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Flying Flight Simulator
Sky-High Adventure with the Macintosh, Amiga, & Atari ST
by Charles Gulick
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Preface
Introduction
1. Flying for Real
2. Call a Taxi
3. Take It Off and Fly It
4. On the Money
5. Something to Bite Into
6. Hot Shot
7. Contact
8. Regards to Broadway
9. Position Is Everything
10. Asking Directions
11. Seattle Nocturne
12. Abridgement
13. High Rolling
14. MDW to LGA, PDQ
15. The War Is Over
16. A Model Airplane
17. Turnabout
18. New Horizons
19. Advanced R/C: The 182-S
20. Smashing Party
21. Stunt-flying the 182-S
22. All Together Now
23. Solo
Appendixes
A. Typical Cruise Altitude (MSL) Power Settings and Airspeeds
B. Flight Checklist
C. Flight Controls
D. Macintosh Flight Settings
E. Area Charts
Glossary
Back Matter
FLYING FLIGHT
SIMULATOR
Sky-High Adventure with the Macintosh™, Amiga™, & Atari® ST
CHARLES GULICK
PUBLISHED BY
Microsoft Press
A Division of Microsoft Corporation
16011 NE 36th Way, Box 97017, Redmond, Washington 98073-9717
Copyright© 1987 by Charles Gulick
All rights reserved. No part of the contents of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means without the written permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Gulick, Charles.
Flying flight simulator.
1. Flight simulators. 2. Airplanes—Piloting—Data processing.
3. Macintosh (Computer) 4. Amiga (Computer) 5. Atari ST computers.
I. Title.
TL712.5.G854 1987 629.132'52'078 87-18569
ISBN 1-55615-102-0
Printed and bound in the United States of America.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MLML 8 9 0 9 8 7
Distributed to the book trade in the United States by Harper & Row.
Distributed to the book trade in Canada by General Publishing Company, Ltd.
Distributed to the book trade outside the United States and Canada by Penguin Books Ltd.
Penguin Books Ltd., Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England
Penguin Books Australia Ltd., Ringwood, Victoria, Australia
Penguin Books N.Z. Ltd., 182–190 Wairau Road, Auckland 10, New Zealand
British Cataloging in Publication Data available
Acquisitions Editor: Claudette Moore
Project Editor: Marie Doyle
Technical Editors: Roger Shanafelt, Bob Combs
Amiga™ is a trademark of Commodore Business Systems, Incorporated. Apple® is a registered
trademark of Apple Computer, Incorporated and Macintosh™ is a trademark licensed to Apple
Computer, Incorporated. Atari® is a registered trademark of Atari, Incorporated. IBM® is a
registered trademark of International Business Machines Corporation. Microsoft® is a registered
trademark of Microsoft Corporation. Flight Simulator is produced by Microsoft Corporation;
copyright 1984 by Bruce Artwick. Flight Simulator II is produced by SubLOGIC Corporation;
copyright 1984 by Bruce Artwick.
PREFACE
When I finished writing this book, I thought it might be interesting to go back and fly an earlier
version of Flight Simulator—specifically, the version for the IBM PC. I'd been flying Flight
Simulator II on the Amiga for many hundreds of hours and hadn't touched its predecessor for
many months.
I had to fiddle with some cables to get my IBM-compatible hooked to my Amiga monitor and to
route the audio so that I could hear the engine. That wasn't too difficult. Then, I realized I'd
forgotten how to boot the earlier Flight Simulator. Did I need to boot DOS first? And how did I
switch from the main program to the San Francisco STAR Scenery Disk?
Finally, I had Flight Simulator on the screen, and I looked at it as if I'd never seen it before. I had
written four books on flying this airplane, and I hadn't the foggiest idea where to begin. I couldn't
remember where the throttle or flaps were, how to take views, what keys controlled the ailerons
and elevators, or anything else. I was simply an utter novice.
Even more incredible was what I saw on the screen. I figured something had to be wrong with
the color or focus or contrast or something. And the engine sound was ridiculous: a crazy little
buzz that sounded nothing like an engine. Was this the simulator that had enthralled me, even
nourished me, for thousands of hours?
I got the airplane into the air, and I was in for more shocks. The Cessna didn't seem to be flying,
but acted as if it were being jerked spasmodically through the air. The controls responded
sluggishly, and I over-controlled like the worst amateur.
I paused the simulation and checked the manual on how to boot the San Francisco STAR
Scenery Disk. That disk, when it was originally released, was the most upscale of all. I was
certain that it would restore my enthusiasm and my confidence. The old thrill would come back.
But with San Francisco on the screen, I finally realized that an era was gone forever. I was
flying—or rather being dragged in a kind of twitching agony—over an ancient illusion. The
wheels of progress had ground my beautiful Flight Simulator of old into a blob of fuzzy
unreality. The magic was gone. I could believe in nothing on the landscape below or on the
instrument panel in front of me.
But I didn't want to abandon this ancient and lost reverie of an airplane, not in midflight. I turned
toward Runway 9L at Oakland. I was alone, but I spoke aloud as I escorted the decrepit, creaking
airplane to what I feared might be its last landing (although it wasn't), and the words I intoned,
over and over, were, “unbelievable…unbelievable” and again “unbelievable.”
Unbelievable how far Flight Simulator has come in barely a handful of years. If you flew the
earlier versions, with or without me in the right-hand seat, and if you are now blessed with an
Amiga, Atari ST, or Macintosh and the applicable new version of Flight Simulator, you know
what I'm saying. If, on the other hand, the current simulator version is the first you've ever flown,
know that you are privileged beyond your wildest imaginings. You have in your possession the
most sophisticated microcomputer simulation on earth. It is worth at least ten times and perhaps
a hundred times what you paid for it. It is more valuable than all the other simulations—and
games, too, including arcade games—taken together.
Don't be misled. Flight Simulator has its share of crazy bugs: overcast skies that are green
instead of gray when you fly in them; an exasperating hum that suddenly destroys your illusions
(at least, on the Amiga; the problem seems to go away if you boot with Kickstart version 1.2);
airports that are on the documentation charts but not in the simulator world; an artificial horizon
gauge that consistently (in some versions) reads wrong; the ludicrous “reliability” feature that, at
any setting lower than 100%, invariably results in an engine that won't get you off the ground;
and many other bugs. But it is still an incredibly beautiful simulation to fly and to watch. The
bugs will be taken care of in time, perhaps by the time you read this. But the beauty is there now,
as I write. The beauty and the believability—a believability that, by contrast, makes the earlier
simulations seem strange, archaic, and almost purposeless.
My intent here is not to downgrade the superb quality of the earlier simulators. If the new Flight
Simulator were somehow to be wiped out of existence, I would certainly go back and fly the
earlier version. And I'm sure that once again I'd become entranced, as are the hundreds of
thousands of devotees who are flying it now. Everything is relative after all.
Meanwhile, I invite you to experience with me the magnificent achievement of the newest Flight
Simulator. And while you do so, be mindful that a single individual—designer Bruce Artwick—
is to thank for the miracles you will see on your screen. Not that he works alone. He has a
talented team working with him nowadays. But he stands alone as the original creator of the
program and of the amazing 3-D graphics techniques that drive it. I have never met nor spoken
with Bruce Artwick. But I thank him for the inestimable pleasure, thrill, and challenge his
accomplishments have afforded me day in and day out (and many long nights too) during the
years of Flight Simulator. His work is proof that a single individual can still turn the world
around.
And now, for your enjoyment, Bruce Artwick's latest version of that world.
INTRODUCTION
NOTE: This book is written for users of SubLOGIC Corporation's Flight Simulator II (for the
Commodore Amiga and the Atari ST) and Microsoft Corporation's Flight Simulator (for the
Apple Macintosh). Throughout the book, for simplicity, these three products are referred to, as a
group, as “Flight Simulator.”
Flying Flight Simulator, the third book in the Microsoft Press Flight Simulator Co-Pilot Series, is
specific to the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST versions of Flight Simulator produced by
SubLOGIC Corporation and to the Macintosh version of Flight Simulator produced by Microsoft
Corp. The book is designed for moment-to-moment use while you fly the itineraries and modes
described. All the instruction you need to handle both the Cessna 182 and the Gates Learjet 25G
in a professional way and to gain a new appreciation of the beauty and challenge of the
simulation is in this book.
This latest in the line of remarkable Flight Simulator programs created by Bruce Artwick
beginning in 1981-82 encompasses the same geographic areas as the earlier versions, but a new
section—San Francisco—has been added, with the San Francisco Bay Area as a primary feature.
Pilots who are familiar with the earlier simulators will recognize the upscale scenic design of the
Bay Area as very much like that in the San Francisco STAR Scenery Disk. However, this
simulator is quite different from earlier versions. The Cessna 182 handles differently and flies
more realistically than in the earlier simulations, and the high-performance Gates Learjet offers a
whole new flying challenge. Dramatic new viewing features appear for the first time, and among
the most notable of these features is a “spot plane” and a powerful “control tower” view.
Thus, this entirely new book is called for because it was not sufficient simply to rework material
from my earlier books, which were specific to the IBM, Apple, C-64, and Atari simulations:
Flight Simulator Co-Pilot and Runway USA, published by Microsoft Press; 40 Great Flight
Simulator Adventures and 40 More Great Flight Simulator Adventures, published by Compute!
Books.
For best results, you should make the flights presented in this book in the order of their
appearance. The instruction content is presented progressively, as it is in actual flight instruction.
At the outset you will establish some new “default” parameters that enhance realism and speed
the updating of the simulation, resulting in a smoother sensation of flight. You will learn how to
maneuver the aircraft on the ground, take it off, fly it from point to point, and land it by reference
both to your cockpit instruments and your out-the-windshield view. You will learn precision
techniques for climbs, turns, descents, and straight and level flight at varying speeds and
altitudes. You will learn how to use on-board radio equipment to navigate anywhere in the
simulator world. You will become expert at controlling both the Cessna 182 and the Gates
Learjet in every flight configuration, and you'll be able to fly them in a professional manner,
even in darkness. Your sense of accomplishment will grow with every page of the book that you
read.
As your flying capability increases, so will your fun. Early on in the book, you'll be seeing some
of the great sights on the ground below you…San Francisco and its hills and
waterfront…Manhattan and the Statue of Liberty…the blaze of light that is Seattle at night.
You'll fly treacherous mountain passes…make thrilling high-speed approaches in your jet…take
off and land breathtakingly close to the Golden Gate Bridge, and much more.
You'll fly from Los Angeles to San Francisco…even make a daring “dead reckoning” flight from
Chicago to New York. And you'll fly in the World War I zone in your fully equipped Cessna
182, long after the war is over.
At the last, you'll learn how to simulate the thrills of R/C, or radio-controlled flying. You'll watch
your special “182-S” model aloft as you control it from the ground, putting it through stalls,
loops, aileron rolls, inverted flight, Immelmans, spins, wingovers, chandelles, Lazy 8s, and the
Split-S…all based on the solid flying experience you gain in the earlier chapters.
Flying Flight Simulator promises to enhance your enjoyment of the simulator beyond anything
you can imagine so that simulator flying may well become for you—as it is for me and
thousands of other enthusiasts—your primary hobby.
So, lay the pressures of the day aside, pack a lunch, climb into the left seat, and let's go flying.
Chapter 1
FLYING FOR REAL
NOTE: Before you begin this first session, format a blank disk. You will be saving flight
situations on it.
You have no doubt already experimented with Flight Simulator. But pretend you're climbing
aboard for the first time, and set up and fly the Cessna 182 and the Gates Lear-jet in the manner I
describe. When you finish the book, you'll have some very high standards against which to
compare your earlier techniques. You'll also have a solid basis for improving on them and for
applying the new principles you'll learn here. Fair enough?
First, we'll set some defaults you may not have used before. Our purpose is to achieve the
maximum in realism. In fact, throughout this book and in all your flying, you can and should
think of these aircraft as real in every respect. Flight Simulator isn't a “game,” but a highly
realistic simulation of actual flight, in fine and expensive aircraft. Let's leave hacking around and
crashing to the amateurs.
If your simulator is already on screen and you're not looking at Runway 27R at Oakland, click on
SITUATION in the menu bar, followed by SELECT PRERECORDED, then OAKLAND 27R.
Then pause the simulation. If you haven't yet booted, do so now. Pause as soon as your engine
starts and the runway is in front of you.
Note the location, on your windshield, of the orientation marker—the T-shape where your
windshield and your instrument panel meet. Choose some visual reference, on your panel or in
the menu bar at the top of the display, that is in the same vertical plane as the marker. This point
defines the longitudinal center of the aircraft for you, so freeze it in your memory. You're going
to remove the orientation marker, as well as other purely graphic features that slow down the
simulation and interfere with the realism of the outside world.
Now, if flying the Mac, open SIM, and if flying Amiga or Atari, open FILE in the menu bar, then
select and turn off ORIENT MARKER.
Open VIEW in the Mac or open FILE again in Amiga/Atari, move the cursor to TITLE BARS or
to TITLES ON WINDOWS, and turn off that feature.
Open SIM (for simulation factors), choose AUTO COORD, and turn off that option. Now you'll
have independent control of ailerons and rudder, you can steer with the nosewheel while on the
ground, and in the air you can make small directional adjustments using rudder only, without
banking the aircraft—a big help on landing approaches.
Again in SIM, choose REALISM. The solid boxes indicate realism factors that are enabled. To
fly with maximum realism, enable all the following: ENGINE, GYRO DRIFT, CRASH
DETECT, FAST THROTTLE, INSTR LIGHTS, BAROM DRIFT, and LIGHT BURN.
Now why do I omit ELEV TRIM from our realism agenda?
Because you can trim your elevator more precisely, for more realistic and more consistent
results, with the elevator control itself. In the simulator you cannot feel elevator pressures as you
can in actual aircraft. Pilots use elevator trim to “bleed off” or relax control pressures, for
example, backward pressure (usually referred to simply as “back pressure”). They may hold back
pressure on the control yoke to climb at a given rate. Pilots also use “takeoff trim,” a setting that
adds lift to get the aircraft airborne faster, and they trim for “straight and level” after they reach a
desired cruising altitude. To get the desired result, they apply such trimming very gradually, in
fine increments. But the simulator elevator trim control is coarse compared with the real thing,
and it doesn't yield the precision we want. In its place, I'll show you how to use the elevator
control as a trim control, which it simulates nicely.
While we're here in the REALISM window, let's contemplate the other options and what they
mean.
ENGINE, when enabled, lets you start up and shut down the engine realistically, using the
magneto switches. If your engine runs endlessly, how can you shut down and go into the pilot
shop for coffee or park the airplane overnight?
ELEV TRIM I've already touched on.
GYRO DRIFT has to do with the nature of the heading indicator, or Directional Gyro. (I'll use
the latter terminology and frequently abbreviate it to DG.) Over time, the directional gyro drifts
and thus provides accurate information only if it is regularly trued to agree with the compass.
We'll let it drift realistically. Trueing it regularly will become one of the good habits you'll
acquire as you fly this book.
CRASH DETECT. Of course. Real crashed aircraft do not bounce back into the air and fly again.
Crashing the simulated aircraft should be as distasteful to you as crashing the real thing. So, no
bounceback.
FAST THROTTLE, when enabled, forces you to handle the throttle intelligently. If you don't,
your engine may quit just when you need it the most. You'll learn how to handle it intelligently.
INSTR LIGHTS, with realism enabled, lets you—not some unseen force—control your panel
lights. You can use the mouse or the L key (a toggle switch). Turning off the lights in the
daytime will become part of your regular pre-flight check routine.
BAROM DRIFT, like GYRO DRIFT, must be compensated for by trueing the altimeter, which
works by virtue of a barometric device. Trueing the altimeter will also become a regular habit.
LIGHT BURN refers to the bulbs in your panel lights, which can occasionally burn out.
And that's that for realism. Close the window.
The changes you've made to the simulator defaults thus far are those you'll use throughout all
normal flying. After you start saving “situations,” as you will, you'll save these new settings with
them. So you'll rarely have to go back and do this job again. (In the latter stages of this book,
however, we'll make major changes; but by then you'll be ready for them.)
Because you may associate Oakland's Runway 27R (the R stands for Right, there being a 27L at
Oakland too) with the possibly questionable flying habits you've acquired in the past, we're going
to make our first flight from a different airport.
Select NAV from the menu bar, and then choose POSITION SET. Put the aircraft at NORTH
16845.335 and EAST 16596.8650. Opposite ALT, simply type 0.0. (The simulator will
determine the correct altitude.) Put the tower at NORTH 16846.000, EAST 16597.0000, and
ALT 660.0. (The remaining digits for ALT don't matter.) If you're flying the Mac, note that some
digits after the decimal point may change when you press return. Just let it happen. (In all
versions, it's a good idea to reenter POSITION SET and make sure the tower altitude “took.” The
simulator often misinterprets what you've entered.)
Now, press RETURN and close the window.
Things look a little weird? Just “unpause” (I'll use that term freely in this book), and the scene
will right itself.
Then, pause again.
To get a better idea of your relationship to your surroundings, choose VIEW and SET SPOT
PLANE. Note the five boxes associated with the spot plane symbol. Obviously, you can have the
spot plane in only one of these five positions at a time. For your immediate purpose, you want
the spot plane (you can also think of it as a “chase plane”) behind you. So, click on that box.
Then, for TRANSITION, select FAST. This gives you an immediate view off the tail of your
aircraft, rather than a view that sweeps around and finally settles behind you.
Click on the appropriate arrows to set the spot plane distance to 200 feet and the altitude to 20
feet. Leave everything else as it is and close the window.
Now, let's find out what we did: Press the S key.
Presto! There you are, on the ramp at Greater Kankakee Airport, Kankakee, Illinois. That's the
operations and pilot shop on the left. And ahead, a little to your right, is the taxiway leading to
Runway 4/22. You can even discern the center line out there.
Press your map select/deselect key and see the whole airport design (zoom in a little on the
Macintosh). The runway off to the right is 16/34. Zoom closer, and the taxiway is clearly
delineated. When you start moving, you're going to taxi a little to your right, turn right at the first
intersection, and then taxi parallel to 4/22 to reach Runway 22. But more on that later.
Deselect the map, and let's set some realistic weather conditions.
Choose ENVIRO and make it springtime. Again in ENVIRO, access WINDS and set the surface
winds (AGL means Above Ground Level; MSL, Mean Sea Level) to a depth of 3000 feet,
direction 205 degrees, and speed 6 knots.
Now, exit the window. What you've done is create a weather report or, more precisely, a wind
report. The weather today is clear. Now we'll get this weather report in official language from the
tower here at Kankakee. Get out your Chicago Area Chart and find out on what frequency the
tower transmits. Greater Kankakee Airport is near the center of the chart, about 15 miles west of
the Illinois/Indiana border. Control Tower is abbreviated CT on the chart (on some airports it's
ATIS, for Automatic Terminal Information Service), and following the abbreviation is the
frequency. On some charts, the numbers 625–51 appear just below the tower frequency. These
tell us the elevation of the airport—625 feet MSL—and the length of the longest runway in
hundreds of feet; in the case of Kankakee, the longest runway, which is 4/22, is 5100 feet.
Find the COM, for COMmunications receiver, on the right side of your instrument panel. You'll
tune it to the Kankakee tower frequency, 123.0. To change the number to the left of the decimal
point, put the mouse arrow on the first or third digit and click. Clicking on the first digit sets the
next lower frequency, and clicking on the third digit sets the next higher frequency, in steps of 1
megahertz from 118 to 135. The digits to the right of the decimal point represent fractional
frequencies from 0.00 to 0.95 in steps of 50 kilo-hertz (0.05 megahertz). Clicking on the first
digit lowers the value, and clicking on the second raises it. Set the frequency now to 123.0.
The tower's weather and runway information stays on screen long enough for you to check it. It
will turn off eventually, or you can turn it off by clicking in the box at the upper left of the
window. To repeat or update the report, simply change one digit temporarily and then change
back to the correct frequency.
Clear the tower information if it hasn't self-cleared, and unpause the simulation now so that I can
show you how to stop and start your engine.
Find the numeral 1 key on the upper left of your keyboard and, watching the MAGS or
MAGNETOS switch indicator on the lower right side of your instrument panel, press the 1 key
slowly three times. The switch cycles through BOTH, RGT (for Right), LFT (for Left), and
finally to OFF, and the engine shuts down.
The magnetos (you have two of them) supply the high voltages necessary for the aircraft's spark
plugs. They combine the functions of the coil and the distributor in an automotive engine. The
engine runs on one magneto, either left or right, but we normally operate with the switch set to
BOTH. I'll show you how to start your engine when you're ready to taxi.
Now, I want to discuss controlling the aircraft. In the Amiga and Atari versions, you have the
option of a keypad yoke (Mac users haven't this alternative), and I strongly recommend using it.
In my experience, pressing keys instead of moving the mouse yields much finer and faster
control. So if you are flying on the Amiga or Atari, use the mouse only in CURS (cursor) mode,
to perform operations you can't do any other way. Those operations have to do mostly with
navigating and viewing. One day soon, when you're trying to control rudder, elevator, throttle,
and aileron almost simultaneously—for instance, on a landing approach at 130 knots in your
Learjet, when every fraction of a second counts— you'll thank me for steering you to the keypad
yoke. On the Mac, use the mouse to get as close as possible to the procedures I describe
immediately below (you do have keyboard rudder control) and throughout this book.
The essentials of physical control of the aircraft are embodied in five fingers—three on your
right hand and two on your left. The first three fingers of your right hand will give you instant
and precise control of elevator pressures (which control aircraft pitch, that is, nose up or down),
elevator trim (used to obviate the need for continually holding elevator pressures), left and right
ailerons (movable surfaces on the trailing edge of each wing, used to roll the aircraft and thus
bank and turn it), aileron and rudder neutralizing, exacting throttle control, and—on the
ground—even your brakes. Three fingers, and all that control. We'll get to the left-hand functions
in a moment.
Amigans and Atarians, place the first three fingers of your right hand now on the 4, 5, and 6 keys
of the numeric keypad. (Let the palm of your right hand rest gently on the bottom rim of the
keyboard or on the edge of your flight desk—whatever feels comfortable and natural.) You've
now assumed the basic control yoke position. Remember those words—basic control yoke
position—and what they mean: the first three fingers of your right hand on the 4, 5, and 6 keys of
the numeric keypad.
Your first and third fingers, in this basic yoke position, control your left and right ailerons,
respectively. The middle finger neutralizes whatever aileron pressure you've applied.
When, henceforth, I say something like “Apply a little pressure to get into a left turn” or “Start a
left turn” or “Turn left to a heading of two three zero degrees,” I want you to press the left
aileron key—the 4 key—about five times. This is the equivalent of—in an actual aircraft—
applying sufficient left aileron pressure to roll the aircraft to the left and start a left bank (a lateral
tilting with the left wing low and the right wing high), and consequently a left turn. It's also
loosely analogous to applying leftward pressure on a car steering wheel to start a left turn. But I
provide that poor analogy only to familiarize you with the general idea; an aircraft yoke (or
“stick” or control column) is not the same as an automobile steering wheel. You don't “steer” an
airplane (except on the ground, and then you do so with the nosewheel).
Five strokes of the right aileron key—the 6 key—nets the same result, but this time to the right.
To stop the bank at the desired angle and thus control the aircraft's rate of turn, you “neutralize”
your ailerons. This is done by pressing the 5 key once, using the logical finger—your middle
one.
To level the airplane, once you have rolled, banked, and turned it so that it is heading where you
want to go, you apply “opposite aileron.” That's the term for aileron in the opposite direction of a
turn. For example, if you apply left aileron pressure to start with…neutralize when you have the
desired degree of bank…let the turn continue until the aircraft is pointed where you want it to
go…then apply opposite (right) aileron to “roll out” of the turn…and neutralize again as the
wings come level…you've completed a turn. And even though student pilots practice turns
throughout their training, it's easier to do than describe, as you'll see.
So the first three fingers of the right hand, in the basic control yoke position—over the 4, 5, and
6 keys—control the ailerons and thus control the combined rolling, banking, and turning of the
aircraft. In the Macintosh simulation, the same result is achieved by moving the mouse to the left
or right and then moving it in the opposite direction to neutralize.
Try applying some left and/or right aileron now, and try neutralizing. You can watch the aileron
position indicator, the horizontal gauge that forms the top of the I shape on the left side of your
instrument panel, to see the result. When you finish, center the control.
Two additional keys, the 2 and 8 keys, complete the simulated yoke (though not everything we
control from the basic control yoke position). Both are operated with the middle finger (but don't
press either key just now) by pivoting it backward to press the 2 key and forward to press the 8
key. Pressure on the 2 key simulates back pressure on the yoke, or “pulling back on the stick”
(though “pulling” is too strong a term for normal maneuvers). Pressure on the 8 key simulates
the release of back pressure on the yoke (and, very rare in flying, actual forward pressure on the
yoke). You can think of pressure on the 8 key as “neutralizing” back pressure applied with the 2
key. Forward and rearward mouse movement with the Mac applies the same sort of pressures. In
an actual aircraft, the yoke or stick is designed to return to a neutral position when pressure
applied to it is released, somewhat as a steering wheel finds its “default” position when let go.
Now, look again at the 4, 5, 6, 2, and 8 keys on your numeric keypad. These keys form a plus
sign. You'll use other keys on the keypad for other controls, but these five keys are the control
yoke, or simply “the yoke.” And—one more time—your right hand is in the basic control yoke
position when your first three fingers are poised on the 4, 5, and 6 keys, ready to apply and
neutralize aileron pressures or to apply elevator pressures (middle finger) on the adjacent 2 and 8
keys.
Just as your middle finger pivots to apply elevator pressures, the third finger of your right hand
pivots to control your throttle, which controls your engine speed and, as you will see, your
altitude. (In the Mac version, you hold down the mouse button and move the mouse
forward/backward for more/less throttle.) The third finger pivots forward to the 9 key to increase
throttle and backward to the 3 key to decrease throttle. You can try the throttle controls, although
while your engine is off you won't experience much. But do watch the throttle position indicator,
the thin gauge labeled TH to the right of all the round instruments. You'll see the indicator move
up when you add to your throttle setting (9 key) and move down when you back it off (3 key).
Remember where the throttle position indicator is, because you'll use it shortly after we get
airborne. When you finish experimenting, be sure your throttle is all the way back (indicator at
the bottom of the gauge).
Your first finger does the least work, unless you make an inordinate number of left turns. Besides
left aileron, it operates only your brakes, which are effective only on the ground. The brake
“pedal” is the 1 key, for which your first finger pivots backward. Try it, and you'll see the
BRAKES message on your display. Brake application and release in the Mac simulation is
accomplished (with the mouse button depressed) by left and right mouse movement,
respectively. The 7 key does absolutely nothing, so you can forget about it.
Most of the time you're in the airplane, from the moment you begin to taxi until you shut down at
the end of a flight, your right hand will be in the yoke position. If you do something else with
your right hand, for instance with the mouse, return to the yoke position when you're finished.
When you're driving a car, you usually have your hands on the steering wheel. When you're
flying your Cessna or Lear, you'll usually have your hand on the yoke.
Your left hand will assume most of the other keyboard, or console, duties, such as selecting
windows, taking views, and so on.
But your left hand performs several critical functions. The first is, on the ground, steering your
nosewheel and, in the air, operating your rudder pedals. You do both these jobs with the < and >
keys, which provide, respectively, left rudder (and left nosewheel) and right rudder (and right
nosewheel). The lowercase of these keys gives you the comma and period, but it's easier in a
directional sense to think of the < and > as left and right arrows designating left and right pedal.
You don't have to use keyboard SHIFT to operate the rudder pedals or to perform any other
function in the simulator world. The rudder pedals are most conveniently operated by the first
two fingers of your left hand, leaving your right hand at the basic yoke control position, or at-
ready with the mouse. The rudder position indicator is the horizontal gauge that forms the bottom
of the I-shaped group of indicators.
And here's another nice control feature in the Amiga and Atari versions: To neutralize your
rudder, and on the ground your nosewheel, you use the same 5 key (basic yoke position) that
neutralizes your ailerons. You can think of that 5 key as the “neutralizer,” because that's what it
is for nosewheel, rudder, and aileron. Practice several strokes of left and/or right rudder now,
watching the indicator. Neutralize when you're finished. In the Mac, neutralize using the mouse
and watching your indicators. The indicators are particularly important since you must neutralize
aileron with the mouse and rudder with the < and > keys. (If you find it easier to fly with AUTO
COORD enabled, by all means do so, but be aware that independent rudder makes small
directional changes—for instance on a landing approach—that much easier.)
Two other important physical controls typically exercised with your left hand are the landing
gear and the flaps.
You toggle the landing gear with the U key. One press of the key picks up (retracts) your gear.
The next press drops (extends) it. Just think of U for both Up and Down. The landing gear
position indicator, labeled GEAR, is on the right side of your instrument panel, at the bottom.
(Don't try it now!)
Your flaps, which—like your ailerons—are movable control surfaces on the trailing edges of
your wings, have five positions, namely 0, 10, 20, 30, and 40 degrees. Flaps assist us in takeoffs,
slowflight, and landing approaches by varying the aircraft's lift-to-drag ratio. The flaps are
retracted and extended by the [ and ] keys (left and right bracket/brace keys). Logically enough,
the leftmost of these keys provides “less” flaps and the rightmost “more” flaps. You can try these
keys now, watching the flaps position indicator to the right of the gear position indicator. When
the needle is all the way up, that's zero degrees. All the way down is 40 degrees. On takeoff,
you'll use 10 degrees of flaps, and I'll tell you when to “dump” them, which means return them to
zero degrees, as we climb. For now, zero them.
Before we taxi out and take off (I'm as eager as you are), I have to acquaint you with at least
those instruments you need to get the airplane into the air, climb to an altitude, cruise a while,
and land again. You have some command now of the physical controls, but you need to be
familiar with four of the instruments on your panel to execute this first flight properly. They are
the airspeed indicator, the altimeter, the Vertical Speed Indicator (or VSI), and what we're going
to call the elevator trim indicator.
All these instruments are on the left side of your instrument panel.
The airspeed indicator is at the top left. In the Cessna it is labeled KNOTS. Knots are read as
“nautical miles per hour.” A nautical mile is about 1.15 statute miles (6076 feet). The airspeed
indicator reads directly in knots. It indicates our speed through the air (not, in the Cessna, our
true airspeed nor our speed over the ground) by measuring the pressure of the relative wind
against the wings. Think of the whole reading as, for example, “70 KIAS,” in which KIAS stands
for Knots Indicated AirSpeed. We need this instrument to determine when to rotate on takeoff,
that is, when our wings have sufficient lift to become airborne. And we need it to determine
aircraft performance in cruise, slow-flight, landing approaches, and other flight operations.
Incidentally, 70 KIAS is the speed at which you'll rotate the Cessna on your takeoff run.
The altimeter (ALT) is the second instrument to the right of the airspeed indicator. The shorter
needle on the altimeter points to our altitude in thousands of feet. The longer needle points to our
altitude in hundreds of feet.
The altimeter at present indicates about 625 feet. We need the altimeter, obviously, to determine
our altitude at any given moment. It is also, in the simulator, a sensitive indicator as to whether
we are climbing, flying level, or descending. It is more sensitive, actually, than the next
instrument we'll look at, which tells us our specific vertical speed.
Directly below the altimeter is the VSI. It will tell us our rate of climb (needle on the UP side) or
rate of descent (needle on the DOWN side) in hundreds of feet per minute, or fpm. When the
needle is at zero, we'll be neither climbing nor descending, so of course it's at zero now. As we
climb or descend, the altimeter will show an increase or decrease in altitude. In the Amiga/Atari
versions, the altimeter will actually record very small increments of climb or descent that are not
sufficient to move the VSI needle. So, you'll want to pay close attention to the altimeter as you
fly.
The last instrument we'll need for this first flight is more a gauge than an instrument. It's the
vertical gauge in the I-shaped group just to the left of the VSI. In the Flight Simulator manual,
this is called the elevator position indicator. But our flying technique will not require, nor does
an actual aircraft, an elevator position indicator. For practical purposes, always think of the
elevator as “at rest,” unless and until we apply back pressure, which we'll typically neutralize
with the same amount of “forward pressure” when appropriate. If you've watched someone pilot
an aircraft (or done it yourself), you know that “hands off” flying, in respect to the yoke, is very
normal for short periods of time (for instance, while eating a sandwich). This is because the pilot
has trimmed the elevator for the configuration the aircraft is in, for example, straight and level
flight at a particular altitude or a climb at a particular VSI rate.
I said earlier that we would use the elevator itself as an elevator trim control, which it simulates
very well—more precisely than the elevator trim provided in the simulation. It follows that this
gauge you're looking at becomes, instead of an elevator position indicator, our elevator trim
indicator. And we will set our trim to suit our flying configuration, using the same keys (or
mouse movements) we use to apply elevator pressures.
So how will you know when you're applying elevator “pressure,” as opposed to trimming? First,
I'll tell you which you're doing until you have the concepts firmly in mind. Second, you'll
normally be applying pressure, as opposed to trimming, in only three flight configurations:
takeoff rotation, turns, and final approaches to the runway when landing. You'll experience all
three of these configurations soon. Last, you will learn to trim to precise, known positions for the
basic flight configurations that involve trimming. And there are only four of these. They are
takeoff (trim prior to the takeoff run, not takeoff rotation) and three “neutrals”: operational
neutral, used for straight and level flight at cruise altitude, as well as for climbs or descents to a
new altitude; slowflight neutral, used to fly at slow speeds (you'll be grateful for this when you
fly the Learjet); and approach neutral, used when you drop your gear and extend your flaps prior
to a landing.
No guesswork is involved in the trim settings I've been describing. You'll learn how to trim
precisely and correctly and how to know you've done it before you're very far into this book.
You'll learn one of the four trims right now, because you need it to trim properly for takeoff.
Earlier I asked Amigans and Atarians not to try the elevator control keys to facilitate setting
operational neutral trim (which you'll do now) from the default elevator position provided by the
simulation. (Operational neutral trim isn't takeoff trim, but it is a standard reference trim from
which you can set takeoff trim properly every time you fly.)
Be sure your middle finger is over the 8 key on the yoke. Now press that key twice in quick
succession. Pause, and then press the same key twice more in quick succession.
Pause again, and then repeat the two quick presses for a third and final time. The elevator trim
indicator should now be directly opposite the needle of the VSI, which is at present resting on 0.
We'll call this operational neutral (op neutral for short) from now on. It's easy to remember
visually, because the trim indicator is directly opposite 0 VSI.
But there are actually nine elevator trim positions at which the indicator will be opposite the 0,
because the elevator is micro-adjustable. So, we could refer to a 0.0, 0.1, and so on, up to 0.8. Op
neutral is specifically at 0.0. Confirm that now with one additional press of down elevator while
watching the trim indicator. The indicator moves a notch below the 0 position. Now, press up
elevator once. The indicator returns to 0.0, operational neutral.
Detail of Macintosh elevator trim for operational neutral (Cessna 182).
In the Mac, set op neutral by dragging the mouse until the elevator trim indicator sits just above
the line opposite “DN” on the VSI, or just above the second mark below 0 VSI (see detail). Be
sure to start with the indicator above that position, and drag the mouse slowly forward until the
indicator “pops” to the position just above the second mark. The indicator arrow and the mark
will seem to be joined (at the next lower notch they would be exactly aligned).
Now that you know exactly where op neutral is, you should be able to trim your elevator to that
position no matter what its previous setting and to confirm that it's there. Operational neutral, and
the other two “neutrals” I'll be covering, are extremely important concepts in all our flying. The
identical concepts apply to flying the Learjet too, so you need to understand them. With op
neutral, for example, besides flying straight and level at any cruising altitude, you'll be able to
climb or descend at any specific VSI rate you choose, with little or no variation in airspeed and
with no change of elevator position or trim. The other neutral trims—slowflight and approach—
will give you similar precision control of your aircraft in those two major aircraft configurations.
Why did we use a series of quick key presses, rather than slow or random strokes, to get to op
neutral? Because in the Amiga/Atari version it would have taken us 27 ordinary (slow) strokes to
get there from the simulator default elevator position. We used three sets of two quick presses to
accomplish the same thing. We couldn't use six quick presses either; that would have put us well
below op neutral. If you're flying the Mac, notice the dragging between indicator marks and how
the arrow “pops” into position. Thus your elevator is also micro-adjustable and every small
movement between “pops” is significant, as you'll see when you fly.
Now, press the Q key (or go into the SITUATION menu and choose SAVE AND NAME), and
save the present situation to RAM (Random Access Memory), naming it RAMP IKK 22/C.
Then, in the same menu, choose SAVE RAM TO DISK so that later you can recall the situation
and put yourself right where you are now. In the process, you'll save all the realism settings and
other new defaults you created earlier, and you'll also save your op neutral trim so you won't
have to reset it each time. Even the present spot plane view will be saved. Then, we'll move right
on to our taxi and take-off procedure. (If you want to turn your computer off after saving to disk
and come back later, that's no problem.)
The title RAMP IKK 22/C tells you where the airplane is—on the ramp at Greater Kankakee
(IKK is the real-world airport code for Greater Kankakee)—and that Runway 22 is the “active,”
that is, the runway in use at the present time. The/C reminds you that in this situation you are
flying the Cessna 182. (We'll use /L for the Learjet.)
In the next chapter you're going to use the instruments and controls you've begun to learn about
and get this baby in the air.
Chapter 2
CALL A TAXI
If you're continuing from the previous page, you're still on the ramp at Greater Kankakee
Airport, ready to start your engine and taxi. If not, boot your simulator and load the situation disk
to which you saved RAMP IKK 22 /C in the last chapter. To load the situation disk, click on
SITUATION in the menu bar, then click on LOAD RAM FROM DISK, and follow the screen
instructions. When the load is completed, click on RECALL from the same menu (or in
Amiga/Atari just press the R key), and then click in the box opposite the situation you want to
recall—in this case RAMP IKK 22 /C.
Some aspects of situations are not saved. One of them is engine status. Thus, if you just booted,
your engine will be running even though you shut it down when you saved RAMP IKK 22 /C. In
that case, shut it down for a moment now. (The numeral 1 key is the magneto switch for
shutdown.)
Each time you climb in the airplane there's a simple panel preflight checklist to go through:
True the DG: DG is short for directional gyro, the instrument second from the left on the bottom
row of your panel. On the lower left edge of this instrument is a knob marked D. Place the mouse
arrow over the knob and, watching the numbers in the instrument windows, click the mouse
button once. The numbers change. The number in the top window now agrees with the magnetic
compass heading, as you'll see if you check your compass (in the top row of instruments on the
right side of your panel). This is what is meant by “trueing the DG.” The magnetic compass
always gives the true magnetic heading of your aircraft, but when you turn in flight, it takes a
while to settle down. The directional gyro, which needs no settling time, cannot reference the
earth's magnetic field as does the magnetic compass. Because the DG references only its own
internal gyroscope, you have to tell it frequently which way the aircraft is pointing, to
compensate for instrument drift. Clicking on the D knob trues the DG to the magnetic compass
heading. If you'll notice, your DG has already drifted a degree or so; you'll have to true it
frequently in flight, particularly when you want to hold a precise heading. In ordinary flying, you
can use the magnetic compass exclusively if you like, when you are assured that it has settled
down, that is, as soon as it's no longer wavering between headings.
In flying, a “heading” is the magnetic compass direction in which the aircraft is pointed, in
relation to an imaginary 360-degree compass rose with the aircraft positioned at the center of that
rose. A heading is not necessarily the exact direction in which the aircraft is flying, because wind
conditions may be (and often are) such that to move the airplane in a straight line in relation to
the ground you have to “crab,” or fly somewhat sideways. The crabbing will result automatically
as you correct your heading to fly toward a specific point on the horizon or to “track” (fly
directly along) a VOR (Very high-frequency Omnidirectional Range) radial to a VOR station.
You'll soon learn about that navigation boon.
True the Altimeter: The altimeter, which you've already met, also needs to be trued. Click on its
knob (marked A) in the same way as you clicked on the D for the directional gyro. Trueing the
altimeter calibrates it to the current barometric pressure. We'll true it about every half hour on an
extended flight.
Detail of Macintosh elevator setting for operational neutral Cessna 182).
Check Op Neutral: This involves simply adjusting elevator trim to the position described
earlier. In Amiga/Atari op neutral has the indicator directly opposite 0 on the VSI (only for
visual reference; the VSI is in no way connected to elevator trim). Confirm op neutral by one
press of down elevator (8 key). If the trim indicator drops a notch, you were at op neutral before
the press, so press up elevator (2 key) once, reestablishing the desired trim. In the Mac, the
indicator should be one notch above the mark which is opposite “DN” on the VSI (see detail). In
this case, a notch is a “pop” of the indicator up or down to a new position.
As you fly and frequently save situations, you'll find you're saving them with op neutral trim
already in place. But always check it anyway.
Carb Heat Off: The status of carburetor heat (the indicator is on the right side of your panel, in
the bottom row, just left of the gear indicator) is very important. Before you begin a flight, carb
heat should be off. This setting is not saved when you save a situation. If you put it on (as you
will) to make a landing and then recall another flight situation, on the ground or in the air, the
carb heat will still be on, and the resultant lower engine speed will materially affect your
aircraft's performance. Before taxiing out for takeoff, be sure carb heat is turned off. On the other
hand, you will save some flight situations in the air—a slowflight situation, for example—where
you deliberately will have carb heat on. If you recall a situation of that kind, the carb heat may be
on or off, depending on its setting in your previous flight. So, you'll need to know, before flying
a new situation, which setting is appropriate. In any slowflight, airport approach, or landing
situation, have the carb heat on. In cruise situations, it should be off. When you recall a situation
and the plane does not perform as you'd expect, you'll likely find that the carb heat setting is the
reason; so, correct it.
Zoom 1.00: Your zoom indicator is on the far right of your instrument panel, halfway down.
Zoom should always be set to 1.00 when you're doing anything critical such as taking off,
making a landing approach, performing special maneuvers, or stunting. Zoom 1.00 gives you the
truest picture of what's happening.
Lights Off: This just reminds you to turn off your panel lights if it's daytime. We don't want the
bulbs to burn unnecessarily. The lights indicator is at the bottom right of your panel, and,
logically enough, the L key toggles your panel lights.
That's your preflight checklist. If you haven't already run through it, do it now so that you're
ready to roll. Here's a recap of the list:
1. True DG
2. True altimeter
3. Check op neutral
4. Carb heat OFF
5. Zoom 1.00
6. Lights OFF
Start your engine (four presses of the 2 key).
When I refer to “notches” of throttle in what follows, I mean presses of the “increase” or
“decrease” throttle keys (the 9 and 3 keys, respectively). Three notches is three presses. In the
Mac you use the mouse, of course, but you can see and count the notches just as if you were
pressing keys. Similarly, “put on” or “back off,” when referring to notches of throttle, means
increase or decrease, respectively, so many notches. “Open” your throttle also means increase it
so many notches. “Add some power” means, of course, increase your throttle setting to suit the
situation, just as “take off some power” or “reduce power” means decrease it as required. “Cut”
your throttle means back it off to zero.
With your right hand in the basic control yoke position or poised on the mouse, and with the first
two fingers of your left hand on the rudder pedals (to steer the nosewheel), put on three notches
of throttle to get the aircraft moving.
Practice steering left and right with the nosewheel as you taxi, to get the feel of it. On Amiga and
Atari, remember that you straighten your nosewheel with the 5 key, the center key on the basic
yoke.
Take the ramp that is a little to your right, and then turn right onto the main taxiway to parallel
the runway. Back off your power a notch to slow down before the turn.
If you get fouled up, recall the RAMP IKK 22 /C situation (in Amiga/Atari, press A to get the
RECALL list) and start out again, until you get it right.
As you taxi along the main stretch, parallel to Runway 4/22, try out your brakes. They'll stop you
momentarily. Use more or less power to taxi at whatever speed feels comfortable to you. Practice
steering with your nosewheel some more. Take a control tower view of yourself (C key) if you
like, and then return to the spot plane view (S key).
Don't take the first left, or the second, which is Runway 16/34. Taxi all the way to the end, and
then turn left and stop short of the next left, which accesses Runway 22. Cut your throttle and use
your brakes.
Don't hesitate to practice the foregoing operation—taxiing from the ramp to the holding position
for Runway 22—until you get reasonably good at it. The ability to taxi well is almost as
important as the ability to fly well. It will give you great satisfaction to be able to handle the
aircraft skillfully on the ground. And the rewards in terms of realism are considerable. Kankakee
is one of the simulator's best airports for taxiing, and you may want to regard it as your “home”
airport for the Chicago chart area.
As you practice, try using the out-front view (the T key) as well as the spot plane (S) view.
Switch back and forth between them. Use whatever view gives you the best control, or use them
in combination. The objective is to get a “feel” for how much nosewheel (rudder) pedal to use
for a desired result and when to start your turns at a given groundspeed. You'll find that slowing
down for sharp turns will correct matters if you're consistently overshooting.
When you feel satisfied that you're in a good position, stopped short of the final turn onto
Runway 22, save the situation to RAM. (Press the T key so that you have the out-front cockpit
view when you save.) Also save to disk if you plan to quit the simulation for now. Name the
situation HLDNG IKK 22/C. There isn't room to spell out “HOLDING,” but the title describes
the situation exactly. In aviation terminology you're “holding short of Runway 22.” IKK, again,
is the airport code for Greater Kankakee.
Having saved this situation, you'll be in excellent position to practice takeoff preparation and the
takeoff itself, without the need for taxiing out from your “tiedown” position on the IKK ramp.
Chapter 3
TAKE IT OFF AND FLY IT
Detail of Macintosh elevator trim for takeoff (Cessna 182).
Because you did your preflight check before you started taxiing, your takeoff preparation for this
flight consists merely of two operations: setting takeoff trim and putting on 10 degrees of flaps.
Both operations are standard for all normal takeoffs.
In the Mac, set takeoff trim by slowly dragging the mouse back until the elevator trim indicator
pops to the first mark above 0 VSI (see detail).
In Amiga/Atari (from op neutral), set takeoff trim with five quick presses followed by four slow
presses of up elevator. In the Appendix B Flight Checklist, I use “qu,” “qd,” “su,” and “sd” to
refer to quick and slow up and down presses of elevator. While we're flying. I refer to “quick
ups,” “slow ups,” and so forth to mean the same thing. Phrases such as “quick presses” or
“presses in quick succession” mean presses at less than half-second intervals. They don't have to
be extremely rapid, but they should be as quick as is comfortable for you. Count them mentally
as you apply them, and apply them as deliberately as you can count them (without slurring over
them).
Trim for takeoff now if you haven't already. In Amiga/Atari, notice that your trim indicator has
moved one long mark plus a short mark above operation neutral. (A “short mark” is only a pixel,
and you probably can't see it unless you're using an RGB or other high-resolution monitor.)
Take-off trim is important because it gets you airborne at a lower airspeed and, thus, sooner than
if you take off without it.
Extend your flaps to the 10-degree position. The flaps give you some extra lift, which also helps
you get airborne sooner.
And you're ready for takeoff!
Now, follow the procedure I describe as well as you can, and remember that you can recall your
immediate situation and try again, or pause the simulation, as often as you like. Don't expect
perfection. You'll be busy for the first minute or so, trying to remember which key is which and
watching several instruments almost simultaneously. But, believe me, with a bit of practice you'll
soon take off like a pro—every time.
With your right hand in the basic yoke position or poised on the mouse and with your left hand
in position to operate the rudder pedals, open your throttle three notches and move ahead.
Turn onto the runway and steer to line up with the far end of it. Don't be in a rush; you have
plenty of time. Don't worry about staying exactly on the centerline. Point for the far end of the
strip, and then add about five notches of power. Steer with the rudder pedals as you pick up
speed.
When you're satisfied that you are straight in relation to the runway, open your throttle all the
way. Continue to steer with the rudder as needed.
As you pick up speed, keep glancing at your airspeed indicator. When the needle is between 60
and 80—pointing straight to the right—if flying the Mac, apply rotation pressure with a slight
backward movement of the mouse, not enough to move the indicator; if flying Amiga/Atari, use
two quick presses of up elevator.
When the runway begins to drop away and you know you're airborne, retract your gear (U key)
and cancel the rotation pressure with two quick elevator downs or with a slight forward
movement of the mouse. The trim should still read the same as it did for takeoff.
Wait a second or two, and then zero your flaps.
Watch the tachometer (rpm indication) on the right of your panel, and gradually back off your
throttle until you have a reading, if flying Amiga/Atari, of 2100 rpm. If flying the Mac, decrease
power until the throttle position indicator is even with the bottom of the frequency numbers in
the NAV 1 radio compartment (see detail). (You'll be indicating about 1750 rpm, but that will
change when you level off.)
Detail of Macintosh throttle setting for 500 fpm climb (Cessna 182).
Now, check your VSI. You want a vertical speed of 500 fpm. You get that by trimming down—
not quickly, but with steady, slow, regular presses of the 8 key or, if you're using the mouse, with
small increments of forward pressure.
As you trim, the needle moves down toward the 5 mark on the VSI. If it goes below the 5, you're
trimming a bit too eagerly. Match your down-trimming to the VSI. When the needle moves
above the 500 mark again, apply another notch of downtrim.
Judge your trimming to control the needle, answering its movements, but don't glue your eyes to
the VSI. You've many notches to trim.
Check your altimeter, which is directly above the VSI. You want a cruise altitude of 2300 feet.
Continue to trim. Now, begin to check the elevator trim indicator. The objective is to trim to
operational neutral while maintaining a 500-fpm climb rate. When you reach cruising altitude,
2300 feet, you'll reduce power to level off.
Detail of Macintosh elevator trim for operational neutral (Cessna 182).
If your climb rate drops below 500 fpm and hangs there, don't trim up. Add a couple of notches
of power, and you'll see the needle move up again. Continue to trim to hold the climb rate on or
near 500 fpm.
You know how to confirm operational neutral, and you follow the same principle here. In the
Mac, you want that point where the indicator pops down to join the top of the mark opposite
“DN,” two marks below 0 VSI (see detail). In Amiga/Atari, if the needle is opposite 0 VSI, you
need to downtrim until the needle drops below 0. Then you know where you are. Trim up one
notch and stop trimming.
Detail of Macintosh throttle setting for straight and level flight at cruise altitude (Cessna 182).
You'll be at 2300 feet when the altimeter's short needle is on the 2 and its long needle is on the 3.
When you reach that altitude, whether you're at op neutral or not, reduce your power to a reading
of 1950 rpm if flying Amiga/Atari. If flying the Mac, decrease power until the throttle position
indicator is even with the bottom of the “N” in the NAV 2 compartment (see detail). (Such visual
throttle position indications are more useful than rpms in the Mac because engine speed varies
considerably with the aircraft's altitude.) In all versions, engine speed may fluctuate a bit until
the aircraft is balanced, but it should settle at 1950 rpm in Amiga/Atari and 2000 rpm in the Mac.
When you're at or near an altitude of 2300 feet and your throttle is at 1950 rpm (Amiga/Atari) or
2000 rpm (Mac), your objective is to control the airplane so that it will fly straight and level.
“Straight and level” is that configuration in which the aircraft is neither banked nor turning, the
elevator is correctly trimmed (in the present case, to operational neutral), and the throttle is at a
power setting that yields a zero reading on your VSI. If you are straight and level with op neutral
elevator trim, your aircraft will fly at its optimum cruising airspeed; in the Cessna this is about
134 knots, with the airspeed needle approximately intersecting the “0” of the 140-knot mark.
When you are trimmed to op neutral, your throttle becomes your altitude control. Add a few
notches of power if you are under your desired 2300-foot cruise altitude. If you are above it,
reduce power a bit, and the aircraft will descend. When you're right on your desired altitude or
within 20 feet of it (one mark on the altimeter), adjust power as required to stay there.
No single throttle setting invariably results in level flight. When I told you where to set your
throttle earlier, I gave you an approximate setting, or, actually, a preliminary setting. As you fly,
you may find that straight and level requires a power increase or decrease. That's all right. If
you're not climbing or descending significantly, the throttle setting is the correct cruise setting
for your altitude and your heading, in this particular season and weather, in this particular part of
the world, and on this specific day. At a higher altitude, you'd need higher power. At lower
altitudes, you'd be straight and level with a lower power setting. Tomorrow, you may need more
or less power even if you duplicate this exact flight pattern. Instead of exact throttle-setting
references, you fly with an exact elevator trim reference—op neutral. Then you use power to get
the result you want. Whether you're flying straight and level, climbing, or descending, your
throttle is your altitude control.
Now you're going to do a 180 and head back to IKK. “Doing a 180” means turning the aircraft
180 degrees and heading in the opposite direction.
Your magnetic compass probably reads within a few degrees of 218 now if you were fairly well
lined up with the Kankakee runway on takeoff. Whatever it reads, you're going to turn left to a
heading of “zero three eight” degrees. In ordinary English, that's 38 degrees, of course. Pilots use
the long form when stating headings—to be exact and to be sure we're understood, for instance,
when we communicate with a tower. So get used to saying “zero three eight” or “two four five”
when you read 038 or 245 in this book.
You remember about aileron pressures and neutralizing to bank and turn the airplane from our
earlier discussion.
One technique I haven't covered in regard to turns: Apply a notch or two of back pressure on the
elevator as you turn (one or two slow key presses or a slight backward movement on the mouse,
not enough to show on the elevator gauge). This prevents loss of altitude that would otherwise
result. Use whatever pressure is required to hold your altitude; the steeper you turn, the more
pressure you need.
Start a left turn now, with a little back pressure and some left aileron. Then, neutralize when the
horizon splits your screen diagonally.
As you turn, the bank will tend to become shallow, because the plane wants to right itself.
Respond by adding a little aileron pressure, which forces the wings to stay banked to the degree
you want. Then neutralize.
Keep an eye on your magnetic compass. Remember that you're looking for a heading of 038
degrees.
This is a very shallow bank and thus a slow turn. Later, you'll learn to bank more steeply. For
now, you're honing your precision. You have (I hope!) the aircraft completely under control,
making it do exactly what you want in the manner you want. That's precision flying, and it's time
to applaud yourself on your progress.
When the magnetic compass reads 050, apply right aileron pressure to roll out of the turn.
Neutralize when the horizon is straight.
Now, let off the back pressure you used to hold your altitude in the turn. In this case we are
talking about pressure, not trim. In an actual aircraft, you would have applied a little back
pressure to the yoke as you turned and then relaxed it when you rolled out. So you're duplicating
what really occurs. With regard to trim, you will return to op neutral if you take off as much
pressure as you applied at the start of the turn.
Your compass probably reads below 038 degrees now, which is fine. I want to show you how to
use rudder—and rudder only—to make minor heading changes in flight. If you were using auto-
coordination, you'd have to bank the airplane to add or subtract even a degree or so to your
heading. With rudder control independent of aileron, you simply yaw the nose around a bit.
Rudder alone does the job beautifully.
Use a little rudder now to put the nose on the number you want, 038 degrees. When the compass
shows that you're on that heading, neutralize. (If you're flying keypad yoke on the Amiga/Atari,
neutralize with the 5 key; if you're flying the Macintosh, apply as many notches of opposite
rudder as you used to institute the heading adjustment.)
Isn't that neat? And think how useful rudder will be when you're on a landing approach: You
won't need to bank to have fine control over your direction.
You are now headed back toward Greater Kankakee Airport. I'll show you how to point your
aircraft exactly to that “home” airport and how to find out exactly how far away you are moment
by moment.
Pause temporarily (P key) for a few instructions. I don't want you getting to IKK too quickly.
To the right of the center of your instrument panel (in the Mac, at the center of the panel) are two
almost identical instruments, one above the other. Each has a knob labeled V on its lower left
edge. These are your Omni-Bearing Indicators, or OBIs. Their only difference is that the top one,
OBI 1, has a glideslope feature, used when making an ILS (Instrument Landing System)
approach. OBI 1 is associated with your NAV 1 radio, and OBI 2 with your NAV 2 radio.
The NAV radios are equipped to tune in and identify VOR stations. These stations assist pilots
from one end of the country to the other. VOR stations transmit magnetic course signals, known
as “radials,” in every direction—360 such signals in all. These radials emanate for many miles,
like the spokes of a giant wheel. And they converge, of course, like the spokes of a wheel, at the
hub: the VOR station from which they are radiating.
When you tune your NAV 1 or NAV 2 radio to a VOR station, you can use the OBI associated
with that NAV to identify which radials of the particular VOR station you are currently on or
crossing.
You'll do that now.
First, tune NAV 1 to the VOR station that (fortunately at our stage of instruction) is situated on
our home airport, Greater Kankakee. It's called the Kankakee VOR. To tune it, you have to know
its frequency, which you can find in the appropriate box on your chart. I'll give you the
frequency this time so that you can concentrate on what you're doing. It's 111.60.
Tune the NAV radios the same way you tuned the COM radio when you checked on the weather
at IKK. Use the mouse on the first or third digits for the numbers left of the decimal point and on
the first or second digits for the fractional frequencies to the right of the decimal point.
Tune NAV 1 to the Kankakee VOR frequency.
You probably noted some action in the OBI 1 instrument. You'll now use the OBS (for Omni-
Bearing Selector, the knob labeled V on the OBI) to find out on what radial to the Kankakee
VOR station you are currently flying.
The number in the top window of the OBI (you're using OBI 1, remember) indicates magnetic
courses to the VOR station. There are, as I mentioned, 360 of them, reading 000 through 359. By
clicking on the left edge of the V on the knob, you access lower numbers; by clicking on the
right edge, higher numbers. Your objective is to center the vertical needle with a TO reading on
the OBI dial. In the Mac version, the OBS reads out only the even radials, so if you can't center
the needle exactly you'll know the correct radial is the odd-numbered one in between.
To familiarize yourself with the OBS, click on either side of the V and run through the entire
cycle. If you hold down the mouse button for a few seconds, the numbers go by quickly. The
needle will never disappear, but it will “pin” to one side or the other and then start back toward
center. The reading will cycle through TO, OFF, FROM, and OFF and then back to TO again.
While it's reading TO and starting to move toward the center, release the button and then click
slowly to bring the indicator needle to the exact center of the instrument. When it's centered, the
top window reads out the radial you are on at the moment. The bottom window reads out the
reciprocal, or 180-degree opposite, radial.
Note your compass heading. Does your magnetic heading agree with the radial you're on?
Almost invariably, it won't. What you want to do now is get on—and stay on—the radial
indicated in the top window of the OBI. You'll do that by turning to the compass heading that
agrees with the radial readout. That radial will take you straight to IKK. Say, for example, your
present magnetic heading, as read on your compass, is 038. And the radial readout from
Kankakee VOR, with the OBI needle centered, is 033. Immediately after you unpause, you'll
start a turn to a heading of 033, to “fly the radial.”
If you're only a few degrees off, as in the example above, use your rudder to yaw the nose
around. If you're far off, use a regular aileron turn to get on the heading you want. Either way,
don't use the numbers in my example; use the numbers on your instrument panel. You're flying
the airplane, not me.
One more bit of advice: When considering the quickest way to get on the new heading you want,
you'll usually turn right to get to a higher number, left to get to a lower number. If you're heading
038, as in the example above, you'll turn (or yaw, if you use the rudder) left to 033.
Unpause now, and get on the indicated radial to IKK.
When you're on it, pause the simulation and save your situation to RAM. Use the title VOR TO
IKK 22/C. This is an economic way of saying that the situation has you “on a VOR radial
inbound to IKK for a landing on Runway 22.”
If you're continuing, go to the next chapter. If not, save RAM to disk as before. We'll come back
to precisely this point in the next chapter, whenever you're ready.
Chapter 4
ON THE MONEY
I mentioned earlier that some parameters are not saved when you save a situation to RAM or
save RAM to disk. The fact that your engine is shut off isn't saved—nor is your carb heat setting.
In addition, the program doesn't remember to which frequencies you set your NAVs or your
COM radio or which radial you cranked in on your OBI.
Thus, when you recall a situation such as the present one, where you are en route to a
destination, you have to check—before you start flying—that carb heat is on or off, as
applicable. You must also retune your radios and select your OBI course again.
If you've just booted, recall the situation titled VOR TO IKK 22/C, and then retune your COM
radio to the Kankakee tower frequency, 123.00. While the tower message is on screen, note that
the wind direction and velocity were, happily, part of the save.
Next, retune NAV 1 to 111.60, and then adjust the selector knob (V) on OBI 1 to center the
needle. I have no way of knowing which radial appears in your OBI window now that the needle
is centered. It is likely to be somewhere in the low 30s. Normally, you'd go ahead and fly
whatever radial is indicated. But for this instruction, adjust the selector knob for a reading of 033
in the upper display of the OBI.
If you weren't already on 033, the needle moves away from center to the left or right.
Finally, check that carb heat is off.
Ideally, you should now be in the same configuration that you were in at the end of the last
chapter, but this isn't always the case. The simulator often does strange things with altitude when
you recall a situation. When I saved my own VOR TO IKK 22/C last night, my altitude was
about 2280 feet. When I rebooted this morning, my altitude was 1500 feet. The moral is: Check
your altitude as well as other critical parameters when you recall an in-flight situation, and
correct any simulator errors that you discover. Otherwise, the aircraft will not perform as you
expect. In fact, you can often trace oddities of performance to such conditions as carb heat or
altitude. When carb heat is on—as it is in slow-flight and on landing approaches—engine rpm is
significantly lower than when the heat is off. So, for example, if you make a landing (carb heat
on) and then switch to a previously saved in-flight situation where you were straight and level at
about 3500 feet and at cruising airspeed, you'll find yourself in an inappropriate descent, and the
whole flight will go awry. The cure for such a situation is to pause, recall the situation, turn off
the carb heat, and then start flying again.
To correct simulator altitude errors, you have to open the NAV window. Follow along now,
whether or not your altitude is about where it should be (2300 feet), so that you'll learn how to
correct these errors when you need to.
Click on NAV in the menu bar, and then highlight and click on POSITION SET…to open the
window of the same name. Now, click on the box next to ALT under AIRCRAFT, type
2300.0000, and press RETURN. While you're in this window, check ALT under TOWER. You
may recall setting this to 660.0000 before you were on the ramp at IKK. This morning my
reading is 42.8736, so the tower must have crumbled and fallen in a heap overnight. If your
tower ALT is wrong, reset it to 660.0000, and then press RETURN. If the ALT figures now look
okay, close the window.
Before you unpause and start flying VOR TO IKK, read through this short discussion:
In the present situation, you are flying on R033 (or radial 033) toward the VOR station at Greater
Kankakee Airport. You are going to do what we call “fly the needle.” Flying the needle means
keeping the OBI needle centered on, in this case, your OBI 1. The center of the instrument,
where the little circle is, represents your Cessna 182. The needle represents R033, because you
selected that radial. You can read out the radial you selected on the window at the top of the
OBI. It reads 033. Flying the needle also means, specifically, turning toward the needle when it
is off center. If the needle drifts to the right of center, turn or yaw (use the rudder to rotate the
aircraft's nose) to the right and fly until the needle moves to center again. Conversely, if the
needle drifts to the left, turn or yaw left to center it. The needle itself does not move—that is, the
radial represented by the needle doesn't move. You fly toward the radial, get to its center, and
then correct again to fly straight along it, as if along a wheel spoke toward the hub.
Unpause now and start flying the needle.
When the needle stays at center, naturally, you merely fly—no turning or yawing needed. (Using
rudder to yaw the aircraft is the best way to make minor heading corrections. Once you're on
R033, rudder should be all you need to stay on it.)
Don't fix your eyes on the OBI needle. Don't fix your eyes on anything as you fly. Instead, scan
your primary instruments on the left side of your panel.
Your airspeed indicator will read about 133 KIAS (the needle covering the 0 of the 140
marking), which is the best all-around cruising speed for your present altitude.
In the Amiga version, the artificial horizon to the right of the altimeter tells you very little unless
its craziness has been corrected by the time you read this. The indicator is missing not only
markings, but the whole point of an artificial horizon, which is to provide a synthetic horizon that
exactly depicts your aircraft's attitude in relation to the real horizon.
Your altimeter should read about 2300. If not, correct it by changing your power setting.
The VSI, directly below the altimeter, should show a zero rate of climb unless you're in the
process of correcting altitude.
True the directional gyro, which is left of the VSI, so that it agrees with your compass reading.
The turn-and-bank indicator, left of the DG, will show no bank unless you're using aileron to
correct your heading.
Check the OBI again to track radial 033. How are you doing?
You should scan the instruments in the order described above. Begin with the airspeed indicator,
work right to the altimeter, drop down to the VSI, and then work left to the turn coordinator.
Scan the world outside the aircraft too. You'll be watching for IKK to show up somewhere out
there. How far out there? The answer to that is on your instrument panel too. Find the DME (or
Distance Measuring Equipment) reading on the right side of your panel. When you're tuned to a
VOR station, as you are now tuned to Kankakee VOR, the DME tells you how far you are from
that station in nautical miles (nm). Isn't that handy?
If all's well, you'll see (except on the monochrome Mac) blue on the landscape ahead. That's the
Kankakee River.
When your DME shows that you are 8 nm from Kankakee, pause the simulation. If you're
already closer in than that, pause anyway.
IKK should be approximately straight ahead of you and visible on your screen. It's to the right of
the highway, Interstate 57, and on this side of the river.
I'll show you a little trick for spotting runways at a distance, while they're still not too well
defined on the screen. Set the zoom factor to 2.00. It's like using binoculars. Now, you can see
that the black shape on the horizon couldn't be anything but an airport. You can even make out
the taxiways between the strips (runways).
Reset the zoom factor to 1.00.
As soon as you have your destination airport in sight, make the transition from cruise
configuration to slowflight configuration. You want to slow down the aircraft—in the Cessna
from 133 knots to about 100 knots. At slower airspeed you—and the folks in the tower—can
better cope with traffic conditions, and you'll have more time to think and get into position for
landing.
First, apply carburetor heat. Normally you'd be flying when you do it, but go ahead and do it
now. Remember, the carb heat toggle switch is the I key. The I stands for ice. You apply heat to
the carburetor to prevent it from forming ice when you reduce power. Carburetor icing, believe it
or not, is more likely on a nice warm summer day than on a cold, dry day in midwinter.
Unpause and resume the flight now, and I'll talk you through the rest of the procedure.
With carb heat on, your engine rpm will drop, and you'll hear the difference in engine sound.
Detail of Macintosh throttle setting for slowflight (Cessna 182).
If you're flying the Mac, back off your throttle until the throttle position indicator is opposite the
center of the NAV 2 compartment, between the bottom of the “N” in “NAV” and the tops of the
frequency numbers (see detail). In Amiga/Atari, set the throttle so that the indicator is
approximately opposite the bottom of the frequency numbers in the NAV 2 compartment. I can't
give you an rpm value for these positions because engine speed takes a while to settle down, and
you have other work to do right now.
Now, start trimming up to counteract the aircraft's descent. It starts to descend, naturally, as a
result of the carb heat and the lower throttle setting.
Throughout the transition to slowflight, try to reach and maintain a zero reading on your VSI.
Trim up regularly but slowly to match the movements of the VSI needle.
As you trim up, the airspeed drops. In the Cessna, you want a slowflight airspeed of about 100
knots. (In the Lear, airspeeds in all configurations are different from Cessna speeds.)
Now, here's the neat part. You have a slowflight neutral trim for operations at slowflight speeds,
just as you have an op neutral trim for operations at cruise speeds.
You no doubt remember that with op neutral trim in Amiga/Atari the indicator is directly
opposite 0 VSI, and in the Mac the indicator adjoins the top of the line opposite the VSI “DN”
indication. You reach slowflight neutral trim in Amiga/Atari when the indicator is at the first
mark above op neutral and in the Mac when the indicator is one notch below 0 VSI (see detail).
(You will see a hairline between the needle and the 0 VSI mark; they won't be joined.) In the
Mac, to pinpoint the setting exactly, you must make micro adjustments of back pressure to keep
your vertical speed at 0 and your airspeed at 100 to 105 knots. In all versions, when you're at
slowflight neutral, adjust power as necessary to maintain 0 VSI at approximately 100 KIAS.
Detail of Macintosh elevator trim for slowflight (Cessna 182).
You'll fly on beyond the airport for the present, so don't worry about passing over it.
You probably lost or gained some altitude while you were making the transition to slowflight.
That's perfectly normal until you've had considerable practice. Now, I want you to get to an
altitude of 2000 feet and, when you get there, to fly straight and level at your slowflight airspeed.
Leave your elevator trim where it is. Remember that your throttle is your altitude control. Use
throttle—and throttle only—to climb or descend, whichever is necessary, to an altitude of 2000
feet. When climbing or descending, try to maintain a VSI rate of about 500 feet per minute.
Careful throttle control will let you keep this rate and also resume level flight when you get to
the target altitude. When you are at 2000 feet, maintain your altitude and present heading until
your DME reads 10 nm from Kankakee. Then pause the simulation and come back to this text.
Did you notice that, whether you were climbing or descending, your airspeed stayed virtually the
same—100 knots? That's one of the beauties of slowflight trim, as it is of op neutral trim. You
can climb, fly straight and level, or descend—all at a constant airspeed.
Normally you wouldn't fly so far beyond an airport where you intended to land, but I had you do
it to buy some time. The time we have now will let me “talk you down” to, I hope, your first
precision landing.
When you unpause, you're going to turn approximately 180 degrees to the right, much as you did
earlier. But this time you'll use a standard 20-degree bank.
Look at your turn-and-bank indicator now, on the bottom left of the panel. Note the L and R, for
Left and Right, and the marks above the letters. In a turn, when the aircraft icon's wings are
banked so that one wing touches the mark indicating L or R, you are in a 20-degree bank. In the
turn you're about to do, the right wing of the aircraft icon will barely touch the mark. You'll hold
it there, as before, using right aileron and neutralizing as required. With this bank, you'll be
doing a “standard-rate two-minute turn.” This means, at least theoretically, that you will turn 360
degrees in two minutes. Thus, you'll complete your approximate 180 in about one minute.
The key point to remember is that I want you to roll out on a compass heading of 218 degrees.
Unpause now, use a bit of back pressure to help maintain your altitude, and start your 180-degree
turn to the right, applying a small amount of right aileron. Neutralize when you've established a
20-degree bank. If necessary, use additional aileron to hold that bank.
Watch your DG. When it reads 200 degrees, start rolling out of the turn with a little opposite
(left) aileron pressure. When you are level with the horizon, neutralize your ailerons. Take off
the back pressure you applied before the turn, and then correct as needed to get a compass
reading of exactly 218 degrees.
When you are heading 218 degrees, pause the simulation for a moment.
So that we are on the same wavelength, I want you to set some parameters. Obviously, I can't
know how well you executed your standard-rate turn or exactly where in Illinois you may be at
the moment. But now that you're heading in the right direction, I can put you exactly where I
want you.
Click on NAV in the menu bar and select POSITION SET. Put the aircraft at NORTH
16898.257, EAST 16636.1980, and ALT 2000.0000; then, close the window.
Press Q and save this situation to RAM as INBND IKK 22/C, meaning “inbound for IKK,
Runway 22, in Cessna.” If you're going to quit, save RAM to disk also, but I hope you don't quit
now. Much excitement is ahead.
Unpause and take over.
You're nicely lined up for a long final approach to IKK's Runway 22 from about ten miles out.
Hold the heading of 218 degrees. You are, of course, in slowflight. Presently the airport will take
shape on your screen. You can zoom in for a closer look, but don't use the zoom view as an
accurate guide to runway alignment. Stay on your present heading until you're close enough to
see the runway more clearly. Then, you can decide on the best approach.
(If you recalled this situation after a boot or after flying another situation, pause and tune NAV 1
to 111.6 if it isn't already on that frequency. This will give you a DME reading of your distance
from the airport.)
When your DME reads 8 nm, gradually back off your power so that you descend at the rate of
about 300 fpm. The rate may vary a bit as you descend, but that's okay. Your airspeed will
remain constant at about 100 KIAS.
“Pattern altitude”—the altitude at which propeller-driven aircraft such as your Cessna are
expected to enter the immediate environment of an airport—is nominally 800 to 1000 feet AGL.
Because the field elevation at IKK is 625 feet, pattern altitude should read between 1425 and
1625 feet on the altimeter. We'll regard it as 1600 feet.
However, you're “on final,” which means that you're directly inbound to the active runway,
intending to land. So, you'll need to be at the altitude that best lines you up for the runway
threshold (the near end of the runway) as you enter the pattern. That altitude depends on how you
execute the approach.
When your DME reads 2 nm (as you cross the Kankakee River), increase your throttle setting
four or five notches and drop your landing gear (U key).
After a second or two, put on 10 degrees of flaps.
Detail of Macintosh elevator trim for approach neutral (Cessna 182).
If you're flying the Amiga or the Atari, as the VSI swings down, apply two quick notches of
elevator uptrim. Again, as the VSI swings down, apply two more quick notches of uptrim. A
third time, as the VSI starts down, apply two quick notches of uptrim—for a series of three in all.
If you're flying the Macintosh, slowly drag the mouse backward until the elevator trim indicator
reaches the first mark above 0 VSI and then pops up one more notch (see detail).
Immediately pause the simulation for a moment.
The elevator position you established is the third and last of the “neutral” trims. We'll call it
“approach neutral.”
Note the position of the trim indicator. Approach neutral trim is the highest trim position and
results in the lowest airspeed you've encountered so far. When you start flying again, try to
maintain your optimum approach airspeed, which is 70 KIAS. If power changes won't do the job,
don't hesitate to change your approach neutral trim a bit. Airspeed is now the critical factor, and
your elevator is your primary airspeed control.
When you unpause the simulation, you're going to add the rest of your flaps, so I'll describe how
that's done.
You currently have your flaps extended 10 degrees. The three additional flap positions, as you
already know, are 20, 30, and 40 degrees. Because additional flaps increase lift temporarily,
compensate for that lift by applying forward elevator pressure before each additional flap
extension. (This is virtually the only time you'll actually simulate forward pressure on the yoke.)
Precede each additional 10 degrees of flaps with, in the Mac, a slight forward movement of the
mouse or, in Amiga/Atari, two quick notches of forward pressure (8 key). Remember that the
key for extending flaps is the ] (right bracket) key. So, to add the rest of your flaps, follow this
routine: Apply forward pressure and immediately extend flaps to 20 degrees. Repeat the step but
extend flaps to 30 degrees. Repeat once more with flaps extended to 40 degrees. What you're
actually doing is trimming back to slowflight neutral, or close to it. But again, the key is to
maintain an airspeed of approximately 70 KIAS, so adjust trim and/or power accordingly.
While you're still paused, click on VIEW, and then highlight and click on SET SPOT PLANE.
When that window opens, click on the box off your right wing, and then set SPOT ALTITUDE
to 0, using the arrows opposite that parameter. Close the window.
Before you unpause, save your present situation with the title FINAL IKK 22/C. This reminds
you that you are in the late stages of your final approach to IKK's Runway 22.
All that remains is to apply full flaps as described above, improve your alignment with the
runway (using rudder only, no aileron), and land the airplane. I'll talk you through the later
stages.
I had you save this situation, immediately prior to extending full flaps, so that you can practice
both the flaps procedure and the landing as often as you like. Landing is the most challenging
undertaking in the simulator, and no two landings are alike. But the present situation will give
you a feel for it and help you to sharpen your skills.
Unpause when you're familiar with the flap procedure, and go ahead with it.
Your rate of descent will go to above 1000 fpm.
Begin to improve your alignment, using rudder only. The runway is the rightmost of the two
black lines you see in front of you.
As the runway threshold becomes three-dimensional, it will start to drift downward from the
center of your windshield. When this happens, reduce power as required to keep it apparently
motionless below the windshield's approximate center. The threshold should not be moving, but
enlarging, as you approach it.
When your altimeter reads about 700 feet (75 feet AGL), flatten your approach a bit with two
quick notches of back pressure (or, on the Macintosh, a slight mouse movement).
Continue to gradually but deliberately reduce power.
Use rudder as necessary to improve your alignment.
As you cross the threshold, or a few feet above touchdown, apply two more quick notches of
back pressure. Then continue to apply steady back pressure one notch at a time. (Move the
mouse very slowly and slightly back.) Try to keep the airplane flying a foot or so above the
runway as long as possible.
If you bounce when the tires hit, wait for the aircraft to settle again, and try a tiny bit of back
pressure.
If you get a stall warning, apply a notch or two of forward pressure.
As soon as you are on the ground to stay, cut your throttle and allow the aircraft to slow down.
At the first taxiway, turn off the runway to make room for pilots who may be taking off or
landing behind you.
I urge you to practice your FINAL IKK 22 approach a number of times. Strive to make each
transition in the approach and landing as smooth as possible. If you consistently undershoot the
threshold, start to reduce power a bit later the next time. If you're well beyond the runway when
you touch down, start reducing power earlier or do it faster.
And when you make a good landing, play it back with INSTANT REPLAY. To do so, don't
pause once you've definitely landed and are slowing down. Click on SITUATION in the menu
bar, and then highlight and click on INSTANT REPLAY. The simulation will pause by itself.
Next, click on the box opposite SECONDS OF REPLAY TO SHOW, type the maximum
seconds, and press RETURN.
While your approach and landing are being replayed, take the spot plane view. The side view
you set up when you saved the situation is the best for judging how you did. Note the attitude of
the aircraft in the early stages of descent, and watch for the point at which you flattened your
approach. Most important of all, watch to see how well you flared. (The “flare” is the pitching up
of the nose right before touchdown so that the aircraft lands on its main wheels, with the
nosewheel not impacting the runway.) When the plane is immediately above the runway, you
should see it level and then pitch slightly nose high, and “hang” above the pavement briefly,
virtually stalling when it finally settles on the runway.
You can replay the landing as many times as you like if the previous replay is paused. Try taking
the control tower (C) view on one replay, using the zoom view to watch yourself at various
ranges.
Remember that if you recall this situation later your altitude may be incorrect at the outset,
because of the simulator altitude discrepancies I discussed earlier. So, it's a good idea to record
in a “situation notebook” critical factors such as approach altitude or to note them on your
situation disk label so that you can restore the correct values. Otherwise, you'll be trying to
improve your procedures under a flawed set of circumstances.
My own altitude at the outset of FINAL IKK 22 /C, incidentally, was 1500 feet; your altitude can
be quite different. Your distance from the threshold, depending on how quickly you paused after
dropping your gear and the first 10 degrees of flaps, could be considerably different from mine.
You'll need to land many times, at IKK and other airports, before you'll be really skilled at it.
The specific distances and altitudes described for this approach were merely to give you a
general idea of the procedure—the best I could do from where I'm sitting. In actual practice, you
will need to handle every landing somewhat differently. You'll be correcting moment to moment
for your immediate situation. You'll depart from “standard” procedure often to suit situations.
Practice, and only practice, will make you proficient at landing. And, no amount of practice will
ever make any landing routine. That's part of the fun and the challenge.
Chapter 5
SOMETHING TO BITE INTO
It's high time you gave yourself another round of applause. Bravo! Consider how much you've
learned. When you began this book, the Cessna 182 simulator was simply a toy to you. Probably
you weren't really flying it—it was flying you around until it crashed. Now it's an airplane. And
you've come a long way toward learning to master it and fly it with skill and precision.
As a reward, I'll give you some time now in the Gates Learjet 25G. I know you're anxious to take
hold of that sleek, fast, powerful machine. And you'll see that much of what you've already
learned in the Cessna applies also to flying the Learjet.
Boot your simulator and load your first situation disk, unless it's already loaded. Then pause and
recall the situation you titled HLDNG IKK 22/C.
Click on FILE in the menu bar, and then highlight and click on JET.
You're not staying here at Kankakee. You only loaded the IKK situation to get your original
realism defaults and op neutral in place.
Now, click on NAV in the menu bar, and then click on POSITION SET.
Click on the box opposite AIRCRAFT NORTH, and type 15376.756. Opposite EAST, type
5808.4953, and set ALT to 0.0. (The fractional digits in the ALT value don't matter.) Put the
tower at NORTH 15375.000, EAST 5807.0000, and ALT 165.0000. Press RETURN and close
the window.
Unpause the situation. You're in your Learjet looking toward Runway 24R at Los Angeles
International Airport (airport code LAX), Los Angeles, California.
Pause again. Open the VIEW window, and set the spot plane to the rear of your aircraft at a
distance of 200 feet and an altitude of 20 feet. Set TRANSITION to FAST (if it's otherwise) and
close the window.
Open the ENVIRO window and set the season to FALL. Open it again and click on WINDS.
Click on the LEVEL 1 TOPS box and type 9000. Click on the BOT box and type 4000. Now,
click on the DIR box opposite LEVEL 1 and type 332. Click on the box opposite SPEED and
type 4. Under SURFACE WINDS AGL, type 4000 opposite DPTH, type 280 opposite DIR, and
type 6 opposite SPEED.
What you've done is to record that the surface winds are from the west (specifically, from 280
degrees) at six knots and that this condition prevails up to 4000 feet above ground level. From
4000 to 9000 feet AGL, the winds are from the northwest (332 degrees) at four knots. Pilots refer
to these upper-level winds as “winds aloft” to differentiate them from surface winds.
Close the WINDS window by clicking on the box at the upper left. (You may have to press
RETURN first.)
Confirm that your elevator trim is at op neutral.
Next, press S to establish the spot plane view; then press Q and save this situation as READY
LAX 24R/L.
Notice that your instrument panel is almost identical to the Cessna's panel, with two major
differences. The first is evident right away: Your airspeed indicator in the Gates Learjet 25G
reads in KTS TAS, meaning “Knots True Air-Speed,” and the speed calibrations are, of course,
much higher than those in the Cessna.
As you start to move, you'll notice the other difference: Your tachometer (the instrument labeled
RPM) will read the percentage of power you apply, in the range of 0% to 100%, rather than rpm
(as in the Cessna).
The panel preflight check for the Learjet is the same as for the Cessna 182. Now that you
understand the procedure, it can be simply stated as: true the DG, true the altimeter, confirm op
neutral, check carb heat off, confirm zoom factor 1.00, and check panel lights off. Go ahead and
do the panel preflight check.
You'll also prepare for takeoff now, because you're in position to depart.
The takeoff prep for the Lear is different from that for the Cessna: In Amiga/Atari, takeoff trim
for the Lear is two sets of six quick ups followed by one slow up. That means trim six quick ups,
pause, then trim another six quick ups, pause, and trim one more up. In the Mac, use the mouse
to trim up three marks above 0 VSI (see detail).
Detail of Macintosh elevator trim for takeoff (Gates Learjet 25G)
Trim for takeoff now and extend your flaps 10 degrees. (You set flaps for takeoff the same in the
Lear as in the Cessna.)
Set the time to 08:00:nn. (The seconds don't matter, so let them remain as they are.) You set time
in the TIME window exactly as you change frequencies in the COM and NAV windows, by
clicking on the left or right digits in each segment.
The following procedures are most important before you take off on this flight:
Tune NAV 1 to a frequency of 109.40.
Tune NAV 2 to a frequency of 112.60.
(As mentioned earlier, for simplicity's sake I don't write these frequencies out as, for example,
“one zero nine point four zero.” But I want you to think of them in that form and say them to
yourself as you read. For a pronunciation guide, see the table listed under “Phonetic alphabet” in
the Glossary.)
Unpause now, and practice stopping and restarting your engine. The procedure is the same as for
the Cessna. Cycle with the 1 key to shut down and with the 2 key to start up again.
Your takeoff procedure for the Lear will be the same as in the Cessna, except that you will rotate
at 115 knots instead of at 70 knots.
Switch to your out-the-windshield view, use a little throttle to taxi forward, and line up, steering
with the rudder exactly as you did in the Cessna.
Open your throttle all the way and continue to steer with your rudder pedals.
Rotate at 115 knots (needle between 100 and 130).
Retract your gear as soon as you are airborne.
Cancel your rotation pressure and dump your flaps.
Back off your throttle to 84% power in Amiga/Atari or to 72% power in Mac.
(Power/performance discrepancy between the versions is considerable.)
Downtrim gradually so that you reach and maintain a 500 fpm climb reading on your VSI. You'll
discover that, compared with the Cessna, you can trim down rather quickly in the Lear.
As you trim, begin a standard-rate turn to the right (you don't need back pressure when you're
climbing) to a compass heading of 335 degrees. Use the turn coordinator to establish the correct
bank.
Continue downtrimming in a steady and deliberate manner. Your trim objective, as in the
Cessna, is operational neutral.
Start rolling out of the turn when your compass reads about 315 degrees. After you neutralize to
level your wings, use rudder to get a heading of precisely 335 degrees.
You'll probably still be able to see some of the Verdugo Mountain range off to your right. (Take
right-side views with the Y, H, and N keys, which produce views at 45, 90, and 135 degrees,
respectively.) The Verdugo Mountains are northeast of Burbank. The near highway, almost
paralleling your course, is Interstate 405, locally called the San Diego Freeway.
Your cruising altitude will be 7500 feet. When you're 300 feet below that altitude, begin to
reduce throttle, setting it for 76% power in Amiga/Atari or for 62% power in the Mac. In the
Mac, you'll fine-tune your trim at altitude for straight and level flight at the 62% power setting.
As you trim down toward op neutral, your airspeed will climb steadily, finally settling at
approximately 400 knots.
When you are trimmed to op neutral, use power to maintain your 500 fpm climb (if you're still
below cruise altitude) or to zero your VSI (if you're at your cruise altitude). Don't rush. This is a
big machine, and it takes time to coax a reaction from it. If you change power by too large a
degree, the reaction—when it happens—will be greater than you wanted, and you'll have to
correct in the opposite direction.
You'll have a little time on this flight, though surprisingly little, to get used to the Learjet.
Believe it or not, we're en route to San Francisco.
Pause for a moment to read the next few paragraphs. (Note that when you pause your clock
doesn't stop, so you really won't have an accurate measure of the time this trip will take or the
true elapsed time of any trip during which you pause. In later flights we'll try to avoid pauses, but
at present they're necessary for instructional purposes.)
A little trick in altitude management, particularly effective in the Learjet, is to “nudge” the nose
of the aircraft up or down when it seems to be hanging just below or just above 0 VSI and when
you're approximately at your desired altitude. You do this by applying a notch of pressure,
forward or backward, on the yoke, depending on whether the VSI is “hung” in a slight climb or a
slight descent. Then when the VSI zeros, respond with a notch of pressure in the opposite
direction.
However, if you find that you are climbing or descending inordinately, your power setting is too
high or too low. Change it—a notch at a time—to get the result you want. Power, ultimately,
gives you the most precise control.
Now, about the flight plan: Your present compass heading should be 335 degrees. You are flying
on this heading to a point on the San Francisco and Oakland Area Chart where the Visalia and
Panoche VORs intersect. Visalia and Panoche—and all VOR stations covered by your San
Francisco and Oakland Area Chart—will be out of range for a while. A lot of geography (and
many VOR stations) lies between here and San Francisco but is not covered in the simulation. If
your OBI 1 has been reading FROM, it's identifying the Santa Ana VOR, south of Los Angeles
at John Wayne (Orange County) Airport. Santa Ana has the same VOR frequency as Visalia in
northern California—109.40. Your OBI 1 will soon turn to OFF as you depart the Los Angeles
chart area.
Learjet speeds make long trips easy, and northern California will turn on in the simulation before
you know it.
What you'll do is fly your present heading until your disk drive whirs, you see some signs of
civilization out your windshield, and both your OBIs suddenly become active. At that point
you'll pause, and I'll show you how to determine your exact position.
Unpause now and continue the flight. Remember that your basic power setting for this cruising
altitude is 76% in the Amiga/Atari or 62% in the Mac. But, use the power you need to do the job;
for example, you may be at a slightly lower or higher power setting for fairly long stretches until
everything is balanced. Wait for the aircraft to settle down, and don't chase the needles.
Remember that, after you've climbed to 7500 feet, you want to maintain that altitude and stay on
a compass heading of 335.
Look behind you (use the B key) and see if the Los Angeles area is still visible.
Scan your primary instruments on the left side of your panel regularly. And, as regularly, check
for any sign of action in your OBI 1 window.
Nothing will be visible out your windshield for a while, except sky and ground.
In the meantime, true your DG and your altimeter.
As you fly, open the VIEW window, set the spot plane off your right wingtip, and change its
altitude to zero. Then you can use the S key to see what you look like in the Lear-jet, flying
straight and level. (I hope!)
When your disk drive whirs and you see metropolitan areas and a highway ahead, your OBIs will
both become active. At that point, pause the simulation. Three cheers! You've entered the San
Francisco chart area.
One of the cities ahead of you is Fresno, California, though I can't determine which, because the
city/highway relationship (if the highway is Interstate 5, which is probable) does not match any
of my place references. Off your right wingtip, perhaps partially hidden by the wing, is Visalia,
California, and its airport.
The disk access probably changed your compass heading somewhat because you were entering a
new simulator area, but that poses no problems.
If you don't see the geographic features I've been describing, you may have turned to your
heading a bit late after departing Los Angeles International. In any event, I'll now show you a
technique for determining your exact position on the San Francisco and Oakland Area Chart.
Adjust the OBI 1 knob to center the needle with a TO reading. Adjust the OBI 2 knob to do the
same.
The numbers that appear in the OBI course windows indicate the radials to the Visalia (OBI 1)
and Panoche (OBI 2) VORs on which you are currently situated. Your NAV radios are tuned to
the respective frequencies of those stations. Your exact position is where the two radials
intersect. You can find this position on the chart using a pencil and a straightedge. Draw a line to
intersect the Visalia TO radial you are on, as read on the perimeter of the Visalia compass rose,
and the center of that compass rose. Extend the line to the bottom border of the chart. Draw
another line to intersect the Panoche TO radial you are on, the center of the Panoche compass
rose, and the first line you drew.
The intersection of the two lines is your exact location. In my flight (I fly, of course, while I'm
writing), I'm at the intersection of Visalia R308 and Panoche R280. If you're somewhere near
that position, your flight closely paralleled mine. If you're far from there (or, perhaps, don't know
where you are), open the NAV and POSITION SET windows, set your aircraft at NORTH
16305.569 and EAST 5858.6279, and then close the window. Now you'll see the highway and
metropolitan areas I've been talking about. And you're ready for the next stage of this flight.
Before you continue, however, save the present situation as VIS-PAN INT /L, which means that
you're at the Visalia and Panoche VOR intersection. If you have to quit the simulation for now,
then save to disk as usual. When you reboot, however, remember that you'll probably have to
reset your NAV radios and their associated OBIs.
Because you've saved this moment of the flight, you can recall it as often as you like to practice
turning at an intersection and tracking a specific VOR radial. That's what you're going to do now.
Before you unpause, I'll describe the procedure:
You will fly radial 295 to the Panoche VOR station. If you put a straightedge along that radial,
you'll see that it points from your present position toward Runways 28R and 28L at San
Francisco International Airport (SFO). (By the way, these runways are incorrectly oriented on
the enlarged section of the San Francisco and Oakland Area Chart, as you'll see if you compare
the two sides.) Because the surface winds are from the west, your ultimate landing will be on
28L. Whenever possible, aircraft are landed into the wind; thus, you can determine which
runway is active at an airport if you know the wind direction. The wind isn't always a straight-on
headwind, as it is today, so you'll often have to make crosswind landings. But always land into
the wind to whatever degree is possible.
When you're within range of SFO, you'll switch to a radial of the San Francisco VOR and track it
all the way in.
You're through with the Visalia VOR, so tune NAV 1 to the Panoche VOR frequency, 112.6.
This frequency will give you a DME readout when you're within range. NAV 2 has no associated
DME, so you'll use NAV 1 as your primary navigation radio.
Tune NAV 2 to 115.8, the San Francisco VOR frequency. When the OBI turns on, you'll know
you're in range.
Next (this is important), crank in the 295 radial on OBI 1. When you unpause, you're going to
turn left immediately to fly to and intercept that radial. Until now, you've used the magnetic
compass as a heading indicator to make such turns. And perhaps you've wondered about the
value of your directional gyro, or DG, which usually drifts (and seems redundant, considering
that you have a compass).
But you may also have noticed that the compass lags considerably when you turn. You may
think you're rolling out on the right heading, but the compass keeps spinning around and has to
settle down before you know where you're actually pointed.
This is where the DG shines. It will show your correct heading at every stage of your turn,
moment to moment, with no lag and with no settling-down time needed. You'll use the DG on
your turn from your present heading to your intercept course, which will be 245 degrees. This
course represents a 50-degree “bite” for reaching R295, which you'll intercept at a 45-degree
angle. I'll explain “bites” later in this chapter. For now, be sure the OBI is set for 295 degrees.
And true the DG so that it agrees with your present compass heading.
Unpause now, apply a little back pressure to hold your altitude, and make a standard-rate left
turn to a heading of 245 degrees. If you need more back pressure to hold your altitude in the turn,
use it. When you roll out, gradually take off the pressure you applied. Correct your heading as
necessary, using rudder.
The radials are wide apart this far from Panoche VOR, so it will take you a few minutes to fly to
R295. When you're a needle's width from it, turn directly to a compass (or DG, if it's trued)
heading of 295. The needle should be centered when you're on that heading. As you fly, the
needle may move away from center. Correct to bring it back, using your rudder.
Now, you're going to make the transition to slowflight, which in the Learjet means an airspeed of
about 200 knots. It's very convenient to be able to slowfly the Lear, because at your usual speed
of 400 knots everything happens awfully fast. It happens fast at 200 knots too, but you have
twice as much time to think.
The transition to slowflight in your jet involves the same procedure as in the Cessna. First, put on
your carb heat, and then gradually trim to slowflight neutral (same position as in the Cessna)
while reducing power to 58%-60% (Amiga/Atari) or 54% (Mac); these are approximate figures
to get you into the correct general range. Maintain your present altitude by alternating uptrim and
power reduction. Try to maintain a 0 VSI rate. If you can't maintain that rate exactly, average it.
Your objective is straight and level slowflight at 200 knots, with your elevator trimmed up to the
slowflight position, so check your trim indicator frequently as you make the transition. Once
you're trimmed for slowflight, use your throttle to get to and maintain your altitude at 7500 feet.
Your DME will turn on as you fly so that you'll know how far you are from the Panoche VOR
station.
Each dot across your OBI dial represents four degrees. If the needle moves, correct your heading
a few degrees in the same direction, following the needle's movements until it centers again. As
you get closer to Panoche, you'll be fine-tuning your adherence to the radial. When you fly a
radial, the OBI needle is your primary directional reference; your compass and DG headings are
secondary. It is vital to your flying proficiency that you learn how to hold a heading and, in the
present case, to fly the needle, keeping it centered. Don't fix your eyes on it, but check it
regularly and correct as necessary. Wind direction plays a role in radial flying, as it does in all
flying, so your magnetic compass reading (and DG readings, with the DG trued) may not agree
with the radial bearing. But they will be in the same ballpark.
When you get close to Panoche, your OBI needle will depart radically from center. Ignore this—
VORs act unstable when you are close to them. Actually, the needle swings in the direction of
the VOR station as you pass close to it. Stay on your heading, and ignore the OBI if you're
within a few miles of the VOR station.
The needle will center when you're a few miles beyond the VOR station you've been tracking.
And then the OBI will read FROM because you are flying the identical radial away from the
station.
Continue to work to get and/or hold your 7500 feet of altitude. You'll need it.
After your disk drive whirs, indicating that the simulator is loading some new parameters and
some new scenery, the landscape will change radically. You'll see one or more mountains
immediately below you and some water off in the distance. After another disk access, you'll
probably be flying between two mountains and toward a body of water. In a moment, some
highways will streak across your course.
When the near mountain disappears from your windshield, reduce power to approximately 50%
in Amiga/Atari, 38%–40% in the Mac, or whatever is required to set up a descent rate of
approximately 500 fpm. Note that your airspeed remains virtually constant at 200 knots—a
consequence, as you know by now, of your trim procedure.
Tune NAV 1 to the same frequency as NAV 2, namely San Francisco VOR on 115.8. You'll see
that you're within range of the VOR station at San Francisco International.
Now, pause the simulation.
Your DME shows your distance from your destination.
Save this situation as INBND SFO 28L/L, because you intend to land on Runway 28L at San
Francisco International. Again, if you're shutting down completely at this point, save RAM to
disk as well. In fact, it's a good idea to save to disk each time you save to RAM, and then go on
flying. This will prevent inadvertently losing all your saved situations when you quit the
simulation.
You're going to track R281 to the San Francisco VOR because Runway 28L at SFO bears 281
degrees, and the VOR station is right on the airport. Runway numbers describe the approximate,
not the exact, bearing of airport runways, from 000 (360) degrees to 350 degrees in steps of 10
degrees; the final zero is dropped in the runway number. A runway bearing approximately north
is numbered Runway 36 (not 0). The numbers then continue around the compass rose, with
runways numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on, through 35. When you're on a runway and know that you're
lined up straight (your map helps you determine that), jot down the actual bearing in your flight
notebook for future reference.
I'm not implying that a given radial will line you up exactly with a runway of the same number,
even when the VOR is at the airport. Far from it. Only an ILS (Instrument Landing System)
approach, which is beyond the scope of this book, will do that. (I describe an ILS approach in
Flight Simulator Co-Pilot, Microsoft Press, 1986.) But if you're flying a distance out, tracking a
VOR station located at your destination airport, and flying in the direction from which the
landing will be executed, you might as well be on the radial that you know agrees with the
bearing of the runway. If you don't know the exact bearing, fly the radial that agrees with the
runway number. Approaching an airport from a direction other than the landing direction calls
for other techniques, which we'll explore later.
Both of your NAVs are now tuned to the San Francisco VOR on a frequency of 115.80. Use the
selector knob on OBI 2 to center its needle. The OBI 2 readout then indicates which radial you
are on at present. On OBI 1, select the radial you want to fly, 281, and then check your present
compass heading.
These three items of information—the radial you're currently on, the radial you want to fly, and
your present compass heading—tell you what you must do to get the result you want. Knowing
which radial you're on, you must take a “cut,” or “bite,” toward the radial on which you want to
fly, using your compass (or your trued DG) as a guide throughout the maneuver.
In my “prototype” flight, OBI 2 tells me that I'm now flying on R276. OBI 1, of course, is set to
281. My compass heading is 297 degrees.
Remember the wheel and spoke analogy. The wheel has 360 spokes. You're on one of the
spokes, flying toward the hub. You want to fly on spoke 281, which is either to your left or your
right. In my case, because I'm on spoke 276 and flying toward the hub, spoke 281 is to my left.
How far to my left depends on my distance from the hub, because the distance between spokes
increases, of course, the farther from the hub I am.
At my present distance, 30 nm on my DME, I'll take a 30-degree bite to expedite the radial
change. Otherwise, at Learjet speeds, I'd be over San Francisco Bay before I got organized.
The maximum bite is 90 degrees, which I'd use if I were much farther from either the San
Francisco VOR or the radial I want to fly. Here's a simple rule for the maximum bite and thus for
the fastest radial change: To intercept a given radial at a 90-degree angle, add 90 to the radial
number if it's to your right or subtract 90 from the radial number if it's to your left; then, fly the
resultant heading until intercept.
Substitute your planned angle of intercept for 90, and the same formula applies for any bite—for
instance, the 30-degree bite I'll take. I want R281, which I know is to my left because I'm
inbound to the station on R276. 281–30 = 251. I'll turn left to a heading of about 251 degrees and
fly until the OBI 1 needle shows I'm coming up on R281. Then I'll turn right to a heading of 281
and fly the needle. A standard-rate turn, started a few degrees ahead of the radial at this distance
out, should work pretty well.
The exact size of the bite is not all-important. Many pilots regard 30 degrees as optimum. In
keeping with the formula, that would mean adding 30 degrees to the desired radial if it's to the
right or subtracting 30 degrees from the desired radial, as I did, if it's to the left. The smaller the
cut, the longer it will take to reach the radial you want and the longer it will take to effect the
change. But you'll also be that much closer to the station when you do reach the radial you want
to fly.
The closer you are to the station, the smaller the cut should be, simply because the radials are
closer together and a big cut means lots of aileron work in a short amount of time. Also, you're
usually not changing radials close to the station, but simply correcting to keep the needle
centered. Such corrections are usually a matter of two- or three-degree bites—not to a new
heading, but merely to keep the straying needle centered. For these bites you'll use your rudder.
Now, figure out the location of R281 from your present position. Recalling the wheel and spoke
analogy again, what's the number of the spoke you're on? (Its number appears in the top window
of OBI 2 when that OBI's needle is centered.) “Think” the 360-degree wheel and imagine
yourself on a spoke of it, facing the hub. Is spoke 281 to your right or to your left?
Whatever the direction of R281, you'll fly to intercept that radial at the angle you think will be
most efficient. True your DG before you begin, and use it so that you'll know your heading
moment to moment. A few degrees shy of the intercept, turn to a heading of 281 so that you're in
agreement with the radial course. Then fly the needle, continuing your descent.
When you're fairly stabilized on R281, pause and save your situation as R281 SFO 28L/L, and
save RAM to disk to be safe. Then you'll be ready to go on to the next chapter.
Chapter 6
HOT SHOT
If you shut down after the last chapter, then boot Flight Simulator, pause, load your situation
disk, and recall R281 SFO 28L /L. Remember that you were in slowflight, so be sure your carb
heat is ON. The aircraft should be descending at about 500 fpm. Be sure that NAV 1 is tuned to
San Francisco VOR, frequency 115.8, and that radial 281 is selected on your OBI. If you're
continuing from the last chapter, these parameters should be already in place.
Remembering that your slowflight airspeed in the Learjet is about 200 knots, check your DME
before you un-pause. You'll be on final for Runway 28L at SFO before you know it. A simple
formula for determining the approximate time to fly a given distance at a given speed is:
Time (Minutes) = 60 × Distance/Speed
My DME currently reads 19.4 nautical miles, which is my distance from SFO. That distance,
divided by my airspeed, 200 knots, is 0.097. If I multiply that total by 60, the result is 5.82, so I'll
be on my final approach in about six minutes.
My altitude, saved with this situation, is 3640 feet, and I'm in a 500 fpm descent. In order to be at
pattern altitude (about 1000 AGL) as I approach the airport, I have to lose 2640 feet of altitude,
because SFO's elevation is only 10 feet. At my present descent rate of 500 fpm, I'll be near
pattern altitude in about five minutes, so I'll continue that descent.
Check your own parameters, decide what descent rate you want to set up for the next stage of
your flight, and then unpause and go ahead with the approach.
Keep the OBI needle centered. If it wiggles to the right, correct with a little right rudder. When it
centers, correct back with about the same amount of rudder. If it drifts left, respond accordingly.
When you are approximately 10 miles from touchdown, you will note a disk access and then see
two little white lines sticking out from the far shoreline. They represent San Francisco's 28L and
28R.
When you see the lines, pause a moment.
Gear and flap procedures in the Learjet are similar to those in the Cessna, except that you
perform them much earlier when flying the Lear because you're traveling at a much higher speed.
You'll start when your DME reads 6 nm.
Before you drop your gear, increase throttle for a reading of about 48% power in the Mac or 58%
in Amiga/Atari to offset the drag. Then extend your flaps 10 degrees (] key). Judge your distance
from the runway visually and, keeping an eye on your altimeter, trim up to approach neutral
exactly as you did in the Cessna.
Then, again using your best judgment (don't start too early), add the rest of your flaps 10 degrees
at a time. Precede each of the three additional extensions with forward pressure on the yoke.
Thereafter, use whatever pressures and power changes the situation calls for, and fine-tune your
final approach until you are on the ground.
Unpause now, and when your DME reads 6 nm drop your gear and put on 10 degrees of flaps.
Then, continue with your approach as described above. Use the visual lie of Runway 28L instead
of the OBI needle as your directional reference, and use rudder to line up with it.
On the final approach, as in the Cessna, reduce power at a rate that keeps the runway centered in
your windshield. If it moves up, either apply a little power or wait until it's centered again,
depending on the rate at which it moves. When the runway is about at windshield center, wait.
When it starts to move down, reduce power at whatever rate matches its movement. Keep the
threshold as motionless as possible, barely below center.
Flatten your descent, when appropriate, with back pressure, and increase or decrease power to
suit your relationship to the runway. Use back pressure to flare. Then, apply slow and regular
back pressure to keep the airplane flying until the wheels touch.
In the landing roll, cut your throttle and let the aircraft slow down. Use your brakes if necessary.
When you're at a safe speed to do so, turn left off the runway (there is no specific taxiway) to
clear it for aircraft operating behind you.
The present situation, R281 SFO 28L /L, is a beauty for practicing landing approaches in your
Learjet. You begin in slowflight with the rest of the operation still to come. You can practice
hewing to the OBI needle, performing the gear and flap procedure, aligning yourself with the
runway, trimming to approach neutral, and controlling the aircraft's descent to touchdown. I
doubt that any arcade game in the world is as challenging—and at the last, literally thrilling—as
this landing approach in the Lear.
Use INSTANT REPLAY to see how you looked, and analyze your final approach and
touchdown. For the best view, set the spot plane 200 feet off your right or left wingtip at 0
altitude.
Don't let failures discourage you. Real-life pilots practice landings again and again to get them
right. And every landing is different. You'll get sharper each time you execute one. Old-time
instructors used to tell students, “Any landing you can walk away from is a good landing.”
But really good landings—particularly at the Learjet's high speeds—are far from easy. As I've
said before, simulator landings are tougher, in many ways, than those in the prototype aircraft. I
think you can see now—with the precision and nearly simultaneous control of throttle, elevator,
and rudder required—you want all the exacting techniques you can muster. No satisfaction in the
whole simulator world tops that of putting the Learjet down over the runway threshold, “on the
numbers,” and under absolute control all the way.
Chapter 7
CONTACT
Your next flight will begin at a scenic airport in the San Francisco Bay Area. To move to it with
your realism factors intact, recall RAMP IKK 22 /C. Click on NAV and then POSITION SET,
and make the following changes:
Set AIRCRAFT NORTH to 17219.448, EAST to 5135.1521, and ALT to 0.0.
Set TOWER NORTH to 17218.000, EAST to 5136.0000, and ALT to 40.0000.
Press RETURN and then close the window.
The simulator transports you to Moffett Field NAS (Naval Air Station) in Mountain View,
California, northwest of San Jose at the south end of San Francisco Bay.
Take the control tower view (C key) and see how the hangar dwarfs your Cessna. (If the tower
view doesn't look right, recheck the tower altitude.) Set the zoom factor to 0.50, and you'll see
three such giant structures on Moffett Field. I have it from a correspondent friend and fellow
simulator pilot, Lt. Comdr. Robert Irving, USN (Ret.) of North-ridge, California, that these are
actually old blimp hangars, which explains their mammoth dimensions.
Switch to the spot plane view again, and open the ENVIRO menu. Highlight and click on
SUMMER. Reopen ENVIRO, click on WINDS, and set the SURFACE WINDS to 150 degrees
at 4 knots. Leave the depth at 3000 feet. Press RETURN and close the window.
Set your panel clock to 6:00 a.m. (we're no slouches), and then press Q and save this tiedown
situation as PRKD MOF NAS /C. PRKD, of course, is an abbreviation for “PARKED.” This is
your own private tiedown at Moffett. Anytime you fly to or from this airport, you'll park or find
your Cessna here.
Unpause now and run through your panel preflight check: True the altimeter and DG, and check
op neutral, carb heat OFF, zoom 1.00, and panel lights OFF.
Taxi through the blimp hangar for the fun of it. Runway 14L is to your left. Access your map
temporarily to see the exact lie of the runway.
Use your rudder (nosewheel) to steer. And alternate between spot plane and out-front views as
you taxi. The hangar is high enough that the roof won't obscure your spot plane's view.
As you emerge from the hangar, veer slightly to your left and parallel the runway until you're
past it; then, turn the aircraft around, cut your throttle, apply your brakes, and hold short of the
threshold.
You probably have a nice scene on your screen from the spot plane viewpoint, with the runway
ahead of you, the three blimp hangars in the distance, and Monte Bello Ridge to your right. Taxi
around, if necessary, to get in an aesthetically pleasing position with the spot plane view enabled.
Then save the situation so that you can make a quick takeoff from Moffett NAS whenever the
wind is from the south quadrant. Save it as POSIT MOF 14L/C, because you're in position for
takeoff.
Prepare for takeoff as usual, trimming your elevator and extending your flaps 10 degrees. If your
flight plan called for tracking one or more VOR radials to a particular destination, you would
also need to tune your NAV and select your OBI course. But this morning you're going to fly
“contact,” or fly by reference to visual landmarks, topographical features, and bodies of water—
anything that tells you where you are and keeps you headed in the right direction. In the early
days of aviation, no VORs, ADFs (Automatic Direction Finders), or other navigational aids
existed—only magnetic compasses. Pilots—even early airmail pilots—used road maps to
determine their routes. You'll still see some barns, water towers, and other buildings in the U.S.
countryside with the names of towns painted on them. Such signs helped pilots figure out where
they were. Even today, they are very useful because many light planes are not as handsomely
equipped as the one you're flying. Indeed, student pilots learn to fly contact first, although they
use regularly updated Sectional Aeronautical Charts (similar to the charts provided with your
Flight Simulator documentation, though much more detailed) rather than road maps. Students
learning to fly “cross-country” (or anywhere other than around a local airport area) spend most
of their time trying to either identify “checkpoints” on the ground or figure out which highway is
which.
This morning you'll get a taste of contact flying.
Be sure you've switched to the out-the-windshield view and go ahead with your takeoff,
remembering all you've learned: Rotate at 70 knots, retract your gear when you're airborne,
cancel the rotation pressure, zero the flaps—always in that order.
Move it.
When you're climbing, power back to 2100 rpm (Amiga/Atari) or 1750 rpm (Mac), and start
trimming down gradually to op neutral, maintaining a 500-fpm climb as closely as possible.
You'll know you're trimming well if you're at op neutral by the time your altimeter registers 1000
to 1300 feet. Occasionally, though not often, the simulator “slips” a few notches below op
neutral when you're almost there. Unless you caused it by trimming too fast, this isn't your fault;
it's a simulator phenomenon. Trim back up to the correct position.
Continue climbing toward cruising altitude, which this morning is 2500 feet.
As you climb, get familiar with your view keys—the R, T, Y, F, G, H, V, B, and N keys. These
keys form a square on your keyboard. If you put the first three fingers of your left hand on F, G,
and H (the “basic view position”) you have quick access to all out-the-cockpit views. T gives
you the forward, or out-the-windshield, view; G, the straight down, or “ground,” view; and B,
the view 180 degrees back—all pressed with your middle finger. Pivot your first finger to press
Y, H, and N, which give you, respectively, 45-, 90-, and 135-degree views to the right. Your
third finger provides the same views out the left side of the aircraft.
We'll take some views as we fly, including some fairly critical ones, shortly.
The highways that intersect slightly left of your course (out-the-windshield view) are Bayshore
Freeway, sweeping in from your right, and Sinclair Freeway. The highways meet in Sunnyvale,
California. Nimitz Freeway is left of the intersection.
Behind you (direct rear view), you can still probably make out the runways at Moffett, at the
southern end of San Francisco Bay.
When the intersection disappears off the bottom left edge of your windshield, make a standard-
rate left turn as you climb to a heading of about 65 degrees or until you see buildings directly
ahead. That's downtown San Jose, California. The hills in the background are Mt. Hamilton
and—beyond—Copernicus. Mt. Hamilton boasts the Lick Observatory on its highest peak at the
southern end. Directly out the left side of the plane (90-degree view) you can probably spot San
Jose International Airport. It's the only airport in the Bay Area with three parallel runways.
You'll see more of it as you progress through this book.
The highways that divide your windshield horizontally are Nimitz Freeway, the closer of the
two, and Interstate 680. Nimitz Freeway skirts the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay.
When you have a chance, take a straight-down view and watch the buildings of San Jose pass
under you.
You're most likely at cruising altitude (2500 feet) by now, or you will be shortly. Remember, all
you need to level off is a power reduction. For altitudes between 2500 and 4500 feet, set your
power initially to 2000 rpm in the Amiga and Atari, and in the Mac, set the throttle position
indicator even with the bottom of the N on NAV 2.
When all the highways have disappeared under you, use a notch of back pressure to hold your
altitude and then turn right to a heading of about 127 degrees. You should be pointed a little to
the right of the foot of Mt. Hamilton. The Lick Observatory is on the last peak at 4213 feet. All
your left side views show different aspects of Mt. Hamilton and Copernicus as you fly past.
When the last peak of Mt. Hamilton is off your left wing tip (90-degree view), pause and save
your situation (the last one the buffer can hold) as VALLEY GAMBIT/C. You're going to do
some tricky flying in the next few minutes, and if you crash, you can try again.
Now, save RAM to disk so that all 12 situations you've created so far will be preserved intact.
Unpause, keep your 90-degree view, and use your turn-and-bank indicator to enter a gentle turn
to the left, using an approximate 10-degree bank (halfway between the wings-level and standard
20-degree dots on the turn indicator). You are going to fly carefully around the slopes of Mt.
Hamilton, using your views to tell you where you are and how you're doing. As you turn, use the
45-degree and straight-ahead views. Don't hit the mountain! You can use your map view, too, to
orient yourself.
Once you're clear of Mt. Hamilton, fly between it and Copernicus. Zoom your map view to
check your exact position; otherwise, you may fly right into Copernicus. The final turn up the
valley is critical; note that the mountains are quite close together at the midpoint, where
Copernicus juts out. Vary your degree of bank and rate of turn as needed. You do have enough
room to turn and fly up the valley if you exercise judgment and fly carefully. But you may have
to practice this situation a few times to get it right. Sometimes, you'll be sure you have it made,
but the simulator will disagree. Remember that the mountains are massive, and parts of the
slopes are at your altitude all the way through the valley. Your safest course is to stay in the
center of the valley, as defined by the mountains, to the greatest extent possible. (The map is not
a reliable guide to the exact relationship of your wings to the mountain slopes because the plus
sign representing your aircraft doesn't vary in size to match the zoom factor. Indeed, this flight is
tricky in more ways than one.)
If you need to practice again, drag the map to a corner of the screen so that it doesn't obstruct
your forward view. Position the mouse cursor at the top center of the map, hold the button down,
and move the map to where you want it.
When you're safely through the gorge, the body of water ahead of you is Calaveras Reservoir. As
you pass over it, you'll leave Santa Clara County and enter Alameda County. The metropolitan
area northwest of the reservoir is Fremont, California, which also encompasses the city of
Newark. Point your aircraft to fly over the approximate center of these cities. If you are flying
the Amiga or Atari, I'll show you a neat little viewing trick to use as you fly.
Part of a pilot's job while flying is to scan the sky and the ground in all directions—in between
scanning the instrument panel. “Keep your head on a swivel,” as instructors say. And Amigans
and Atarians can use the four arrow keys to pan. Press any one of them a few times and watch
what happens.
The top arrow “swivels your head” downward, the bottom arrow swivels it upward, and the left
and right arrows swivel it in those respective directions. You can use the left or right arrow to
“turn your head completely around” until you're looking toward the front again. With the up and
down arrows you can actually “loop” through 360 degrees, beginning with either an up or down
direction. These panning keys are great devices for looking a little to the left, right, up, or down.
But they would be confusing if you couldn't resume your normal view again. And you can. One
press of the DEL key in the Amiga or the Ctrl-Home key in the Atari undoes whatever panning
you've done and restores your original perspective. The panning keys let you search a landscape
with great precision. Remember to reset the pan when you're finished, or you may be looking in
an irrelevant, not to mention disastrous, direction as you fly.
Your regular zoom also can be finely adjusted (on the Amiga and Atari only), by using the + and
- keys. And you can always restore the basic zoom factor of 1.00 by pressing the Backspace key.
This is true no matter which window you're in. As you know, you should always have the zoom
factor set to 1.00 for critical maneuvers such as takeoffs and landings. It's a good idea in any
flight configuration to standardize on zoom 1.00 and use other factors only as and when you
need them. Then press the Backspace key to restore the standard zoom factor.
Another feature you can play with while you fly is the HELP key on the Amiga or Atari and the
Command-? keys on the Mac. When you press these keys, a curious little triangle replaces the
mouse cursor. Position the triangle over any instrument about which you have a question
(including the sky itself), and click the mouse button. A message appears on the screen, which
you can turn off by clicking on the box in the message window. When you close a HELP
message window, the regular mouse cursor is restored. (While you're experimenting, don't miss
the HELP message for the instrument named XPANDR on the Amiga and Atari or TRNSP on
the Mac, on the extreme right of your panel.)
Have you been scanning your instruments as you fly? How's your altitude—is it where it ought
to be? When did you last true the altimeter? And the DG? When anything is wrong, such as your
altitude or your trim, take immediate action to correct it. Your cruise altitude this morning is
2500 feet.
Almost straight ahead is what looks like a runway in the middle of San Francisco Bay. Runway
11/29 at Oakland International Airport is a good landmark because it seems to sit out in the
middle of the water. Actually, it is out in the bay, but you can reach it by a strip of land
southwest of the city of Oakland. When you're closer, you'll see that strip of land as well as the
runway because both will take on real dimensions. Until this happens, point straight for the
runway. You're not going to land at Oakland on this flight. But use the moment that the airport
becomes three-dimensional as a signal to begin your next maneuver.
At the signal, enjoy the three-dimensional view for a second, and then turn left, the long way
around, to a heading of 140 degrees. Did you remember to hold your altitude with back pressure
while you turned?
You should be level soon enough to see a bridge pass under your nose. The San Mateo-Hayward
Bridge links towns of the same names across the bay. Hayward is on the east shore.
Returning for a moment to the question of applying back pressure during a turn: If you forget to
apply that notch of pressure, the aircraft usually starts a descent. It's not too late to add the back
pressure to counteract the descent. The DOWN indication on your VSI thus serves as a mild
rebuke as well as a reminder.
As you may have guessed, you're now heading back to Moffett NAS at the southern tip of San
Francisco Bay.
Pause for a moment and let me discuss something.
All this time you've been flying “contact,” as described earlier. If you had to do it all again—take
off from Moffett NAS, climb to 2500 feet while flying toward Mt. Hamilton, fly toward the
mountain peak and Lick Observatory, circle left around Mt. Hamilton, fly the gorge between it
and Copernicus, fly toward Calaveras Reservoir and over the center of the Fremont/Newark
metropolitan area, and turn left to a heading of 140 when Runway 11/29 at Oakland International
becomes three-dimensional—you could do it without me and without any reference to VORs,
ADFs, radios, or anything else except what your eyes told you. That's contact flying. All that's
required to fly contact is a good sense of direction and a knowledge of the major landmarks of
the area you're flying over. Every landmark is a checkpoint along the way. When you learn to
think about which direction you're flying and to recognize the landmarks, you'll be able to take
off and “pleasure fly” all over an area, always knowing where you are and which way is home.
Unpause now, and continue flying straight ahead. I can't tell you exactly how to line up with
Runway 14 at Moffett, but I don't have to. In this particular situation, because you're over the
approximate center of the bay and heading 140 degrees (the runway heading), Moffett will be
visible when you get close, and that's all you need. Remember the blimp hangars? They're what
make Moffett NAS distinctive as seen from the air—exactly as San Jose International's three
parallel runways and Oakland International's runway in the middle of the bay mark those
airports. Right after the disk access, you'll see two landmarks in the foreground of your flight
path: The Dumbarton Bridge, crossing the bay at its narrowest point, and (beyond the bridge) the
Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct, which runs eastward for miles. All these facts are significant:
Dumbarton Bridge, narrowest point of the bay, Hetch Hetchy. The bridge is the southernmost
bridge crossing the bay, immediately recognizable because of the narrowness of the crossing and
the adjacency of Hetch Hetchy. This is the way I want you to learn to “think” contact flying.
Just below the aqueduct, on the west shore, is Palo Alto Airport. And out your right side you
should see San Carlos Airport. Both airports have single-strip runways. Moffett has parallel
strips.
But I'm sure you see Moffett already, almost straight ahead where it ought to be. Presently you'll
have confirmation, because you'll see the blimp hangars.
Before that happens, however, get into slowflight for your approach to the airport. Do it in the
order you learned it: Turn carb heat on…gradually trim to slowflight neutral while reducing
power to hold close to a 0 VSI reading…and, when at slow neutral, use power for the descent
rate you want. Elevation at Moffett is only 11 feet MSL (although the chart says 34), so start
your descent and time it for what you see through your windshield.
When the runway at Palo Alto disappears off the bottom right edge of your windshield, add some
throttle and drop your gear, followed by 10 degrees of flaps. Then, trim up to approach neutral—
in the Mac, one mark plus one notch above 0 VSI; in Amiga/Atari, two full marks above op
neutral; and in either case, trim up in response to the downswings of the VSI needle.
Refine your approach with rudder and throttle. Plan to land on either 14R or 14L, whichever
suits your fancy.
Add the rest of your flaps (each 10 degrees preceded, remember, by two quick downs—or by
slight forward pressure in the Mac) to suit your approach configuration and your altitude.
Admire the blimp hangars on your way down.
If your flaps are fully extended and the runway threshold seems to move up your windshield, add
some power to arrest that movement. Then, reduce again when the runway is barely below center
at a rate that holds it there.
Remember to flatten your glide along the way and to flare. Sometimes you'll need more than the
usual back pressure to flare properly. That's fine. Use what you need to do the job.
At the last, keep the airplane flying as long as possible, a foot or so above the runway.
When you're down, try an instant replay. Set your spot plane off one wing or the other, and
watch your landing. You can also take a view from the control tower.
Finally, take off your carb heat, zero your flaps, taxi to your tiedown (on the left side of the field
at the south end of the closest blimp hangar), turn around so you're facing toward the runways,
and then shut down your engine.
Nice morning for flying, wasn't it?
Chapter 8
REGARDS TO BROADWAY
Your first situation disk should be full, so format two more blank disks before you fly any more
chapters. Plenty of room remains on the first disk, but Flight Simulator lets you save only 12
situations—one buffer's worth—per disk. If you try to save even one more situation on your first
disk, the first 12 will be erased in the process. I suggest that you now write-protect your first
completed disk.
However, because you'll use that first disk to set up your next flight, load it and recall READY
LAX 24R/L.
First, I want to show you how easy it is to switch from the Learjet to the Cessna. Simply click on
FILE in the menu bar, and then highlight and click on PROP. Talk about changing planes!
You'll change geography almost as quickly. You're going to transport the Cessna from the Los
Angeles to the New York area in seconds. Open the NAV window, click on POSITION SET,
and put the aircraft at NORTH 17357.889, EAST 21123.2490, and ALT 0.0. Position the control
tower at NORTH 17359.000, EAST 21120.0000, and ALT 500.0000; then, close the window.
Open ENVIRO and set the season to SUMMER. Open it again, and then highlight and click on
CLOUDS. This is the first time you've been in this window. In the LEVEL 1 section, click on the
TOPS box and type 9000. Move down and set the base at 7000. Note that the gauge on the left
side of the window correctly depicts the overcast with cloud tops at 9000 MSL and bottoms at
7000 MSL.
Close the window.
Again open ENVIRO and click on WINDS. Change SURFACE WINDS AGL DPTH to 7000.
Then, click on DIR opposite DPTH and type 340. Move down to SPEED and type 8. Close the
window.
You will save this situation under the title OVRCST DXR 35/C. However, you must first delete
at least one situation because the buffer is full. Because you saved all 12 of your first situations
on disk, you can safely delete everything in the buffer and start fresh. Click on SITUATION, and
then highlight and click on DELETE. Move the cursor to the top box of the files and click
repeatedly until you remove all files. Then, close the window.
Now, with the spot plane view enabled, save the current situation as OVRCST DXR 35/C. DXR
is the code for the airport you're at: Danbury Municipal in Danbury, Connecticut. The runway
you're positioned for is Runway 35.
Take the control tower view and see what you look like. The tower at Danbury is there only
because you put it there. When no tower is available to call for weather information, such as at
this airport, simply call the nearest tower where you can get a weather report.
Look at your New York and Boston Area Chart, and find Igor I. Sikorski Memorial Airport,
southeast of Danbury Municipal. Call the Sikorski tower on your COM radio and see what's
happening.
(If you're flying the Amiga or Atari, sometimes you have to close the tower message window by
clicking.)
Obviously, when you contact a tower at another airport, the runway numbers are likely to be
different. But since the active runway at Sikorsky is Runway 34, it's clear that you'd use 35 here
at Danbury, even if you didn't know the wind direction.
Do your panel preflight now, and then set your clock to 8:30. (The clock you have aboard, by the
way, is a 24-hour clock, so 8:30 is a.m. and 20:30 is 8:30 p.m.)
Check your chart again, and tune NAV 1 to La Guardia VOR. Center the needle on the
associated OBI, and you'll have the radial you're going to fly to New York City.
Prepare for takeoff and go ahead when you're ready. (When you're on the runway, you'll
probably want to use the out-front view from the cockpit, rather than the spot plane view.) Use
the Flight Checklist in Appendix B, if needed, to check procedures.
As you pass through 1000 feet altitude, turn left to the heading indicated on your OBI and then
track the needle.
If you're to the right of your course (OBI needle left of center) when you complete your turn,
take about a 10-degree cut toward the radial. This means fly on a heading of about 213 until the
needle centers, and then yaw right again to 223 and await developments.
Level off at a cruising altitude of 2700 feet.
The airport you'll fly over, as you can tell from the chart, is Westchester County, and the water
west of it is the Hudson River. To the left of your course is Long Island Sound, and further left is
Long Island itself with the Atlantic Ocean in the background. The highway streaking along the
shoreline is Interstate 95.
You'll probably find yourself correcting to the right to keep the OBI needle centered. Remember
that the wind is 340 degrees at 8 knots. It's coming from your right and behind you, pushing you
to the left, and you must counteract that push. The VOR radial is not affected by wind, of course.
To stay on the radial you've selected, you need to “crab” to the right, offsetting the effect of the
winds aloft.
Hold your altitude within 20 feet of 2700. Altitude is entirely your responsibility when you're
flying below 3000 feet. Above 3000, you must observe official altitudes. If your course is
eastward or due north, regulations require you to fly at odd thousands plus 500 feet—for
example, 3500, 5500, or 7500 feet. On a westward course or due south, the requirement is even
thousands plus 500, such as 4500, 6500, and so on. If you were flying above 3000 feet this
morning, you'd have no choice about altitude; you'd be flying at 4500 or 6500 feet.
As you fly, take some left side views of Long Island Sound and Long Island. And in the process
set the spot plane off your right wingtip at a distance of 100 feet and an altitude of 0. Then take
the spot plane view and see how straight and level you are.
At about 12 nm from La Guardia, you'll see its runways ahead of you. La Guardia isn't your
immediate destination; you simply used its VOR to track to the Manhattan area. Nevertheless,
continue on your present heading for now.
One of La Guardia's runways is 4/22, and your heading is almost perfect for a landing on
Runway 22. But you can't land on it today. The wind being from the west, La Guardia's active
runway this morning is Runway 31.
After your disk drive whirs, a blaze of light appears to the right of La Guardia. That's Manhattan!
Take over visually now and fly toward the center of the light. Yaw a little to the right, and you'll
be right on course.
The body of water flowing past La Guardia toward Manhattan is the East River. The water on the
far side of New York City is, of course, the Hudson. The two rivers come together as Upper New
York Bay and continue as Lower New York Bay until reaching the Atlantic Ocean.
At about 7 DME (or now, if you're already closer than that), get into slowflight so that the New
York sights won't go by too fast. Hold your altitude at 2700.
The three main north/south thoroughfares simulated in Manhattan are East River Drive (which is
called Franklin D. Roosevelt Drive when it's abreast midtown), Fifth Avenue, and Broadway.
The last two frame Central Park, which you can see.
Three landmark buildings are simulated: the Empire State Building, which is about 22 blocks
south of Central Park, and the World Trade Center twin towers, which are on the Hudson River
side almost at the foot of Manhattan Island.
Set a course to the left of the Empire State Building and with the twin towers approximately
straight ahead. The buildings become three-dimensional as you get closer. If you're flying Amiga
or Atari, here's a good chance to use your panning arrows. Pan the Empire State Building into the
center of your screen, and then pan down and to the right to keep it in view below you—literally
following the building with the arrows. Then, press DEL (CLR Home on the Atari), and follow a
similar procedure to get a good look at the World Trade Center towers.
But the best is yet to come. Ahead, that little white strip sticking out of the Hudson River is the
Statue of Liberty. Set a zoom factor of 4.00, and use the panning arrows to get and keep the
“lady” at the center of your screen. Track her with the arrows as she slowly becomes three-
dimensional. This will keep your fingers busy.
Use the DEL key (CLR Home on the Atari) and the Backspace key to restore your normal views
when you're beyond the statue.
Now, turn left to a heading of about 65 degrees so that New York's buildings are slightly left of
your course and La Guardia (visible in the distance) is slightly right. A bridge appears on the
landscape ahead of you, first identifiable as a group of eight or ten dots at the mouth of the East
River. The dots, by turn, become lines as the bridge takes on more realistic dimensions. Head to
fly straight over it.
The bridge is the Manhattan Bridge, connecting the borough of Brooklyn with the borough of
Manhattan across the East River. Like the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, this bridge is
one of the Flight Simulator's most dramatic features.
Set a zoom factor of 4.00, and (Amiga/Atari) again use your panning arrows to get and keep the
best possible views of the bridge at the center of your screen. If you're flying the Macintosh, take
a straight down view and watch the bridge pass under you. When you are beyond the bridge,
remember to restore your normal views.
Now, so that you can fly around the Manhattan area anytime you like, seeing the sights and
showing them to friends, pause and save your present situation as OVER NY @ 2.7/C. Then
save RAM to disk. The 2.7 will remind you that you're in the air, in flight, at 2700 feet.
Using what you've learned about navigation, you could elect to fly to any airport on your New
York and Boston Area Chart. You could tune any of numerous VOR stations shown on that
chart, center the OBI needle, and fly the resultant course direct. For airports out of range, you
could select one or more intermediate stations, and fly to your destination by stages. That's how
you navigate on long trips.
But with La Guardia looking so inviting, go ahead and land there for the experience.
With the wind from 340, Runway 31 has to be the active runway.
So now the question is: Which runway is Runway 31? If you can't figure it out immediately,
welcome to the group. Plenty of students, and advanced pilots too, find themselves faced with
the same problem as they approach a new airport. Try to decide which runway is Runway 31,
and then read on.
This situation, in a way, is a classic, because of your present position and heading. You're
heading approximately northeast with La Guardia almost straight ahead. So, isn't it likely that the
runway whose threshold is nearest is Runway 31? If you imagine the aircraft rotating to the left a
bit, you'd pass—in reference to the compass rose—360, or 0 degrees, and then be headed
somewhere in the 300s, wouldn't you?
But think again. To turn from your present heading (assuming it's about 60 degrees) to 310
degrees, you would rotate the aircraft's nose not just “a bit,” but through 110 degrees. That's a lot
of geography. If you figured out that Runway 13/31 is the strip crossing your path, which you're
approaching at almost a 90-degree angle, and that Runway 31 is the one pointing toward
Manhattan, you're right. Go to the head of the class.
If you were paused, unpause now, turn right to a heading of 130 degrees, and start a 500 fpm
descent to 1000 feet.
Look 90 degrees to your left, and you'll see you're flying parallel to Runway 13/31 on a compass
heading that is the reciprocal of the active runway. In aviation, this is called the “downwind leg.”
True your DG as you lose altitude. You'll use the DG for your next two turns, so you won't have
to worry about compass lag.
Keep the 90-degree left view until La Guardia is about to disappear from your screen, and then
switch to the out-front view and turn left to a heading of 40 degrees (use your DG). You may see
John F. Kennedy International Airport sweep past below.
When you're heading 40 degrees, you're on what is called the “base leg.” Notice that, in a left-
hand pattern such as the one you're flying, you turn 90 degrees from leg to leg. Base leg heading
is downwind leg heading minus 90.
Remember to add back your power and level off at 1000 feet.
Take a 90-degree view to the left again. When La Guardia is just ahead of your wingtip, make a
standard-rate left turn to a heading of 310 degrees. (This heading is the base leg heading minus
90 degrees, and it puts you on “final approach,” which is also the “upwind,” or takeoff, leg.)
Drop your gear, extend 10 degrees of flaps, and trim to approach neutral as usual; but, this time,
don't extend your flaps any farther. Land with only the 10 degrees you've applied. Use power to
meet the runway threshold in the normal manner, but keep your airspeed higher. With only 10
degrees of flaps extended, your stalling speed will be higher. The tower will appreciate your
expediting your landing, because a Delta Boeing 757 is on final behind you.
Chapter 9
POSITION IS EVERYTHING
Flight Simulator lets you position yourself anywhere in its world simply by setting NORTH and
EAST parameters in the POSITION SET window. Earlier, I used this feature to put you in your
Cessna on the ramp at Greater Kankakee Airport in Illinois…then in your Learjet adjacent to
Runway 24R at Los Angeles International…then in the Cessna again parked near one of the
blimp hangars at Moffett NAS in the San Francisco Bay Area…and most recently off the
threshold of Runway 35 at Danbury Municipal Airport, Danbury, Connecticut.
These positions don't just happen. I used a feature of the simulator—namely, SLEW—to find an
optimum location in each case. How did I get your aircraft pointed the way it was at each
airport? I didn't. You cannot set an aircraft heading in Flight Simulator. Instead, the simulator
sets an arbitrary “default” heading whenever you type new NORTH and EAST parameters. I had
to accept these default headings, hoping that they would be the same in your version of the
simulator. For each location, I slewed to the best position I could find in relation to the default
heading, and then I told you how to get there using the POSITION SET feature.
This process works, but is limited. Now that you're indoctrinated, I'll let you in on the act. So that
you can experience how it's done, we'll slew together to find an optimum position—and, this
time, a heading—at the next airport I've chosen: Issaquah, a private airport near Seattle.
First, as usual (to preserve your realism defaults), recall an on-the-ground situation: OVRCST
DXR 35/C.
Note the compass heading: about 332 degrees.
Now, use your Seattle Area Chart and find the north and east parameters for Issaquah Airport,
Issaquah, Washington. Before you “beam” yourself there, go into ENVIRO and clear up the
weather: Click on CLOUDS and change LEVEL 1 TOPS and BOTTOMS to 0. Exit the window.
Open the NAV and POSITION SET windows, and set the AIRCRAFT NORTH and EAST
parameters given on the chart: 21362.000 and 6668.0000. Set ALT to 0.0. Leave the TOWER
group alone for the present, and exit the window.
If the simulator has you standing on your ear, unpause to right yourself and then pause again.
Set the spot plane to a distance of 100 feet and an altitude of 10 feet.
Note that your heading has changed, probably to about 267—the default for the area. Access the
map, and set the zoom factor to 1.00, if it's not already. (Zoom is independent for each window,
including the map window.)
Your placement, crossways on the runway, is pretty illogical, isn't it? No one would park an
airplane here, and it's unlikely that you'd taxi it into this position for any reason. You can always
improve on the north and east positions given for an airport on the chart, and you can also turn
the aircraft to any desired new heading using the slew feature.
Click on NAV, and highlight and click on SLEW. Then unpause. (SLEW won't function if the
simulation is paused.) You're now in the slew mode, and your controls are those shown in your
manual's Navigation section under the heading (Amiga/Atari) “Getting Around in the World” or
(Macintosh) “Moving Around in the World.” If flying the Amiga or Atari, use the keyboard slew
controls; if flying the Macintosh, follow the instructions for slewing with the mouse.
The objective in positioning yourself at an airport is threefold: You want to be located
realistically, as you would be at an actual airport; you want to have an interesting scene on the
screen; and you want to be in good viewing position, able to see where the runways lie and able
to taxi to the active runway without hesitation.
Turn off the map for a moment, and take views to all sides of the aircraft.
See all those beautiful mountains! But the simulator has you with your back to them and in a
compromised position, blocking traffic.
Restore the map to the screen, and zoom to a factor of 4.00. A logical place for you to park
would be in that space at the top of the tarmac opposite the fuel station. And, logically, you'd be
turned around to see the mountains as well as the runway. It's worth a try.
But first, let's find out what the runway numbers are, because they are not in the chart or manual
(which would be a great help). You can check the runways (using slew controls and the map)
simply by initiating a left turn and observing the map until the runway is exactly vertical. Then,
press the stop (5) key (in the Mac, click the mouse) to freeze the picture.
Now, look at your magnetic compass. It reads a degree or two above 190, so the runways are
Runway 19 and its reciprocal (190 + 180, corrected to the 360-degree compass), Runway 1—the
latter bearing 10 degrees. This runway, like all others, will be referred to (lower number first) as
Runway 1/19. Jot “1/19” next to Issaquah on your chart, and make a note of it in your flight
notebook.
While you're pointed straight along Runway 19, let's have a little fun with the control tower
view. Turn off the map, slew forward, and taxi onto the grass just beyond the runway. Next, open
the NAV and POSITION SET windows. The AIRCRAFT numbers provide the exact NORTH
and EAST parameters of your present position. Copy those NORTH and EAST numbers to the
TOWER section, and be sure to include all the numbers after the decimal. The tower is now
positioned at the very end of the runway. From the tower you will be able to watch yourself take
off toward yourself.
Note that the correct altitude (or, because you're on the ground, the airport elevation) is in the
box titled AIRCRAFT ALT. A good altitude for tower viewing in the simulator is about 30 to 40
feet. So, add that to your altitude, and type in a TOWER ALT of 540 feet. Then, exit the
window, turn on the map, and slew to your parking position.
Slew backward along the runway until you're opposite the approximate center of the ramp
connecting the runway and the parking area. If the runway is black in your version, the + sign
that represents the aircraft won't be visible against it (1/19 at Issaquah, atypically, has no
centerline either), but you can judge it. Now, slew to the right across the ramp and parking area
until the right edge of the + sign appears against the grass. Refine your position by slewing as
required to position yourself about three-quarters of the way down the rectangle between the fuel
station and the grass.
Now, turn left until the aircraft is pointed to a magnetic compass heading of 103 degrees. Close
the map window, and take the spot plane view of yourself. (If the spot plane isn't behind you, set
it there.)
That's better but not as good as it could be. Try slewing backward until you see a little bit of
grass behind you and beyond the tarmac.
This position still doesn't give you a good idea of the lie of the runway. Look at your map again.
Maybe you should position yourself in front of the fuel station? Try it. Turn off the map and
keep the spot plane view. Slew right to the center of the fuel station, then forward until you can't
see any part of the fuel station. Now, turn left for a compass heading of 10 degrees, paralleling
the heading of Runway 1.
Your position is a little better, but you're not there yet. Try moving right (not turning right; use
the key listed under “Movement” in the table in your manual) until you're in the center of the
thin strip of grass between the runway and the tarmac.
This new location provides a good feel for the runway to your right, but you can't tell whether
the surface to the left is also a runway.
Use the right turn key (if you're flying the Mac, use the mouse), and slew the airplane through a
360-degree circle, watching carefully for what might offer a good scenic view as well as a
logical alignment. Stop turning when you're facing as you were originally, heading about 10
degrees.
Try slewing backward until a portion of the fuel station comes into view along with the border of
the tarmac. That view should confirm that the tarmac isn't a runway.
Good. But can you further improve your position?
Move left (movement key) until you're a few yards inside the tarmac. If your wheels are on the
grass, move ahead a bit, and if you're too far forward, move backward a little. Adjust the position
so that your elevator is fully silhouetted against the tarmac with a little grass behind the airplane.
Then, adjust so that the tip of your right wing is visible against the grass and the rest is
silhouetted like the elevator.
I like this! You know where you are, where the fuel pump is, and which way to taxi for the
runway. And you have a mountain on the horizon for scenic interest.
Take the out-front view from the cockpit. You can see that you should taxi straight ahead and
turn right to access the runway. You even have a little grass for definition on this side of the
mountain.
All right! But don't hesitate to move to another position if you find one you like better. It's your
airplane, after all.
When everything is the way you want it, access the NAV menu and turn off SLEW. (Mac pilots,
be sure to press the X key after any slew operation to transfer the new parameters to flight
mode.)
Is it worth going to all this trouble to find a good tiedown? I think it is. I guided you through this
exercise to show you how to “cut and try” when you're designing your own tiedown situation,
which is really what you're doing. The job lets you be creative, individual, and resourceful.
When you recall a tiedown situation you labored to create, you'll have a great feeling of
satisfaction…and some “oohs!” and “ahhs!” from onlookers too.
Creating a position, as you have here at Issaquah, is something I reserve for airports I can regard
as “home” airports. You should have at least one home airport per simulator chart, but you can
also have two or three if you want. Strangely enough, not many airports in the simulation lend
themselves to good tiedowns. A taxiway or some other feature separate from the runway or
runways proper is essential. The majority of simulator airports feature only the strips, so you
have to be highly selective. To this point, I hope you'll regard Greater Kankakee, where you have
good position on the ramp, and Moffett NAS, where you have the old blimp hangars, as home
airports in the Chicago and San Francisco areas, respectively. I also hope that you'll enjoy
Issaquah as a home airport in the Seattle area. It's nice to recall a home airport “situation,” where
everything is friendly and familiar, and then to climb in the airplane, taxi out, and fly. When you
come back, you taxi back and park where you started. Neat!
Slewing, such as you've done, does entail displacing your elevator from operational neutral, so
return your elevator trim to that all-important position. Then, save the situation as TIE
ISSAQUAH /C to RAM, and save the three situations you've created to your second situation
disk.
I didn't ask you to set any specific environmental factors before saving this situation, because I
wanted to stress that you can contrive such factors any time you set out to fly.
You can change the season, clouds, winds, and time to suit yourself any day of the week. The
tiedown at Issaquah is thus generic, which is fitting for all your home airports.
Chapter 10
ASKING DIRECTIONS
Let's set some specific parameters for a takeoff on Issaquah's Runway 19. (We certainly want to
try that head-on tower view.) To make any runway at any airport the active runway, with due
realism, all you need to do is set some logical winds. It's unwise, as well as unrealistic, to take
off downwind. So, simply go into ENVIRO and create a wind that is blowing from the general
direction in which you want to take off. You'd use Runway 19 here at Issaquah, for example, any
time the wind is from the south. Consider the wind from the south if it is blowing from the
runway heading (190 degrees here) plus or minus 90 degrees. If the wind direction here is
anywhere from 100 degrees to 280 degrees, Runway 19 is your runway; otherwise, Runway 1 is
the active.
Normally, however, runways are laid out to take advantage of prevailing winds in the area of an
airport. Therefore, it's reasonable to assume that a wind from the south here at Issaquah is within
10 or 15 degrees of 190. If it isn't, you have a crosswind, and—as discussed earlier—you should
take advantage of the wind direction to the greatest extent possible.
Let's set surface wind depth for this flight to 5000 feet, direction to 185 degrees, and speed at 6
knots. You'll fly below 5000 feet, so the winds aloft needn't concern you.
Set time to 9:00 a.m., do your usual panel preflight check, and taxi ahead. On a small airport
such as this, you are permitted to taxi on the runway if doing so doesn't interfere with other
aircraft that are taking off or landing. Otherwise, if no specific taxiway exists, you'll taxi on the
grass parallel to the runway. This morning, taxi on the runway. Jog right and then left across the
access strip, and taxi down the left side of the runway onto the grass. Then, turn 180 degrees to
the right to get into position and lined up on a compass heading of about 192 degrees.
As you taxi, prepare for your takeoff by trimming up and setting your flaps. It's perfectly normal
to go through this routine as you taxi, rather than to wait until the moment of departure.
Now, take the control tower view of yourself, setting zoom for that window to a factor of 1.00.
The tower is right where you put it, and the tower personnel are looking at you. (The tower
always tracks you, keeping your aircraft at the center of its view.)
I think you understand takeoff procedure well enough now to make this takeoff purely on
instruments, so why not watch the whole takeoff from the tower which, in this case, is the
“viewer” you positioned at the far end of the runway? You know your rotation airspeed, 70
KIAS. Pick up your gear, cancel the rotation pressure when your VSI registers a 500-fpm climb,
and zero your flaps. Then, power back to your climb setting—1750 rpm in the Mac or 2100 rpm
in Amiga/Atari—and start trimming down to op neutral.
After you streak by, restore your out-the-windshield view. Then, take a look behind you at
Issaquah. You'll want to remember what it looks like from the air. That's Lake Sammamish back
there, and the airport is at the tip of the lake and beyond the highway, which is Interstate 90.
Climb straight out to 2000 feet and level off.
Out the right side you should be able to spot the strip at Renton Municipal, and out the left front
you'll have a good view of snow-capped Mt. Rainier. Its peak, at 14,410 feet, is the highest point
in the state of Washington.
This morning I'm going to introduce you to another navigational aid with which your aircraft is
equipped. It's your ADF, or Automatic Direction Finder, to the right of your NAV 2 receiver.
You're going to use the ADF receiver to navigate to Sanderson Field in Shelton, Washington.
Locate the airport on your Seattle Area Chart, southwest of all the water. (Mac pilots, use the
charts in Appendix E; they have more detail than the charts provided with your program.) Notice
the rectangle labeled “MASON CO 348” and next to it the circular spray symbol, which
represents an NDB, or Non-Directional Radio Beacon. This NDB broadcasts at a frequency of
348 kilohertz. The ADF is tuned by pointing the mouse cursor to the individual digits and
clicking. Set it to 348 kilohertz. Turn on the ADF receiver by clicking on the box at the upper
right.
Because there isn't room on your panel for the ADF dial in addition to two OBIs, its needle and
gauge take the place of OBI 2 when you turn on the ADF.
The ADF bearing indicator is inscribed like a compass in steps of 30 degrees from 0 to 360 with
the final zero dropped. The ADF needle points to the station you're receiving—in this case,
MASON CO. In your aircraft it now points to approximately 30 degrees. However, this bearing
is relative. The MASON CO station lies 30 degrees to the right, relative to your present compass
heading. Thus, the formula for using the ADF is:
Compass + ADF = Bearing to station
Your present compass heading is probably 192 degrees. Add the 30 degrees indicated by the
ADF needle, and you have the heading to fly to the station: 222 degrees. Turn to that heading
now.
If the ADF needle is not pointed straight at 0, yaw left or right to bring it to 0. Like the OBIs, if
the needle is left of center, correct to the left; if it's right of center, correct to the right. When the
ADF needle is on 0, you are flying straight toward the station. Right now I have the needle
centered, and my compass heading is 227. (That doesn't mean that your heading should agree.
Fly whatever heading yields a 0 reading on your ADF.)
Unlike a compass, 0 on the ADF has nothing to do with north because the ADF shows the
relative bearing to the station you want to track. If you were flying due south using the ADF and
were right on the money, the ADF needle would indicate 0.
Now, we'll experiment a bit to help you understand how the ADF works.
Turn right to a compass heading of 280 degrees, and fly out over Puget Sound.
When the ADF needle points directly to 300 degrees, pause the simulation for a moment.
According to the ADF formula, the correct bearing to the station is your present compass
heading, 280, plus the ADF reading, 300, or 580 degrees. For figures greater than 360, subtract
360 from the result. So, the correct bearing to the station is 580 minus 360, or 220 degrees.
Unpause now, and turn left to a heading of 220 degrees.
Again, the ADF needle points to 0, and you are inbound to the MASON CO NDB and adjacent
Sanderson Field.
Is Sanderson either one of the airports you can see?
Study your chart. (It's helpful if you orient the chart in the direction you're flying, and then
interpret it.) Sanderson Field is a bit isolated, so apparently neither of the airports you can see out
your windshield is Sanderson. Then what airports are they? Tacoma Narrows and Port
Orchard—or Port Orchard and Bremerton National?
Your chart, your map, and what you can see from the aircraft provide all the clues you need.
As you fly, set the spot plane off your right wing tip at an altitude of 0 feet. When you take the
spot plane view, you'll see Mt. Rainier in the distance.
The elevation at Sanderson Field (airport code SHN) is 278 feet, and the runways are 5/23 and
17/35. Which runway will you land on? If you need a weather report, call a tower somewhere in
the area.
Sanderson shows up exactly where you'd expect it because the NDB is east of the airport.
Make the transition to slowflight, and while you're doing that, turn right to a heading of 260
degrees. On that heading, you're flying parallel to the base leg for Runway 17 at Sanderson. This
trick helps you align with a given runway. If you fly parallel to one of the traffic legs, you'll be
able to spot your runway easily—even at an airport with many runways—because you know
exactly what your relationship to it is and what you expect to see.
Descend to an altitude of 1200 feet, as you keep the airport in sight out of your left front
window, and then your left side window.
Remember that base leg is the last leg before you turn to the runway heading for your final
approach. When you're on base leg and you look 90 degrees to the left, the runway where you'll
land appears almost straight out from your 90-degree view. Thus, you can identify your runway
and time your turn to final. Execute your turn when the active runway is immediately forward of
your wing tip, using a 90-degree side view.
Wait until you're on a good final approach, and close enough in, to drop your gear and make
your initial flap extension. Then, trim to approach neutral and fly it down. When you've landed,
turn off the runway onto the grass.
Chapter 11
SEATTLE NOCTURNE
Recall TIE ISSAQUAH /C, apply a little power and right nosewheel, and turn the aircraft to a
compass heading of 62 degrees. Cut the power. Be sure your heading is 62 degrees, and then
access FILE and change from PROP to JET. (The little nosedive that may result is a simulator
phenomenon but won't hurt your aircraft.)
Next, open the NAV and POSITION SET windows, and transport the aircraft to NORTH
21739.354, EAST 6375.8502, and ALT 0.0. Put the control tower at NORTH 21739.000, EAST
6375.0000, and ALT 330.0000. Close the window. Then, open the VIEW window, and set the
spot plane 100 feet behind you at an altitude of 20 feet.
The Learjet hasn't as many “home” airport choices as the Cessna because it needs more than a
mile of runway for takeoff—at least for a conservative takeoff. Later, I'll introduce you to high-
performance takeoffs for both the 182 and the Learjet. Granted, you could start your takeoff well
back on the grass and use some of the grass at the opposite end of the runway too. But because
you're blessed with two aircraft, why not use each according to its particular performance
characteristics?
This is William R. Fairchild International Airport, Port Angeles, Washington. Look at your map.
You're parked in a little notch off the taxiway and adjacent to the fuel pumps.
You're pointed toward the taxiway to Runway 27. In the opposite direction, of course, it's
Runway 9. Runway 9/27 is the only one of Fairchild's two strips that can handle the Lear. It's
6300 feet long, and even that length is marginal. But your standard takeoff procedure will work
as long as you do all your checks, prepare for your takeoff properly, and execute it well.
Before you save this tiedown, set the season to summer, and set the winds to 0 at all levels so
that you can see how the Learjet takes off and cruises with no wind. This is one of those rare
days when you'll have no wind to speak of.
Except it isn't daytime. Close the ENVIRO window, get rid of your map, and set the time on
your panel clock to about 1:00 a.m.
Now, with the spot plane view enabled, save this tie-down as TIE FAIRCHILD/L.
Isn't this beautiful? There's no question where the taxi-way and runway are. Turn your panel
lights on if they're off, do your preflight check, and prepare for takeoff—now, while you've
plenty of time to get everything right.
When you unpause to start taxiing, the engine may sound wrong, and you may be reading RPM
instead of percent of engine power. This happens with some regularity, but once you get moving,
things will straighten themselves out. You can also correct the engine sound by stopping and
restarting your engine. You know that you can switch the mags with the numeral 1 and 2 keys;
you can also switch them by clicking on the 1 and 2 at the MAG switch on the panel itself. Try
the second method; it's perhaps the more realistic alternative. Think of the mouse cursor as your
hand doing the switching. (You can also operate the flaps and gear by clicking the mouse in the
indicator boxes, but I find the keyboard quicker and more convenient. Suit yourself.)
Before you depart, get out your chart, turn on your ADF, and tune to Gray NDB.
Taxi ahead and then parallel to the runway. Keep well to the right side of the taxiway because
the turn at the end is very tight. Make your turn on the grass. You'll need all the runway you can
get.
Line up as you turn onto the runway, and immediately pour on all your power. You'll lose most
of your outside visual references as you climb, but don't let that concern you. You know how to
fly the airplane; the procedure is the same in darkness as in daylight. Your instruments and
gauges tell you exactly what is happening.
Trim to operational neutral smartly, consistent with smoothness of operation and maintaining a
500-fpm climb. Level off at 6500 feet.
When you reach cruise altitude, turn to track the Gray NDB station.
Keep the ADF needle on 0.
Practice your regular instrument scan. Stay within 100 feet of your assigned altitude.
Set the spot plane off to your right at an altitude of 0 and a distance of 100 feet.
Keep a lookout for Bremerton National Airport below you. It will go by pretty fast and will be
followed by Port Orchard. Almost simultaneously, Mt. Rainier will loom into view. Then,
Tacoma Narrows Airport will appear. It's about 10 miles north of the Gray NDB.
The highway crossing your path is Interstate 5. As you approach it, Spanaway Airport will show
up on the far side. Make no further ADF course corrections now. Instead, fly straight ahead.
Momentarily, two other airports will appear east of Spanaway.
Your ADF needle gets very active now and indicates about 180 degrees as soon as you pass Gray
NDB.
Switch your ADF to tune Nolla, and fly toward that station. (If the needle is between numbers,
estimate the value, and then correct it when you get the needle close to 0.) Note that the range of
NDB stations far exceeds that of VORs. This is a particularly useful feature when you're flying
the Learjet because everything happens so fast. You can chew up big pieces of geography
without losing a sense of where you're going.
The highways serving Seattle put a riot of light on your windshield.
Tune NAV 1 to Paine VOR, center the OBI 1 needle as soon as you're in range, and fly the
indicated heading toward Snohomish County Airport.
Get into slowflight so that you can enjoy viewing the Seattle scenery.
Now, tune your ADF to the Elwha NDB; its transmitter is about 10 miles west of William R.
Fairchild International. The frequency is on your chart.
When your DME shows that you are about five miles from the Snohomish VOR (you should
now be passing over the airport), stay in slowflight and get on a bearing to Elwha NDB.
Whenever you track an NDB station and the ADF needle is near zero, you can fly that needle
almost as you do the OBI needle, making small corrections in the direction of the needle's drift to
keep it centered.
You are now inbound to William R. Fairchild International for a landing on the same runway
where you took off earlier this morning. If you track Elwha carefully, you'll be virtually lined up
for Runway 27 and your first night landing (at least, your first in this book). And in the Learjet,
at that!
Pause and preserve this situation for posterity, as ELWHA WRF 27 /L.
Fairchild's elevation is 288 feet. When you unpause, start a descent at about 500 fpm to an
altitude of 1200 feet. The airport will probably show up as a little horizontal mark under the
horizon before you reach that altitude. In that case, abandon the ADF, and continue your
approach visually to get aligned.
Don't descend lower than 1000 feet until you've established a clear relationship to the runway.
You still have a distance to go.
Execute your gear and flaps procedure according to your best judgment, and give the landing all
you've got.
Once you come to a stop, set the spot plane behind you again, and reset its altitude to 20 feet to
help you taxi. Use your map and various views, as needed, to taxi back to your tiedown in the
notch next to the fuel station.
Don't be dismayed if you get disoriented. Maneuvering around an airport at night is no piece of
cake. Stay with the situation until you're parked where you're supposed to be.
Shut down the ADF, turn off your carb heat, zero your flaps, return trim to operational neutral,
stop your engine, and turn off your panel lights.
Case closed.
Chapter 12
ABRIDGEMENT
The last flight may have been your toughest. You worked hard tracking two NDBs and a VOR
and making a night approach in the Learjet. But pushing yourself to new and tougher limits is
part of the learning game; and the best part of the game is that the further you push, the easier
flying seems.
If you made a reasonably good landing at Fairchild on your first or subsequent tries, you have
every reason to be proud of yourself. Think how far you've come since we began working
together.
Now, it's time for a little diversion.
Recall TIE ISSAQUAH /C once more, and we'll go to a special landing field that I've designed
for you in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Take the out-the-windshield view; then open NAV and POSITION SET, and put the aircraft at
NORTH 17440.105, EAST 5059.6045, and ALT 0.0. Set the control tower to NORTH
17439.000, EAST 5059.0000, and ALT 550.0000.
Close the window.
Now, with the engine running, open the NAV window and click on SLEW. True your directional
gyro and, watching its numbers, use right aileron (Amiga/Atari) or drag the mouse right (Mac) to
slew to a heading of exactly 170 degrees. Be sure that your compass and the DG agree on 170
degrees, and then open the NAV window (Mac pilots, use X to transfer the 170-degree heading),
and turn off SLEW.
You're looking toward San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge. Access your map and zoom to a
factor of 0.50. Although there is no runway as such (that's why I call this a “landing field”), the
imaginary strip, which (runway or not) we'll call Runway 17, begins at the southeast corner of
Mt. Tamalpais and runs in a straight line from your present position toward the bridge. The
highway leading to the bridge is U.S. 101, locally called Bridgeway Boulevard. You're looking
south, of course, and toward the northern end of the bridge.
Local restrictions let you take off, but not land, in the direction you're facing. You must land
from the opposite direction, or on the reciprocal of 17, Runway 35. Fortunately, the winds are
usually light and variable in this area and are mainly from the east. That means you'll usually
take off and land in a light crosswind. Go into ENVIRO now, and set the season to spring. Open
ENVIRO again, and set the surface wind depth to 3000, the direction to 80 degrees, and the
speed to 2. The winds aloft won't be a concern in your flights from this field.
Close the window.
Now, dispense with the map, and save this situation as GATEWAY 17–35/C. (We'll call this
landing field Gateway Field. The “17–35” will be a reminder of the takeoff and landing
regulations at Gateway, which are—to say the least— atypical.)
Come to think of it, the bi-directional takeoff/landing procedure here will make operations much
more interesting, won't it? In each case, you'll have a great view of the bridge as you fly over it at
low altitude.
Speaking of views, take 45-degree and 90-degree looks out your left window. That's the city of
San Francisco over there—which is currently the most detailed city in the simulator world.
Take note of your altimeter. It reads about 500 feet. But be advised that the altimeter is very
unreliable on the ground at Gateway and at other non-airport locations in the simulator. When
you fly back and land here, you may find that the elevation is 295 feet or another value the
simulator may dream up. I can't give you the reason for such disparities; I can only tell you that
they exist. So, you must rely on your vision rather than your altimeter when you shoot a landing
here and at other whimsical locations in the simulator world.
Let's try out this new field and, at the same time, see some of San Francisco's sights.
Make your normal takeoff, but on climbout get your power back to 2100 rpm and start to trim
down as quickly as possible. The flatter your climbout, the better view you'll have of the bridge
passing below you. (Don't, however, flatten your aircraft and yourself against the girders.)
Go ahead and fly, and when you're beyond the bridge, take a look back at it and at Gateway.
You'll see much the same scene later when you're on your final approach to Runway 35.
Your flight path crosses the northwest corner of the city and takes you directly over Lake
Merced, with San Bruno Mountain to the left of your course.
Try to be at op neutral before you reach 2000 feet, and level off at that altitude.
Take a 90-degree view of San Bruno Mountain. When it's just aft of your left wing tip, apply a
notch of back pressure and turn left to a heading of 086 degrees. San Francisco International
takes shape ahead of you, and you'll cross—at a slight angle—the business ends of its parallel
runways, 10L and 10R. Remembering the location of SFI is useful, and it will be easy if you
remember that it's slightly south and east of San Bruno Mountain and right on San Francisco
Bay.
The bridge on your right ahead is the San Mateo-Hayward.
When you no longer see any of San Francisco International through your windshield, turn left
and head about 320 degrees, keeping San Bruno Mountain a bit left of your course. The highway
skirting the mountain is Bayshore Freeway (Interstate 101) and is intersected ahead by Southern
Freeway (Interstate 280). Below on the shore is Candlestick Park, famous for spectator sports.
After the disk access, you'll see Mt. Davidson ahead and to the left, this side of the Golden Gate,
and to the right you'll see the buildings of downtown San Francisco. Turn right to a heading of
340 degrees to follow the shoreline toward the Bay Bridge, which connects San Francisco and
Oakland. Put on carb heat to lose a little altitude, and use your panning arrows (if you have that
feature) to catch the sights: the bridge, the buildings, Fisherman's Wharf, and Alcatraz (on the
little island to the left of your course). Remember to return to your normal view.
Now that you have your carb heat on, get into slowflight at an altitude of 1500 feet. Gradually
reduce your power as you trim up to slow neutral.
The bridge ahead is the Richmond-San Rafael and beyond it is San Pablo Bay. You can see San
Quentin State Prison, which is in San Rafael. It is on this side of the west end of the bridge and
right on the water.
As the Richmond-San Rafael Bridge disappears under the nose of your plane, turn left to a
heading of 170 degrees. (Use back pressure to hold your altitude in the turn, and use aileron to
maintain a 20-degree bank.) You'll be pointed to the left of both the Golden Gate Bridge and
Gateway Field, parallel to Runway 17, from which you took off earlier.
Pause now, and save your situation as FOR GATEWY 35/C. You can use this situation not only
for downwind approaches to landings over the Golden Gate Bridge, but for air tours of the San
Francisco Bay Area.
Unpause and take a look at Gateway Field, on this side of the Golden Gate Bridge and
Bridgeway Boulevard and beginning where Mt. Tamalpais juts out closest to the bay. The field is
easy to identify once you know exactly where it is. Take right-side views of it as you fly.
Confirm slowflight neutral if necessary, and use your throttle to descend to and maintain an
altitude of 1200 feet. When Mt. Davidson's near slope has almost disappeared from the bottom of
your windshield, apply a notch of back pressure, enter a standard-rate turn to the right, and start a
180-degree turn. Maintain a 20-degree bank as closely as possible, and roll out on a heading of
350 degrees.
When you've rolled out, pause and save the situation as GATEWAY FINAL/C; then, unpause
and continue.
Adjust your flight path so that you will fly over the center of the bridge and be lined up
accurately for a landing on the grass of Gateway Field. At the same time, slowly add some
throttle, get your landing gear down, and put on 10 degrees of flaps. Trim up to approach neutral,
as usual.
Use throttle to control your descent, maintaining your flight path over the center portion of the
bridge. When appropriate, steepen your descent by extending your flaps to 40 degrees, preceding
each extension with forward pressure on the elevator.
Regard the near edge of the grass on the other side of the bridge as the runway threshold. Use
throttle adjustments to hold the threshold at the center of the screen until the last stages of your
final, when you'll flatten the glide, continue to reduce power, and flare a few feet above the
grass. As usual, delay the moment of touchdown with gradual applications of back pressure.
When you've landed…wasn't that something?
Recall this approach and fly it as often as you like. Set the spot plane off your right wing, and
take its views, as well as control tower views, as you execute or replay the landing.
No other approach in the whole simulator world is quite like this one.
Chapter 13
HIGH ROLLING
Can the Learjet take off from Gateway? If so, it can also land there, because landings require less
distance than takeoffs.
Recall GATEWAY 17–35/C, and then open FILE and click opposite JET.
For this takeoff, be sure to use rudder during the takeoff run and to point the Learjet toward the
center of the bridge. And remember, if you're flying the Mac, takeoff trim is the third mark above
0 VSI, and if you're flying Amiga/Atari, takeoff trim is three major divisions above op neutral.
Do your regular preflight and takeoff prep, and then take off and climb straight out. Continue to
trim, and level off at 5000 feet. When you are straight and level at that altitude, turn left to a
heading of exactly 096 degrees.
Now, you're going to become a quick-change artist. Pause the simulation, open FILE again, and
click opposite PROP. Pow! You're in the Cessna at 5000 feet.
When you unpause, you'll probably start to descend. Counter by using the throttle, and if you're
not yet trimmed to op neutral, get there. You want exactly 5000 feet of altitude, with a 0 reading
on the VSI and a compass heading of 096 degrees. When you have that, come back to the text.
That was a quick way to get the Cessna to a higher-than-usual altitude. No doubt it took a little
time to get straight and level up here, but it would have taken considerably longer to climb to this
altitude.
You need a higher power setting to hold this altitude, not because 5000 feet is all that high but
because the Cessna is most comfortable somewhere between 2500 and 4500 feet. The Learjet
likes altitudes between 3500 and 8000 feet.
Pause the simulation, and I'll place you precisely where I want you. Open the NAV and
POSITION SET windows, and put the aircraft at NORTH 17281.171 and EAST 5102.3510.
You're already at the desired altitude, and you won't need to set the tower position for this
situation. Close the window.
Open the VIEW window, and set the spot plane off your right wing tip at a distance of 100 feet
and an altitude of 0.
Now, I want you to save this situation as SF STUNT ALT /C because, yes, you're going to learn
some aerobatics. You'll use this high-altitude position in the Cessna to practice the stunts I'm
going to show you and, later, to try any new wrinkles of your own at a safe altitude.
After I guide you through a stunt, feel free to practice it until you get the hang of it. Recall the
situation each time before you begin.
The first two stunts I'll show you are actually maneuvers, called “stalls.” Student pilots all learn
how to stall the aircraft and to recover from the stall so that if they should ever get into one
inadvertently, recovery will be instinctive. By the way, it isn't the aircraft's engine that stalls, but
the wing: The wing loses its lift component and becomes merely another heavy object, and the
aircraft goes into a dive.
First, you'll do a power-off stall. Before you begin, read how it's done. (Every aircraft has unique
stall characteristics. The stalls and recovery procedures I describe below are those I find are best
suited to the simulated Cessna 182.)
Power-off Stall and Recovery
Note your present cruise power setting on the throttle indicator. When you are flying straight and
level, note that the horizon divides your windshield horizontally, confirming that you're in
normal cruise attitude.
Put on carb heat to prevent icing.
Reduce power to idle.
In Amiga and Atari, trim up as you would for approach neutral: Use three sets of two quick ups,
but wait several seconds between each set. In the Macintosh, trim by slowly dragging the mouse
backward. In both cases, the aircraft should assume a nose-high attitude, and about two-thirds of
your windshield should be filled with sky.
Continue gradual back pressure to keep the horizon where it is, adding pressure whenever the
nose drops. You will need increasingly more back pressure to hold your pitch attitude.
The STALL warning will appear on your windshield. Continue to apply the back pressure.
When the nose abruptly “drops through” and pitches downward, you've stalled.
Immediately apply forward pressure to pick up speed and get the air flowing smoothly over your
wings.
Then, reset the throttle to approximate cruise power position.
Turn off carb heat.
The plane will level off and start to climb again. Let the nose get a little high, trim down to op
neutral at a rate that matches the behavior of the horizon, and stabilize ultimately at your normal
cruise attitude.
When you're trimmed to op neutral, adjust your power to fly straight and level.
Keep the operation as smooth as possible throughout.
Power-on Stall and Recovery
You perform the power-on stall in the same way as the power-off stall. However, for the power-
on stall you don't need to apply carb heat or reduce the power, and the pitch of the aircraft must
be higher in order for it to stall. You can easily achieve this higher pitch because your forward
speed is converted to a climb as you apply back pressure.
Start from your normal cruise configuration. In Amiga and Atari apply two sets of two quick
ups; in the Macintosh, drag the mouse backward. In both cases, you should see nothing but sky
fill your windshield as the aircraft pitches nose high.
Use up elevator to keep a tiny line of horizon at the bottom of your windshield. Sometimes it will
disappear altogether, but as the aircraft loses speed, the nose will drop again. Continue back
pressure to keep only the thin line visible.
Even after the STALL warning, continue the back pressure until the nose drops through.
Then, immediately apply strong forward pressure to get the nose down and to get a smooth
airflow over your wings. The stall will be arrested, and the aircraft will level itself and begin to
climb.
To respond, trim down to op neutral at a rate to match the behavior of the horizon, as in the
power-off stall.
Once you've trimmed to op neutral, use power adjustments to fly straight and level.
Work to perform the maneuver as smoothly as possible.
The fundamental principle of stall recovery is to get the nose down. This principle applies
equally to all types of stalls—including high-speed stalls—whether you enter them purposefully
or accidentally.
Instant replay is an invaluable tool to help you understand your stalls. Take the spot plane view
in all cases. Watch your nose-high attitude…the drop-through pitching you downward…and the
smoothness (or otherwise) of your recovery.
As you know, in the final stages of a landing you are very close to a stall; indeed, a perfect
landing is one in which the stall warning appears when you hear the tires squeal (given that
everything else about your landing is right). If you get a stall warning before you hear the tires
squeal, respond with forward elevator pressure to arrest the stall. (Close to the ground, obviously,
you can't use as much forward pressure as you would at high altitudes.)
In many aircraft, pilots are advised to use full power for a stall recovery. But in the simulated
Cessna a full power recovery is extreme and over-revs the engine. Try it if you want to see what
I mean.
Also, releasing all back pressure (which, in the simulator, entails returning your elevator to op
neutral, rather than simply applying strong forward pressure) is overkill and results in too great a
loss of altitude.
It is logical to fly any aircraft in a manner best suited to its flying characteristics. But I did want
you to know how our version of stall recovery varies from the “norm” and why.
Now, to our first stunt: the loop. You can execute the loop beautifully in the Cessna. But before
you try it, recall and pause STUNT ALT /C, and then set the spot plane off your right or left
wing tip at a distance of 100 feet and an altitude of 0. Also, in the SET SPOT PLANE window,
opposite PREFERENCE, click on LOOP. Then, exit the window and save the situation as LOOP
PREF /C. Recall that situation each time you practice looping.
The Loop
Apply strong down elevator.
Allow airspeed to build to 160 knots.
Smoothly, without hurrying, apply back pressure until the elevator indicator is approximately
three-quarters of the way up the gauge.
When you see nothing but sky through your windshield, apply full throttle.
Take a 90-degree view to the left or right. You'll be in the first half of the loop, climbing toward
the top and about to become inverted.
When you are upside down, with your wings approximately level with the horizon, switch to the
out-front view. You'll see the horizon upside down.
As soon as you see no sky (in the second half of the loop, the downside), cut your power
completely.
When you can see the horizon again, return your elevator to approximately op neutral to prevent
another climb.
Return your throttle to its cruise setting.
Confirm op neutral, and adjust power for straight and level flight.
Next, you'll do a roll. Access LOOP PREF /C, and then set the spot plane behind you and change
the PREFERENCE parameter to ROLL. Leave everything else as it is, and save the situation as
ROLL PREF /C.
The Roll
From straight and level flight, apply two quick notches of back pressure. (If flying the
Macintosh, pull back slightly on the mouse.)
Apply full aileron in the direction you want to roll.
When the horizon is about 30 degrees from vertical on your windshield, immediately apply full
down elevator and hold it while you turn over on your back.
When the horizon is again about 30 degrees from vertical on your windshield, quickly return
your elevator to approximately op neutral position.
As the wings become level, neutralize your aileron.
Use additional elevator to return the horizon to normal, and then resume op neutral and straight
and level flight.
When you're proficient with the basic idea of the roll, try this: Before you begin the stunt, fly
toward a specific point on the horizon, and then use rudder to hold the nose precisely on that
point as you roll. If the nose of the aircraft describes a straight line through the sky, you'll be
rolling like the pros.
Logically, the roll leads to inverted flight, which is fun to do and greatly impresses spectators.
Use your ROLL PREF /C situation.
Inverted Flight
Begin with a half roll.
As you become inverted, neutralize your ailerons.
Apply a little up elevator to bring the horizon to its normal position, dividing your windshield in
half.
However, your perceptions are reversed.
To see more sky, apply a little forward pressure; to see more earth, apply a little back pressure.
When you have been inverted for a bit, your engine will quit due to fuel starvation. (Flow to the
engine ceases because the fuel is stored in your wings and feeds by gravity.) The engine will
restart when you turn right-side up.
To recover from inverted flight, execute the second half of a roll; either continue in the same
direction or roll out in the opposite direction.
The quiet when your engine stops in inverted flight can be very pleasant—you are suspended for
a few moments in time and space. Nice, particularly at dawn or at dusk. Try it now. Call up the
ROLL situation, and then change the time to a minute or so after 6:00 a.m., turn on your panel
lights, and roll 'em.
I want to show you one more stunt, called the Split-S. Because this aerobatic maneuver combines
both the LOOP and the ROLL preference, you can use either parameter. When you replay it,
experiment with various spot plane positions and preferences; each will let you view the stunt in
a different light.
Before you try the Split-S, get into inverted flight, and when you are fully inverted, with your
wings approximately level with the horizon, save the situation as INVERTED /C. This situation
is useful for experimentation and it also completes the 12 situations possible on your second
disk. Save the 12 situations to that disk, and write-protect it.
The Split-S
The aircraft must be at an altitude of at least 5000 feet above ground level.
First, do a half roll, and then neutralize your ailerons for inverted flight.
Whether or not your engine has quit, reduce your throttle setting to idle.
Take a 90-degree view to the left or right. (This view is critical because you must know where
the horizon is in order to avoid diving into the ground.)
Apply back pressure to bring the elevator to the two-thirds up position (or, approximately
approach neutral on the gauge).
The aircraft will head earthward as it does in the last half of a loop.
Apply down elevator at a rate to keep the final half of the loop circular and to establish level
flight as your wings come even with the horizon. (Don't let the aircraft start another climb, which
could lead to a stall.)
Switch to the out-the-windshield view when the horizon divides the screen diagonally or when
you know that the dive is arrested.
Open your throttle to cruise airspeed, and gradually trim for op neutral and straight and level
flight.
Now, should you ever need to, you know how to lose altitude in a hurry.
Chapter 14
MDW TO LGA, PDQ
Maybe you know the MDW and LGA airport codes, and maybe you don't. But soon they'll be
graven on your memory forever.
As a starting point, access the situation named OVRCST DXR 35/C on your second situation
disk. Go into ENVIRO and set the season to WINTER. Go in again and wipe out the clouds.
(Simply click once on LEVEL 1.) Go into ENVIRO a final time, set all wind speeds to 0, and
exit the window.
Next, go into FILE and click on JET. Then, open the NAV window and click on POSITION
SET, and put the Learjet at NORTH 17156.000, EAST 16628.0000, and ALT 0.0. Forget about
the tower this time; simply close the window.
Unpause, and then pause again to right the aircraft.
Now, do your panel preflight check, and then move out and follow the taxiway that is ahead and
to your left. Cross the runway, and slow down. Don't hit the building ahead of you. Instead, taxi
to the left and rear of it, and then turn your aircraft around and park beyond the lines that denote
the edge of the ramp. Turn the aircraft so that your compass reads 061. With the spot plane
behind you, you should see the building to your left, together with most of the F denoting the
fueling area. Take the cockpit view, and you'll see most, not all, of the building and, at
midscreen, the line marking the taxiway. Exact position isn't critical; your position should
approximate what I've described and should look good to you. Try not to use SLEW to do this;
instead, use your map and other views. With your map at a zoom factor of 4.00, you should be
able to see the threshold and some of the centerline of a runway off to your right. If you're a
perfectionist, the exact parameters, with a compass heading of 061, are NORTH 17155.744 and
EAST 16624.9320.
When you're in position, cancel the map, turn off SLEW if you had it on, and delete all files in
the buffer if you've saved them to disk. Now you can start with a clean slate.
Confirm op neutral trim, and then save the situation on your screen as TIEDOWN MDW /L.
You're in your permanent parking position on Chicago's Midway Airport (MDW), which I invite
you to consider as your home airport—at least for your Learjet—in the Chicago area. You have
many choices for a Cessna home airport in this area, but not that many for the Learjet.
You're about to embark on a rather daring journey, at least for simulator pilots. You're going to
fly from Chicago to New York and land at La Guardia Airport (LGA) in time for brunch.
Like you, I'll be making this trip for the first time. I promise that I have not preflown this
excursion or any part of it. I've used no special charts to figure out the heading we're going to
track. I'm going to make an uneducated guess, based on an unscientific kind of dead reckoning,
which I arrived at by glancing at a U.S. map in an ordinary road atlas.
But, enough talk. We'll have plenty of time to talk en route. And I have some other ideas for
passing the time (if indeed we will need to pass time as we fly).
The runway to the right of your tiedown is Midway's 4L. Do your panel preflight check now, and
prepare for takeoff. Then, taxi into position. (Use your map, as well as the spot plane view,
because the first turn off the taxiway is onto Runway 4L, and it's a very sharp turn.) Pause a
moment.
Set your panel clock to 7:30 a.m. before takeoff so that you'll know exactly how long this flight
takes. If all goes well, we'll use no pauses between here and New York; we'll make the whole
flight in real time.
When you're set and your clock is set, take off.
As you pass through 2000 feet, turn right to a heading of 105 degrees (which is the heading I'm
gambling on).
As you trim out and all that good stuff, take a look back at Chicago and Lake Michigan. It may
be the last glimpse of civilization you'll have for a while. (On climbout, by the way, we crossed
almost directly over “famous” Meigs Field, the default home airport for earlier versions of flight
simulators. Among other things, Meigs is famous as the site of more windshield-shattering
crashes than all other airports in the country put together.)
Remember, no pauses. I'm not even pausing as I write, so my conversation may be quite sparse.
Now, while I have time to tell you, tune your NAV 1 to La Guardia VOR on a frequency of
113.1.
As insurance, tune NAV 2 to Chester VOR on a frequency of 115.1. These stations virtually
bracket the east end of the New York/Boston Area Chart.
You'll certainly have time to practice holding stead-fastly to an altitude on this flight. Get to and
maintain, as if your life depended on it, an altitude of 7000 feet, plus or minus 100 feet.
I have an idea. (I told you that, like you, I'm flying by the seat of my pants.) Instead of two
VORs, let's turn on the ADF and tune to the NDB station closest to La Guardia. We should be in
range of that station well before we're in range of the VOR.
Turn on the ADF and set the frequency to Huder NDB, 233. (Pay no attention to the needle right
now. We have a bit further to fly.)
Set NAV 1 to the Chester VOR, 115.1.
I'll keep you posted as to where I am by the only mutual reference we have: the time. Right now,
the time on my instrument panel clock reads 07:52:30. Later, I won't give you the seconds.
It occurs to me that we may see something other than blue sky and green earth on this flight. You
may see sights that I don't because I have to swivel 90 degrees in my flight chair to write. In my
other books on earlier flight simulators, I recorded numerous phenomena encountered in the
simulator, including strange shapes and even clone airport areas. Thus, an occasional look out
one window or the other may provide some unexpected excitement.
At 7:56 I can still see a tiny spot of the Chicago skyline to the right of my tail fin, so we haven't
quite left the Illinois simulation.
I can't swear that little dot is Chicago, of course. It may be a piece of chewing gum someone
stuck there for good luck.
At 7:58 I'm doing about 375 knots, my power is at 74%, and the ADF needle points to 120
degrees. My altitude is 7100 and holding. When it's that close, I don't mess around.
At 8:00 I look back at my fin. The chewing gum is still there.
Oh-oh! At about 8:01, something is developing on the landscape to the left of my course. It looks
like a few little dots and dashes. Do you see them?
I look back. The chewing gum disappeared—probably at the same time the dots appeared. We
left the Illinois area and entered somewhere else, but I don't know where.
8:04. The dots and dashes are almost motionless, and they're right on the horizon. Look out all
sides of the aircraft to see if you spot anything else.
At 8:07 the dots and dashes have become one fat dash and one fat dot. But the fat dash
occasionally splits into two to four fat dots.
Something is out there, but it's starting to disappear off the left of the windshield. I'd like to fly
over and see what it is, but I'm more interested in having a cup of coffee soon in the terminal at
LGA.
Although I probably don't need to coax you, I urge you not to give up on this flight and not to
look at the end of the chapter to see what happens. If I can't know what will happen, why should
you? Regard this as an adventure of the spirit…a sort of pioneering challenge. Hang in with me.
At 8:13 the dots and dashes have now disappeared from my windshield but are still visible with a
45-degree view to the left.
Try some different spot plane views as you fly; set the spot plane, by turns, ahead of and above
you, as well as off your right and left wing tips. And, experiment with different spot plane
altitudes.
Even if we miss Manhattan by quite a few miles, the worst that can happen is that we'll come to
the Atlantic Ocean. I know the way to Manhattan from there.
By now, I'm sure you know exactly where the horizon is on your windshield when you're flying
straight and level. I'd bet you could draw it in your sleep.
I'll go out on a limb and predict that the first thing that will come alive, inside the airplane or out,
is the ADF needle. I may be wrong. But we'll see.
8:21. I took the spot plane view from the right side, and the dots and dashes are still visible and
as far away as they were when I first saw them.
How are you doing?
Everything on my panel (as well as on the landscape ahead) is absolutely rigid. I wonder if I'm
really flying or merely sitting up here at the whim of the simulator. My airspeed, my altitude, my
heading, the ADF—nothing has varied by so much as a dot. Only the time advances, one might
say, inexorably.
I wonder if the dots and dashes are actually a clone of the entire Chicago area simulation seen at
a distance. Someday, I will fly out here again and find out. That flight would certainly be shorter
than the one we're taking this morning.
Tell you what—if I'm hopelessly off a reasonably good heading to New York, I'm going to be
very embarrassed. But I promised myself, and I promised you, to be straight with you. If I have
to eat crow, I'll eat it—only if I can presoak it in Jack Daniels.
Did you happen to bring Sunday's New York Times with you? No? A pocket encyclopedia,
maybe? Want to play 20 questions?
When I was a kid, on a long trip, we passed the time counting station wagons or out-of-state
license plates. But—I'm convinced—we're getting there.
8:31. We've been out about an hour now.
At least we can watch ourselves fly from the spot plane. We couldn't do that in early versions of
Flight Simulator. But I do wish I could see at least a silhouette of a head in that cockpit. Eerie.
Speaking of crow, how many miles—as the crow flies—is it from Chicago to New York? I have
a very poor memory for such trivia. But now I wish I'd checked before we started this trip. You
watch out front. I'll see if I can come up with a figure from all the random references I have
spread around me.
According to my road atlas, it's about 831 miles by commonly traveled roads, so it has to be less
than that as the crow flies. I'll keep looking.
Aha! My trusty almanac lists air distance between Chicago and New York as 713 statute miles.
Now, I have to find the conversion formula for statute miles to nautical miles. (But 713 miles
isn't very far, is it?)
I included the conversion formula in an earlier chapter, so I'll check my dog-eared manuscript.
I have it! A nautical mile is equivalent to 1.15 statute miles.
But I'm no mathematician. How am I going to convert statute miles back to nautical miles
without a formula?
I must have conversion tables somewhere that work in both directions. I'll be back.
Aha! I found the answer in my almanac again: Multiply statute miles by .8684 to get nautical
miles. So, Chicago to New York is approximately 619 nautical miles. How did I ever live
without an almanac or a calculator?
Now, I'll figure out how long it will take us to fly 619 nautical miles. My time is now 8:50. If I
don't hurry, we'll be landing in New York before I have the answer.
Time (minutes) = 60 × Distance/Speed
Do you remember this formula from Chapter 6? If I plug in my airspeed, 375, and the figure for
nautical miles, 619, then 60 × 619/375 = 99. This trip should take us about 99 minutes, or
roughly an hour and 40 minutes. So, our estimated time of arrival (ETA) is 9:10, give or take
five minutes.
My time now is 8:55. Something had better happen pretty soon.
Of course, we weren't doing 375 knots all the way from the business end of Runway 4L. We had
to take off, climb out, and trim down before we reached 375. All these maneuvers take time.
Let's adjust our ETA to 9:20 to allow a little time for navigational oddities.
8:58. Did my ADF needle just move a hair, or did I imagine it?
I don't think I imagined it. Now, it's definitely pointing a bit shy of 120 degrees, to about 110
degrees.
105 + 110 is 215, so the heading to Huder is 215 degrees (if the ADF really did move). Do I dare
chance a turn to 215 now?
First, let's try to tune to a station on the southern edge of the chart. In fact, let's tune in La
Guardia at 113.1.
OBI and DME still uninspired.
Try Carmel VOR at 116.6.
Time: 9:04.
I see something out the left front window—dashes and dots again.
We'll probably have a disk access when we arrive on the outskirts of the New York area; that is,
we will if we arrive there at all.
Maybe we're quite a ways north. Try tuning in Gardner VOR at 110.6.
Still nothing.
I'd love to hear that disk drive whir about now.
9:07.
The ADF needle is motionless. If it moved when I thought it did, it would continue to move,
changing regularly, unless we got on a bearing to the station.
Back to the La Guardia VOR at 113.1.
Maybe we should try another NDB. Switch to the Waterbury frequency, 257.
No movement.
Try Chup at 388.
I know the problem. We're not going to get any reaction from any navigation aid until we're
within the confines of the New York/Boston simulation. If the disk drive never whirs, we'll never
see the Atlantic Ocean.
Switch back to Huder NDB at 233, and stay with the La Guardia VOR frequency, 113.1.
Have faith.
It's nearly 9:15. We should be there any minute now. Statue of Liberty…Empire State
Building…World Trade Center towers. Those grimy streets in the Big Apple will surely be a
welcome sight, won't they? And that beautiful grass in Central Park.
I can see the headline now: “Learjet Chi-NY Flight Overdue, Presumed Lost.” And the lead
paragraph, beginning with, “A daring but reckless flight that began this morning in Chicago may
have ended in tragedy. The pilot, said to have attempted the cross-country trip in a well-equipped
Gates Learjet 25G, but without proper navigational information…”
My time is now 9:24. We're only a few minutes overdue, at the worst. If I remember correctly,
an airline trip between Chicago and New York usually takes more than two hours.
I'm changing our ETA to 9:45, in case you're interested.
I have another idea. Keep flying, but open the NAV window, go into POSITION SET, and see
what your current NORTH and EAST parameters are.
I'm checking my parameters at 9:29. NORTH reads 15163, and EAST is 24499.
Check the range of NORTH and EAST numbers on your New York/Boston Area Chart. The
NORTH parameters are all in the 17000s, while the EAST parameters are mostly in the 21000s.
These parameters tell us that we're both east and south of the New York/Boston area, so we've
got to fly northwest.
Turn left to a heading of 325 degrees.
No, I changed my mind. Head straight toward those dots and dashes on the horizon; they must
signify something. I'm pointing toward them now, and my heading is 004 degrees. We'll see
what develops.
Tune your NAV 1 to Martha's Vineyard VOR on 108.2, and set the ADF frequency to the Block
Island NDB, 216. These are the easternmost navaids on the chart.
I have a suspicion that those dots and dashes are the Atlantic Ocean.
It's 9:41, and the dots and dashes are getting fatter…or at least, they were.
Don't be concerned. At this speed, we're covering a lot of ground in a hurry. We have plenty of
fuel. I'm not concerned. I'm really not concerned.
But I would like to know why the dots seem to be receding when we're flying toward them. If
something encouraging doesn't happen soon, we'll turn northwest.
I checked our position again. Our north parameter is improving, but our east parameter is
deteriorating.
The time is 9:49.
Turn left to a heading of 325. I was right the first time: I think the dots represent the eastern
extremity of the easternmost clone of the Atlantic Ocean, if they represent anything at all.
I'm now revising our ETA to 10:20. That's Eastern Standard Time, of course.
I checked our position again; we're getting there. NORTH is in the mid-16000s, and EAST is
improving. And when NORTH is in the 17000s, we'll fly due west into the EAST 22000s and
have it made.
Compared to this junket, the flight from Los Angeles to San Francisco was a piece of cake,
wasn't it?
At 10:00 I'm at NORTH 16644 and EAST 24417. I don't even expect a whir from the disk drive
at this point, so its silence doesn't discourage me. Nor does the stolid behavior of the ADF
needle. I'm absolutely certain that, once we're in the 17000s and turn due west, we'll soar over
New York City a few minutes later. And thousands of people will line Long Island Sound and
the banks of the East River to cheer us in.
10:06. NORTH is at 16942. We're getting there now.
I must say I'm glad to have your company on this flight. It would be pretty lonesome doing it
alone, wouldn't it?
The NORTH parameter for La Guardia is 17091. I'm checking my position; you do the same.
Wow! I'm already at 17097. The time is 10:10. Time to turn due west to 270 degrees.
When you're in the 17000s, do the same.
Don't let your altitude slip away. Maintain 7000 feet.
At 10:16 I'm at NORTH 17106 and EAST 23725. It won't be long now.
You look a little tousled. Why don't you comb your hair?
Now we know that our fuel gauges really work. Both tanks (and the clock) show that we've been
flying for a while.
My new, confident ETA is 10:40. It's now 10:21. EAST is in the low 23000s.
I think those east parameters are much wider than the north parameters are thick, don't you?
The easternmost airport in the simulator New York/Boston area, Martha's Vineyard, is at EAST
22043. We should have a disk access before we get that far west.
I predict that our first sight will be the Atlantic Ocean and that it will suddenly open up in front
of us to fill the windshield.
At 10:27 I'm in the EAST 22900s. Where are you?
I'm sure you've had your chart in front of you all along, but be sure that it's within easy reach
now.
Oh-oh! At 10:29 there's water ahead. It's not yet the whole ocean, but it's more than a dot and a
dash. We'll see the whole ocean, I think, as soon as we get a disk access.
I'm glued to the screen now, so don't expect any more words from me until the disk drive whirs.
There it all is! 10:35! The Atlantic Ocean! The shoreline! Even Martha's Vineyard VOR turns
on! Less than 80 miles out! I hope you're there!
Wherever you are, now use your chart to tune to a VOR or NDB until something turns on. Then,
work your way toward La Guardia using, ultimately, its VOR.
As for me, I'm on the 255 radial, tracking the Hampton VOR on 113.6. I'm turning off the ADF
and tuning NAV 2 to Deer Park VOR, which is closer to La Guardia, although I'm still out of
range.
At 10:59 I'm inbound on the 274 radial for Deer Park and about 36 miles out. I'm starting my
descent. I have NAV 2 tuned to La Guardia so that I'll know when it's in range.
I'm passing over Long Island MacArthur Airport. Doesn't all this water and land look great?
At 11:07:01 I land on Runway 31 at La Guardia International Airport. How did your time
compare?
Wasn't that a great experience? Despite a minor navigational miscalculation (I take full
responsibility), we flew all the way from Chicago to New York without any intervening
navigational aids, without a pause (and I was dying for a cup of coffee), and without a doubt—
for even a moment—that we'd eventually make it. (That's all true, isn't it?)
And, we actually made it!
Most important, we used all resources available to us to get the job done despite adversities.
And that's what flying is all about.
Chapter 15
THE WAR IS OVER
In this book, we won't fly the World War I Ace mode, but its scenery area is intriguing for
Cessna flight. I'm going to show you how to get into this mode with your modern aircraft and
instrumentation intact and with no war going on. (When enabled, the WWI Ace mode switches
to fighter instrumentation.)
Recall TIEDOWN MDW /L. Click on FILE and PROP. Then, open NAV and set the aircraft
position to NORTH 17416.873, EAST 7446.3510, and ALT 0.0.
Set the tower position to NORTH 17417.826, EAST 7444.4875, and ALT 424.0000. Close the
window.
Open VIEW and set the spot plane behind you at a distance of 200 feet and an altitude of 20 feet,
and close the window.
Open the ENVIRO window and change the season to SPRING. Open it again and set SURFACE
WINDS AGL depth to 5000, direction to 270, and speed to 5.
In my books on the earlier versions of Flight Simulator, I called this airport Eagle Field. On the
WWI Ace Battleground map in your manual, it's called Friendly Base 1. Because we're not at
war, we'll again name it Eagle Field.
With the spot plane view enabled and op neutral trim confirmed, save this situation as
TIEDOWN EAGLE/C.
First, let's get acquainted with the whole area. Keep the WWI Ace Battleground map handy.
Do your normal preflight checks, and get the aircraft ready for takeoff.
Click on your map and set the zoom factor to 1.00 to see the whole layout of Eagle Field. Drag
the map into the lower right corner of the screen. The runway behind you is 15/33, and the
diagonal strip is 9/27. Your aircraft is pointed toward Runway 27. Zoom your map view, and
you'll see the F in the square which indicates the fuel station. Put away the map for the moment.
Now, taxi forward on the hard surface, and line up for Runway 27. Try to do it without the map,
but if you get disoriented, the map can help. When you're in position, go to your out-the-
windshield view, and proceed with your takeoff.
As you trim, turn left and follow the river. Plan to level off at 2000 feet.
Out the left side is Friendly Base 2, which I've named Axe Handle for its resemblance to an axe
or hatchet. Ahead on the west side of the river is the original Enemy Base 2. In peacetime I call it
Quiver City, because it is close to the Red Quiver River and is shaped roughly like a quiver.
The checkerboards on the landscape mark one square mile each, and the entire area, known as
Red Quiver Valley, occupies 100 square miles.
When you no longer see any of the Red Quiver Valley area out your windshield, make a
standard-rate turn to the right and head due north. The grid lines run exactly north/south and
east/west. As you turn, you may spot the Fuel depot and Factory on the west bank of the river.
They were bombing targets during World War I.
Red Quiver Valley is enclosed by mountain ranges to the west and north. The western range on
your left is named the Bad Bulges. The northern mountains are called Trappers Alps on this side
of the river and Happy Hills on the east side. (The river is the line of demarcation between the
original Enemy and Friendly territories.)
Out the right side you can see Eagle Field on the other side of the river. Suddenly, out front
you'll see the airport that was originally Enemy Base 1. I call it Wigwam, which is what it looks
like from the air.
The flashing dots a few miles this side of Trappers Alps and the dots in the extreme northwest
corner of your windshield represent, respectively, another factory and a fuel depot—again, old
bombing targets.
Make a standard-rate turn to the right as the factory dots slip from view, and you'll see them
transform into a solid shape that disappears under you. Roll out on a due east heading, and again
fly beyond the grid marks. Take a 90-degree view to the right until the last grids are to the rear of
your wing tip, and then turn right to a heading of 180 degrees.
When you roll out, look directly out the right side and you'll have a good view of the whole area.
Note that the arrow painted on the slope of Bad Bulges is a visual guide to orient you to Eagle
Field's Runway 27. The hangar on Eagle Field won't materialize until you're fairly close to the
field. Then, the runways also take on some dimension.
When you're near the southern extremity of the area, again turn 180 degrees to the right to a due
north heading, and get into slowflight.
Lower your gear, and change to approach configuration for a landing on Runway 27 at Eagle.
Get the airport in view out the left side, and keep it in view. You're on base leg. When you're on
final, put on all your flaps, and proceed with your normal landing.
The landing approach to Runway 27 at Eagle Field is one of the best, if not the best, that the
simulator offers. The presence of a realistic, three-dimensional reference—the hangar—in close
proximity to the runway threshold lends excellent perspective to the scene and gives you a good
idea of altitude, aircraft pitch, and runway alignment as you land. The sensation is highly
realistic.
Further, the entire Red Quiver Valley is ideal for practice purposes. The grid lines give you a
feeling for distance, and the numerous airports and landmarks help you learn to fly by visual
reference alone. There are no navigation aids that you can use out here, so contact flying is the
only kind of flying you can do.
I urge you to fly frequently in this valley on your own. Land and take off at the various airports,
and set wind and weather conditions to suit yourself. For reference, here are the runway numbers
for the airports:
Eagle Field: 9/27, 15/33
Axe Handle: 11/29
Quiver City: 6/24 L&R
Wigwam: 4/22, 9/27, 15/33
Field elevation for these airports averages about 405 feet.
Let me show you how beautiful dawn, dusk, and night flying are in this area. Recall TIEDOWN
EAGLE/C, and turn the time back to a minute or so after 6:00 a.m. Look out all sides of the
aircraft. Unless you're using the monochrome Macintosh, you'll see some unearthly colors.
Ready the airplane and taxi out to Runway 27 again, but this time go through the hangar, turn left
along the taxi strip, and then make another left turn onto the runway.
Take off and climb out, and as you pass through 1000 feet, turn left to a heading of 180 degrees.
Continue to trim as you climb, and level off at 2000 feet.
As the grid lines disappear from your view out the windshield, turn east. Roll out on a heading of
90 degrees.
Again, as you pass over the last grids, turn left and head due north. Then, get into slowflight, but
maintain your altitude at 2000 feet.
When the arrow on the mountain is right behind your wing tip, turn left again and fly west, and
as you fly set the time back until dawn changes to night.
As you can see, everything—grids, river, mountains—is fully detailed, even at night.
Right before you reach the river, make a standard-rate turn to the left to a heading of 180
degrees. If you execute this turn well, Eagle Field will light up beautifully right in front of you as
you roll out. Take a down view and watch it pass under you.
When you cross the last of the grids, turn 180 degrees to the left, and once again you'll be on
base leg for a landing on Runway 27. You won't see the runway until it is three-dimensional—
and you're on final approach—so you'll have to know exactly where it is. Except in the Mac
documentation, your map of the Battleground does not accurately depict the location of Eagle
Field. The Amiga and Atari maps place Eagle Field in the fifth square south of Happy Hills,
although it's actually in the fourth square south of the mountains and the second square in from
the eastern border of the area.
If you want to try a landing in the dark, go ahead. If not, advance your clock until the sun comes
up.
Chapter 16
A MODEL AIRPLANE
In the remaining chapters I'll introduce you to a very different concept in flight simulation, one
that adds a truly engrossing new dimension to the program. This concept isn't mentioned in your
manual, and perhaps it was not a specific intent of the designers of Flight Simulator. But Bruce
Artwick and his team at SubLOGIC have given us more than a simulation of flight; they've given
us the means to simulate a number of R/C, or radio-controlled, model airplanes.
You've no doubt seen R/C models flown by highly skilled enthusiasts, and perhaps you've flown
them yourself. R/C flying is a sport and hobby pursued wherever an open field or an abandoned
stretch of road can serve as a runway. You'll see some youngsters flying R/C, but more often
you'll see adults, many of them gray-haired, bent reverently over their kit-built or custom models
from dawn to dusk on weekends and holidays. And when they're not coaxing engines to start or
making emergency repairs, they're gazing skyward and putting their models through maneuvers
that take your breath away. All too frequently, there's a screaming dive and crunching crash, and
it's back to the R/C workshop to rebuild for a new try. Many enthusiasts have made a lifetime
hobby of R/C flying, and when you watch them fly, it's easy to see why.
I'm not an R/C hobbyist, but I've always had a yearning to be. And Flight Simulator, unlike its
predecessors, lets you “fly R/C” with almost unbelievable realism. Further, the airplane models
we're going to construct can be involved in heart-stopping crashes only to be picked up and
flown again immediately. You won't need to invest long hours of construction labor or repair
work. You also don't need a perfect day, because you fly indoors. You don't have to wait for
weekends or holidays or special weather because you can fly anytime—nights as well as days,
winter or summer, good weather or bad.
How much like a radio-controlled model can we make the Cessna? Follow me and see.
Recall TIEDOWN EAGLE/C, and then unpause and turn the aircraft to a compass heading of
277 degrees. Let the compass settle down, and be sure you have that exact heading before you
continue.
Pause again, take the control tower view, and press the Backspace key. Then return to the out-
the-windshield view.
Click on NAV and POSITION SET and put the aircraft at NORTH 17226.191, EAST
5177.0390, and ALT 0.0. Close the window and unpause. Then, open it again, and position the
tower at NORTH 17226.000, EAST 5177.0000, and ALT 40.0000. (Separating operations this
way often prevents spurious tower altitudes.)
Unpause to right the display, and then pause again.
Click on VIEW and set the spot plane distance to 150 feet, altitude to 0 feet, and the preference
to roll. Position the spot plane off the aircraft's right wing tip and close the window.
Be sure that carb heat is off and the flaps are zeroed.
Now, move the elevator trim needle all the way to the top of the gauge. (In the Mac use the
mouse, and in Amiga/Atari use numerous presses of the up elevator key.) Then in the Macintosh
push the mouse forward until the needle pops down to the third mark (second short mark) on the
gauge; in Amiga/Atari apply 5 qd (press down elevator five times in quick succession).
Next, open the SIM window and then PARTIAL PANEL, and turn off everything. (Yes,
everything.) Close the window.
Set the time to 9:30 a.m.
Position the mouse cursor at the top center of what was your instrument panel, and drag what's
left as far down as you can. The panel virtually disappears, leaving a big vacant rectangle in its
place.
Now, position the mouse cursor at the bottom right corner of the windshield, and drag the main
display to the bottom of your screen.
How do you like that?
Next, open SIM, highlight and click on REALISM, and turn off all realism factors. You should
not see a solid box in the window. Close the window.
Take the control tower view. But it's no longer a control tower view. It's your view when you're
flying R/C from this particular vantage point.
Your scale-model Cessna is sitting in the grass alongside a runway at a scale model airport
designed specifically for R/C flying. The airport is modeled after Fremont Airport in the San
Francisco Bay Area. You are standing in the middle of the runway.
Save the whole situation as R/C TRNR FREMNT. And (unless you're flying the Mac) move the
mouse cursor completely out of the scene into a bottom corner; you won't be needing it for a
while.
You now have an R/C training model of a Cessna (although it isn't a model of the Cessna 182),
which is designed to help you familiarize yourself with radio-control flying. Your training model
has a wingspan of about 36 inches. The engine has a governor that holds the plane's average
speed in controlled configuration to about 50 knots (more, of course, in uncontrolled screaming
dives). Act as if your gear is non-retractable, the model is not equipped with flaps, and your
simple engine does not have carburetor heat. Your elevator is pretrimmed to a neutral position to
provide maximum flight stability.
Your R/C transmitter is relatively sophisticated. It has four fully proportional controls: aileron,
elevator, rudder, and throttle. You operate these much as you do in the prototype Cessna, but the
control reaction is not the same, and you must get used to the differences by actually flying. To
steer the model on the ground use rudder, which also functions like the prototype rudder when
you're flying.
The primary flying difference between this R/C training model and the prototype is the takeoff
procedure. The model airplane is trimmed so that it will take off by itself when it reaches flying
speed. Therefore, do not rotate. Because the model has neither retractable gear nor flaps,
undertake no gear or flap procedures on the climbout. Further, do not trim down. The pretrimmed
model will climb at about 1000–1250 fpm under full throttle. Thus, your takeoff is literally
automatic, except for steering as needed.
In flight, you control the model's altitude primarily with the throttle knob, a control on your R/C
transmitter box that functions identically to that in the prototype. To stop climbing and level off,
reduce throttle while you observe the model's attitude. When it is straight and level, you are at
cruise power, which is approximately 1600 rpm. With power at idle, the model descends at a rate
of approximately 500–750 fpm. To climb again, increase throttle for the desired amount of
climb. To descend at any desired rate, reduce throttle accordingly. Climb and descent rates, like
level flight, must be judged visually from your control position on the ground.
The model's approach and landing are handled much as in the prototype, except for the lack of
special slowflight or approach trims or airspeeds; the landing speed is only slightly lower than
the flying speed. Thus, the landing approach essentially involves throttle reduction, although the
model will take a little back pressure before it stalls, permitting you to flare.
You employ elevator in this R/C training model very sparingly; its primary use is to flare on
landing. You can use a little back pressure for turns, but it is not necessary. As the plane turns, it
loses a bit of altitude but picks up airspeed, so it returns to approximately level flight. Remember
that the model will be very close to its stalling speed during the landing approach and that it will
survive an imperfect or rough landing far better than it will a stall and crash.
Your R/C transmitter provides two viewing modes, accessed by the C and S keys. Here's how
they work:
The C key (C for control) gives you the view from your ground control position and is the
standard mode for R/C flying. You are viewing from your ground control position at this
moment. However, when the airplane is flying, you can use the regular simulator zoom features
to keep it in sight. Think of zoom as if it were a 500-power monocular used from your ground
control position, and zoom freely to maintain whatever view you like. To disable the monocular,
press the Backspace key; the zoom factor changes to 1.00 and returns you to the “naked-eye”
view.
The S key (S for spot) enables the special spot plane view we set up earlier, off the model's right
wing tip. In R/C flying we'll call this the “spot follow” view. It shows your model in profile, as if
from a chase or camera plane directly off your wing tip. Turn on the spot follow view now. It is
as if you were sitting on your haunches and observing your model from a few feet away.
Pressing the S key will always give you this picture of your model, as if you were flying along
right beside it. However, I encourage you to use the spot follow view as little as possible; learn to
control the model visually from your position on the ground.
Press the C key to return to your control position. You are standing on the center of the runway.
The runway bearings are 130 and 310 degrees; thus, the numbers are 13/31. While you fly, you
will not move from this position, but you will, in effect, “turn” to follow the model so that it will
always be at the center of your view.
Now, before you take off, review these few pointers on R/C flying:
Try to keep the airplane close to you so that it is clearly visible without extreme monocular
magnification. Do not climb to too high an altitude, and if you do so, reduce your power and
descend again. And do not fly at great horizontal distances, or you may completely lose your
model.
Do everything possible to avoid crashing. It is not necessary to land on the runway, so avoid
violent maneuvers trying to do so. Anywhere you can safely put the airplane down is fine,
although you should make a concerted effort to land into the wind. This morning the wind is
from the west. The model is pointed toward the correct runway for takeoff and in the correct
general direction for landing.
If you're flying the Mac, try to make turns with the rudder pedals while in flight and use the
mouse only for throttle control. Rudder alone turns the aircraft and, to some extent, obviates the
problem of “accidental” change of elevator position—a distinct disadvantage of mouse-only
control. If you do try this, count your applications of the rudder key, or you're likely to lose track
of the rudder position. If you get a stall warning on takeoff or in flight, this means your elevator
has “slipped” to a higher setting, so add a little forward pressure to correct the situation.
Finally, expect crashes until you develop the special skills and judgments required for R/C
flying. Simply try to learn from your mistakes, and go out and try again. (In fact, this R/C trainer
model is unlikely to crash if you fly conservatively. With the throttle at idle, it will glide to a
reasonably safe, though not good, landing by itself.)
Go ahead now. Apply full power, steer with the rudder control on your transmitter, and your
model will take off and fly. Change the monocular zoom regularly to establish good views of the
plane while it's on the takeoff roll and when it's in the sky.
The model will take off very quickly and get into a good climb without your touching the
controls. Let it get a little altitude, and then start a turn to keep it from flying too far away. Try to
fly a more or less rectangular course, and regularly bring the model back toward your ground
position.
Remember to reduce your throttle setting to arrest the plane's climb, and then carefully observe
its attitude when it's straight and level (as seen from the ground).
Use your naked-eye view frequently to help you judge where the plane is in relation to your
surroundings.
When the plane passes directly overhead, it may look like it is spiraling. This is only an optical
illusion; don't let it alarm you. Let the plane fly beyond your position before you judge whether
you need to make any corrections.
Use the spot follow view once or twice to see how it works. (Try to avoid accidental out-the-
cockpit views because they have nothing to do with R/C flying. If you're in trouble, you can take
one on the sly. But resolve to do that only in your earliest R/C learning stages, and then only in
dire emergencies. Regard out-the-cockpit views as taboo once you're reasonably adept at radio
control.)
After you've flown pretty well for a while (interim crashes notwithstanding), try a landing. Try to
make it from the east and in the general direction of your ground position. But, again, don't
worry about landing on the runway; simply get the model safely on the ground. And when you
do, taxi it toward you. As soon as it's close enough, take the naked-eye view. You can bring the
plane right up to your feet. (The brakes work too.) Then, turn it, taxi it over, and park it about
where you started.
Now, I ask you, is that a beautiful R/C model, or is that a beautiful R/C model?
Chapter 17
TURNABOUT
Let's fly the real Cessna in the R/C trainer test mode to see what we can learn. Then, when we go
back for another R/C session, we may be better radio-control flyers.
Recall R/C TRNR FREMNT. Position the mouse arrow at the top center of the scrunched down
instrument panel, and drag the panel back up as far as it will go. The display screen will shrink
accordingly. (In the Mac you'll have to first shrink the 3D window to make room.) Open SIM
and PARTIAL PANEL, and click on only those instruments you'll need for this test:
AIRSPEED, TURN COOR, ALTIMETER, and VERT VEL (the VSI). Close the window.
Take the view from the cockpit, be sure the zoom factor is set to 1.00, and save the situation as
R/C TRNR TEST. The situation is now available at any time that you want to conduct a realistic
check on R/C performance and techniques.
Everything is ready. Simply add power, steer to line up with the runway, and wait while the
airplane rolls ahead, builds up speed, and takes off.
(Imagine—you're a Lilliputian, flying in the cockpit of a model airplane!)
Notice how quickly you're off the ground, even though you started beyond the midpoint of the
runway. You might be able to use a takeoff like this when you're in a short field.
Look at your VSI. You're climbing at about 1000 fpm (1200 in the Mac).
And look at your airspeed—about 50 knots.
Take the spot follow view, and from that perspective, note the plane's attitude in the 1000 fpm
climb.
Take the out-front view again, and reduce your power to 2000 rpm (1800 in Mac). The VSI will
settle on a 500 fpm climb.
Start a standard-rate turn to the left (without elevator back pressure), and plan to roll out on a
compass heading of 130 degrees. As you turn, back off your throttle so that your tachometer
reads 1600 rpm (1400 in Mac). Notice that the VSI reads a little below the 0 mark and then
returns to 0 as the plane picks up speed.
Roll out on a heading of 130 degrees. You are flying the downwind leg for Runway 31.
Reduce your throttle to idle. The VSI shows a descent a bit above 500 fpm.
When the runway is no longer visible on your screen, pause for a moment and take the control
tower view. (This is your view from the ground when flying R/C, of course.) Press the
Backspace key for the naked-eye view, and note that, even this close to your ground position, the
plane is just a blob in the sky. Zoom to a factor of 8.00 and unpause. Start a left turn and head the
plane toward your ground position, adjusting the zoom factor as you wish.
Let the plane land by itself and roll to a stop. Then, press the Backspace key for the naked-eye
view, and note the plane's relationship (if any) to the runway.
Now, regardless of where you are or where the plane is pointing, add full power and take off
again. (You haven't touched your elevator, so you're all ready.) As soon as your altimeter
registers 500 feet, reduce your power to 1600 rpm (1400 in Mac). Note that the farther away the
plane is, the closer it is to the horizon. Keep the naked-eye view until the plane is only a tiny dot
in the sky (or, in the Mac, disappears), and then pause.
Take the rear view from the cockpit. You can probably see the runway back there. You are
approximately a mile and a half from the center of the runway (your present ground, or control,
position). Your altitude is probably about 600 feet because you climbed a bit after you made
your power reduction.
You now have a rough boundary reference for the desired R/C flying range, which is a maximum
of about two miles from your ground control position. This reference isn't exact, and it involves
altitude as well as over-the-ground distance. But when the plane becomes a dot (or, in the Mac,
disappears) as seen with the naked eye, it is approximately a mile and a half from your ground
control position. In fact, at three monocular settings (1.00, or the naked-eye setting; 2.00; and
4.00), the model appears as a dot at the same distance (except in the Mac, where you'll see a
representation, although small, of the model). So, the boundary reference rule is: When the plane
appears as a dot (Amiga/Atari) as seen with the naked eye or when you zoom the monocular
twice (to a power of 4.00) from the naked-eye setting, the plane is nearing the edge of the desired
R/C range. In the Mac, use the aircraft's size to judge.
This rule does not mean that you cannot use magnifications higher than 4.00. Use whatever
power suits your viewing. But, make regular checks to see that you're not flying too far out,
using the reference rule I've described. Later you'll be able to fly as far as you desire. But for
now, keep the model firmly in your control, and keep it close in.
Now, set the monocular zoom to 8.00. Each notch of zoom doubles or halves the prior
magnification (although in the Mac version the reading stops at 4x), depending on whether
you're zooming out or back, through a range from .25 to 511 (in the Mac, .5 to 1024). Your
monocular is at least ten times as powerful as ordinary binoculars and is more like a high-power
telescope.
Reset the zoom to 8.00 and you'll see the aircraft again, although it's small.
Unpause and apply some left aileron. Watch your turn-and-bank indicator to the left of the DG,
and when the wing snaps to the edge of the box (indicating that the airplane is in a 30-degree
bank), neutralize. Zoom to 64.00 and note the relationship of the turn-and-bank (as seen on your
indicator) to the aircraft as viewed from the ground.
Hold the bank at 30 degrees, and let the plane turn until it is heading toward you again. Then,
take the naked-eye view, adjust your throttle if necessary to get to an altitude of 600 feet, and let
the plane fly over your head. Even if it doesn't pass directly above you, it will appear suddenly to
spin around and head in the opposite direction or it may appear to be diving or spiraling, but in
reality you spun around while your attention was focused on the plane.
Reduce your power to idle, start a turn back toward your position, and again let the plane land
itself. As it glides closer, adjust your zoom for the optimum view, and try to keep some horizon
in the picture for reference.
After the landing, taxi the plane right up to your feet, zooming gradually to wider angles and
taking the naked-eye view as it reaches you.
Now, before you fly the model again, we're going to install a little heading readout transmitter.
This transmitter will compensate for the lack of ground references when the plane is flying.
Recall R/C TRNR FREMNT. Click at the top center of your nearly submerged instrument panel,
and pull it up so that it's high enough to reveal the compass. Adjust the panel so that the compass
numbers sit right atop the border of your screen. Then, expand the screen to fill any gaps you
may have created.
I'll show you how to turn the model in place without appreciably changing its position. (You can
use the same technique for turning the prototype.) First, press rudder in the direction you want to
turn and hold it down for a slow count to 10. (This turns the nosewheel to the maximum,
although you can't confirm it because you have no rudder/nosewheel position indicator when you
fly R/C.) Then, release the rudder key, and put on a couple of notches of throttle. The aircraft
will spin like a top and hardly move a foot. When it's pointed the way you want, neutralize the
rudder, chop the throttle, and apply the brakes. (In the Mac, because you have no way to
instantly neutralize rudder/nosewheel, your best bet is to slew to a desired heading.)
Use the above technique to turn the model to a compass heading of 310 degrees. Then, open
NAV and POSITION SET, and put the plane at NORTH 17223.183 and EAST 5177.7176.
Leave ALT alone and close the window.
The model takes a giant step, and you're now in position for a takeoff straight toward your
ground position. The plane will still use Runway 31, but it's positioned at the threshold instead of
halfway up the runway.
Save this situation as R/C TRNR RDY 31.
With the compass enabled, you'll know which direction you're headed at any moment, and you
can get serious about R/C flying. Now you'll know which leg of the airport pattern you're on or
parallel to. Mix that information with a few other tricks, and you may be able to land as well as
take off on Runway 31.
You're ready to go. Using the naked-eye view for this first takeoff, simply apply full power, and
watch the model sail over your head. After it passes your ground position, let it climb until it
becomes quite small, and then—using whatever zoom you want—start a left turn to a heading of
about 220 degrees, or the crosswind leg. Start to reduce throttle to get into level flight. Use
rudder to make minor heading corrections.
After another few seconds, turn left again for the downwind leg, on a heading of 130 degrees.
When the model is on that heading, is flying away from you, and (as well as you can judge) is
beyond the end of Runway 31, cut your power to idle.
Now, you have two more left turns to make: to 40 degrees (base leg) and to 310 degrees (final
approach). Do the best you can on this first time around, and land the airplane toward you.
Remember these few pointers when flying your R/C trainer model:
Make all turns with moderate banks and neutralize when you have the bank you want. Roll out
with approximately the same amount of aileron you rolled in with—starting approximately 15
degrees ahead of the heading you want—and again neutralize when the wings appear level.
Make minor heading corrections with rudder as usual. Because you are standing in the center of
the runway, the model will go away from you at an angle when it's on the crosswind leg. When
it's downwind, at first it will fly in your general direction, but then it will appear to gradually turn
toward the right. When you see the plane in profile (given that you are within a degree or so of
the correct downwind heading—in this case, 130 degrees), it will be directly opposite you and
thus directly opposite the center of the runway. Then, it will immediately fly away from you at
an ever-increasing angle as it continues downwind.
After you turn the model for the base leg and level the wings, zoom to a wide-angle view that
includes the horizon. Even if the plane is only a dot at that point, immediately start to judge its
motion in respect to the horizon, and particularly its relationship to the end of the runway. As
you start turning to final, keep the horizon and the runway in view, and you'll be able to judge
whether you've turned too soon or too late to line up well with the runway. When you're lined up,
the plane, or the dot, will be in line with the runway, and everything on the horizon will be
relatively motionless.
It's better to see all this than to follow a description of it. So take off again, fly the pattern, and
shoot a landing. Do it several times. When you think that your downwind configuration is close
to ideal—flying level on a heading of 130 degrees and, ideally, opposite your control position—
save the situation as R/C TRNR DWNWND. You can use it to perfect your subsequent turns to
base and final.
At some point, get in straight and level configuration (based on your best judgment), on a
heading of 310 degrees (your altitude doesn't matter for this purpose), cut your power to idle, and
immediately pause the simulation. Open NAV and POSITION SET, and put the aircraft at
NORTH 17219.296, EAST 5178.7488, and ALT 470.0000. Close the window.
Press the Backspace key, and you'll see the model as it should look on final approach to Runway
31. Save this situation as R/C TRNR FINAL, and use it to practice final approaches. No two
approaches will be exactly alike; experiment with back pressure to flare, and try to execute a
nose-high landing. Try a little power for leveling off too.
Chapter 18
NEW HORIZONS
Until now, your R/C flying has been something less than realistic, except for your actual time in
the air in R/C TRNR FREMNT and in your practice sessions when you created R/C TRNR
DWNWND. In takeoffs from Runway 31, your model was carefully positioned to point straight
down the centerline so that you didn't have to contend with steering. R/C TRNR TEST is a
useful lab situation but not designed to be realistic. And R/C TRNR FINAL is a packaged
situation designed to let you try some landings and experiment with your throttle, back pressure,
and views.
In real life, however, R/C modelists don't have such niceties. Only a novice would place an
airplane carefully on the runway (if a runway such as an abandoned strip of road exists). A
serious flyer, very much a realist, will taxi the model into position and then steer it through the
takeoff run and into the sky. After the flight and landing, the serious flyer will taxi the plane back
to where he or she is standing and ready it for the next flight (if it's mostly in one piece). If the
flying field has no specific facility that can be used as a runway, the flyer will taxi to any likely
looking spot, head into the wind, and take off.
This is how you should fly R/C too. Follow one flight with another and improvise as you go,
instead of recalling R/C TRNR RDY 31 with its perfect conditions. You are free to change the
wind direction in ENVIRO and to take off on 13, 31, or the grass. R/C is a sport and a hobby,
created for fun and challenge, not a rigid discipline. The only formal regulation in actual R/C
flying is that you don't fly when someone else is already flying on your radio frequency. All
actual radio control units are fitted with highly visible colored flags that identify the frequency
each flyer is using. You don't have that problem in simulated R/C, but imagine a yellow flag is
on your transmitter anyway.
One problem, however, with flying, landing, and then flying again freely is determining the
elevator setting. If you experiment a bit while you fly, the elevator is bound to come into play.
During a landing, you'll want to use back pressure as appropriate, and you're certainly too
engrossed to be counting notches. So, if you've just landed your airplane and you want to fly it
again, how do you trim for takeoff without any reference to guide you? Radio units for real R/C
models have an elevator trim control, and every experienced hobbyist knows exactly where to set
it for each specific aircraft prior to takeoff. With nothing visible to guide us, we have to simulate
that control. Here's how to do it:
If you're flying Amiga/Atari, after you've landed and prior to your next takeoff, press up elevator
10 or 12 times in quick succession. Although you can't see your trim indicator, be assured that
the needle will move to the top of the gauge or to full up elevator. (You'll get a stall warning, but
that has no significance when you're on the ground.) Once you know you're at full up elevator,
you have a reference for elevator trim control. To trim down for takeoff, apply five quick presses
of down elevator. That's all you need to do to be ready to take off again.
If you're flying the Macintosh, you can approximate takeoff trim with forward pressure on the
mouse, but for the greatest precision your only recourse is to temporarily raise the instrument
panel, reveal the top portion of the trim gauge, trim down, and then deep-six the panel again.
Another way to go, regardless of the computer you're using, is simply to go. Add power and your
model will take off. If you get a stall warning before it leaves the ground, you know to trim
down. And once you're in the air, judge your trim by the model's flying attitude. You may find
this method the most satisfying of all. It's certainly the most dynamic.
You'll always need a recall situation, of course, to get you on the ground at Fremont and in R/C
mode. Use either R/C TRNR FREMNT or R/C TRNR RDY 31. The former is the more flexible
because you must taxi and line up to use either runway.
I'm sure you'll do a lot of R/C flying on your own if, like me, you find it one of the most
fascinating diversions the simulator provides. The trainer model will help you get used to the
idea of R/C, but you can modify it to suit yourself. Trimming down from the more or less fixed
elevator position you've used so far will increase the model's speed and thus its performance.
Experiment. For instance, while climbing with full power, try some turns with a steeper bank
than usual, and practice rolling out of them. Then, get into a glide and try some steep turns that
way. Use your throttle (and elevator too if you need it) to pull up if you start to head for the
ground. If you get a stall warning, get the nose down if you have room to recover, and add some
power. In short, fly the model for all you're worth. You don't really want to crash it, any more
than you want to crash the prototype. And the way not to crash it is to fly it.
Finally, wherever you are in the sky, try to land the airplane straight toward you, using banks and
turns and power as required.
Although you flew by certain specific parameters, known to be valid, early in your R/C
experience, every flight is different, and you're bound to lose touch with those parameters. If you
were always to fly at a relatively “safe” altitude, always to turn with moderate banks, always to
reduce power by the numbers for a known straight and level rpm, always to know precisely your
elevator trim and exactly how much pressure is left to use in flaring and “holding off” to the
point of touchdown, you'd be flying too conservatively. You also wouldn't really learn much. So,
although I took you through some aspects of R/C “by the numbers” to get you started and give
you a few points of reference, now I encourage you to fly creatively and intuitively…to
experiment and sometimes fail…to learn what the airplane can do by doing it…and to push
everything to its limit—including your luck.
That's the fun and challenge of R/C. Who knows? You may become as addicted to your R/C
model as those weekend zealots are to theirs. You may soon find yourself considered an “old-
timer,” showing a nervous novice how it's done.
Chapter 19
ADVANCED R/C: THE 182-S
Don't undertake advanced R/C until you are relatively skilled at flying the beginner modes set up
earlier. (I don't know why I bother to say that when I know you're going to try it, relatively
skilled or not.)
In advanced R/C you'll fly a scale model that is considerably more sophisticated than the model
you've flown before. It's faster, more demanding, and capable of full prototype performance,
including stunts. (The low-speed R/C trainer is not designed for stunts.)
In this chapter, I'll show you how to “kit-build” the model I call the R/C Cessna 182-S—the S
stands for both sophistication and stunt capability.
The easiest way to build the 182-S is to start with the basic plans of the model you already built.
Recall R/C TRNR TEST. Unpause and turn the aircraft in place to a heading of 027 degrees.
Next, access POSITION SET because you're going to move to a completely different location.
Set the aircraft at NORTH 17302.526, EAST 5251.7254, and ALT 0.0. Put the tower (you) at
NORTH 17302.401, EAST 5252.0000, and ALT 440.0000, and then close the window.
When you set parameters like these, the tower parameter is usually misconstrued by the
simulator. So, before you do anything else, reenter NAV and POSITION SET and be sure the
tower altitude is within a foot of 440. If it isn't, re-enter 440.0000 and again close the window.
Note that, at present, your elevator is trimmed as it was for your R/C trainer (from full up, five
quick downs in Amiga/Atari and three notches down in the Mac). Trim the 182-S for takeoff
with five additional quick downs in Amiga/Atari and two additional notches down in the
Macintosh. Thus, the total takeoff trim for the 182-S is, from full up, 2 × 5 qd in Amiga/Atari
and five notches down in the Mac. Whenever you save an on-the-ground R/C situation, use these
trim settings, and your model will be ready for takeoff.
Next, open SIM and PARTIAL PANEL. Turn on ATTITUDE, and leave AIRSPEED and
ALTIMETER on. Turn off TURN COOR and VERT VEL. The three instruments in the top row
should be the only ones now on.
Close the window. Drag the instrument panel down to about half its present height. Then,
continue to nudge it down until only the very tops of the numerals 140 and 100 on the airspeed
indicator are visible. The attitude indicator and altimeter will also be partially visible. The idea is
to shrink the panel as far as possible and to leave only enough of the three instruments on the left
side to be able to interpret their readings. Notice on the right side of the panel that the compass,
tachometer (RPM), and engine gauges are intact.
With this panel arrangement you'll have no trouble interpreting the airspeed indicator, attitude
indicator, or altimeter. Together with the compass and tachometer, these three instruments give
you vital information about the model's configuration and direction, compensating for the lack of
ground references that you have with actual R/C flying. An R/C enthusiast can judge a flying
model's relative speed, attitude, and altitude by ever-present ground references. In the simulator,
you can see the ground only when the R/C model is too close to it to make useful corrections or
when the horizon is very far away, as in the case of viewing the “dot” from your ground control
position.
Now, drag the main display down and right until it meets and fills all the screen above the
instrument panel.
You have successfully built the Cessna 182-S R/C model. Congratulations! Take a look at your
plane from your control position. Isn't it a beauty?
The 182-S is equipped with tiny sensors that register the model's airspeed, attitude, altitude,
heading, and engine rpm. This information is transmitted to a small panel on your R/C control
box (at the bottom of your screen), enabling you to fly the plane much as if you were inside it.
Because it flies at almost three times the speed of your beginner model, the Cessna 182-S can do
everything the prototype Cessna can do. But we still have to fit the 182-S with some special gear.
Open VIEW and set the spot plane behind the aircraft at a distance of 200 feet and an altitude of
20 feet. Then, close the window, and take the spot plane view. If the display does not fill the
screen, drag it down, as you did the main screen, to the top of the abbreviated instrument panel.
As in the R/C trainer model you built, the spot follow feature is available for the 182-S, but the
view is from the rear rather than from the side.
Finally, you'll mount a special miniature video camera on the model to the rear of the wing. (I
told you the 182-S was sophisticated.) To mount the camera you'll use a special window that you
haven't used before: the second three-dimensional window. I've been saving this for a special
application, and the 182-S is it. Access the window on the Mac with the OPTION key and on the
Amiga/Atari with function key F2, and drag the window to the upper left corner of your screen.
Then, click at the bottom right corner of the window and drag the display down and across so
that it fills the entire space above the abbreviated instrument panel. Now, take a rear view. This
is the mounted camera's default setting, but you can point it in any direction with your regular
view keys. The camera also has a zoom lens. And in Amiga/Atari it also responds to the panning
keys. Try some of these features, and then reset the panning feature, set the zoom to 1.00, and
return to the rear view. Close the camera window by pressing twice the same key you used to
open it.
Return to the naked-eye view at your control position. You and your model are in California at a
custom R/C flying field—complete with runway, taxiways, control tower, and pilot shop, all
exactly to scale. Isn't this something?
You can fly anytime you wish—even at night—because no residential areas are nearby. The
noise of your engine won't disturb anyone.
Before you do anything else, set the season to spring, and set the surface winds to a depth of
5000 feet, from a direction of 250 degrees, and at a speed of six knots. Then, close the window.
Save the situation as R/C AIRSHOW 25 because radio-control buffs from all over the world put
on competition airshows at this field. You'll want to practice R/C flying here, and you'll probably
enter a show yourself one day.
In order to determine exactly where you are, turn on your map. Drag it up to the top left corner of
your screen. Then, click at the bottom right corner of the map and, holding the button down,
expand it to a full-size display. The detail is phenomenal. Zoom through a few notches, and then
zoom to the widest possible angle that includes the most geography. (You can set up the map like
this anytime you fly R/C and leave it expanded. But the map size and location, unlike your other
screens, cannot be saved and recalled, so you have to reset it when you recall.)
Open NAV and set the map to NORTH ORIENTATION. With this setting, all points of the
compass are the same as on an ordinary map (viewed north-at-the-top), so the + sign indicates
only where you are, not the direction in which the plane is pointed.
At the speeds your 182-S can fly, you'll have difficulty knowing where you are at any given
time, so some study of this map can be very valuable. The spot follow feature and your on-board
camera will help immensely if you have some idea of what you're looking at.
The airshow field is in Livermore, California. (In fact, it duplicates the real Livermore Airport
with uncanny precision.) The field is south of Interstate 580 and at the north-west corner of the
Livermore metropolitan area. Note that Livermore is shaped like an arrowhead. Zoom closer and
study the relationship of the arrowhead and the threshold of Runway 25, and then set the zoom to
minimum again. (The minimum zoom in the Mac is .5, and in Amiga/Atari .25, so some of the
detail described below will not be visible to Mac pilots.)
West of Livermore, shaped like a rough-hewn arrowhead, is the metropolitan area of Pleasanton,
California. The “Pleasanton arrowhead” points directly away from the airshow field. The
highway it points to is Interstate 680, which is at an approximate right angle to I-580. At the
intersection of the highways is the town of Dublin and more of the Pleasanton metropolitan area.
The mountain west of I-680 is the Sunol Ridge. Suffice it to say that if you're flying the model in
the west quadrant and see the highway intersection or if you're getting close to a mountain, it's
time to turn and head east.
At the extreme north of the current map display are two mountains that are part of the Black
Hills range (only a portion of one mountain is visible in the Mac version). If you're flying the
model in the north quadrant and get close to these two mountains, it's again high time to turn
your model around.
Other than the distant Maguire Peaks, the only landmark to the south is San Antonio Reservoir.
Avoid flying that far, but if you do, at least you'll know it's time to turn north when you see the
reservoir. At the western extremity of your map display is, of course, San Francisco Bay. If you
see it closer than at a great distance (it's about 20 miles from the field), you'll get the Airshow
Booby Prize. At the eastern extremity of the map-display area is a fork in the highway where I-
580 meets I-205 and heads south. That fork is also a sign of being out of range, so use I-580
westward to guide your model back to you.
Now, zoom in two notches (Mac, one notch) or until the mountains virtually disappear and you
can see the practical extremities of the area in which you'll try to fly your R/C model. Interstate
580 and the arrowhead of the Livermore metropolitan area, together with the field, are the focal
points of the area. Enough said. Reset the map to AIRCRAFT ORIENTATION, and get your
mind turned around. Then, decide whether you want to leave the orientation at AIRCRAFT or at
NORTH, whichever best suits the way your mind works. Personally, I use NORTH to get
geographically acquainted with an area and AIRCRAFT to fly it.
Chaper 20
SMASHING PARTY
The 182-S is a far cry from the beginner's R/C trainer model that you first constructed. Except
for its abbreviated instrument panel, as depicted on your R/C transmitter, the 182-S is identical to
the prototype Cessna 182. The trainer model was deliberately slowed for practice purposes and
was designed to give you the feel of R/C control. As a result, stunts are impossibly difficult in
that model because it always flies only a few knots above stalling speed.
Although your 182-S is considerably upgraded from the trainer model (and indeed, can be flown
exactly like the prototype), you have the option to fly it like the trainer model—particularly when
you're first getting used to it. Although it has retractable gear and a full complement of flaps, you
can leave the gear down and fly without using flaps. In fact, if you simply return to the trainer
trim when you recall R/C AIRSHOW 25 (in Amiga/Atari by using 5 qu; in the Mac by
temporarily raising the instrument panel, turning on VERT VEL, and trimming down to the third
notch), you can fly the 182-S exactly as you fly the trainer. This option may help you as you start
to fly at Livermore and get used to the new complement of instruments the advanced model
provides.
In any event, there are good reasons to modify the takeoff and climbout of the 182-S compared
to the prototype. At an R/C airshow, if you were to take off and climb out normally, you'd use
almost all the runway, and both you and the spectators would lose sight of your plane before you
got your gear and flaps up and long before you began to trim down. You want to show off your
plane to its best advantage on takeoff, while it is at low altitude and close to the crowd.
Furthermore, you want to get your model up to its best speed at the earliest possible moment.
(You know how long it takes to reach 140 knots in the prototype with your careful, gentle,
smooth, and persuasive trimming procedure—fine, but too long for airshow purposes.)
So, you'll fly the 182-S a little roughly and somewhat less safely. You'll get it into the air as soon
as possible. You might want to fly for a while with the gear down because, as an R/C model, the
plane looks very interesting in the sky with the gear extended. And if you keep the gear down it
will cut your overall speed so that the model won't fly away too fast. Even with gear extended,
the 182-S can be stunt-flown (but not easily).
However, as when you're in the prototype, you must know what you're doing at all times—even
more so, in fact, because you don't have access to all the prototype's instruments.
I'm going to recommend a “show takeoff” procedure. (You might call it a “show off” takeoff
procedure.) But I urge you not to regard it as the last word. Experiment on your own. That's what
R/C is all about. The following is a technique that gets you off the ground in a hurry, gets you
well above stalling speed in a flash, and has you ready to do an aileron roll whenever you want to
risk it.
182-S R/C Airshow Takeoff Procedure
Remember that in this R/C AIRSHOW 25 situation that you recalled, your elevator is trimmed
for takeoff, but your flaps are zeroed. To prepare for the airshow takeoff, put on full flaps. (You
can't see the flaps position indicator, but you know full-flap extension calls for four presses of ],
the flaps down key.) Apply full throttle for the takeoff roll as usual. Rotate normally (2 qu or
your usual back pressure on the mouse) just before your airspeed reads 50 knots. You'll be
airborne almost immediately, doing under 55 knots. Wihout delay, retract your gear and zero
your flaps. Then, cancel the pressure you used for rotation. Believe it or not, at this point you
won't be halfway down the runway; this technique will get you airborne when you've used only
about a third of the strip. You won't have much altitude, but you'll be climbing fast, at about 65–
70 knots, and you can start some steep turns back toward the crowd.
Stay at full power or maybe 100 rpm under it if you want to gain stunting altitude as quickly as
possible. Or, if you're going to try some low altitude shenanigans, reduce your power to about
1900 rpm (1750 rpm in the Mac), and start to trim down. As you trim, your speed will increase.
You'll know when you're at op neutral trim when you are doing about 135 knots straight and
level. You know where the airspeed needle points even if you can't see the whole of the “140.”
Macintosh flyers will have to judge op neutral that way; but Amiga/Atari flyers can reach op
neutral quickly with four sets of three quick downs (4 × 3 qd) if rotation pressure was cancelled
after takeoff. Don't trim down too fast, though, or your model will smack into the ground.
If you want to stunt-fly the airplane, let it climb at full throttle (or reduce a bit; even the change
in rpm keeps the crowd excited) until your altimeter registers 2800 feet, while making regular
left turns to keep it close to you. The plane will get to 2800 feet fast, and for an airshow you
want to reach stunt altitude as quickly as you reasonably can.
At 2800 feet reduce your throttle just until your tachometer reads, in Amiga/Atari, 1950 rpm. (In
the Mac the ultimate reading will be about 1750 rpm, but use the spot plane view to get straight
and level because you can't see the throttle position indicator.) This is approximate cruise power
for the 182-S, but you can adjust it as required; your altimeter will tell you when you're straight
and level because its needle will be virtually stationary. If you started your power reduction at
2800 feet, you probably climbed another 100 feet or so before the aircraft responded and
stabilized.
Fly to nail down about 2900 MSL, get into a good viewing position, and save the situation as
R/C STUNT ALT. You'll want to return to this situation frequently because your model is at the
optimum altitude for practicing (as well as performing) stunts.
While you're on this first flight, try the spot follow view. Remember what you saw on the map,
and try to orient yourself to the areas you're flying over. Look at the big map too. And be sure to
take the spectacular view offered by your onboard camera, particularly when you're in a turn.
What a model this is!
Fly around as long as you like, and then try to land somewhere on the field (maybe even on
Runway 25) without damage.
I want to mention a few aspects of viewing and of flying the 182-S. If you take either the on-
board camera or map views, be sure to turn them off (two quick presses) before you take a spot
follow view or your ground control view. Otherwise, they'll be on the screen in layers, slowing
up the simulation and possibly leading to some strange and disorienting intermixes. So, the rule
is: If you turn on a view, turn it off before you take a new view. The spot follow view and the
ground control view turn off when you select either the other view, the on-board camera, or the
map.
Your stripped-down rank of instruments gives you (in Amiga/Atari at least) in compressed form
all the information you need for precise control of the model. But now, more than ever, you need
to cross-interpret them, which is great practice for flying in your prototype Cessna. You don't
need a VSI to know when you're climbing, flying level, or descending; the altimeter needle keeps
you well-informed on that score. You know from flying the prototype that, regardless of your
configuration, your airspeed indicator will vary little or not at all when you're in control. You
don't need a turn-and-bank indicator; the attitude indicator, or artificial (gyro) horizon, takes its
place. Even if your model is only a dot in the sky, the attitude indicator shows whether your
wings are level or how far they're banked and in what direction. If you're losing too much
altitude in the turn, the altimeter also tells you that. And if you're getting into a dive condition,
your engine sound, airspeed indicator, altimeter, and tachometer warn you to take remedial
action. When a balance is restored, all instruments will reflect that fact: The airspeed will be
steady, the artificial horizon will be where it's supposed to be, the altimeter will register your
altitude condition, and the tachometer will read correctly for your configuration. Finally, the
compass will tell you which way your model is headed.
You can use a little trick to read the horizon—both the artificial horizon in the R/C model and
the real horizon when you're flying the prototype—and to correct with aileron in the desired
direction. When the horizon (or the artificial horizon) slants down to the right, you're in a left
bank; when it slants down to the left, you're in a right bank. To level your wings, apply aileron in
the direction of the low side of the horizon. If the horizon slants down to the right, apply right
aileron; if it slants down to the left, apply left aileron. When the horizon returns to a level aspect,
neutralize the ailerons.
Of course, when you view your model in the sky, you know to apply right aileron if the left wing
is down and left aileron if the right wing is down. But when the airplane is flying toward you or
in your general direction, your control sense can be easily confused. If the model is flying toward
you, correct with control application in the direction of its “error,” or its deviation in respect to
your viewing position and what you want it to do. Think of right and left only in the sense of the
“picture” as viewed by you. If the wing in the picture is slanted down to the right, apply right
aileron to level it; if it's slanted down to the left, apply left aileron.
The same principle applies in terms of directional deviations: Correct in the direction of the
deviation. If the plane is flying toward your right, use right aileron to turn it directly toward you,
and if it's flying toward your left, use left aileron. This procedure can help immensely when you
are landing the model toward you. If it's pointed to your right, apply right rudder, and if it's
drifting too far left, apply left rudder.
The same idea can be applied to steering the model on the ground. When the plane is going away
from you, you have no problem with steering, but when it's coming toward you or in your
general direction, it's easy to be confused. If the airplane is taking off toward you and is running
off the runway toward the right of the picture, correct with right rudder, and so on.
Why did we eliminate CRASH DETECT from the REALISM factors? You're probably going to
crash your model regularly early in the game. (Probably later, too, as you push your R/C
capabilities to the limit.) With CRASH DETECT enabled, the screen goes black and you get a
silly message; if you dove straight into the ground, the message would simply say that you
landed with your gear up. So, the message and the black screen (when it appears) are both
downers as well as detractors from the realism.
With CRASH DETECT disabled, you get a somewhat startling departure from realism in that the
plane, phoenix-like, rises and flies again, no matter how crazily. But I think it's best to have
CRASH DETECT disabled for two more reasons. First, you can pause right after the crash and
recall the same or a new situation immediately without having to click on the message window.
Second, once in a while the crazy attitudes and maneuvers the plane assumes when it bounces up
from a crash can be very useful; you can try to fly the airplane out of its new predicament and
perhaps learn something. Normally, however, you should pause and recall a situation so that you
can fly again under known conditions. Use the after-crash gyrations only when they provide a
special challenge and when you want to see if you can beat the simulation at its own game.
Chapter 21
STUNT-FLYING THE 182-S
To control your 182-S well is a continuing challenge. It is no mean feat to land it even close to
your ground position, let alone on the runway. A runway landing is the toughest challenge of all.
But it can be done. And I guarantee you that the first time you do it you'll exult!
However, other great firsts—equally thrilling—are in store. A runway landing may not impress
the average observer because nonflyers have no idea how tough it is. But if you turn the model
on its back in flight or do a loop or a spin, the “ooohs!” and “ahhhs!” will more than repay the
hours you spent practicing stunts with the 182-S.
If you've watched actual R/C flying, you know that aerobatics are the norm for all but the rank
beginner. R/C models can do stunts that are virtually impossible in actual aircraft because their
power-to-weight ratio is far beyond even that of specially built stunt planes.
In the case of the 182-S, it flies more like a real airplane than do most R/C models. Its power-to-
weight ratio is identical to that of the prototype Cessna 182. Thus, compared with the average
R/C model, it is more difficult, but not impossible, to stunt-fly. And it is a beautiful airplane to
watch in the sky.
The following are only guidelines. In actual R/C flying and particularly while doing aerobatics,
you'll rarely have time to get into the best possible configuration for each maneuver. And I know
that you'll try stunts like those described below when you haven't enough airspeed or altitude,
and you'll doubtless get into trouble, crashing often.
Nevertheless, your objective should be to fly without crashing, which is the only reasonable
objective. Achieving that objective is, of course, another matter.
In all the following stunt descriptions, it is assumed that you have adequate altitude and an
airspeed of about 135-140 knots (normal cruising speed) at the outset of the maneuver.
“Adequate altitude” depends on exactly how, and how well, you perform the maneuver. Also, for
many of the descriptions, I cannot provide specific pressure instructions for the Macintosh,
which has no keyboard yoke option. If you're flying the Mac, I can only suggest that you
carefully analyze the values given for the Amiga/Atari keypad yoke and that you pay equally
careful attention to the basic stunt description as well as to the aircraft as observed in the sky.
Because you can neither count elevator pressures nor see your elevator trim/position gauge, you
are at a particular disadvantage in learning to stunt-fly your R/C model.
Finally, let me remind you that the values given are approximate. They are provided to give you
an idea of each stunt and should, in all cases, be modified to suit the aircraft's configuration. So,
here goes!
Aileron Roll
Apply hard aileron pressure in the direction you want the model to roll. When the wings are
about 30 degrees from perpendicular (as observed in the sky and/or on the attitude indicator),
apply full down elevator (approximately 12 qd). When the wings are again 30 degrees from
perpendicular, apply an equal amount of up elevator (approximately 12 qu). Neutralize your
ailerons as the wings come level. Adjust elevator to suit the aircraft's configuration.
Inverted Flight (entered from half-roll)
Do a half aileron-roll as described above, applying hard aileron pressure in the direction you
want the model to roll. When the wings are about 30 degrees from perpendicular, apply full
down elevator. Neutralize your ailerons when the plane is inverted. Adjust elevator to fly
inverted and level. (Forward pressure raises the nose and back pressure lowers it relative to the
horizon.) Interpret the artificial horizon in the same manner as in normal flight; that is, to keep
the wings level apply aileron pressure in the direction of the low side of the slant.
The engine will stop while you are inverted.
To recover from inverted flight, apply full left or right aileron. When the wings are about 30
degrees from perpendicular, apply strong up elevator. Neutralize your ailerons as the wings come
level in upright flight. Adjust elevator to suit the aircraft's configuration.
Immelman (half-loop followed by half-roll)
Apply forward elevator pressure (5 qd) to pick up speed. Wait for approximately 155 KIAS.
Apply strong up elevator (12 qu) to climb, followed by full throttle. At the top of the loop, apply
forward elevator pressure, as needed, to briefly fly inverted and level, followed by full left or
right aileron. When the wings are 30 degrees from perpendicular, apply strong back pressure (as
in the last portion of the regular aileron-roll). Neutralize your ailerons as the wings come level.
Adjust elevator to suit the aircraft's configuration.
Inside Loop
Apply forward elevator pressure (5 qd) to pick up speed. Wait for approximately 155 KIAS.
Apply strong up elevator (12 qu) to climb, followed by full throttle. Keep the throttle open to
round out the top of the circle, and then as descent begins, close the throttle completely. As sky
comes into view (on the artificial horizon), apply strong forward pressure (8 qd) to arrest a
secondary climb. Open throttle to cruise power, and adjust elevator to suit the aircraft's
configuration.
Split-S (inverted flight followed by half-loop)
Roll to inverted position (as in Inverted Flight, above). Close the throttle (whether or not the
engine has quit). Apply strong back pressure (15 qu) to enter the back half of a loop. As sky
comes into view (on the artificial horizon), apply some strong forward pressure (15 qd) to arrest
a secondary climb. Open throttle to cruise rpm, and adjust elevator to suit the aircraft's
configuration.
Spin
Close the throttle. As the aircraft begins to slow down, apply strong up elevator to maintain a
steep climb attitude while the airspeed drops. When the plane stalls, let the nose drop to an
approximate 45-degree angle (with respect to the horizon), and then apply full left or right rudder
to start auto-rotation.
To stop the spin, neutralize the rudder. Then, apply strong down elevator to recover from the
stall. (If the spin is excessive, apply rudder opposite to the direction of the spin.) Restore cruise
power and adjust elevator to suit the aircraft's configuration.
Chandelle (maximum-performance climbing 180)
Note the compass and/or the visual heading of the aircraft. Open the throttle to maximum. Apply
back pressure (3 qu) to pitch the nose up. Enter a 30-degree bank to the left or the right, and
neutralize. Immediately apply additional back pressure (3 qu) for a steep climb angle. (Only a
small portion of artificial horizon should show.) Trim up at a rate to keep the smallest possible
amount of horizon showing. The plane should be close to stalling speed. (If you get a stall
warning, apply a little forward pressure.) Roll out 180 degrees from your original heading. Start
to trim down and reduce your power to cruise rpm. (Your altitude gain should be 1500 to 2000
feet.)
Wingover
Note your altitude and heading. Open your throttle substantially (10 notches or to 2450 rpm).
Apply strong back pressure (2 × 5 qu). Begin a left or a right turn and steepen the bank to
approximately 80 degrees. Neutralize your ailerons. When your airspeed slows to 50 KIAS,
reduce throttle to approximate cruise rpm (10 notches). At the top of the turn, start opposite
aileron pressure. Apply moderate down elevator (5 qd), and roll out on the reverse of your
original heading. When your altitude equalizes (or the altimeter pauses), apply additional
moderate down elevator (5 qd) to level off at your original altitude.
Lazy 8
The Lazy 8 consists of two wingovers in succession, performed in opposite directions.
You can also add power-off and power-on stalls to your repertoire, as described in Chapter 13.
Practice the aerobatics as individual stunts until you get the feel of each of them. The instruments
on your transmitter will be invaluable aids to execution; learn to be aware of what each tells you,
as well as what the model is doing in the sky. Often, the model will be ahead of the instruments,
and by watching it you will know whether you are into, or out of, trouble—before the
instruments record the fact.
Once you have a feel for several stunts, try stringing them together: follow a roll with a loop or
an Immelman with a spin and so forth. Frequently your altitude will dictate what stunt to do next
if you are improvising. For example, if you've lost a lot of altitude in a spin, you might follow it
with a Chandelle. Or, conversely, if you're on your back midway through a roll, perhaps you
decide to get to a lower altitude in a hurry; so, instead of completing the roll, you convert it to a
Split-S. Or, while you're at the top of a loop you might realize that your altitude is pretty hairy
for completing it, so you change your mind and do an Immelman.
You'll probably find yourself accidently doing stunts that aren't in the book—this book or any
other. At those times, what you've learned about classic aerobatics may well get you out of
trouble. And there's no doubt that doing aerobatics will make you a better pilot—in the prototype
as well as when flying R/C.
Chapter 22
ALL TOGETHER NOW
You've probably noticed how much more smoothly and vividly the simulation runs when you're
flying radio control. Viewed in the air, the plane at times looks incredibly realistic. And with
nearly two-thirds of the instrument panel eliminated, the “world” outside the plane is more
dramatic and real. The increased smoothness is a result of relieving the computer of a multitude
of tasks. It doesn't have to check the realism factors you cancelled or update, second-by-second,
the instruments you're not using.
Like me, you've probably wondered what it would be like to fly from the cockpit seat and look
out on all those big, smooth scenic views from the pilot's perspective. Maybe you've tried it
already.
But, I want to propose an alternative flying mode, which brings together all the best features of
both flying and viewing that we've discovered in this book and which is equally applicable to
both the Cessna 182 and the Gates Learjet.
First, you will use an abbreviated instrument panel to enhance both your view and the simulator's
operation speed. (The bigger display screen is more interesting for onlookers too.)
The abbreviated panel can take one of two forms. On local flights you can use the panel we
created for the 182-S, or on cross-country flights you can add VOR navigational capability with
only a slight compromise in panel size.
Second, you will standardize the spot plane, second 3-D, control tower, and map views and set
all of them for the optimum compromise between graphics and utility. If you practice and fly
regularly with these same standards, your flying technique is bound to improve. Having
standards does not mean you'll never depart from them, of course; but you'll always be able to
return to a known, optimum mode, with which you're comfortable and which you know to be
viable.
Recall R/C AIRSHOW 25.
If you were to translate the 182-S panel to a full-size aircraft, it would have all the instruments
that you need to fly. You've learned how to cross-interpret the primary instrument readings on
the left of the panel—airspeed, attitude, and altitude—to understand exactly what the aircraft is
doing in any given moment of flight. The compass tells you which way you're flying. The panel
also includes the other vital instruments: fuel gauge, oil gauge, and the tachometer for reading
and setting your engine rpm. In fact, the 182-S panel has more instruments than an aircraft is
legally required to have; the artificial horizon, for instance, is not required. In the early days of
aviation, pilots flew with far less instrumentation than you're looking at. (And often, what they
looked at didn't work right.)
So, why not fly for real with only these instruments?
Before you fly, however, let's move the aircraft to another airport so that you don't confuse it
with your R/C 182-S. Get into the cockpit (if you haven't forgotten how after R/C flying). Then,
unpause, turn the aircraft in place about 180 degrees to a heading of 210, and pack it off to
NORTH 17256.206, EAST 5370.2223, and ALT 0.0.
Position the tower at NORTH 17256.491, EAST 5368.6942, and ALT 240.0000, and close the
window. (Don't forget to re-check the tower altitude.)
Take the spot plane view. You're in your tiedown spot next to the pilot shop on Tracy Municipal
Airport, Tracy, California. I recommend the current spot plane view as a standard (spot distance
200 feet and spot altitude 20 feet) because it provides a clean view of the aircraft with the
optimum view of its surroundings. Also, with no gear position indicator, you can always use the
spot plane view to check whether your gear is up or down. (Although you should know,
shouldn't you?)
Access the second 3-D window. This is your on-board video camera, currently facing directly to
the rear. If your version of Flight Simulator has panning controls, turn the camera eight positions
to the right. (Your fin will move to the left as viewed on the display.) This is the new default
setting that I recommend for the pannable camera. The setting is between the 135-degree and
180-degree rear views, and it is optimum for checking on relative runway bearings when you're
downwind. It also shows about what you'd see if you craned your neck all the way to the left to
look behind you. Close the window.
Turn on your map and expand it to full display size. Set the zoom to minimum so that the map
includes as much terrain as possible. Although you'll undoubtedly zoom closer as you near a
destination, this setting is ideal for checking the geography you're sitting on or flying over. So,
you should regard a maximum-size, minimum-zoom map as standard when you begin a flight.
Turn off the map.
Now, I'll recommend an additional standard setting. Click on FILE, and turn off the ASPECT
RATIO LOCK. Notice that the spot plane view now takes in slightly more territory. The same is
true of all other views because you altered the display field of view by abbreviating the
instrument panel. After some experimentation, I've found that I like to have the aspect ratio
unlocked. It slightly enhances the realism of landing approaches and gives a broader expanse to
all out-the-windshield views. Used with the standard views you've set up, it introduces little or
no distortion while you fly. After you've flown with it a while, if you don't like it for any reason,
restore the default ASPECT RATIO LOCK.
You now have a complete airplane ready to fly, and your minimum panel option is enabled.
Because the current panel comprises only primary instruments, save this situation as PRIMARY
TRACY/C. (Be sure that you have the spot plane view enabled.) That title describes the panel,
the location, and the aircraft. From a flying standpoint, the aircraft is a full-feature Cessna 182
with retractable gear, flaps, and so forth; it only lacks the turn-and-bank indicator, DG, VSI,
NAVs, ADF; and a collection of reminder gauges for such things as carb heat, gear and flaps
position, mags, and panel lights. Given the greatly enhanced out-the-windshield view, I, for one,
can live without those niceties, at least on local flights.
Speaking of which, let's make one. The wind hasn't changed (from 250 degrees at 6 knots), so
the logical runway is Runway 25 to your right.
But hold on. You're still trimmed as you were for flying the 182-S. (You didn't change the trim,
remember?) How do you set your flaps and trim for takeoff, how do you trim down, and to what
“neutral?”
Consider this: In actual aircraft like the one you're now flying, pilots have neither elevator
position indicators nor specific neutral positions to which they trim (although sometimes marks
or notches on the trim wheel are used to set takeoff trim). Instead, as mentioned earlier, pilots
“trim off” the elevator pressures that were needed to hold the aircraft in a specific configuration.
For example, to slowfly an aircraft, a pilot reduces power to a known range, and then applies
back pressure (or simply begins to trim) to prevent a descent. When the back pressure is in
balance with the power setting and the aircraft is flying level at the desired lower speed, the trim
wheel is set to whatever position retains that configuration without pressure on the yoke.
Because you cannot feel elevator pressures on the simulator “yoke” (whether you use the
keyboard, the mouse, or a joystick as a yoke), you have until now used the elevator position
indicator as a guide to trimming procedure.
But other indicators can tell you when you are properly trimmed out. By using only the airspeed
indicator and the altimeter, you can trim to fly at almost any desired speed. The cruise speed
you've used is correct for this aircraft. (The airspeed needle should split the 0 in the 140 mark.) If
you click on INFO and then CESSNA 182 in the menu bar, you'll see that the maximum speed
specification is 146 knots and the cruise speed at 65% power is 133 knots. The latter is the
approximate cruise speed you've been getting throughout this book. So, when you are flying with
your airspeed indicator on or near the 0 in 140 and when the altimeter needle is stationary, you're
correctly trimmed for cruise. And when your airspeed is approximately 100 knots and the
altimeter is steady at any given altitude, you're correctly trimmed for slowflight. Similarly, when
your airspeed is in the general area of 70 knots and you are level, you're in approach
configuration.
It's important to realize that none of these airspeeds are absolute, and neither are the power and
trim combinations that create them. It's entirely possible to regard slowflight airspeed as 70, 80,
or 90 knots and to regard approach speed as anything from that range down to stalling speed, as
long as the aircraft is trimmed and in your control for the given configuration. Sometimes, one
more notch of trim applied in either direction will get you level at a desired airspeed. Other
times, a notch of power will effect the same result. As pilot, you must make such decisions and
fly it as you feel it.
The various R/C aircraft we “created” in this book should prove that your elevator is your
primary control for achieving the airspeed you want. With elevator trimmed very high, the
trainer R/C airframe flew safely with gear down at about one-third its design cruise speed.
Trimmed much higher than the takeoff trim that we established at the start of this book, the 182-
S performed a high-performance takeoff and climbout.
It should also be firmly fixed in your mind by now that, with any given trim, your throttle gives
you absolute control of your altitude. From any stabilized straight and level configuration, you
will climb if you add power, and you will descend if you back off your power, without further
touching your elevator.
So, the answer to the question “How do you set your flaps and trim for takeoff, how do you trim
down, and to what neutral?” is simply that you should prepare and trim for the result you want.
Although your 182-S “airshow” takeoff employed full flaps, normal flap setting will always be
10 degrees. (If you want to fly trainer R/C style, you won't use flaps.) Ten degrees of flaps,
together with your present 182-S elevator trim, will get you off the ground almost as soon as will
40 degrees of flaps. And 10 degrees of flaps is a typical and thus more realistic setting for actual
aircraft.
Now that you know exactly what you're doing (don't you?), your next takeoff will be done with
your present high-performance takeoff trim, but with 10 degrees of flaps. Regard this as your
new standard takeoff configuration. Rotation will be the same as with full flaps—a bit shy of 50
KIAS. Following rotation, the actual KIAS required for the aircraft to lift off varies according to
weather, wind, season, and other conditions, so it may take longer to get to flying speed and thus
to become airborne.
In all situations you've saved so far, your aircraft is at the relevant trim: you are trimmed to op
neutral in the early flights; in the trainer R/C situations, you are trimmed to take off and fly
without any additional trimming; and in the 182-S flights, you are trimmed for a high-
performance takeoff. In all except the R/C trainer situation, the same amount of rotation pressure
is a standard ingredient; only the speeds are different (70 KIAS for regular takeoff and
approximately 50 KIAS for high-performance takeoff).
In the future, you can save all your situations with the trim preset for high-performance takeoff,
as it is here at Tracy. Then, your takeoff preparation will involve only setting your flaps. You'll
use 10 degrees of flaps for the highest realism or 40 degrees for “airshow” style. (The latter gets
you airborne at a slower airspeed and thus requires more deft control on your part.) In either
case, on the takeoff roll you will rotate as usual, pick up your gear as soon as you are airborne,
zero your flaps, cancel the rotation pressure, reduce your power to 2100 rpm in Amiga/Atari or
1750 rpm in the Mac (regular climb power), and start to trim down. You will keep your eye on
the altimeter and trim at a rate that keeps the aircraft in a climb. If it hesitates in the climb or
starts to lose altitude, you'll stop trimming until it is climbing again. At your desired cruise
altitude, you'll reduce power to your normal cruise rpm, and when the aircraft settles down,
you'll continue to trim if necessary to get to your normal cruise airspeed. (You know visually
where that is.) Regardless of how you take off, if you fly with your gear up, your trimming
target—even though you have no gauge—is op neutral. You'll know you're there when you have
reached approximate cruise airspeed, whether you are straight and level or still climbing (or, for
that matter, descending). With power set above cruise, you expect the aircraft to climb. And with
power at the cruise setting, you expect to fly straight and level at cruise airspeed. You must,
again, cross-interpret your airspeed, altitude, and rpm readings to determine that you are trimmed
properly. When everything looks right and the aircraft performs predictably, you are likely right
on or within a notch of op neutral.
Taxi out and take off now in any manner you like, climb out on the runway heading, and do what
you have to do to cruise straight and level at an altitude of 2000 feet. Soon you'll see the arrow
that denotes the Livermore metropolitan area, and you'll spot Livermore Airport right where you
expect it to be.
Look at that expanse of country in front of you! Isn't this a beautiful way to fly? All the emphasis
is now on the world you're flying in—the earth, the mountain ridges, the highways, the cities, the
blue water, the wide sky—instead of on all those instruments and gauges you've learned to live
without. In fact, they seem like unnecessary clutter now, don't they? They robbed you of so
much.
As you cross the north end of the mountain, get into slowflight. Remember the procedure: Turn
on carb heat, then mix uptrim and power reduction, hold your altitude, and reduce your airspeed
to about 100 KIAS (which is the other number you can see only the top of on your altimeter).
After a couple of disk accesses, you'll spot Hay ward Air Terminal's parallel strips a bit left of
your course. Then, if you look well to the right, you'll see Oakland International. Its big runway
is the one jutting right out into San Francisco Bay. But go ahead and turn toward the north field,
and plan to land on Runway 27R.
When you are pointed toward the airport, save the situation as PRI OKL FINAL/C. You can use
this situation to practice approaches with your present panel configuration. But mostly, I want to
be sure you make a good landing (which really means an uneventful landing, doesn't it?) at
Oakland on 27R where the simulator begins and where this book began. Unpause and go ahead
with your landing. Use this situation, repeatedly if necessary, to make it good, that is, uneventful.
If you are repeating the landing, remember your approach procedure from slowflight: Add some
power and drop your gear…as you start to descend, put on 10 degrees of flaps…then, trim up to
arrest the further descent unless you want to descend. You can see what the situation is out your
windshield, gauges or no gauges. Then, when the airport and runway begin to take on
dimensional proportions, use throttle to guide your aircraft down, keeping the runway threshold
relatively motionless on your windshield, a bit below the center.
When you're down, taxi back parallel to and beyond 27R, using the spot plane view if it helps.
Then, do a 180-degree turn so that you're lined up right behind the numbers, and take the out-the-
cockpit view again.
If you're continuing right on to the next chapter, be sure to turn your carburetor heat off. Without
a carb heat indicator, you have to remember to take care of this small but important chore. (You
can always check whether carb heat is on or off by putting on a little power and then toggling the
carb heat switch; a drop in rpms will indicate that carb heat is on, and an increase in rpms
indicates that it's off.)
If you're going to quit the simulator at this point, save the situation simply as TEMPORARY so
that you can return to it for the next and final chapter.
Chapter 23
SOLO
If you have just booted, load your third situation disk and recall TEMPORARY.
With your aircraft in position behind the numbers for 27R at Oakland, click on FILE and switch
to JET. We'll use the Learjet to set up the second abbreviated panel option.
Click on SIM, open PARTIAL PANEL, and turn on VOR 1, TIME, and DME. Close the
window, drag the instrument panel up a bit and position it so that the frequency readout for NAV
1 sits exactly on the bottom border of your screen. Then, readjust the main display, if necessary,
to completely fill the screen above the instrument panel. Take the spot plane view, and again
adjust the screen to fill the display. Do the same with the on-board camera view. Then, return to
your out-the-cockpit view.
Because you can't see the flaps indicator, be sure that your flaps are zeroed by pressing the flaps-
up key four times. Then, put on 20 degrees of flaps. Similarly, press up elevator several times to
be sure that the trim indicator is at full up, and then trim for takeoff with five quick presses of the
elevator down key. (Mac pilots, set your elevator trim to the third notch below full up. You can
still see that notch if you didn't shrink the panel too much.) I'm going to show you a high-
performance Learjet takeoff.
With these few additions to your instrument panel, you have greatly added to your navigating
capability—at the cost of only a modest compromise with your out-the-cockpit view. You can
now fly the VOR radials, read your DME distance from the station, and tell what time it is. You
can dub this panel arrangement “NAV 1” because it describes the significant equipment you
have added to your primary, or PRI, panel.
Unpause. The jet may move a bit, and you'll hear the tires squeal. But you should be fairly well
lined up for a takeoff on 27R.
Delete TEMPORARY (if you have such a file), and save the current situation as NAV1 OKL
27R /L.
Before we go on, I want to acquaint you with a concept that I call “flying dynamically,” which
suits this new way of flying and which provides the most flexible means of handling your new
abbreviated panels.
Now that you know how to handle the instrument panel for the maximum out-the-window
display, why not fly with a maximum display all the time? That means, change the panel to suit
the situation, and do it dynamically or in the air. For example, if you need a VOR radial to fly,
turn on VOR 1 and DME and raise the panel to set the frequency and get the necessary readout.
Center the needle on your OBI, and then shrink the panel down again to the PRI mode. Once
you've tuned in the station, you won't need the NAV 1 radio on the panel, so you deep-six it and
fly the needle. If you need to use the COM radio, turn on COM, raise the panel to call the tower,
get the information, turn off COM, lower the panel, and continue to fly with maximum scenic
views. If you handle your instruments and your panel dynamically, it simply becomes a standard
“cockpit duty” and is not a compromise with realism.
As you fly dynamically, you can fly with only your compass readout in view and your panel
reduced to occupy only half an inch of the display. In other words, change the instruments and
the panel presentation to suit how and where you're flying.
Tower switching is another aspect of flying dynamically. To illustrate, say you take off from
Tracy on a pleasure flight with no specific destination in mind. While you're over the city of San
Francisco, you decide to fly to Moffett NAS. You pull up the panel briefly to get a radial to the
San Jose VOR and start to fly the needle. En route, you decide to take the tower view of your
approach, so you open NAV and switch the tower to Moffett NAS. You can follow this
procedure for any airport to which you're flying. The easiest way is to put the tower at the north
and east positions given in the AIRPORT DIRECTORY section of your Flight Simulator charts.
Set the altitude at 30 to 40 feet above the altitude listed for your destination airport, and you're in
business. Then, take the tower view and watch yourself come in. Should you decide to do a few
stunts above the airport before you land, you can watch from the tower, as if you were flying
R/C. It's all part of flying dynamically.
In the current situation, you are pretrimmed for a high-performance takeoff in the Learjet, with
your flaps preset at 20 degrees for extra lift. This mode permits you to take the jet off from
virtually every runway in the simulator world. Oakland's 27R is only 5453 feet long, but you'll
be airborne before you've used two-thirds of it. Follow this procedure:
Apply full throttle. Rotate (two quick ups) when your indicator reads 100 TAS. The aircraft will
lift off at about 120 TAS. Pick up your gear and zero your flaps. When you see only sky, take off
the rotation back pressure.
From this point on, you could proceed with your normal climbout. But this time, I want to show
you how to make a transition quickly into slowflight (which is the desirable condition for
sightseeing). Quickly, but at a rate that keeps the aircraft climbing, back off your power to (Mac)
44% or (Amiga/Atari) 50%. If your procedure is correct, you should be at that power right before
you reach 2000 feet. Then, slowly and carefully, notch by notch, trim down and hold your
altitude at or near 2000 feet as your airspeed climbs to and settles at 160 knots. Unless you made
some turns, only the Pacific Ocean will be out your windshield when you are fully trimmed.
Now, turn left to a heading of about 76 degrees, or until the city of San Francisco is straight
ahead of you. Then pause.
Pull the instrument panel down to the very bottom of the screen, and open your windshield fully
to the outside world.
And do one more thing: Press your sound toggle key (Tab on Amiga/Atari and the
cedilla/apostrophe key on the Mac) once. Then unpause.
And now turn, swoop, climb, glide, fly—wherever you like—in the great blue and the great
silence…alone…at one with the eagle, the seagull, and the wind.
If you hear an intermittent beating now and then (and you may), it isn't your wings.
It's your heart.
APPENDIX A
Typical Cruise Altitude (MSL)
Power Settings and Airspeeds (Trim settings referred to operational neutral, 0.0)
NOTE: These tables cover the Amiga/Atari versions only. In the Macintosh version, rpms vary
considerably with aircraft pitch, and the mandatory mouse control of elevator precludes the
exact settings possible with a keypad yoke.
Cessna
ALT RPM KIAS Trim
500 1850 128 0.0
1000 1900 128 0.0
1500 1900 133 0.0
2000 1900 133 0.0
2500 2000 133 0.0
3000 2000 135 0.0
3500 2000 138 0.0
4000 2000 138 0.0
4500 2050v 140 0.0
5000 2250 140 0.0
5500 2250 142 0.0
6000 2250 146* 0.0
6500 2250 145 0.1
7000 2250 143 0.3
7500 2250 143 0.5
8000 2250 143 0.7
8500 2250 143 0.8
9000 2250 143 1.1
10000 2050v 140 1.6
*Maximam speed
v RPM varies considerably depending on pitch
Learje
t
ALT RPM KIAS Trim
500 74% 350 0.0
1000 72% 350 0.0
1500 74% 350 0.0
2000 76% 375 0.0
2500 74% 375 0.0
3000 74% 375 0.0
3500 76% 375 0.0
4000 76% 375 0.0
6000 76% 390 0.0
8000 76% 390 0.0
10000 78% 400 0.0
12000 78% 410 0.0
14000 82% 425 0.0
16000 80% 410 0.3
18000 78% 400 0.6
20000 76% 390 0.8
22000 76% 375 1.2
24000 78% 390 1.3
26000 78% 390 1.5
APPENDIX B
Cessna/Lear Flight Checklist
Panel
Preflight • True DG…True altimeter
• Check op neutral
• Carb heat OFF
• Zoom 1
• Lights OFF
Takeoff Prep • Cessna: Trim 5 qu + 4 su from op neutral (Mac VSI 1)
Lear: Trim 2 × 6 qu + 1 su from op neutral (Mac VSI 3)
• Flaps 10 degrees
Takeoff • Cessna: Rotate @ 70 KIAS
Lear: Rotate @ 130 TAS
• Gear UP
• Cancel rotation
• Zero flaps
Climbout • Cessna: Set power 2100 rpm (Mac 1750 rpm)
• Lear: Set power 84% (Mac 72%)
• Trim to op neutral (0.0)
• Climb 500 fpm
Cruise
• Set initial power (2000 feet nominal):
Cessna
1900 rpm (Mac even with bottom NAV 2)
Lear
74% (Mac 62%)
• Adjust power gradually for 0 VSI
• Use higher power settings for higher altitudes
Slowflight • Carb heat ON
• Trim to slowflight neutral as you adjust power to fly level or to descend
• Nominal level slowflight power settings:
Cessna
1450–1550 for 100 KIAS (Mac, opposite center of NAV 2 compartment; 1250
rpm)
Lear
58%–60% (Mac 54%) for 200 TAS
Approach • From slowflight, increase power to offset drag
• Drop gear
• Extend flaps 10 degrees
• Trim to approach neutral
Final
• Use power/trim to hold airspeed:
Cessna
70 KIAS (approx.)
Lear
130 TAS (approx.)
• Increase flaps as required to steepen descent
• Begin leveling off at approx. 100 feet AGL
• Flare at a few feet AGL
• Apply gradual back pressure until touchdown
Trims Takeoff: See Takeoff Prep, above
• Op Neutral: 0.0 VSI (Mac, one notch above VSI “DN”)
• Slowflight Neutral: 1.0 VSI (Mac, one notch below 0 VSI)
• Approach Neutral: 2.0 VSI (Mac, one notch above 1 VSI)
NOTE: R/C and high-performance flight call for other techniques than those given above; see
Chapters 16–23. For aerobatics, see Chapter 21.
APPENDIX C
Flight Controls
Apple Macintosh Keyboard Controls
On-line help: Command-? Apple Macintosh Mouse Controls Move mouse to control elevators
and ailerons
Drag mouse to control brakes and throttle
View Selector Controls for the Apple Macintosh
Atari ST Keyboard Controls
View Selecto Controls for the Atari ST
Commodore Amiga Keyboard Controls
View Selector Controls for the Commodore Amiga
APPENDIX D
Macintosh Flight Settings
Instrument configuration prior to takeoff.
Instrument configuration during 500 fpm climb.
Instrument configuration for straight and level flight at cruise altitude (2000 feet MSL).
Instrument configuration during slowflight.
APPENDIX E
Area Charts
GLOSSARY
Active runway: (Often shortened to “the active”) The runway in use, based primarily on wind
conditions and occasionally on traffic conditions. When more than one runway is in use, smaller
aircraft are typically required to use the shortest runway.
AGL: Above Ground Level. Used to describe an aircraft's altitude above the ground. Aircraft
instruments do not provide the pilot with this information. Altitude AGL must be deduced from
the altimeter, charts, and knowledge of the terrain over which the aircraft is operating.
Ailerons: Pilot-controllable surfaces on the rear or trailing edge of each wing used to roll the
aircraft and thus turn it. Acting in opposite directions, they increase lift on one wing while
decreasing it on the other, causing the aircraft to roll on its longitudinal axis and to bank and turn
in the direction of the lower wing.
Airfoil: A structural shape, such as the shape of an aircraft's wings and tail surfaces, that creates
or contributes to lift.
Airspeed Indicator: A panel instrument that notifies the pilot of the aircraft's rate of speed
through the air. It operates by measuring the pressure of the relative wind against the wings.
Indicated airspeed in the Cessna 182 is not true airspeed nor is it the same as groundspeed. (See
their definitions in this glossary.) In the Gates Learjet, the indication is of true airspeed (TAS).
Altimeter: A panel instrument that tells the pilot the aircraft's altitude above sea level, also
referred to as MSL (mean sea level) altitude. The altimeter works by measuring decreases or
increases in atmospheric pressure as the aircraft climbs or descends.
Angle of attack: The angle between the relative wind and the chord line of a wing or other
airfoil. The chord line is an imaginary line through the center of an airfoil, drawn from the
leading to the trailing edge.
Artificial Horizon: A panel instrument depicting an aircraft's attitude with respect to the earth's
horizon. It continuously updates and displays a symbol of the horizon and of the aircraft's wings
and nose in relation to that horizon.
ATC: Air Traffic Control. A ground-based radio network at many (but not all) airports,
consisting of: Ground Control, which provides taxiing instructions; Tower, which provides
instructions and clearances (permission) for takeoffs and landings; Departure Control and
Approach Control for the airspace immediately surrounding the airport; and Center, which
controls the airspace at higher altitudes. Flight Simulator procedures cover only the Tower
portion of the network and only to a minor degree.
ATIS: Automatic Terminal Information Service. A radio aid that provides weather and other
information about a given airport, including the designation of the active runway.
Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted on the earth by its atmosphere. Also termed
“barometric pressure” because it is measured by a barometric device.
Auto-coordination: A system by which the ailerons and rudder of an aircraft are interconnected
so that control of one provides coordinated control of the other, eliminating skidding or slipping
in turns.
Bank: The lateral tilting of an aircraft—the result of rolling it about its longitudinal axis—that
causes it to turn in the direction of the lower wing. The roll is begun by application of aileron in
the desired direction of bank and turn.
Bleed off: To decrease a value, such as airspeed or altitude, in a slow and controlled manner.
Ceiling: The altitude at which the bottom boundary of the lowest cloud layer in an overcast will
be encountered.
COM: Short for communications. In Flight Simulator, the communications radio.
Control yoke: See Yoke.
Crabbing: A condition of flight in which, due to the direction of winds aloft, the aircraft is
moving somewhat sideways through the air but following a straight line in relation to the ground.
Named after the manner in which crabs move.
Density altitude: Pressure altitude (as shown on an altimeter) referenced to temperature for
computing aircraft performance.
Directional gyro: See Heading indicator.
DME: Distance Measuring Equipment. Provides the pilot with a panel readout of the aircraft's
distance from a VOR station in nautical miles.
Drag: Forces that oppose an aircraft's movement through the air and that act parallel to and in
the same direction as the relative wind.
Elevators: Pilot-controllable surfaces on the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer, used to
pitch the aircraft's nose up or down or keep it level with the horizon, thus controlling airspeed.
Elevators are controlled by the yoke. Pulling back on the yoke moves the elevators up, and the
relative wind forces the tail downward while the nose pitches up. Releasing back pressure or
applying forward pressure on the yoke produces the opposite result.
FAA: Federal Aviation Administration.
Flaps: Pilot-controllable airfoils on the trailing edge of the wings, used to assist the pilot in
takeoffs, slowflight, and landings. On takeoff, lowering or extending the flaps by 10 degrees
(nominal) provides the highest lift-to-drag ratio and shortens the distance required to get
airborne. Lowered flaps assist in slowflight by increasing drag and at the same time reducing the
aircraft's stalling speed. On landing approaches, flaps are lowered—frequently all the way—to
accommodate a steeper angle of descent, for instance for clearing obstacles or flying tight airport
patterns. Flaps also permit touchdown at a lower airspeed, due to a higher coefficient of lift and
thus a lower stalling airspeed. After touchdown, the drag of the flaps shortens the landing roll.
Flare: The leveling-off phase of a landing approach, prior to touchdown, that brings the aircraft
level or slightly nose-high. It is performed a foot or so above the runway in actual aircraft but
somewhat higher than that in the simulator to compensate for the relative insensitivity and slow
reaction time of the simulated control.
FPM: Feet Per Minute. Used to measure an aircraft's rate of climb or descent.
Gear: See Landing gear.
Glideslope: A navigation aid used on ILS landing approaches, consisting of a horizontal needle
that displays the correct vertical position for the aircraft in its approach to the runway threshold.
The pilot keeps the needle centered by continuously monitoring the angle of descent and
adjusting it as required. The glideslope is used in conjunction with the Localizer.
Groundspeed: An aircraft's actual speed over the ground, which is not available as an
instrument readout but must be calculated.
Heading: The magnetic compass direction in which the aircraft is pointed in relation to a 360-
degree circle. It is not necessarily the direction the aircraft is traveling. (See, for instance,
Crabbing.)
Heading indicator: (Also called directional gyro.) A compass controlled by a gyroscope. It
gives to the pilot heading information based on forces that act on the gyro, rather than on
magnetic readings. It obviates the lag inherent in magnetic compasses and requires no settling
time, as does a magnetic compass, after turns and climbs.
Horizontal stabilizer: The fixed horizontal surface at the rear of the aircraft, equipped with
controllable elevators. See also Elevators.
IAS: Indicated Air Speed. See KIAS.
IFR: Instrument Flight Rules. The rules by which aircraft must be flown when in instrument
conditions, or when flight by visual reference is difficult or impossible. (Compare VFR.)
ILS: Instrument Landing System. A system of radio aids that displays on the instrument panel
three-dimensional references by which a pilot can make a landing approach without outside
visual references. It consists of a localizer, glideslope, marker beacons, and approach lights.
(Approach lights are not included in Flight Simulator.)
KIAS: Knots Indicated Air Speed. An aircraft's airspeed in knots as read on the airspeed
indicator.
Knots: Nautical miles per hour, abbreviated kn. A knot equals 1.1507 statute miles, or,
conversely, a statute mile equals .869 knots. The simulator airspeed indicator and the DME read
in knots (although the DME is not consistent).
Landing gear: The appendage of struts and wheels on which the airplane lands. Both the
simulated Cessna 182 and Gates Learjet have tricycle gear, which comprises a nose-wheel and
two main wheels, that enables the aircraft to sit level on the ground. Landings should, however,
be made on the main wheels, with the nosewheel lowered to the runway only after the plane has
landed and slowed down.
Localizer: A radio navigational aid used in conjunction with the glideslope on ILS landing
approaches. The localizer needle is a vertical needle that displays the correct horizontal position
for the aircraft on its approach to the runway threshold. The pilot keeps the needle centered by
continuously monitoring the heading and adjusting it as required.
Magneto: A device that creates the high voltages required for aircraft engine spark plugs. It
combines the functions of an automobile engine's coil and distributor.
Marker Beacons: Labeled O, M, and I on the instrument panel. Outer, Middle, and Inner marker
beacons consist of visible and audible signals that tell the pilot the relative distance from the end
of the runway on ILS approaches.
OBI: Omni-Bearing Indicator. A panel instrument that gives the pilot information about the
aircraft's position relative to the VOR station to which the NAV radio is tuned. It consists of an
OBS, or Omni-Bearing Selector, for selecting a course or radial; a TO-FROM indicator, advising
whether the aircraft is flying toward or away from the station; a CDI, or course deviation
indicator (or “needle” for short) that the pilot keeps centered; and in the case of NAV 1,
glideslope and localizer (or glidepath) needles that indicate, respectively, the correct vertical and
horizontal courses to the runway threshold on an ILS approach.
OMNI: Short for Omni-Bearing Indicator and/or its components; also, loosely, a VOR station.
Phonetic alphabet: The terms used to transmit letters and numbers via aircraft radio to prevent
misunderstandings:
A Alpha
B Bravo
C Charlie
D Delta
E Echo
F Foxtrot
G Golf
H Hotel
I India
J Juliet
K Kilo
L Lima
M Mike
N November
O Oscar
P Papa
Q Quebec
R Romeo
S Sierra
T Tango
U Uniform
V Victor
W Whiskey
X X-Ray
Y Yankee
Z Zulu
1 Wun
2 Too
3 Tree
4 Fower
5 Five
6 Six
7 Seven
8 Aight
9 Niner
0 Zeeroh
Note that numbers are spoken as individual digits. For example, 297 is spoken as “too niner
seven.”
Pitch: The angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and the horizon. Pitch is described
as “nose up,” “nose down,” or “level.” Pilots also say an aircraft is “pitched up” or “pitched
down.”
Power setting: The amount of throttle, or fuel flow, applied to the engine, determined in an
actual aircraft by the position of the throttle (a push-pull control) and in the simulated aircraft by
the number of notches of throttle applied.
Rate of climb: The rate at which the airplane climbs, measured in feet per minute. Also used,
illogically, to define the rate at which the airplane is descending (although “rate of descent” is
better applied to that condition). However, the term “zero rate of climb” can be used without
confusion.
Rate of climb indicator: See VSI.
Rate of turn: The rate at which the aircraft turns, measured in degrees per second, as a result of
its airspeed and the sideways force, or horizontal lift component, that is causing it to turn. The
rate of turn at any given airspeed is controlled by the angle of bank.
Rotation: The act of rotating the aircraft on takeoff, that is, the use of back pressure to raise the
nose prior to takeoff. The aircraft is rotated as it reaches climb speed.
RPM: Revolutions Per Minute. The measure of the speed at which the aircraft's engine and, in
the Cessna 182, the propeller fastened to its crankshaft are turning as a result of the amount of
throttle applied, the aircraft's pitch, and other flight conditions.
Rudder: Pilot-controllable surface on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer that controls
yaw, or rotation about the aircraft's vertical axis.
Skid: A sliding of the aircraft to the left or right out of alignment with the desired flight path. A
skidding turn results when centrifugal force is greater than horizontal lift, pulling the aircraft
toward the outside of the turn.
Slip: A yawing of the aircraft toward the outside of the path of a turn. A slipping turn results
when horizontal lift is greater than centrifugal force.
Stack: (Also called “radio stack.”) The section of the instrument panel that contains the COM,
NAV, and transponder radios, usually in a stack.
Tachometer: The instrument that measures the speed of rotation of the engine, in revolutions
per minute (rpm). Often abbreviated “tach.”
TAS: True Air Speed. Airspeed after compensation for density altitude. The Gates Learjet
airspeed indicator reads TAS.
Taxi: To move an aircraft on the ground.
Throttle: The control that determines the speed of rotation of the engine's crankshaft in
revolutions per minute (or in the Learjet, the percentage of available power applied to the
engines) by the rate at which it permits fuel to flow.
Trim: Small control surfaces that affect the elevators, making it unnecessary to maintain
pressures on the yoke. Also, to set those surfaces by using a trimming device in the cockpit. In
this book, for more precise control trim is simulated by elevator settings because no pressures
can be felt by the simulator pilot.
Vertical stabilizer: (Also called the “fin.”) A fixed vertical surface at the rear of the aircraft to
which a movable surface—the rudder—is hinged. The vertical stabilizer helps to stabilize the
aircraft in the vertical or yaw axis.
VFR: Visual Flight Rules. Rules that govern flights in visual conditions, or when visual
references are adequate for safe control of an aircraft. Compare IFR.
VOR: Very high frequency Omnidirectional Range. A radio transmission system that enables
pilots who have the necessary equipment to navigate precisely along or over magnetic course
radials (all of which converge at specific VOR stations).
VOR station: The facility that houses a VOR transmission system and equipment. Each VOR
station has a name, which is usually that of an airport or nearby town.
VSI: Vertical Speed Indicator. A panel instrument that shows the aircraft's rate of ascent or
descent in feet per minute (fpm).
Yaw: An aircraft's rotation about its vertical axis. The vertical axis is also called the yaw axis.
Yoke: The pilot's control column, similar in appearance (but not performance) to an automobile
steering wheel. The yoke incorporates aileron and elevator control, resulting from “pressures”
applied by the pilot. The term “pressure” stresses the fact that the yoke is not pushed, pulled, or
turned abruptly or forcefully but is moved slowly and in small increments. Pressure to the left or
the right operates the ailerons. Backward or forward pressure operates the elevators. The yoke
returns to its neutral position when pressure is released.
Charles Gulick is the author of the bestselling FLIGHT SIMULATOR CO-PILOT and
RUNWAY USA, published by Microsoft Press. His other books include 40 Great Flight
Simulator Adventures and 40 More Great Flight Simulator Adventures, published by Compute!
Books. He has also written software and hardware reviews and a program, “Peek Pong,” for 80
Micro magazine. Charles Gulick lives in Lake Park, Florida.
The manuscript for this book was prepared and submitted to Microsoft Press in electronic form.
Text files were processed and formatted using Microsoft Word.
Cover design by Becker Design Associates
Interior text design by Becker Design Associates
Principal typographer: Ruth Pettis
Principal production artist: Peggy Herman
Text composition by Microsoft Press in Century Old Style with display in Century Old Style
Bold, using the Magna composition system and the Mergenthaler Linotron 202 digital
phototypesetter.
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