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Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate
School
2011
A Study of Selected Piano Toccatas in theTwentieth Century: A
Performance GuideSeon Hwa Song
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF MUSIC
A STUDY OF SELECTED PIANO TOCCATAS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY:
A PERFORMANCE GUIDE
By
SEON HWA SONG
A Treatise submitted to the
College of Music
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Music
Degree Awarded:
Spring Semester, 2011
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The members of the committee approve the treatise of Seon Hwa
Song defended on January 12, 2011. _________________________
Leonard Mastrogiacomo Professor Directing Treatise
_________________________ Seth Beckman University
Representative
_________________________
Douglas Fisher Committee Member
_________________________ Gregory Sauer
Committee Member
Approved:
_________________________________
Leonard Mastrogiacomo, Professor and Coordinator of Keyboard
Area
_____________________________________ Don Gibson, Dean, College
of Music
The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named
committee members.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Above all, I am eagerly grateful to God who let me meet precious
people: great teachers,
kind friends, and good mentors.
With my immense admiration, I would like to express gratitude to
my major professor
Leonard Mastrogiacomo for his untiring encouragement and effort
during my years of doctoral
studies. His generosity and full support made me complete this
degree. He has been a model of
the ideal teacher who guides students with deep heart.
Special thanks to my former teacher, Dr. Karyl Louwenaar for her
inspiration and warm
support. She led me in my first steps at Florida State
University, and by sharing her faith in life
has sustained my confidence in music. I also would like to
express a sincere appreciation to Seth
Beckman, Douglas Fisher, and Gregory Sauer for their invaluable
time as my committee
members. Without their insightful advice during all the working
process, it would not have been
possible to finish this treatise.
To my dearest friend, Kirsten Mitak, I am grateful for her
incredible kindness and help
during the past four years. As my personal editor, she has
always offered valuable suggestions.
Thanks are also due to Nicole Agostino DeGoti and Brooks Hafey
for proofreading and helpful
comments in spite of their busy schedules.
A note of thanks from my heart is extended to my Korean
colleagues for their precious
friendship over the course of many years. It is a great value to
share many unforgettable
memories with them.
Finally, during my entire life in the USA, my deepest gratitude
should go to my families
in Korea, who have supported me sincerely and lovingly. They
have always given me strength to
keep working toward my goal. There is no word to express their
endless contribution, patience
and love for me.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
...........................................................................................................
iv
LIST OF TABLES
......................................................................................................................
v
LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES
.............................................................................................
vi
ABSTRACT
...........................................................................................................................
viii
1. HISTORICAL REVIEW OF KEYBOARD TOCCATA
Definition of Toccata
.........................................................................................................
1 The Renaissance to the Baroque Period
..............................................................................
3 Disappearance of Toccata between Classical and Romantic Periods
................................... 5
2. REVIVAL OF TOCCATA IN EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY
Impressionism: Debussy and Ravel
....................................................................................
7 Toccata from Pour le piano
...........................................................................................
8 Toccata from Le tombeau de Couperin
........................................................................
10 Comparison between Debussy and Ravel
....................................................................
13 Neoclassicism: Prokofiev
.................................................................................................
14 Toccata, Op. 11
...........................................................................................................
15
3. CONTEMPORARY PIANO TOCCATAS
Lee Hoiby – Toccata Op.1 (1953)
...................................................................................
19 Robert Muczynski – Toccata (1961)
................................................................................
29 George Rochberg – Toccata-Rag from Carnival Music (1971)
........................................ 37 Emma Lou Diemer –
Toccata for Piano (1979)
...............................................................
46
4. SUMMARY
....................................................................................................................
54
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.....................................................................................................................
57
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
.....................................................................................................
63
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LIST OF TABLE Table 3.1: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, Formal Structure
and Typical Characteristics ....................... 22 Table 3.2:
Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15. Formal Structure and Characteristics
........................... 32 Table 3.3: Rochberg, Toccata-Rag,
Indications and Musical Materials
...................................... 39
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LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES
Example 2.1: Debussy, Toccata, mm. 81-84. Counterpoint writing
............................................. 9 Example 2.2: Ravel,
Toccata, mm. 94-97. Interlocking hand position
....................................... 11 Example 2.3: Ravel,
Toccata, mm. 57-59. Use of 9th and 11th chords
........................................ 12 Example 2.4: Ravel,
Toccata, mm. 1-4. Ostinato figures and
Appoggiatura............................... 12 Example 2.5:
Prokofiev, Toccata, mm. 1-4. Hypermetric rhythm
.............................................. 16 Example 2.6:
Prokofiev, Toccata, mm. 25-28. Hypermetric rhythm
.......................................... 16 Example 2.7:
Prokofiev, Toccata, mm. 77-79 and mm.
111-113................................................ 17 Example
2.8: Prokofiev, Toccata, mm. 49-50 and mm. 57-58. Ostinato
Effects......................... 17 Example 2.9: Prokofiev,
Toccata, mm. 67-68. Sarcastic Elements
............................................. 18 Example 3.1:
Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 1-5
...........................................................................
23 Example 3.2: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 6-7
...........................................................................
23 Example 3.3: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 8-9
...........................................................................
24 Example 3.4: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 16-18
.......................................................................
24 Example 3.5: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 20-21
.......................................................................
25 Example 3.6: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 68-79. The opening of
the B section ........................ 26 Example 3.7: Hoiby,
Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 158-161
...................................................................
27 Example 3.8: Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 6-7 and mm. 30-31
......................................... 32 Example 3.9:
Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 130-133 and mm. 163-166
............................. 33
Chromatic elements
Example 3.10: Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 138-138 and mm.
232-235 ........................... 33 Tone-cluster effects
Example 3.11: Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 58-61 and mm.
80-84 .................................. 34
From the B section
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Example 3.12: Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 114-121.
Contrapuntal writing...................... 34 Example 3.13:
Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 27-28 and mm. 217-219
............................... 35
Use of whole-note bar or full bar rest Example 3.14: Rochberg,
Toccata-Rag, mm. 1-5
......................................................................
40 Example 3.15: Rochberg, Blues, mm. 63-67. A coda section
..................................................... 41
Rochberg, Toccata-Rag, mm. 6-11. “Blues” section Example 3.16:
Rochberg, Toccata-Rag, mm.
72-82...................................................................
42 Example 3.17: Rochberg, Toccata-Rag, mm. 114-122
...............................................................
43
The opening of the first movement “Fanfares and March” Example
3.18: Rochberg, Toccata-Rag, mm. 178-186
............................................................... 43
Example 3.19: Rochberg, Toccata-Rag, m. 170
.........................................................................
44 Example 3.20: Diemer, Toccata for Piano. The opening
section................................................ 49 Example
3.21: Diemer, Toccata for Piano. One of the extended piano
techniques ..................... 50 Example 3.22: Diemer, Toccata
for Piano. A part of tone-cluster passages
............................... 51 Example 3.23: Diemer, Toccata
for Piano. Use of fermata
........................................................ 51 Example
3.24: Diemer: Toccata for Piano. Tremolos
................................................................ 52
Example 3.25: Diemer: Toccata for
Piano.................................................................................
52
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study is to introduce selected piano toccatas
composed in the
twentieth-century, and to explore the character and contrasting
musical styles of these toccatas.
Many composers of this century were interested in the toccata
form. This often challenging
genre has provided pianists with technically brilliant
repertoire.
This study is an attempt to observe the development and contrast
of toccatas during each
musical era: Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and
Contemporary. Also, the selected
toccatas are examined from the performer‟s perspective, e.g.,
each composer‟s musical idiom
and construction.
The first chapter states the definition of toccata and
researches its origin. It covers how
the toccata developed through the Baroque period and between the
Classical and Romantic
periods; it briefly describes composers‟ principal traits and
new attempts toward the toccata. The
next chapter discusses the revival of the toccata in the
twentieth century, especially compositions
by Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel and Sergei Prokofiev. Along
with distinct features of each
toccata, it examines similarities and differences among three
works. This is followed by selected
twentieth century piano toccatas, focusing on a variety of
compositional styles and musical ideas:
contrapuntal writing, neo-classical, rag influence, and
minimalism. This chapter includes
compositions by Lee Hoiby, Robert Muczynski, Emma Lou Diemer,
and George Rochberg, in
chronological order. Also, as a performance guide, technical
difficulty and suggested practice
techniques are addressed. The conclusion briefly summarizes the
most distinctive characteristic
of toccatas covered in earlier chapters, and expresses the
author‟s views about the value of the
toccata in keyboard literature of the twentieth century.
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CHAPTER 1
HISTORICAL REVIEW OF KEYBOARD TOCCATA
Definition of Toccata
Toccata is a well-known compositional genre in keyboard
literature, featuring mostly fast
moving, improvisatory passages, imitation sections, as well as
sudden and unexpected changes in
harmony, tempo, and dynamic.1 The term „Toccata‟ is derived from
the Italian toccare, meaning
“to touch” or “to strike.”2 It has been used for various musical
forms or styles, but it is generally
used for a virtuosic piece in free form, written for solo
keyboard instrument.3
In the sixteenth century, the word „toccata‟ was found in five
lute pieces: „tastar de corde‟
composed by Joan Ambrosio Dalza in 1508 and four „tochate,‟ in
Intabolatura de leuto, written
by Giovanni Antonio Casteliono.4 Murray C Bradshaw5 states that
these Italian solo lute works
influenced the development of the keyboard toccata because of
their improvisatory quality.6
It is difficult to define the exact origin of the toccata.
Researchers explored the origin of
the toccata, but their approaches show similarities and
differences. According to American
musicologist Leo Schrade,7 the North German toccatas of San
Pieterszoon Sweelinck and
Samuel Scheidt are separate from the Italian works of Andrea
Gabrieli and Claudio Merulo, as
well as other German toccatas by Johann Jakob Froberger and
Johann Kaspar Kerll. Schrade
describes two specific functions of the early toccatas: the
Southern toccatas served as an
1 Frank Eugene Kirby. Music for Piano: A Short History. (New
York: Amadeus Press: Illustrated edition,
2003), 18. 2 John Caldwell. „Toccatas‟: Grove Music Online ed. L
Macy. (accessed September 12, 2010)
http://grovemusic.com 3 Ibid. 4 Murray C Bradshaw. The Origin of
the Toccata. (Rome, American Institute of Musicology, 1972), 13. 5
Murray Bradshaw (PhD, Chicago): the author of several books and
editor of "Musicological Studies and
Documents" and the "Miscellanea" series for the American
Institute of Musicology. 6 Murray C Bradshaw, 56. 7 Schrade divided
the toccata‟s characteristics along a geographical line. Leo
Schrade, “Ein Beitrag zur
Geschichte der Tokkate,” (Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft,
VIII). quoted in James Walter Kosnik. “The Toccatas of Johann Jakob
Froberger: A Study of Style and Aspects of Organ Performance.”
(D.M.A., thesis, The University of Rochester, 1979), 20.
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accompaniment for singers, the Northern style, on the other
hand, contributed to the development
of virtuosity.8 Erich Valentin‟s research9 expanded Schrade‟s
study. He indicates that Italian
vocal music influenced the southern toccata. Valentin also
discusses South German writings as a
„technique of vocal diminution and the structural contrast
between imitative and free section.‟10
A third view on the origin of the toccata held by Otto Gombosi11
is that he considered it
to be a transcription of brass fanfare music.12 During the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the
term „toccata‟ was used for fanfare-like pieces. The overture of
Monteverdi‟s Orfeo in 1607
begins with a Toccata for baroque trumpets, and Maurizio Cazzati
uses the toccata for the
trumpet parts in his sonatas.
By the end of the sixteenth century composers indicated the word
„toccata‟ in keyboard
works to characterize the style of the composition. There are
two styles of keyboard toccatas.
One is “Toccata ligature e durezze” which means „a piece
characterized by syncopation and
dissonance, chromatic and imitative counterpoint style in slow
tempo,‟ and the other is “Toccata
in modo di trombetto” which is „a fanfare transferred from brass
to keyboard.‟13 The earliest
printed keyboard toccatas were composed by Sperindio Bertoldo
(1591), but more important
toccatas were listed in the published collection, Girolamo
Diruta‟s Il Transilvano (1593),
including detailed keyboard technique, especially for the
organ.14
8 Ibid, 14. 9 Enrich Valentin, Die Entwichlung der Tokkate im 17
und 18 Jahrhundert (Universitäts-Archiv:
Musikwissenschaftliche Abteilung, vol. VI; Münster, 1930), 3-82.
quoted in James Walter Kosnik, 14. 10 Kosnik approved it through
the toccatas by Sweelinck, Frescobaldi, and Froberger. James Walter
Kosnik, 15. 11 Otto John Gombosi (1902-1955): Hungarian/US
musicologist. 12 Murray C Bradshaw, 13. 13 Each appears in the
music; Toccata Ottava di durezze e ligature in F Major, Toccate e
partite, Book II by
Girolamo Frescobaldi and Toccata d‟intavolatura d‟organo, no. 2,
book 1 by Claudio Merulo. Murray C Bradshaw, 2. 14 Il Transilvano
is one of the earliest published collections of keyboard music in
1593. The recording by
Marco Ghirotti on Tractus Lable is one of references. (accessed
September 12, 2010)
http://www.hbdirect.com/album_detail.php?pid=508849 quoted in Hey
Won Lee. “The Toccata and the history of Touch: A Pianist‟s Survey
of the Symbiosis of Style and Performance Practice of Selected
Toccatas from Froberger to Muczynski.” (D.M.A., thesis, The
University of Nebraska - Lincoln, 2008), 5.
file:///J:/%20%20(accessedhttp://www.hbdirect.com/album_detail.php?pid=508849
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The Renaissance to the Baroque Period
At the end of the sixteenth century, keyboard instrumental music
developed in Europe,
especially in Italy and Germany. Venice, Italy was the center of
economy and culture,
contributing to the establishment of the Venetian School.15
There was an increase of interest in
secular music, and the progress of secular music brought about
the development of instrumental
music, independent from vocal music.16 Thus, composers were
interested in compositions for
instruments, compositional forms such as Canzona, Dance-Suite,
and improvisatory pieces
including the toccata, fantasia, and prelude.17
Between the Renaissance and Baroque periods, the toccata was a
chief form of
improvisatory keyboard music. It has been discovered within the
organists‟ works at St. Mark‟s
Cathedral in Venice, and composed by Sperindio Bertoldo,
Girolamo Diruta, Andrea Gabrieli,
Giovanni Gabrieli, and Claduio Merulo.18 These toccatas denote
common traits which include
sustained chords, imitation, counterpoint section, and virtuosic
passages. However, because of
the advancement of the keyboard instruments, compositional
techniques were developed, and
complexity and length were extended.
In Italy, Claudio Merulo (1533-1604) and Girolamo Frescobaldi
(1583-1643) were
influential keyboard players. Willi Apel states that the climax
of the sixteenth century toccata
appears in Merulo‟s works.19 His toccatas are known for
virtuosic, free writing with imitative
style, presented in three or five-part form with alternating
rhapsodic and imitative sections. 20
These same concepts were later applied to toccatas of
Frescobaldi, who influenced the history of
this genre. Frescobaldi‟s toccatas demonstrate his various
compositional characteristics. A
15 „Venetian School‟: A group of northern and Italian composers
active in Venice in the late sixteenth and
early seventeenth centuries, many associated with the Basilica
of St. Mark. Don Michael Randel, editor. The Harvard Dictionary of
Music, 4th ed. (Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard
University Press, 1986), 943.
16 The book, A History of Western Music, explains „The rise of
instrumental music during the Renaissance is evident in the
cultivation of new instruments, new roles for instrumental music,
new genre, and new styles, as well as in the growing supply of
written nusic for instruments alone.‟ J. Peter Burkholder, Donald
J. Grout, Claude V. Palisca. A History of Western Music, 7th ed.
(W.W. Norton & Company, 2006), 262-65.
17 Ibid. 18 These works are found in Howard Mayer Brown,
Instrumental Music Printed Before 1600 (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1965). 19 Merulo‟s published
collection: Toccate d‟intavolatura d‟organo, libro primo (1598),
libro secondo (1604).
Willi Apel. History of Keyboard Music to 1700, trans. Hans
Tischeler. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1972), 225
20 Stewart Gordon. A History of Keyboard Literature. (New York:
Schirmer Books, 1996), 19.
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similarity of both Merulo and Frescobaldi‟s writing was „small,
trill-like motives for musical
development.‟21 However, Frescobaldi added a new style to the
toccata. For example, he
employed it as an introduction of the mass as the mystical
character, such as the Toccata Avanti
la Messa della Domenica.22 He also showed more articulations,
sustained chords, chromaticism,
random tonal changes, and rhythmic suspension effect.23
In North Europe, Jan Peterszoon Sweelinck (1562-1621) developed
the Netherland
toccata. He composed twelve toccatas which greatly affected the
genre.24 These works were
influenced by Italian style which encompassed long sustained
harmony, rambling passages, and
motivic imitation.25 However, the principal characteristic was
rhythmic regularity. German
organist, Dieterich Buxtehude (1637-1707), wrote five toccatas
constructed in the traditional
styles of alternated rhapsodic and fugal sections, and rhapsodic
endings.26 His biggest organ
works, nineteen Praeludia (or preludes), demonstrate the texture
of the toccata as extended fugal
and rhapsodic sections. These works also developed the tonal
possibilities of the organ, had
elaborate use of pedal, and increased stylistic differences
between the organ and harpsichord
toccata.27 They contributed strongly to J.S. Bach‟s organ works
of preludes, toccatas, and fugues.
Other influential composers of keyboard toccatas were Andrea and
Giovanni Gabrieli (It.),
Michelangelo Rossi (It.), H.L. Hassler (Ger.), Johann Jakob
Froberger (Ger.), and Franz Mathias
Techelmann (Aus.).
During the late Baroque period, prior to Johann Sebastian Bach
(1685-1750), Italian
composer Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) composed toccatas for
harpsichord. Although his
historical reputation is in vocal music, forty toccatas make up
the majority of his fifty keyboard
works.28 Compared to the Italian toccata of the middle Baroque,
these include at least one
perpetuum-mobile 29sections, containing scales, octave tremolos,
and arpeggios.30 They also
21 James Walter Kosnik, 15. 22 Frescobaldi‟s collection of organ
music includes three masses: Missa della Domenica, Missa degli
Apostoli, and Missa della Madonna. Each mass contains „Toccata‟
as an introductory before the mass. Girolamo Frescobaldi, “Fiori
Musicali (1635),” ed. Orgel-und Klavierwerke. (P. Pidoux. Kassel,
Bärenreiter, 1954).
23 Willi Apel, 457. 24 Murray C Bradshaw. “The Influence of
Vocal Music on the Venetian Toccata,” Musica Disciplina, Vol.
42 (1988), 157-198. under “JSTOR.” (accessed September 16, 2010)
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20532321 25 Carole Ann Lee. “The Piano
Toccata in Twentieth Century: A Selective Investigation of the
Keyboard
Styles and Performance Techniques.” (MUS.A.D., thesis, Boston
University, 1978), 10. 26 Ibid., 15 27 John Caldwell. „Toccata: 4.
Late Baroque.‟ (accessed September 12, 2010) 28 Willi Apel, 699. 29
Latin, meaning perpetual motion characterized by a rapid motion of
continuous notes or repeated notes.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20532321
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show more extended construction of six, seven or more
contrasting parts, fugal or recitative
sections, and variation elements.31
J.S. Bach contributed most strongly to the historical
development of the toccata.
According to Carole Ann Lee‟s study, Bach‟s toccatas can be
divided into three basic types: an
introductory piece to the suite, an individual design work, or
as part of a toccata and fugue.32 For
instance, the Partita no. 6 in e minor, BWV 830 begins with a
„toccata‟, representing the South
German style. On the other hand, the seven toccatas for clavier
(BWV 910-916) are independent
works. They are comprised of four movements, except BWV 916,
which is in three sections.
They employ a free and improvisatory opening, diverse rhythms,
and rhapsodic or fantasy-like
figuration. 33 They also incorporate at least one Adagio
movement, and one fugue. Bach
composed toccatas for organ, such as Toccata and Fugue in d
minor, BWV 565, featuring toccata
and fugal elements. It was inspired by the Northern German
School‟s organ toccatas of
Buxtehude.34
Disappearance of toccata between Classical and Romantic
periods
Beyond Bach‟s toccatas, composers began to turn away from the
genre of toccata.
Although the solo piano became the choice instrument for
keyboard compositions during the
Classical and Romantic period, the toccata almost disappeared
until 1832, when Robert
Schumann composed the Toccata in C Major, Op. 7. During the
Classical period, C.P.E. Bach,
Mozart, and Beethoven were more interested in the improvisatory
genre of the fantasia,
reflecting a free style instead of the toccata.35 Drabkin
explains that, compared to the toccata, the
fantasia was the more expanded form, “both thematically and
improvisatory,” during the
Romantic period.36
30 Willi Apel, 700. 31 John Caldwell. „Toccata: 4. Late
Baroque.‟ (accessed September 12, 2010) 32 Carole Ann Lee, 16. 33
Maurice Hinson. Guide to the Pianist‟s Repertoire. 3rd ed.
(Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2000). 52 34 John Caldwell.
„Toccata: 4. Late Baroque.‟ (accessed September 12, 2010) 35
William Drabkin. „Fantasia: 3. 19th and 20th centuries,‟ The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 2nd ed. Vol. 8 (London: Macmillan
Publishers Limited, 2001), 554. 36 Ibid.
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Prior to Schumann‟s work, toccata writings appeared by very few
composers. Muzio
Clementi (1752-1832) used the title „toccata‟ for the piano
sonata op. 11, published in 1784.
Later, Francesco Giuseppe Pollini (1763-1846) composed piano
exercises, called toccatas in
Trentadue esercizi in forma di toccata (1820).37 Carl Czerny
(1791-1857) wrote Toccata ou
Exercice pour la pianoforte in C major, Op. 92.
However, the toccata‟s characteristics still remained during
this time. According to John
Caldwell, rapid, virtuosic techniques were still displayed in
the etudes and exercises. Capriccios
and rhapsodies absorbed the traits of formal and rhythmic
freedom.38 Ludwig van Beethoven
used short, perpetual motions in the final movements of his
sonata op. 26 in A-flat Major, and
sonata op. 54 in F Major. Frédéric Chopin‟s second sonata in
B-flat minor, op. 35 also showed
toccata-like motion in the last movement.39
In the Romantic period, Schumann‟s toccata (1832) is regarded as
the most significant
composition in this genre. This toccata shows virtuosity, but
also an attempt at new changes,
contrary to earlier works. Away from free form and fugal
writing, he adopts a strict sonata form
and massive chordal patterns. Both the exposition and
recapitulation consist of the principal
theme with rapid sixteenth-note motion, and the secondary theme
presents „a short, cantabile
phrase with sixteenth-note accompaniment.‟40 In addition, the
development begins with a new
theme featuring rapidly repeated octaves.
Later, Franz Liszt (1811-1886) composed a toccata (1879) during
his late period,
although it is a very short, obscure work for pianists. It was
found in the Joseph Banowetz‟s
collection Franz Liszt – An Introduction to the Composer and His
Music, which also contains
pedagogical aids.41
37 John Caldwell. „Toccata: 5. 19th and 20th centuries.‟
(accessed September 12, 2010) 38 Ibid. 39 Stewart Gordon, 162. 40
Frank Eugene Kirby, 177. 41 Maurice Hinson, 496.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIVAL OF THE TOCCATA IN EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY
1. Impressionism: Debussy and Ravel
Claude Debussy (1862-1918) and Maurice Ravel (1875-1937),
attempted a new approach
to music which was unlike the Romantic tradition. It focused on
expressing a personal
imagination rather than writing in a purely programmatic manner.
Gordon refers to an article
about Debussy from 1902 to illustrate the new concept: “I wanted
from music a freedom which it
possesses perhaps to a greater degree than any other art, not
being tied to a more or less exact
reproduction of Nature, but to the mysterious correspondences
between Nature and
Imagination.”42
This musical tendency was influenced by French painting and
literature. In the late
nineteenth century, the term „impressionism‟ was applied to the
painting style in France. Artists
such as Claude Monet and Édouard Manet emphasized not detail and
objectiveness, but rather
colour and subjectiveness through light and shading.43 These
principles were naturally absorbed
into the music of French composers, especially Debussy and
Ravel. They focused on creating
the image of the title through colorful sonority and ambiguity
of harmony and structure.44
Through these unconventional techniques, they contributed not
only to a new path in keyboard
literature, but also to a revival of the „toccata‟ in the
beginning of the twentieth century.
Debussy and Ravel each composed the toccata as part of a set.
Debussy placed the
toccata in the third movement of his suite Pour le Piano (1901),
and later Ravel wrote Le
Tombeau de Couperin (1914-1917), which contains a demanding
toccata as the finale. These
works reflect the new harmonic colors of Impressionism and the
traditional genre, as well as the
form and style of Neo-Classicism. Robert Schmitz states that
Debussy and Ravel stand at the
42 Stewart Gordon, 358. 43 Frank Eugene Kirby, 278. 44 Stewart
Gordon, 359-61.
-
transition of Romanticism and Neo-Classicism. Their compositions
reflect aspects of both the
Impressionistic and Neoclassical styles.45
“Toccata” from Pour le piano by Claude Debussy
The suite Pour le Piano, premiered by Ricardo Viñes at the
Société Nationale de
Musique, is among Debussy‟s early works which are more
neoclassical rather than
impressionistic: Arabesques, Suite Bergamasque, and Pour le
Piano. This work, recasting the
traditional titles, Prelude, Sarabande, and Toccata, represents
the dance suite form of the
eighteenth century.
The third movement “Toccata” was dedicated to Nicolas Coronio, a
pupil of Debussy. It
displays brilliance and virtuosity, as indicated by the tempo
marking Vif, meaning „lively‟ or
„fast.‟ The continuous sixteenth-note patterns in perpetual
motion dominate the entire piece, a
reminder of Robert Schumann‟s toccata and J.S. Bach‟s fugal
toccata sections.46 Debussy
combined the traditional elements of the earlier toccata with
his own musical concepts such
rhythmic freedom and a rich harmonic texture.
Structurally, it is a ternary form in large three sections;
A-B-A' with coda. The main
subject that appears in the A section consists of four ideas
that return in the A' section. The
thematic progression of this piece may be viewed as having a
sonata-allegro form.47
Debussy‟s use of Classical form is clear, but his tonal
structure, on the other hand, is
ambiguous. Debussy‟s use of harmonic language is illustrated
throughout the piece, e.g.,
unresolved tension, pentatonic and whole-tone scales. Rudolph
Réti48 classifies this new tonal
concept as “unprepared modulation, use of whole-tone and
pentatonic scale, bitonality, use of
parallel chords, and an occasional absence of tonality.”49 By
exploiting these harmonic aspects,
Debussy produced an impressionistic toccata that is decidedly
different from earlier periods.
45 E. Robert Schmitz. The Piano works of Claude Debussy.
(Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press, 1970,
c1950), 15. 46 Hey Won Lee, 56. 47 Schmitz, in the book The
Piano Works of Claude Debussy, approaches two more aspects of form.
One is
a sonata-allegro format thematically; two main themes in the
exposition, development sections, a complete recapitulation with
the first theme. Another is a rondo form because of the beginning
material‟s recurrence. E. Robert Schmitz. The Piano Works of Claude
Debussy. (New York, Dover, 1966), 75-80.
48 Rudolph Reti (1885 – 1957) was a musical analyst, composer
and pianist. 49 Rudolph Reti. Tonality, Atonality, Pantonality.
(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1958).
-
Simultaneously, Debussy employed contrapuntal writing that is
reminiscent of the
toccatas of the Baroque.50 It is this contrapuntal aspect, as
well as distinct rhythmic
characteristics, which allow the main subject to be heard
separately from the countersubject.
Three individual rhythmic voices appear; the rapid
sixteenth-note figures, a melodic line in
longer notes, and a pedal point in the lowest register. (Example
2.1)
Example 2.1: Debussy, Toccata, mm. 81-84. Counterpoint
writing
This rhythmic counterpoint was influenced by Javanese Gamelan
music51. In general, a
gamelan musical structure presents three simultaneous voices:
the higher voice with rapid
rhythms, the lower and more profound voice with a slower
rhythmic pattern, and a bass
ostinato.52 Debussy was fascinated by this rhythmic layering and
applied it to much of his music.
This distinct rhythmic organization along with the use of whole
tone scales and contrapuntal
writing are what characterize the Toccata.
Virtuosity which is the hallmark of toccata writing is
illustrated in Debussy‟s piece
through the constantly running sixteenth-note patterns and
arpeggios that permeate the work.
Debussy explores impressionistic sounds and textures while
keeping the traditional concept
intact.
50 Lee Hey Won, 50-57. 51 Gamelan music refers to an Indonesian
musical ensemble, featuring various instruments; metallophones,
drums, and gongs, etc. Vocalists and plucked strings might be
included. Gamelan was derived from the word „gamel‟ meaning „to
strike‟ or „to handle‟. In general, gamelan ensembles are
geographically divided such as the Balinese, Javanese,
Sundanese.
Jonathan Bellman, editor. The Exotic in Western Music. (Boston:
Northeastern University Press, 1998), 258-62.
52 Kathleen Martha Randles. “Exoticism in the melodie: The
evolution of exotic techniques as used in songs by David, Bizet,
Saint-Saens, Debussy, Roussel, Delage, Milhaud, and Messiaen.”
(D.M.A., thesis, The Ohio State University, 1992), 60.
-
“Toccata” from Le tombeau de Couperin by Maurice Ravel
Ravel‟s last solo piano composition, Le Tombeau de Couperin
(1914-1917), shows his
pianistic virtuosity and musical beauty. It was initially
composed for piano but was orchestrated
– the fugue and toccata were omitted – for ballet two years
later. As one of Ravel‟s neoclassical
works53, this piece was originally designed as a Suite
Française. Six dance movements are
adapted from the French harpsichord suite of the eighteenth
century: “Prelude”, “Fugue”,
“Forlana”, “Rigaudon”, “Minuet”, and “Toccata”.54 The work not
only pays homage to
Couperin and French music, but also each piece includes a
dedication to one of his close friends
who died in World War I.55 Within the suite, Ravel designated
the toccata as a final piece as did
Debussy in the piece „Pour le piano.‟
Ravel‟s virtuosity was influenced by Liszt‟s pianistic
technique.56 The toccata is more
technically demanding than any other movement, and it features
techniques such as interlocking
hands, large leaps, alternating thirds, and rapidly repeating
notes. Especially, in the alternation
of single and double notes, the interlocking hand position is
one of the most characteristic
features. (Example 2.2)
Example 2.2: Ravel, Toccata, mm. 94-97. Interlocking hand
position
53 His impressionistic works include Jeux d‟eau (1901), Miroirs
(1904-5), Gaspard de la nuit (1908), and
the neo-classical compositions contain Pavane pour une infant
défunte (1899), Sonatine (1905), Valses nobles et sentimentales
(1911), Le tombeau de Couperin (1914-17).
54 Frank Eugene Kirby, 275. 55 In music, the term, tombeau means
the symbol of the spirit or memory of a person. The toccata is
in
memory of Captain Joseph de Marliave, his wife Marguerite Long
first performed it in 1919. Stewart Gordon, 396. 56 While composing
Le tombeau de couperin, Ravel asked a friend to send him the copy
of Liszt‟s
Transcendental étude. Hans Heinz Stuckenschmidt. Maurice Ravel:
Variations on his Life and Work, trans. Samuel R.
Rosenbaum. (Philadelphia, New York, and London: Chilton Book
Company, 1968), 171.
-
Featuring fast sixteenth notes, the extremely rapid tempo marked
Vif (quarter=144)
increases the technical brilliance. Ravel advised pianists who
were concerned about the tempo:
“Do not play it as fast as Marguerite Long; she is the only one
who allows all the notes to be
heard in that movement.”57 Ravel‟s writing places huge technical
demands on pianists, equal in
importance to the emotional expression within his music.
The toccata‟s structure is similar to Sonata-Allegro form,
though the key relationships
between movements are not traditional. Like Debussy, Ravel
created his toccata by working
from a traditional outline. His Impressionistic innovations
include freer key changes and
abundant harmonic colors. The prominent features are the use of
modes, unresolved 7th, 9th
chords, polychords, and unresolved appoggiaturas. For instance,
Ravel presented the Dorian
mode in the opening, and later introduced the Lydian and
Phrygian modes.
Ravel‟s use of 9th and 11th chords is remarkable; the 9th chord
is dominant throughout the
entire piece. The second theme in mm. 57-59 is filled with
dissonant intervals, including a
progression of 9ths and 11ths and descending 2nds. (Example
2.3)
Example 2.3: Ravel, Toccata, mm. 57-59. Use of 9th
and 11th
chords
The thematic ideas feature repeated notes in ostinato, a clear
melodic line, and
appoggiaturas.58 (Example 2.4) The melodic line is easily heard
within the rich harmony and
extended range of this piece, and it forms linear motion within
a thin texture. The rhythmical
quality of the repeated notes illustrates a percussive
sound.
57 Hélène Jourdan-Morhange. Ravel et nous. (Genève: Éditions du
Milieu du Monde, 1945), 201. quoted
in Stelio Dubbiosi. “The Piano music of Maurice Ravel: an
analysis of the technical and interpretative problems inherent in
the pianistic style of Maurice Ravel.” (Ph.D., thesis, New York
University, 1967), 109.
58 Carole Ann Lee, 43.
-
Example 2.4: Ravel, Toccata, mm. 1-4. Ostinato figures and
Appoggiatura
Ravel considered the piano to be the primary instrument on which
to transfer his ideas
into music, and his early compositions were primarily piano
pieces.59 Ravel explored
compositional concepts such as dance and folk rhythms, complex
harmonies, and his own
impressionistic techniques within his piano works. Not only did
he compose at the piano, Ravel
also performed his own compositions;60 because he was a virtuoso
pianist, his works reveal
technical brilliance. The toccata was performed and recorded by
Ravel himself.61 He insisted
that performers follow the markings in the score, paying close
attention to the musical terms,
articulations, and dynamics indicated.62 Furthermore, he
suggested that performers focus on the
external effects of the music rather than the analytical
interpretation since the listener, upon
hearing new music, is likely to react to such exterior
expressions.63 Ravel said, “I do not ask for
my music to be interpreted, but only for it to be played.”64
This Author concludes that a
performer must grasp the most principal characteristics of the
work in order to understand
Ravel‟s intention as well as the emotional expression. This
toccata contains a number of musical
elements, but it is certain that percussive qualities and
rhythmic activity dominate the work.
Comparison between Debussy and Ravel
59 Young Kyoung Kwon. “A Performer‟s Study of The Piano Sonata
By Aaron Copland and Le Tombeau
de Couperin by Maurice Ravel.” (D.M.A., dissertation,
Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2009), 67. 60 Frank
Eugene Kirby, 284. 61 Maurice Ravel. Maurice Ravel plays Ravel. LP:
REC 16254, (Hollywood, Ca.: Everst, p1976) 62 Marguerite Long. At
the Piano with Ravel. (London, Dent, 1973), 16-25. 63 Arbie
Orenstein. A Ravel Reader: Correspondence, Articles, Interviews.
(New York: Columbia
University Press, c1990), 40-42. 64 Marguerite Long, 16.
-
Both Debussy and Ravel fall under the category of
Impressionistic composers within the
keyboard literature, but their compositional styles reveal
similarities and differences. They both
explored a new harmonic language and impressionistic colors.
Through the toccata, they
reflected their own innovative ideas while staying true to the
virtuosic elements of the traditional
model.
Debussy and Ravel are highly regarded within the world of French
music and equally on
an international scale as well. Stelio Dubbiosi stated, “French
music, up to the time of Debussy
and Ravel… had been dominated by foreign influences”.65 G.
Jean-Aubry said, “French music
has had no national character, or nearly none, for a century”.66
Debussy was influenced by
oriental and non-western music, whereas Ravel was more
influenced by the European tradition.
In his compositional style, Debussy‟s writing tends to be more
romantic, with sensitivity like that
of Chopin; Ravel‟s brilliant technique is clearly drawn from
Liszt. Debussy‟s output did have an
impact on Ravel‟s writing, but Ravel‟s music is more
neoclassical. Debussy‟s sonority and
timbre are a result of blurred and suspended sounds and harmonic
ambiguity. Ravel, on the other
hand, used more clearly-articulated phrases, functional
harmonies, and ancient modes rather than
the irregular phrase structures and whole-tone scales that
permeate Debussy‟s works.67
The virtuosic writing of nineteenth-century French music is a
direct result of the pianos
for which the music was written. Debussy and Ravel each owned
Pleyel and Erard pianos,
which had a Viennese action and therefore a light touch with a
delicate sound.68 These pianos
lent themselves to toccata-like writing since rapid passages
could be executed with great facility.
The pianos were also capable of a large dynamic range. Both
composers took advantage of this
by marking dynamics from ppp to ff in their toccatas.
65 Stelio Dubbiosi, 110-111. 66 G Jean-Aubry. French Music of
To-day, 4th ed, trans. Edwin Evans. (London; Kegan Paul,
Trench,
Trübner & Company, 1926), 83. 67 Yali Lydia Tai, 4. 68 Arbie
Orenstein, 8.
-
In addition, the use of pedal is an important technique in
impressionistic music. Debussy
and Ravel‟s pianos did not have the sostenuto pedal.69 On the
modern piano, which has three
pedals and a weightier action, precise and clean pedaling
becomes particularly demanding.
Although Debussy and Ravel‟s music can at times produce full
sonorities and textures, modern
performers must maintain a sensitive touch and careful pedaling
in order to play this music
successfully.
2. Neoclassicism: Prokofiev
In the early twentieth century, „Impressionism‟ and
„Neoclassicism‟ were the major
musical trends. After World War 1, certain composers who were
against Impressionism sought
to revive the earlier style of balanced forms and traditional
harmonic expectation. This
movement took place especially in Russia and came to be known as
Neoclassicism. Russian
music identified with both nationalistic qualities and Germanic
Classicism.70
The aesthetic of the time was for composers to write utilitarian
music to satisfy the needs
of the people. This meant that the music being written tended to
be conservative and traditional
in character.71 One of the most significant Soviet composers,
Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953) was
influenced by this trend.
Prokofiev‟s music is categorized by the five lines:
a. Classicism: traditional tonality and form, modeled on
Beethoven‟s piano sonatas b. Innovation: his main priority, a new
harmonic language to express powerful emotion c. Toccata: perpetual
repeated rhythmic motion, impressed by Schumann‟s toccata d.
Lyricism: a thoughtful and meditative mood e. Satirical elements:
“scherzo” qualities – whimsicality, laughter, and mockery72
69 Hutcheson wrote “It is not generally known that neither
Debussy nor Ravel composed with a sostenuto
pedal in mind. The instruments in their homes were of French
make and had no third pedal.” quoted in Stelio Dubbiosi, 115.
70 Frank Eugene Kirby, 319. 71 Ibid., 325. 72 Minturn
illustrates Prokofiev‟s five musical concepts though Prokofiev
categorized them in his
Autobiography. Neil Minturn. The Music of Sergei Prokofiev. (New
Haven: Yale University Press, c1997), 24-26.
-
Kirby states that Prokofiev‟s approach to modernism appeared not
only in his remarkable
use of dissonance but also in his use of the piano as a
percussive instrument.73 These, along with
his toccata-like style, feature prominent elements of the piano
music.
Toccata, op. 11
Through the „toccata‟ genre, Debussy and Ravel illustrated
French pianism, while
Prokofiev demonstrated Russian piano technique. The Toccata, op.
11 (1912) is one of the most
virtuosic piano pieces in the early twentieth century. Prokofiev
displayed percussive, motivic
elements, and it was an attempt to demonstrate the percussive
capability of the piano, as did Béla
Bartók and Igor Stravinsky.
Prokofiev‟s toccata style was influenced by Schumann‟s Toccata;
when he first heard
Schumann‟s piece, he was strongly impressed by it.74 Instead of
adopting lyrical sections and
linear melody like Ravel, energetic sixteenth-note motion
rhythmically dominates throughout the
work. Employing relentless sixteenth-note pulsation is a typical
element in his toccata line, and
it demands technical endurance and stamina to perform. As a
matter of fact, the unbroken
sixteenth-note motion of the melody line is more challenging for
performers who must express
rhythmic interest.
Minturn cites Prokofiev‟s writing:
“I will concentrate on hypermetric75 structure.”76…“I take meter
to be initially a result of the interaction of two different,
regular patterns.”77
Originally, bar-lines and notation are indications of meter, but
hypermeter is formed by metric
accentual patterns. For example, in the beginning of the piece,
the syncopated octaves of the left
hand add to the rhythmic energy. (Example 2.5) Each written
measure comprises four eighth-
note beats, but one hypermetric beat. However, this metric
scheme is regrouped in m. 25. The
73 Frank Eugene Kirby, 326. 74 Neil Minturn, 25. 75 William
Rothstein defines hypermeter as “the combination of measures
according to a metrical scheme,
including both the recurrence of equal-sized measure groups and
a definite pattern of alternation between strong and weak
measures.” William Nathan Rothstein. Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music.
(New York, N.Y: Schirmer Books; London: Collier Macmillan
Publishers, 1989), 12.
http://www.music.indiana.edu/som/courses/rhythm/illustrations/hypermeter.html
76 Neil Minturn, 41. 77 Ibid, 221.
-
left-hand eighth notes establish different pulses into „one
group of four eighths, followed by two
groups of three eighths, followed by three groups of two
eighths.‟78 (Example 2.6) Thus, to
demonstrate these motivic patterns with rhythmic pulsation is
one of the most demanding
techniques in maintaining musical tension of the toccata.
Example 2.5: Prokofiev, Toccata, mm. 1-4. Hypermetric rhythm
Example 2.6: Prokofiev, Toccata, mm. 25-28. Hypermetric
rhythm
Along with the new concept in rhythmic formation, Prokofiev also
employed many
dissonances and contrapuntal textures. While his earlier
harmonic structure was comprehensible
and built around an expected tonal center, later the texture
became thicker and bolder with
chordal figuration, and less severe in the treatment of
dissonance.79 Contrapuntal texture appears
within chromatic chordal passages of the contrary motion of the
hands in mm.77-96, and mm.
111-118 also shows the contrapuntal progress of motive between
two voices. (Example 2.7)
78 Ibid, 41-42. 79 Ibid.
-
Example 2.7: Prokofiev, Toccata, mm. 77-79 and mm. 111-113.
The repeated figurations appearing in the left hand in each
phrase bring out the ostinato effect.
(Example 2.8) Extremely contrasting features in dynamics and
register create a more menacing
or sarcastic quality. Exposed in mm. 65-68, the rapid trill and
a combination of staccato, slur
and accent with big leaps demonstrate Prokofiev‟s satirical
style. (Example 2.9) On the whole,
unceasing sixteenth-note figures, rhythmic pulsations,
persistent ostinati, contrapuntal and
dissonant textures are remarkable characteristics which dominate
the work.
Example 2.8: Prokofiev, Toccata, mm. 49-50 and mm. 57-58.
Ostinato Effects
-
Example 2.9: Prokofiev, Toccata, mm. 67-68. Sarcastic
Elements
Prokofiev used the toccata style in other works: the last
movement of Piano Sonata no. 7,
Etudes op. 2, the “Scherzo” in the Piano Pieces op. 12, the
Scherzo of the Second Concerto, and
the Toccata in the Fifth Concerto. His significant contribution
to piano technique relates to
percussive frameworks as well as employing the percussive
capability of the piano. The Great
Pianists by Harold Schonberg described his percussive tone, and
energetic momentum in his
playing: “…Prokofieff and his music were described as “Russian
chaos,” “carnival of
cacophony,” “Bolshevism in art.” As for his approach to the
piano: “Steel fingers, steel wrists,
steel biceps, steel triceps- he is a tonal steel trust.”…”80
80 Harold C. Schonberg. The Great Pianists. (New York, Simon and
Schuster, 1963), 416.
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CHAPTER 3
CONTEMPORARY PIANO TOCCATAS
From 1900, the toccata has continued to be composed for solo
piano works and
occasionally piano concertos.81 In addition, it has become a
popular musical genre. During the
twentieth century, composers demonstrated a variety of musical
trends in their compositions
including impressionism, neoclassicism, serialism, atonality,
electronic music and jazz influence.
Toccatas are also influenced by these styles, and express
diverse ideas. For a long time the chief
character of the toccata was fugal devices, while after the
nineteenth century, rhapsodic,
rhythmical, and technically brilliant elements appealed more to
composers.
Lee Hoiby
A. Biographical Sketch and Musical Style
Born in Madison, Wisconsin, Lee Hoiby (b.1926) is an American
composer and pianist.
His mother, who was an amateur musician, recognized Hoiby‟s
musical talent and began
teaching him to play the piano at an early age. He was able to
play by ear and also to improvise,
and wrote his first composition at the age of fifteen.82
As a high school student, Hoiby studied piano with concert
pianist Gunnar Johansen and
continued with him at the University of Wisconsin. While working
toward his Bachelor degree,
he wrote several piano works and performed them at the annual
May Music Festivals arranged
81 An example is the first movement from Concerto for piano and
orchestra (1933) by Vaughan Williams.
John Caldwell. „Toccata: 5. 19th and 20th Centuries.‟ (accessed
September 12, 2010) 82 Gary Schmidgall. “Lee Hoiby,” Current
Biography 48/3 (March 1987), 241. quoted in Ji-Won Mun.
“A Stylistic and Analytical Study of Concerto no. 2 for Piano
and Orchestra, Op. 33, by Lee Hoiby.” (D.M.A., thesis, Louisiana
State University, 2002), 1.
-
by Johansen.83 He pursued his Master‟s degree at Mills College
in Oakland, studying piano with
Egon Petri, but he continually composed on the side; he regarded
it as “nothing more than „self-
indulgent truantism‟ (as he puts it) which was robbing time from
practicing the Liszt sonata.”84
He was more interested in playing the piano, but he moved to
Philadelphia in order to study
composition with Gian-Carlo Menotti at the Curtis Institute.85
He composed his first opera, “The
Scarf,” under Menotti. In 1952, he graduated from Curtis with a
Master‟s degree in composition
and at the same year completed the rest of his course work for
his Master of Arts degree from
Mills College.
Interestingly, his only formal study in composition was at
Curtis, including a summer
composition course with Darius Milhaud in 1951. However, his
awards demonstrate that his
compositional abilities had been acknowledged: a Fulbright grant
to the Accademia di Santa
Cecelia in Rome86, the National Institute of Arts and Letters
Award (1957), and Guggenheim
Fellowship (1958). As a concert pianist, he made his debut at
Alice Tully Hall, NY in 1978,
with a program that included his own piece, Five Preludes. His
contribution to music appears in
numerous genres; operas, ballets, songs, solo instrumental,
chamber, and orchestral music.
Hoiby‟s efforts in composition are known in both vocal and
instrumental works. Though
his compositional output includes operas and songs, his great
passion for the piano and his
activities as a concert pianist are best revealed in his piano
compositions. He composed two
piano concertos and a number of solo works. Regarding the
relationship between performing
and composition, Hoiby said “Performing is also influencing my
composition. I can feel it. The
very process has changed… The creative process is the same,
whether you‟re performing or
composing.”87
Stylistically Hoiby‟s music may be described as “Neo-Romantic”
which refers to a
movement of composers returning to a tonal idiom as a structural
and expressive element.88 He
expresses himself:
83 Ibid., 2. 84 Richard Crosby. “The Piano Music of Lee Hoiby.”
(D.M.A., thesis, University of Cincinnati, 1990), 6. 85 Gian-Carlo
Menotti (1911-2007), an Italian-American composer and librettist,
wrote twenty four operas.
He invited Hoiby to Philadelphia in order to study with him. 86
Hoiby received a Fulbright award to the Accademia di Santa Cecelia
in Rome, though he refused the
admission. Ji-Won Mun, 3. 87 Walter Cavalieri. “Lee Hoiby: A
Summer of Success” Music Journal 38 (November-December 1980):
10-12. 88 Jann Pasler. „Neo-Romanticism‟: Grove Music Online ed.
L Macy. (accessed October 10, 2010)
-
“I don‟t feel comfortable with a lot of 20th-century music. I‟m
not in the avant-grade. I have been cut off from my colleagues for
the past 25 years. Busoni and Prokofiev are the modern composers
whom I like, along with Sam Barber, who had a deep influence on me,
John Corigliano and Ned Rorem.”89
Away from the mid-twentieth century musical trends, he has
pursued lyricism and tonality which
are more accessible to audiences.
Counterpoint holds a prominent position in his compositional
style, as is evident in most
of his piano works. This use of counterpoint was influenced by
Menotti who instructed him in
its rigorous rules. He emphasized its importance, saying “I feel
confident to say that my music
could never have come about if I had not had the tools of
counterpoint, and musical form that I
learned as a student.”90 Tonality forms the basis of his
harmonic textures. However, he attempts
to change tonal centers continuously, shifting to remote keys,
and avoiding authentic cadences.
His harmonic language contains diatonicism, chromatic
modulations, and unexpected tonal
changes.91 Also, the melodic lyricism is a typical
characteristic in his music, and he is affected
by both Samuel Barber‟s and Schubert‟s lyrical and melodic
writing.92 He often uses rhythmic
devices such as triplets, syncopation, ostinato, hemiola, and
rhythmic irregularities by shifting
meters. Another stylistic feature is the use of unifying motives
or motivic materials; as motives
recur, they are embellished or transformed within a piece. His
idiomatic piano writing reflects
Romantic pianism and features alternating hands, leaping chords,
widely arpeggiated patterns,
disjunct octaves, and legato parallel thirds.93
As a composer who has absorbed „Neo-Romanticism‟ in the
mid-twentieth century,
Hoiby represents a synthesis of both romantic elements and
contemporary techniques in his
piano music.
89 Walter Cavalieri, 10-12. 90 Richard Allen Crosby, 25. 91
Mi-Jung Mun, 11. 92 Connie Emmerich. “Artists on Repertoire.”
Chamber Music Magazine 6 (Summer 1989), 11. 93 Mi-Jung Mun, 18.
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B. Toccata, Op. 1
Toccata, Op. 1 was completed in 1949 when he was a master‟s
degree student at the
Curtis Institute. According to Hoiby, “the work was published
because of the insistence of
Menotti.”94 While originally published in June of 1953 by G.
Schirmer, it was later revised-
some measures are omitted-and was placed in a collection of his
works in 1993.95 Thomas
Brockman at Carnegie Hall, New York premiered it in the early
1950s.
The Toccata includes Hoiby‟s typical compositional styles:
Neo-Romanticism and
Modernism. It is also similar to the toccatas of Schumann and
Prokofiev in its characteristic use
of technical brilliance in perpetual motion.
This work has an ABA' form with a coda. Although unexpected
tonal changes occur
within the piece, Hoiby adopts the lowest A, which establishes a
tonal center, as both the first
and last notes.
Table 3.1: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, Formal Structure and Typical
Characteristics
Section Characteristics A
(mm. 1-67) Introduction of five motives Linear texture
B (mm. 68-120)
Chorale-like, lyrical theme Contrapuntal writing, fugal
character Use of thirds and note clusters by chromatic motion
A' (mm. 121-157)
Tone-clusters, Richer sonority than in the first A section
Extreme ranges between two hands
Coda (mm. 158-170)
Arpeggios with hands alternating between black and white keys
Thickest texture of bi-chordal motion Extreme registers
94 Richard Allen Crosby, 33. 95 In fact, in June of 1964 the
1953 edition was declared permanently out of print and was
discontinued.
When G. Schirmer put together a collection of his works in 1993,
they chose to revive the publication of the Toccata, Op. 1 as the
final work in the publication. Peter Stanley Martin (Production
Associate) says that Mr. Hoiby made revisions to the work. Peter
Stanley Martin, e-mail message to author, (October 22. 2010).
-
The melodic and rhythmic materials are created from five motives
appearing within the
first twenty one measures, and they become the main features
dominating this piece. By having
the motives recur throughout the piece, he achieves motivic
unity.
Motive a: In the first measure, the rhythmic repetition of the
lowest A note is made up with an eighth note and two sixteenth
notes, and creates the tonal center. Hoiby recasts this figure in
B-flat at the transition toward the coda. This motive is sometimes
embellished to triplets with leaping tritones, intensifying the
rhythmic excitement. (Example 3.1)
Example 3.1: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 1-5. TOCCATA by Lee
Hoiby Copyright © 1953 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer, Inc. (ASCAP)
International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by
Permission.
Motive b: In the sixth measure, the scale-like motion of
sixteenth notes is the most typical feature. It is reproduced more
as an accompaniment supporting melodies of longer-note values.
(Example 3.2)
Example 3.2: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 6-7.
TOCCATA by Lee Hoiby Copyright © 1953 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer,
Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved.
Used by Permission.
-
Motive c: The tonal triadic voice-leading appears in longer note
values, accompanied by the first motive in the bass. (Example
3.3)
Example 3.3: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 8-9.
TOCCATA by Lee Hoiby Copyright © 1953 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer,
Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved.
Used by Permission.
Motive d: The alternating sixteenth-note figures representing
pianistic virtuosity provide dramatic effects, and continuously
expand the texture from octaves to chordal patterns. Especially in
the coda, using alternating full chords between hands, Hoiby
demonstrates the most technical intensity. (Example 3.4)
Example 3.4: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 16-18. TOCCATA by Lee
Hoiby Copyright © 1953 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer, Inc. (ASCAP)
International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by
Permission.
Motive e: The layered three-voice figure formed by different
note values is reminiscent of Debussy‟s writing. These individual
rhythmic voices consist of broken sixteenth- note octaves, a
melodic fragment with longer notes in the middle voice, and an
ostinato-like pattern that moves by half step motion in the bass.
(Example 3.5)
-
Example 3.5: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 20-21. TOCCATA by Lee
Hoiby Copyright © 1953 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer, Inc. (ASCAP)
International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by
Permission.
Unlike the other sections, the B section features lyrical
melodic motion. Due to the
longer note values, it sounds less rapid though the tempo does
not change, and the musical
tension is relieved. This section thoroughly demonstrates the
influence of Menotti in its
contrapuntal writing. According to Mark Shulgasser, it also
reveals the impact of Busoni, which
would have been acquired through his studies with Johansen and
Petri.96 Like a four-voice fugue,
the melodic material alternately appears in each voice: alto,
mezzo soprano, soprano, and bass.
(Example 3.6) When it reoccurs in mm. 111, it is accompanied by
sixteenth-note scales
reminiscent of motive d. In this section, the use of the
chromatic scale is remarkable. It emerges
from the one hand or the progress of alternating hands.
96 Richard Crosby, 36.
-
Example 3.6: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 68-79. The opening of
the B section
TOCCATA by Lee Hoiby Copyright © 1953 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer,
Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved.
Used by Permission.
Overall, the rhythm is not complex, and does not employ
continuously repeated-note
patterns, articulations, or frequent meter changes. Pianistic
elements are noticeably abundant:
note-clusters, arpeggios, alternating hands, and parallel legato
thirds. Arpeggiated passages in
the beginning of the coda are created by symmetrically
alternating hands between black keys and
white keys. (Example 3.7) It forms bitonality, and recalls
Debussy‟s writing. A passage
containing tone clusters produces a massive sonority of
dissonances.
-
Example 3.7: Hoiby, Toccata, Op. 1, mm. 158-161. TOCCATA by Lee
Hoiby Copyright © 1953 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer, Inc. (ASCAP)
International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by
Permission.
Hoiby also explores using the piano in a percussive manner,
using extreme registers.
Especially, he simultaneously employs challenging piano
techniques including rapidly moving
block chords in contrary motion in alternating hands. By
indicating the term „martellato‟-
hammered-at the end of the piece, this work is reminiscent of
the toccata by Ravel.
C. Pianistic and Technical Difficulties and Suggestions
Hoiby‟s writing is pianistically accessible, though some
passages place high demands on
the performer.
The typical feature of rapidly moving sixteenth-note scales are
a challenge. It should be
produced by even sounds and a light touch because it is an
accompanimental figure. These
scales feature the quick shift of direction-ascending and
descending- and irregular intervals.
One of the demanding techniques is the alternating
sixteenth-note octaves or full chords.
In addition, it occurs with crescendo or ff indication. This
author suggests that a performer
practice the patterns with relaxed wrists and arms, but with
solid fingertips kept close to the keys.
-
Also, it requires a sensitive use of the damper pedal in the
passage of thick textures and rich
sonorities. To avoid blurred, noisy sounds, flutter pedaling is
recommended.
Another difficulty includes note clusters alternating with the
RH thumb. Generally, the
thumb makes a strong sound, but in this case, the thumb‟s motion
is on the weak beat. The tone-
clusters‟ motion should be more emphasized with a flexible
thumb.
The Toccata, op.1, presents a diversity of idiomatic writing and
pianistic techniques. It is
a challenging work for the performer as well as the
listener.
-
Robert Muczynski
A. Biographical Sketch and Musical Style
Born in 1929, contemporary American composer Robert Muczynski
contributed to
chamber music, duo sonatas, and character pieces for solo piano
by the time of his death in May,
2010. He enrolled at DePaul University in 1947, studying piano
with Walter Knupfer and
composition under Alexander Tcherepnin. A versatile composer and
excellent pianist,
Muczynski performed his Sonatina and Divertimento for piano and
orchestra at both his Master‟s
solo recital and graduation concert. He received a Bachelor and
Master of music degree in Piano
Performance.
Muczynski‟s achievements show abilities in both composition and
piano performance;
commissions from the Fromm Music Foundation (Symphony No. 1) and
Louisville Orchestra
(Piano Concerto No. 1), performances (the concerto) with the
Grant Part Symphony in Chicago
and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. He also made his Carnegie
Hall Debut in 1958,
programming his own compositions.97 He received many honors
including one from the
International Society for Contemporary Music Prize (the Suite
for Piano Op. 13), the Concours
Internationale Award in Nice, France (the Sonata for Flute and
Piano), and 23 consecutive
ASCAP Creative Merit Grants. His piano compositions were made a
requirement in the
following competitions: Maverick Pieces for solo piano in the
William Kapell University of
Maryland International Piano Competition, Masks for solo piano
for the Gina Bachauer
International Piano Competition of 1990. He performed and
recorded his own works, but in his
late period, his activity decreased due to vision problems.
Since 1988, his only two works were
Moments Op. 47 for flute and piano (1993) and Desperate Measures
Op. 48 for piano (1994).
Muczynski is regarded as a „traditionalist‟ referring to a group
of American composers in
the 1930s.98 Kirby includes him among the neoclassical,
conservative composers who “have
97 Harold Schonberg‟s review about Muczynski, New York Times:
“skillful pianist proved a convincing
exponent of his own music.” quoted in Gregory Christian
Kostraba. “The First Piano Trio by Robert Muczynski.” (D.M.A.,
thesis, University of Cincinnati, 2003), 2.
98 Gilbert Chase (an American music historian, critic, and
author) used the term referring to American composers. He described
that “They do not break with the past. How closely they adhere to
it is a matter of degree and varies from individual to individual.”
Gilbert Chase. America‟s Music: from the Pilgrims to the Present,
2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966), 549.
-
cultivated traditional genres of composition,” during mid to
late twentieth century.99 According
to a Walter Simmons review, he is “one of America's foremost
living composers in the
traditional vein.”100
Muczynski‟s music reflects the neoclassical traits of Russian
composers between the late
nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries, as a reaction
against Impressionism. One influential
musician was the Russian composer Alexander Tcherepnin, who was
Muczynski‟s only
composition teacher. Tcherepnin explored new technical devices
and at the same time used old
forms, polyphony, lyrical musical texture, and folk rhythms in
his compositions.101 He was also
affected by neo-classical composers such as Bartok, Copland, and
Prokofiev. Prokofiev‟s music
reveals both lyricism and neo-classicism. Although contemporary
composers in America
investigated various trends such as atonalism, minimalism, or
electronic music, Muczynski
insisted on his own style, emphasizing lyricism with a
traditional framework.
When it came to formal structure, Muczynski used traditional
forms including binary,
ternary, sonata-allegro, and rondo form. Like Schumann and
Prokofiev, his character pieces
consist of several movements, having programmatic titles.
Thematically, he frequently restates
the opening theme throughout the piece. As another principal
feature, he employed „cyclic form‟
which refers to “consisting of discrete movements in two or more
of which the same or very
similar thematic material.”102 He re-used thematic fragment in
other movements for a strong
climax or remembrance.103
Harmonically, Muczynski adopted polychords, bitonality, pedal
points, chromaticism,
tone-clusters, and particular intervals. He sought to create
various sonorities using both
consonances and dissonances based on a tonal center in his own
unique way.104 Like Prokofiev,
he used extended non-functional chords such as 11th and 13th
chords, creating broad sonorities
with overtone effects. There‟s also use of ostinato in fast
movements, producing forceful,
aggressive effects.105 He often used perfect fourths as a
principal characteristic of his toccata.
99 Frank Eugene Kirby, 392. 100 Walter G. Simmons. “A Muczynski
Retrospective.” Fanfare 24 (March/April 1985), 256-66.
(accessed
October 15, 2010)
http://www.presser.com/composers/info.cfm?Name=ROBERTMUCZYNSKI#Reviews
101 Gregory Christian Kostraba, 8-11. 102 Don Michael Randel, 231.
103 Min Jung Cho, 47-48. 104 Ibid., 49-56. 105 Ibid.
http://www.presser.com/composers/info.cfm?Name=ROBERTMUCZYNSKI#Reviews
-
Muczynski‟s compositions feature rhythmic characteristics such
as hemiola, cross rhythm,
polyrhythm, repeated-note patterns, and frequently changing
meters. These characteristics were
influenced by Bartok, Debussy, and Prokofiev.106 Linear melodies
are generally mildly
dissonant or lyrically consonant so that they are easily
recognizable.
Muczynski was interested in blues lament, jazz and film music,
and also adopted
traditional elements rather than disjunct, experimental
writings.107 It is reflected in his piano
music, which is easily accessible to listeners and performers
compared to other twentieth century
works.
B. Toccata, Op. 15
Dedicated to Patricia and Ozan Marsh, Toccata, Op. 15 was
composed in 1962 and
performed one year later by Muczynski in San Francisco. However,
it was first published in
1971 by G. Schirmer. Muczynski called it a „Rage‟ piece because
it was written after a car
accident in Gallup, New Mexico. It was reminiscent of
Beethoven‟s piano piece „Rage Over a
Lost Penny.‟ Muczynski writes: “Beethoven had his „Rage Over a
Lost Penny‟, This is my
„Rage Over a Lost Car‟.”108
Most compositional elements of the work reflect Muczynski‟s
principal characteristics of
piano writing: the use of fourths, lyrical sections, chromatic
idiom, and percussive treatment of
the piano. However, it reveals a lack of the repeated-note
pattern which is one of the most
typical ideas of the toccata genre. Rather, rhythmic perpetuo
moto is represented with a
percussive quality, unexpected meter and mood changes, large
leaps, and tone clusters,
reminding audiences of the emotion he felt after a serious
accident. These characteristics are
similar to features of Prokofiev‟s toccata. While Muczynski
developed them in thin texture,
Prokofiev used much thicker textures with repetition and more
chordal progression. Both
toccatas show extreme chromatic motion.
106 John Allen Hawkins. “The Piano Music of Robert Muczynski: A
Performance-Tape and Study of His
Original Works for Piano Solo.” (D.M.A., thesis, University of
Maryland, 1980), 44-45. 107 Ibid. 108 Robert Muczynski. Collected
Piano Pieces by Robert Muczynski. ( New York: G. Schirmer.
1990).
Introduction.
-
Toccata, Op. 15 is in ABA form with a coda. Muczynski used many
accidentals rather
than giving a key signature.
Table 3.2: Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15. Formal Structure and
Characteristics
Section Characteristics
A (mm. 1-57) Interval 4th patterns with hand-alternation
Single linear texture
B (mm. 58-129)
More chromatic elements with interval of 7th and pedal-points in
LH Overall, soft and lyrical sounds contrasting with A section
Canonic motion followed by broken 4th interval preceding to return
of A section
A (mm. 130-196) The opening patterns reoccur
Coda (mm. 197-235)
Chordal accompaniment The thickest, tone cluster-like texture
and wild, dissonant sonority Use of extreme registers Dramatic
dynamics from subito piano to sfff with piu mosso marking
One of the typical figures of the work is the use of broken
fourths in the single texture,
but in the vertical sonority of quartal harmonies. The interval
of a fourth maintains musical
tension with accents during the whole of the piece, sometimes it
is transformed into vertical
harmonic form grouping of two eighth-chords and one eight- rest.
(Example 3.8)
Broken Fourths Harmonic Fourths
Example 3.8: Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 4-7. Use of broken
fourths TOCCATA, OP. 15 by Robert Muczynski Copyright © 1971
(Renewed) by G. Schirmer, Inc. (ASCAP)
International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by
Permission.
It is interesting that he employed continuously moving eighth
notes rather than the usual rapid
sixteenth-note patterns found in many toccata pieces; he never
used sixteenths or even sixteenth-
rests.
-
Rhythmically, it is simple. Accents are marked mostly on the
downbeat to give rhythmic
pulsation. Similar to Prokofiev, the repeated patterns of
chromatic character in the left hand
create ostinato effects. Whereas the basic rhythm features
simplicity, there are as many as
ninety-three meter changes, which add musical tension.
Mostly, Muczynski employs chromatically tinted harmonies.
(Example 3.9) Moreover,
the ostinato pattern created by the chromatic motion becomes the
primary element of the second
theme in the A section.
Example 3.9: Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 130-133, Chromatic
elements TOCCATA, OP. 15 by Robert Muczynski Copyright © 1971
(Renewed) by G. Schirmer, Inc. (ASCAP)
International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by
Permission.
Tone clusters sometimes appear in the fourth interval. The last
chord of this piece which
could be played by the palm produces a much denser cluster
effect. (Example 3.10) Largely, the
harmonic language represents „rage‟ with dissonances.
Example 3.10: Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 232-235.
Tone-cluster effects TOCCATA, OP. 15 by Robert Muczynski Copyright
© 1971 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer, Inc. (ASCAP)
International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by
Permission.
In the B section, the lyricism appears with a sempre p changing
mood, but unlike Ravel‟s
toccata, Muczynski indicates l‟istesso tempo meaning „same
tempo.‟ (Example 3.11)
-
Example 3.11: Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 58-61 and mm.
80-84. From B section TOCCATA, OP. 15 by Robert Muczynski Copyright
© 1971 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer, Inc. (ASCAP)
International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by
Permission.
Moreover, Muczynski attempts rhythmic and harmonic variety. Use
of sevenths as an important
harmonic element in this section breaks the unity of fourth
intervals. The sustained notes and
chords call attention to a new mood. They magnify the echo of
7th intervals or stepwise motion
of the right hand, and sometimes create „hemiola‟ rhythm in the
bass. (Example 3.11) Various
note values and simultaneous articulations such as accent,
staccato, and slur create the rhythmic
vitality. In a transition returning to the A section,
contrapuntal writing appears through the use
of canon. (Example 3.12)
Example 3.12: Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 114-117.
Contrapuntal writing
TOCCATA, OP. 15 by Robert Muczynski Copyright © 1971 (Renewed)
by G. Schirmer, Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All
Rights Reserved. Used by Permission.
-
As in Prokofiev‟s toccata, percussive sonority is prevalent, and
the extreme registers in
fast motion produce abundant timbres. In addition, he places a
whole-note bar or full bar rest
between changes of register and dynamics. These give more
musical tension. (Example 3.13)
Example 3.13: Muczynski, Toccata, Op. 15, mm. 26-27 and mm.
217-219.
Use of whole-note bar or full bar rest TOCCATA, OP. 15 by Robert
Muczynski Copyright © 1971 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer, Inc.
(ASCAP)
International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by
Permission.
C. Pianistic and Technical Difficulties and Suggestions
Muczynski uses a variety of technical features in the Toccata,
including alternating and
crossing hands, rapid repetitions of 4th intervals, wide leaps
with dynamic contrasts, and note
clusters of fourths or octaves. A typical technique, hand
alternation with 4th intervals, must be
equal in sound as if playing with one hand. Thus, this author
recommends practicing by blocked
hand position with fixed fingering. Also, the accents should be
emphasized because they play
the important role in creating rhythmic motion and the
register‟s change.
One of the technical challenges of this work is leaping while
changing dynamics such as
sub. p or sub. f. In general, a piano sounds louder in the low
register. Dynamics are mostly soft
to loud as the direction goes from low to high. The abrupt
alternation tends to cause physical
tension; therefore it requires the arms and hands to be relaxed.
It helps to practice softly and
slowly remembering the depth of key and hand position.
Overall, Toccata, Op. 15 represents both thin and thick texture
based on percussive
sonority; this work begins with a single line, but finishes with
tone cluster effects. A performer
should produce diverse timbres with a range of volume depending
on the register and texture.
-
According to The Well-Tempered Keyboard Teacher, “Music of the
twentieth century
require mobility (frequent change of texture and range), an
appreciation of freedom (of meter,
pitch and rhythm choices, improvisatory moments), the
development of new hand shapes
(seconds, fourth, sevenths, clusters), and treatment of the
keyboard as percussion instrument.”109
Muczynski displays those twentieth century techniques in this
work. However, they are well
suited, not awkward, to the hands.
109 M. Uszler, S. Gordon, & E. Mach. The Well-Tempered
Keyboard Teacher. (New York: A Division of
Macmillan, Inc. 1991), 216.
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George Rochberg
A. Biographical Sketch and Musical Style
Prominent American composer George Rocherg (1918-2005) was born
in Paterson, New
Jersey. He earned a Bachelor of Arts from Montclair State
Teachers College in 1939, and the
same year attended Mannes College in New York where he began the
study of counterpoint and
composition with Hand Weisse, George Szell, and Leopold Mannes.
After his military service
from 1942 to 1945, he continued to study composition with
Rosario Scalero and Gian-Carlo
Menotti at the Curtis Institute of Music, earning a Bachelor‟s
degree in 1947. He also earned a
Master of Arts degree from the University of Pennsylvania in
1949, and the following year
studied in Rome on a Fulbright grant and American Academy
fellowship.110
Rochberg began his teaching career at Curtis, and joined the
faculty of the University of
Pennsylvania in 1960. He served as chairman of the music
department for 8 years, and
continued teaching until his retirement as Emeritus Annenberg
Professor of Humanities in 1983.
He received many awards for his compositions including the
George Gershwin Memorial Award,
the Naumberg Chamber Music Award, a Contemporary Music Award
from Italian International
Society, and the Kennedy Center Friedheim Award for best new
American instrumental work.
He also contributed as an editor for the Theodore Presser
Company and as a writer of numerous
articles.111
George Rochberg‟s compositional style is characterized by
influences of his personal
relationships along with musical trends of the period. His early
works reflect neoclassical and
the nationalistic styles, showing an affinity to musical
languages of Igor Stravinsky, Paul
Hindemith, and especially Béla Bartók. In the early 1950s, his
Rome period, his compositions
revealed „serialism.‟ He was impressed by his associate Luigi
Dallapiccola‟s music, who was a
great Italian serialist. Later, affected by Anton Webern, his
serial writing became increasingly
110 Austin Clarkson and Steven Johnson. „George Rochberg‟: Grove
Music Online ed. L Macy. (accessed
October 22, 2010) http://www.grovemusic.com 111 Theodore Presser
Company: Music Publisher & Distributor, Composer; Composers
Gallary: “George
Rochberg.” (accessed October 22, 2010)
http://www.presser.com/composers/info.cfm?name=georgerochberg
http://www.presser.com/composers/info.cfm?name=georgerochberg
-
refined, but simultaneously he held interest in Charles Ives‟s
diverse musical concepts, such as
many different meters and harmonies.112
Rochberg began to be aware that serial music has severe, binding
limitations, and was
unable to express feeling enough.113 Therefore in the mid-60s,
he re-accessed the traditional
idioms of melody, harmony. According to Rochberg‟s note, “after
the death of my son Paul in
1964…I could not continue writing so-calle