton announced a plan
regarding ‗targeted easing‘ of sanctions. Later, after much debate and discussions, the US
‗suspended‘ the sanctions imposed on Myanmar.
Taking a step further to reconcile differences with Myanmar, the US on February 6, 2012
waived some sanctions. The most prominent among them is the provision to allow Myanmar to
work with the World Bank and other international financial organisations.13
The decision was
seen as another gesture to appreciate the reformist actions taken by the Thein Sein government.
Within a few weeks since Hillary Clinton‘s visit to the country, more than a dozen high profile
leaders from US and other Western countries paid visits to Naypyidaw. Moreover, within a few
weeks after Secretary of State Hillary Clinton‘s historic November 2011 visit, the first such high
profile visit in 54 years, the US restored diplomatic ties with Myanmar.
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
290
As a follow-up to Hillary Clinton‘s visit, a number of US officials went to Myanmar to
gauge the reform process in the country and encourage the Sein government to carry on with the
reform process. Congressman Joe Crowley, US special envoy for Burma Derek Mitchell and
Luis Cdebaca of the State Department are prominent names in the list. Incidentally, Joe Crowley
was the first member of the US House of Representatives in more than 12 years to visit
Myanmar. A pro-democracy advocate, Crowley has in the past sponsored bills authorizing
sanctions against Myanmar including a 2008 measure that stopped gems from Myanmar entering
the United States via third countries.14
Clearly, the US decision to restore ties came in response
to the Sein government‘s release of hundreds of political prisoners, a move that was hailed by
Barack Obama as ‗a substantial step forward for democratic reform.15
Frictions with China
One of the most important reasons for Myanmar‘s attempt to inch closer to the US and
open up to the international community has been its relations with China, which went on a
downward spiral with the Myitsone dam controversy.16
Many believe that the Myitsone dam
issue in Kachin state has created friction between China and Myanmar, though both countries
denied it at the official level. Thein Sein suspended the US $ 3.6 billion dam construction project
due to massive local protests. The project, deferred until 2015, was meant to supply cheap
electricity to southern China. According to a report published in the Economist:
‗The Myitsone was to be the largest, and at about 150 metres (458 feet), one of the
highest in the world. If completed, the dam‘s reservoir would flood an area the size of
Singapore and drive more than 10,000 people, mainly from the Kachin ethnic group,
from their ancestral lands. The area straddles territory controlled by the Kachin
Independence Organisation (KIO), one of Myanmar‘s myriad insurgencies. Last May the
KIO warned China that building the dam would lead to ―civil war‖.‘17
FPRC Journal 2013(3) India-Myanmar Relations
291
As expected, Thein Sein government suspended the projected the dam project, as it had invited
strong protests from local populace. Unwilling to ignore popular protests, the Sein government
suspended the project.18
According to reports, China tried to intervene in the matter citing
potential economic losses and damage to the robust bilateral ties between the two countries.
Chinese officials also registered their protest on the matter. Some even went to the extent of
saying that, ‗It is impossible that the investor move the hydropower projects out of Myanmar ...
If the Myanmar people are at risk, the investment by the investor is at risk as well. The investor
and the Myanmar people are both stakeholders in dam construction.‘19
Thein Sein, however,
refused to pay heed to such complaints and went ahead with his decision.
One may argue that over the years, Myanmar had become over-dependant on China, to
the extent of being labelled a ‗satellite state‘ of China.20
Indications are that Myanmar wants to
interact with the world on its own accord so as to lessen its dependence on China. According to a
study carried out within Myanmar, the country‘s ―reliance on China as a diplomatic ally and
economic patron has created a ‗national emergency‘ which threatens the country's
independence.21
In addition, China's close ties with the United Wa State Army, Myanmar's main
drug-trafficking militia, has not gone unnoticed by the authorities in Naypyidaw.22
China has
been monopolising Myanmar‘s markets to such an extent that local traders have been left high
and dry. Also, the Chinese hunger for natural resources has, to a certain extent, ignited resource
nationalism amongst common Myanmarese.23
It is also believed that China has kept Myanmar
insulated in order to reap the benefits of its resources alone. Cautioning China about its
shortsighted approach, Thant Myint-U, in his book Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia:
Where China Meets India, rightly points out that ‗Chinese interests are served in the short term
but in the longer term anti-Chinese sentiment increases; the opportunity for a friendly and
mutually beneficial relationship, so important to Burma, is lost‘.24
Myanmar‘s relations with ASEAN and India have proved beyond doubt that Naypyidaw
has been striving to craft a balanced foreign policy, which enables the country to not become
excessively dependent on a particular country. Inching closer to the US seems to be a part of that
strategy. The Sein government is taking all possible measures to acquire US support, the most
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292
crucial being the release of Suu Kyi who has in turn agreed to contest the by-election scheduled
for April 2012. This is considered a step in granting legitimacy to the Sein government and the
election process in Myanmar.25
In another positive sign, even the ethnic minority leaders have
been reaching out to the US, India and members of the European Union for developmental
investment in remote areas inhabited by ethnic minorities. Hillary Clinton‘s meeting with Kachin
ethnic minority leader Daw Bauk Gyar and others indicates that. For its part, the Sein
government has shown signs of adopting a reconciliatory approach towards the country‘s ethnic
minorities. In order to end incessant ethnic clashes in various parts of the country, the Sein
government has signed 11 ceasefire agreements including the January 2012 agreement with the
Karens, and those signed with the Shan and Kachin rebel groups in December 2011, and that
with the New Mon State Party on February 1.26
For instance, the deal with the Mons permits
them to celebrate their national day, which had been prohibited for the past 15 years.27
These
moves clearly demonstrate that the Sein government is keen to make peace with the country‘s
ethnic minorities. Bringing ethnic minority leaders into the political mainstream is also likely to
strengthen the democratic process in Myanmar, even though Suu Kyi is likely to remain the main
reference point for the further development of democracy in the near future.28
The US has acknowledged these changes in swiftly changing Myanmar and has been
taking into account the suggestions made by Myanmar‘s neighbours including India and the
member countries of ASEAN. India has consistently conveyed to the US the fact that sanctions
had not worked in most cases and might not work in Myanmar as well and that therefore a policy
change was required. Driven by this belief, India has been building bridges with Myanmar
through trade, investment and regular high-level visits by political and military delegations.29
As far as the sanctions are concerned, the process of easing sanctions has begun and it is
being done through various means. Japan and France have expressed their willingness to provide
financial aid to Myanmar, as are the World Bank and Asian Development Bank. Moreover,
Australia, a key US ally in the Asia-Pacific, announced on January 9, 2012, that it would remove
sanctions on former ministers to acknowledge Myanmar‘s recent steps towards reform.30
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293
Obama and Thein Sein: Exchanging Visits to Improve Ties
Countries across the globe, including China, responded positively to US President Barack
Obama‘s re-election in November 2012, largely because of the hopes and expectations of Obama
and the US. Obama has realized that the real challenge for the US foreign policy lies in Asia,
which sufficiently explains his pivot to Asia policy as also the visit to Myanmar in November
2012. Evidently, Myanmar is one of the few success stories where Obama has made a difference
by trying to bring the country on to a democratic path through diplomatic means.31
With his
November 2012 visit, President Obama became the first sitting U.S. president to visit Myanmar,
providing a symbolic nod to initial reforms in a nation once notorious for political repression.
The president's trip, his first overseas since winning re-election, foreshadowed the focus his
administration will place on Asia in a second term as part of a strategy to blunt Chinese influence
in the region.32
During his visit Obama met with Aung San Suu Kyi, and called it a new chapter
between the two countries.33
As another gesture of support, Obama referred to the country by the
government's preferred name -- Myanmar -- rather than the colonial name of Burma used by Suu
Kyi and democracy activists.34
Before meeting Suu Kyi, Obama spent an hour with Myanmar
President Thein Sein, whose reform drive has seen the release of hundreds of political prisoners
and steps to open the country's economy. The democratic and economic reforms started by the
president could lead to "incredible development opportunities," Obama said.35
"The flickers of
progress that we have seen must not be extinguished," Obama said. "Reforms launched from the
top of society must meet the aspirations of citizens who form its foundation."36
Even critics in Congress of Obama's Myanmar policy support the U.S. strategic goal of
bringing Myanmar out of its isolation. The long U.S. -Myanmar estrangement was a drag on
America's relations with ASEAN, the 10 nations Southeast Asian regional grouping that looks to
Washington as a counterbalance to the more assertive China of recent years. Earlier in May
2013, Obama scrapped a ban on U.S. entry visas to Myanmar's military rulers and their
associates but kept sanctions on investing or doing business with figures involved in repression
since the mid-1990s.37
However, despite extending its support on several fronts, the Obama administration has
maintained that it will not allow investments in military entities that are owned by armed forces
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294
of Myanmar or its Ministry if Defence. In addition, U.S. companies will be asked to report on
their activities in line with international corporate governance standards.38
Furthermore, ‗a new
Executive Order that expands the Secretary of the Treasury‘s existing sanctions authorities to
those who undermine the reform process, engage in human rights abuses, contribute to ethnic
conflict, or participate in military trade with North Korea‘.39
As per the press release of the White
House, the order is ‗a clear message to Burmese government and military officials: those
individuals who continue to engage in abusive, corrupt, or destabilising behavior going forward
will not reap the rewards of reform.‘40
Obama also devised a new clause empowering the US
government to impose ―blocking sanctions‖ on any individual threatening peace in Myanmar.41
Additionally, it has also been reported that businesses with more than US$ 500,000 in investment
in the country will need to file an annual report with the State Department, with details on
workers‘ rights, land acquisitions and any payments of more than US$ 10,000 to government
entities, including Myanmar‘s state-owned enterprises.42
Conclusion
Clearly, for the US, Myanmar has not only become a test case of its influence but also a
major opportunity to restore peace in the country and integrate it with the global economic
system. The US will naturally benefit from an open and peaceful Myanmar. Although a lot needs
to be done to ensure that Myanmar becomes a fully functioning democracy, the budding shoots
of democratic recovery are surely encouraging. The Sein government deserves a word of
appreciation on the count that its acceptability, both domestically and globally, has gone up by
leaps and bounds. The current trajectory of developments is likely to lead to the point where the
US and the Thein Sein led government find ways to resolve outstanding points of contention
between them, leading to Myanmar moving further along the path of greater political freedom,
better human rights and good governance. However, being the most important external factor
determining the future of Myanmar, the US has to ensure that ethnic unrest including the
ongoing ethnic riots against Rohingyas are stopped and their human rights are protected. On its
part Myanmar has to reconcile internal ethnic and economic issues before things start falling
apart and go beyond the government‘s control. This is important as both the domestic
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295
constituency and international community are getting increasingly hopeful and demanding of the
government- and the Thein Sein government can‘t afford to disappoint them. Another tough
challenge for Myanmar, which further mounts the challenge on Myanmar, is that it has to take up
the ASEAN chair in 2014- the year when Myanmar has to be fully ready to showcase itself as a
country with democratic values and development at its core. Having the US by its side, which is
a likely situation so far, would only boost the image of these ‗new friends‘ and enhance their
image at the global stage.
Reference
1. John H. Badgley, ‗Strategic Interests in Myanmar‘ The National Bureau of Asian Research, Vol. 15, No. 1,
March 2004, http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=340
2. Ibid.
3. After the then ambassador Burton Levin‘s retirement in September 1990, the US never sent a new
ambassador.
4. ‗US and Burma to swap ambassadors in ‗substantial step for reform‘, The Guardian, January 13, 2012,