Father Love and Child Development: History and Current Evidence Author(s): Ronald P. Rohner Source: Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 7, No. 5 (Oct., 1998), pp. 157-161 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of Association for Psychological Science Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182529 Accessed: 09/12/2010 16:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=assocpsychsci. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Association for Psychological Science and Blackwell Publishing are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Current Directions in Psychological Science. http://www.jstor.org
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Father Love and Child Development: History and Current EvidenceAuthor(s): Ronald P. RohnerSource: Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 7, No. 5 (Oct., 1998), pp. 157-161Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of Association for Psychological ScienceStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182529Accessed: 09/12/2010 16:18
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available athttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unlessyou have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and youmay use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.
Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained athttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=assocpsychsci.
Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printedpage of such transmission.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
Association for Psychological Science and Blackwell Publishing are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize,preserve and extend access to Current Directions in Psychological Science.
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Father Love and Child Development: History and Current Evidence Ronald P. Rohner1
Center for the Study of Parental Acceptance and Rejection, School of Family Studies, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut
Abstract
Six types of studies show that father love sometimes explains as much or
more of the variation in specific child and adult outcomes as does mother
love. Sometimes, however, only father love is statistically associated with
specific aspects of offsprings' development and adjustment, after control
ling for the influence of mother love. Recognition of these facts was
clouded historically by the cultural construction of fatherhood and father
ing in America.
Keywords father love; paternal acceptance; parental acceptance-rejection theory
Research in every major ethnic
group of America (Rohner, 1998b), in dozens of nations internation
erywhere?regardless of differ ences in race, ethnicity, gender, or
culture?tend to respond in essen
tially the same way when they ex
perience themselves to be loved or
unloved by their parents. The over
whelming bulk of research dealing with parental acceptance and rejec tion concentrates on mothers' be
havior, however. Until recently, the
possible influence of father love
has been largely ignored. Here, I
Copyright ? 1998 American Psychological Society
158 VOLUME 7, NUMBER 5, OCTOBER 1998
concentrate on evidence showing the influence of fathers' love
related behaviors?or simply, fa ther love?in relation to the social,
emotional, and cognitive develop ment and functioning of children,
adolescents, and adult offspring. Moreover, I focus primarily, but not exclusively, on families for
which information is available
about both fathers and mothers? or about youths' perceptions of
both their fathers' and mothers'
parenting. My principal objective is
to identify evidence about the rela
tive contribution to offspring de
velopment of father love vis-?-vis mother love.
I define father love in terms of
paternal acceptance and rejection as construed in parental accep
tance-rejection theory (Rohner, 1986, in press). Paternal acceptance includes such feelings and behav iors (or children's perceptions of
such feelings and behaviors) as pa ternal nurturance, warmth, affec
tion, support, comfort, and con cern. Paternal rejection, on the other hand, is defined as the real or
perceived absence or withdrawal
of these feelings and behaviors. Re
jection includes such feelings as
coldness, indifference, and hostility toward the child. Paternal rejection
may be expressed behaviorally as a
lack of affection toward the child, as physical or verbal aggression, or as neglect. Paternal rejection may also be experienced in the form of
undifferentiated rejection; that is, there may be situations in which
individuals feel that their fathers
(or significant male caregivers) do not really care about, want, or love
them, even though there may not
be observable behavioral indicators
showing that the fathers are ne
glecting, unaffectionate, or aggres sive toward them. Mother love
(maternal acceptance-rejection) is
defined in the same way.
FATHERHOOD AND MOTHERHOOD ARE
CULTURAL CONSTRUCTIONS
The widely held cultural con
struction of fatherhood in
America?especially prior to the 1970s?has two strands. Histori
cally, the first strand asserted that
fathers are ineffective, often incom
petent, and maybe even biologi
cally unsuited to the job of child
rearing. (The maternal counterpoint to this is that women are geneti
cally endowed for child care.) The second strand asserted that fathers'
influence on child development is
unimportant, or at the very most
peripheral or indirect. (The mater
nal counterpoint here is that
mother love and competent mater nal care provide everything that children need for normal, healthy development.) Because researchers internalized these cultural beliefs as their own personal beliefs, fa thers were essentially ignored by
mainstream behavioral science un
til late in the 20th century. The 1970s through the 1990s, however,
have seen a revolution in recogniz
ing fathers and the influence of their love on child development.
Three interrelated lines of influ ence I have discussed elsewhere
(Rohner, 1998a) seem to account for this revolution. The net effect of these influences has been to draw attention to the fact that father love sometimes explains a unique, inde
pendent portion of the variation in
specific child outcomes, over and above the portion explained by
mother love. In fact, a few recent studies suggest that father love is the sole significant predictor of
specific outcomes, after removing the influence of mother love.
STUDIES SHOWING THE INFLUENCE OF FATHER
LOVE
Six types of studies (discussed at
greater length in Rohner, 1998a) demonstrate a strong association between father love and aspects of
offspring development.
Studies Looking Exclusively at
Variations in the Influence of
Father Love
Many of the studies looking ex
clusively at the influence of varia tions in father love deal with one of two topics: gender role develop
ment, especially of sons, and father
involvement. Studies of gender role development emerged promi
nently in the 1940s and continued
through the 1970s. Commonly, re
searchers assessed the masculinity
of fathers and of sons, and then correlated the two sets of scores.
Many psychologists were sur
prised at first to discover that no
consistent results emerged from this research. But when they exam
ined the quality of the father-son
relationship, they found that if the
relationship between masculine fa
thers and their sons was warm and
loving, the boys were indeed more
masculine. Later, however, re
searchers found that the masculin
ity of fathers per se did not seem to
make much difference because
"boys seemed to conform to the sex-role standards of their culture
when their relationships with their fathers were warm, regardless of
Recommended Reading
Biller, H.B. (1993). Fathers and families: Paternal factors in child development.
Westport, CT: Auburn House. Booth, A., & Crouter, A.C. (Eds.).
(1998). Men in families: When do they get involved? What difference does it make? Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lamb, M.E. (Ed.). (1997). The role of the father in child development. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Rohner, R.P. (1986). (See References)
Published by Cambridge University Press
CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 159
how 'masculine' the fathers were"
(Lamb, 1997, p. 9). Paternal involvement is the sec
ond domain in which there has
been a substantial amount of re
search on the influence of varia
tions in father love. Many studies
have concluded that children with
highly involved fathers, in relation
to children with less involved fa
thers, tend to be more cognitively and socially competent, less in
clined toward gender stereotyping, more empathie, psychologically better adjusted, and the like. But
"caring for" children is not neces
sarily the same thing as "caring about" them. And a closer exami
nation of these studies suggests that it was not the simple fact of
paternal engagement (i.e., direct in
teraction with the child), availabil
ity, or responsibility for child care
that was associated with these
positive outcomes. Rather, it ap
pears that the quality of the father
child relationship?especially of fa
ther love?makes the greatest difference (Lamb, 1997; Veneziano
& Rohner, 1998).
Father Love Is as Important as
Mother Love
The great majority of studies in
this category deal with one or a
combination of the following four
issues among children, adoles
cents, and young adults: (a) per
sonality and psychological adjust ment problems, including issues of
self-concept and self-esteem, emo
tional stability, and aggression; (b) conduct problems, especially in
school; (c) cognitive and academic
performance issues; and (d) psy
chopathology. Recent studies em
ploying multivariate analyses have
allowed researchers to conclude
that fathers' and mothers' behav
iors are sometimes each associated
significantly and uniquely with
these outcomes. The work of
Young, Miller, Norton, and Hill
(1995) is one of these studies. These I
authors employed a national
sample of 640 12- to 16-year-olds
living in two-parent families. They found that perceived paternal love
and caring was as predictive of
sons' and daughters' life satisfac
tion?including their sense of well
being?as was maternal love and
caring.
Father Love Predicts Specific Outcomes Better Than
Mother Love
As complex statistical proce dures have become more common
place in the 1980s and 1990s, it has
also become more common to dis
cover that the influence of father
love explains a unique, indepen dent portion of the variation in spe cific child and adult outcomes, over and above the portion of
variation explained by mother
love. Studies drawing this conclu
sion tend to deal with one or more
of the following four issues among children, adolescents, and young adults: (a) personality and psycho
logical adjustment problems, (b) conduct problems, (c) delinquency, and (d) psychopathology. For ex
ample, evidence is mounting that
fathers may be especially salient in
the development of such forms of
psychopathology as substance
abuse (drug and alcohol use and
abuse), depression and depressed emotion, and behavior problems,
including conduct disorder and ex
ternalizing behaviors (including
aggression toward people and ani
mals, property destruction, deceit
fulness, and theft) (Rohner, 1998c). Fathers are also being increasingly
implicated in the etiology of bor
derline personality disorder (a per vasive pattern of emotional and be
havioral instability, especially in
interpersonal relationships and in
self-image) and borderline person
ality organization (a less severe
I form of borderline personality dis- I
order) (Fowler, 1990; Rohner &
Brothers, in press). Father love appears to be
uniquely associated not just with
behavioral and psychological prob lems, however, but also with health
and well-being. Amato (1994), for
example, found in a national
sample that perceived closeness to
fathers made a significant contribu
tion?over and above the contribu
tion made by perceived closeness
to mothers?to adult sons' and
daughters' happiness, life satisfac
tion, and low psychological dis
tress (i.e., to overall psychological
well-being).
Father Love Is the Sole
Significant Predictor of
Specific Outcomes
In the 1990s, a handful of studies
using a variety of multivariate sta
tistics have concluded that father
love is the sole significant predictor of specific child outcomes, after re
moving the influences of mother
love. Most of these studies have
dealt with psychological and be
havioral problems of adolescents.
For example, Cole and McPherson
(1993) concluded that father-child
conflict but not mother-child con
flict (in each case, after the influ
ence of the other was statistically controlled) was positively associ
ated with depressive symptoms in
adolescents. Moreover, father
adolescent cohesion was positively associated with the absence of de
pressive symptoms in adolescents.
These results are consistent with
Barrera and Garrison-Jones's (1992) conclusion that adolescents' satis
faction with fathers' support was
related to a lowered incidence of
depressive symptoms, whereas sat
isfaction with mothers' support was not. Barnett, Marshall, and
Pleck (1992), too, found that when
measures of the quality of both
mother-son and father-son relation
ships were entered simultaneously
Copyright ? 1998 American Psychological Society
160 VOLUME 7, NUMBER 5, OCTOBER 1998
into a regression equation, only the I
father-son relationship was related
significantly to adult sons' psycho
logical distress (a summed measure
of anxiety and depression).
Father Love Moderates the
Influence of Mother Love
A small but growing number of
studies have concluded that fa
thers' behavior moderates and is
moderated by (i.e., interacts with) other influences within the family.
Apparently, however, only one
study so far has addressed the is
sue of whether mother love has dif
ferent effects on specific child out
comes depending on the level of
father love. This study, by Fore
hand and Nousiainen (1993), found
that when mothers were low in ac
ceptance, fathers' acceptance scores
had no significant impact on
youths' cognitive competence. But
when mothers were high in accep tance, fathers' acceptance scores
made a dramatic difference: Fa
thers with low acceptance scores
tended to have children with poorer
cognitive competence, whereas
highly accepting fathers tended to
have children with substantially bet
ter cognitive competence.
Paternal Versus Maternal
Parenting Is Sometimes
Associated With Different Outcomes for Sons, Daughters, or Both
Many of the studies in this cat
egory were published in the 1950s
and 1960s, and even earlier. Many of them may be criticized on meth
odological and conceptual
grounds. Nonetheless, evidence
suggests that serious research
questions should be raised in the
future about the possibility that as
sociations between love-related
parenting and child outcomes may
depend on the gender of the parent and of the child. Three different
kinds of studies tend to be found in
this category. First, some research shows that
one pattern of paternal love-related
behavior and a different pattern of
maternal love-related behavior
may be associated with a single outcome in sons, daughters, or
both. For example, Barber and
Thomas (1986) found that daugh ters' self-esteem was best predicted
by their mothers' general support
(e.g., praise and approval) but by their fathers' physical affection.
Sons' self-esteem, however, was
best predicted by their mothers'
companionship (e.g., shared activi
ties) and by their fathers' sustained
contact (e.g., picking up the boys for safety or for fun).
Second, other research in this
category shows that a single pat tern of paternal love-related behav
ior may be associated with one out
come for sons and a different
outcome for daughters. For ex
ample, Jordan, Radin, and Epstein (1975) found that paternal nur
turance was positively associated
with boys' but not girls' perfor mance on an IQ test. Finally, the
third type of research in this cat
egory shows that the influence of a
single pattern of paternal love
related behaviors may be more
strongly associated with a given outcome for one gender of off
spring than for the other. For ex
ample, Eisman (1981) reported that
fathers' love and acceptance corre
lated more highly with daughters' than with sons' self-concept.
DISCUSSION
The data reported here are but a
minuscule part of a larger body of
work showing that father love is
heavily implicated not only in chil
dren's and adults' psychological
well-being and health, but also in
an array of psychological and be
havioral problems. This evidence
punctuates the need to include fa
thers (and other significant males, when appropriate) as well as moth
ers in future research, and then to
analyze separately the data for pos sible father and mother effects. It is
only by separating data in this way that behavioral scientists can dis
cern when and under what condi
tions paternal and maternal factors
have similar or different effects on
specific outcomes for children. This
recommendation explicitly contra
dicts a call sometimes seen in pub lished research to merge data
about fathers' and mothers' parent
ing behaviors.
Finally, it is important to note
several problems and limitations in
the existing research on father love.
For example, even though it seems
unmistakably clear that father love
makes an important contribution
to offsprings' development and
psychological functioning, it is not
at all clear what generative mecha
nisms produce these contributions.
In particular, it is unclear why fa
ther love is sometimes more
strongly associated with specific
offspring outcomes than is mother
love. And it is unclear why pat terns of paternal versus maternal
parenting may be associated with
different outcomes for sons,
daughters, or children of both gen ders. It remains for future research
to inquire directly about these is
sues. Until then, we can know only that father love is often as influen
tial as mother love?and some
times more so.
Note
1. Address correspondence to
Ronald P. Rohner, Center for the Study of Parental Acceptance and Rejection, School of Family Studies, University of
well-being in adulthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 1031-1042.
Published by Cambridge University Press
CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 161
Barber, B., & Thomas, D. (1986). Dimensions of fathers' and mothers' supportive behavior: A case for physical affection. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 783-794.
Barnett, R.C., Marshall, N.L., & Pleck, J.H. (1992). Adult son-parent relationships and the asso ciations with sons' psychological distress. Jour nal of Family Issues, 13, 505-525.
Barrera, M., Jr., & Garrison-Jones, C. (1992). Fam
ily and peer social support as specific corre
lates of adolescent depressive symptoms. Jour nal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 1-16.
Cole, D., & McPherson, A.E. (1993). Relation of
family subsystems to adolescent depression: Implementing a new family assessment strat
egy. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 119-133.
Eisman, E.M. (1981). Sex-role characteristics of the
parent, parental acceptance of the child and child self-concept. (Doctoral dissertation, Cali fornia School of Professional Psychology at Los Angeles, 1981). Dissertation Abstracts Inter
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Forehand, R., & Nousiainen, S. (1993). Maternal and paternal parenting: Critical dimensions in adolescent functioning. Journal of Family Psy chology, 7, 213-221.
Fowler, S.D. (1990). Paternal effects on severity of borderline psychopathology. Unpublished doc toral dissertation, University of Texas, Austin.
Jordan, B., Radin, N., & Epstein, A. (1975). Paternal behavior and intellectual functioning in pre school boys and girls. Developmental Psychol ogy, 11, 407-408.
Lamb, M.E. (1997). Fathers and child develop ment: An introductory overview and guide. In M.E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child
development (pp. 1-18). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Rohner, R.P. (1975). They love me, they love me not: A worldwide study of the effects of parental accep tance and rejection. New Haven, CT: HRAF
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