Effects of mining activities on selected aquatic organisms - UJ IR

EFFECTS OF MINING ACTIVITIES ON SELECTED AQUATIC

ORGANISMS

By

AMINA ADENDORFF

THESIS

submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

PHILOS OPHIAE DOCTOR

in Zoology

in the

FACULTY OF NATURAL SCIENCE

at the

RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY

Study Leader : Prof JHJ Van Vuren

June 1997

Summary

Opsomming iii

Acknowledgments

List of Tables vi

List of Figures ix

Chapter 1 INTRO UCTION 1-1

Chapter 2

MATERIALS AND METHODS 2-1

Chapter 3 CASE STUDY MINE ONE

3.1 Introduction 3-1

3.2 Materials and Methods 3-1

3.3 Results 3-3

3.4 iscussion 3-10

3.5 Occurrence Evaluation Index 3-17

3.6 References 3-21

Chapter 4 CASE STUDY MINE TWO



4.3 esults 4-4

4.4 Discussion 4-15


4.6 References 4-24

■9)

Chapter 5 CASE STU Y MINE THREE

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Materials and Methods

5.3 Results

5.4 Discussion

5.5 Occurrence Evaluation Index

5.6 References

5.7 Appendix

5-1

5-1

5-3

5-39

5-49

5-53

5-59

Chapter 6 EFFECTS OF COAL MINE EFFLUENT ON THE

NUMBER AND SPECIES DIVERSITY OF

MACROINVERTEBRATE FAUNA IN THE UPPER

OLIFANTS RIVER CATCHMENT

6.1 Introduction


6.3 Results

6.4 Discussion

6.5 Occurrence Evaluation Index

6.6 References

6-1

6-1

6-1

6-24

6-28

6-34

Chapter 7 BIOACCUMULATION OF ZINC IN TWO

FRESHWATER ORGANISMS (Daphnia pulex,

CRUSTACEA AND Oreochromis mossambicus,

PISCES)

7.1 Introduction


7.3 Results

7.4 Discussion

7.5 References

7-1

7-2

7-8

7-11

7-15

lj

Chapter 8 FINAL. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEN ATIONS

8.1 Case Study Mine One 8-1

8.2 Case Study Mine Two 8-4

8.3 Case Study Mine Three 8-8

8.4 Effects of coal mine effluent on the number

and species diversity of the macroinvertebrate

fauna at the upper Olifants River Catchment 8-14

8.5 Bioaccumulation of zinc in two freshwater

organisms (Daphnia pulex, Crustacea and

Oreochromis mossambicus, Pisces) 8-16


8.7 References 8-19

SUIVIM

Except for agriculture, the mining industry is considered as not only the oldest but also the

most important industry. Mining involves the removal of minerals from the earth's crust for

usage by mankind. The disturbance during mining activities such as mining effluent has an

effect on the natural aquatic environment.

In any freshwater environment, the macroinvertebrates form a vital link between the abiotic

environment and the organisms in higher trophic levels. It is thus true that specific

environmental contaminants, such as mining effluent, may directly affect the survival of

macroinvertebrates. The density and diversity of macroinvertebrates is in a direct relation with

the water quality.

For the purpose of this study, attention was given to the effects of gold and coal mine effluent

on the macroinvertebrate fauna, as well as to the determination of metal accumulation form the

water through the macroinvertebrates to fish.

At Case Study Mine One, with an open water system, acidic conditions of the water caused a

reduction in the number and diversity of macroinvertebrates.

A closed water system, characteristic of Case Study Mine Two, presented a slightly more

abundant macroinvertebrate population than with the previous mine. The results lead one to

conclude that the surface water in this study area is of a better quality.

Case Study Mine Three had a complex water circuit and presented a greater number and

diversity of macroinvertebrates, with the best water quality of the three mines investigated.

The water quality in the coal mine region of the Upper Olifants River Catchment, proved to be

acceptable with a much more abundant macroinvertebrate population present, when compared

to the gold mines.

Pollution levels in mining effluent determine the number and diversity of macroinvertebrates at

the various mines with availability of food and the presence and/or absence of predators also

important.

Metal analysis of the macroinvertebrate fauna at the gold and the coal mining region revealed

very high iron and zinc concentrations with lower concentrations for copper, manganese, nickel

and lead. These organisms' close relationship with the sediment compartment and their overall

water dependence for survival might explain their high body burden for certain metals. Factors

such as feeding habits and the stage of development might contribute to body metal

concentrations. These factors as well as organism's ability to excrete or regulate metals by

their physiological abilities contribute to an increase in organism tolerance.

Metal analysis of the organs and tissues of the selected fish species at Case Study Mine Two

and Case Study Mine Three indicated low copper, manganese, nickel and lead concentrations,

while iron and zinc concentrations were very high. Accumulation of these metals were mainly

in organs and tissues such as the liver, gills and skin. Accumulation of specific metals might

vary, however, from one fish species to another. The age of fish, sex, size, weight, time of year,

sampling position and relative levels of other pollutants in the tissues, are factors influencing

the total pollutant content and concentration of metals in organs and tissues of fish species.

From the bioaccumulation study it was evident that the test organism, Oreochromis

mossambicus, accumulated more zinc from the surrounding water than from the zinc exposed

food, Daphnia pulex. However, both food and water are vectors, which contribute to the

transport of metals within food chains, and thus make the flow of metals within the food chain

more evident.

PS MIMING

Buiten landbou, word die mynindustrie as die oudste en belangrikste industrie beskou. Mynbou

behels die verwydering van minerale uit die aardkors vir gebruik deur die mens in die

juweliersbedryf, industrie en vervaardiging. Mynbou aktiwiteite het 'n definitiewe invloed op

die natuurlike omgewing, en meer spesifiek mynafvoerwater op die akwatiese omgewing.

In varswateromgewings is die makro-invertebrate 'n belangrike skakel tussen die abiotiese

omgewing en organismes in hor trofiese vlakke. Spesifieke besoedelstowwe, soos byvoorbeeld

mynafvoerwater, kan die bevolkingsdigtheid, biomassa en spesiediversiteit van die makro-

invertebrate direk beinvloed.

Vir hierdie studie is aandag gegee aan die invloed van goud- en steenkoohnynafvoerwater op

die makro-invertebraatfauna en geselekteerde visspesies, asook bepaling van die opname of

konsentrering van metale in vis.

Gevalle Studie Myn Een het 'n oopwatersisteem, waar suurtoestande in die water 'n afname in

die aantal en spesieverskeidenheid van makro-invertebrate veroorsaak.

Geslote watersisteem is kenmerkend van Gevalle Studie Myn Twee waar 'n effe grater

makro-invertebraatpopulasie teenwoordig is, aangesien die waterkwaliteit aansienlik beter is.

Gevalle Studie Myn Drie beskik oor 'n komplekse watersisteem met 'n groat aantal en

verskeidenheid makro-invertebrate teenwoordig wat op die beste waterkwaliteit dui van die drie

myne waar die ondersoek plaasgevind het.

Die steenkoolmynarea in die bolope van die Olifantsrivier bied 'n heelwat grater malcro 7

invertebraatpopulasie in vergelyking met die bogenoemde goudmyne. Aansienlik beter

waterkwaliteit word hier aangetref

Mynafvoerwater beinvloed waarskynlik die voorkoms van makro-invertebrate by die

verskillende myne, maar die beskikbaarheid van voedsel en die aan- en/of afwesigheid van

predatore kan oak 'n rol speel.

fao

iii

Metaalanalise van die makro-invertebraatfauna by die goud- en steenkoolmyngebiede het hoe

yster- en sinkkonsentrasies gelewer, met laer konsentrasies koper, mangaan, nikel en lood.

Hierdie organismes se noue verwantskap met die sedirnentkompartement asook hulle algemene

waterafhanidikheid vir voortbestaan kan moontlik verklaring wees vir die hot vlakke van

akkumulering van metale in die organismes wat ondersoek is.

Metaalanalise van die organe en weefsels van die geselekteerde visspesies van Gevalle Studies

Myn Twee en Myn Drie het lae koper, mangaan, nikel en lood konsentrasies gelewer, terwyl

yster- en sinkkonsentrasies baie hoog was. Akkumulering van hierdie metale was hoofsaaklik in

organe en weefsels soos die lewer, kieue en vel. Akkumulering van spesifieke metale kan egter

van een visspesie tot 'n ander verskil. kb ie ouderdom van vis, geslag, grootte, gewig, tyd van die

jaar, versamelposisie en vlakke van ander besoedelstowwe in die weefsels, is faktore wat die

totale besoedelstofinhoud en konsentrasies van metale in die organe en weefsels van vis kan

beinvloed.

Uit die bioakkumuleringstudie is dit duidelik dat die toetsorganisme, Oreochromis

mossambicus, sink vanuit die wateromsewing akkumuleer eerder as van sinkbesmette voedsel,

naamlik Daphnia pulex. Beide voedsel en water is egter vektore wat 'n bydrae lewer in die

vervoer van metale in die voedselketting, wat die vloei van metale in die voedselketting sigbaar

maak.

iv

'

ACKNOWLE GEMENTS

With the completion of this thesis the author is grateful to the following people and

organisations:

My study leader, Prof. Johan van Vuren, for his guidance, support and devotion

throughout the project.

Andries Venter and Danie Otto for the help they provided during field-sampling trips.

The Chamber of Mines, Water Research Commission, Anglo American, Rand Mines

and the Rand Afrikaans University for financial support. Without them the study

would not have been possible.

The head of the Department, Prof. J.H. Swanepoel and the rest of the Zoology

Department, Rand Afrikaans University, for the use of the facilities and the

opportunity to perform this study.

The Statistical Consultation Service, Rand Afrikaans University, for the statistical

analysis of my field data.

Hester Roets for the preparation of the graphical material.

Elsabie Truter from the Institute of Water Quality Studies, Department of Water

Aff-airs and Forestry, Pretoria for supplying Daphnia pulex cultures.

Dirk Erlank, Gabriel, Solly and Switch for their assistance in the aquarium, Rand

Afrikaans University.

Gail Nussey and Michelle Sanders who did the linguistical attention to the thesis.

My husband Albert and my family, as well as all my friends at RAU for the support

during this project.

The Lord, for Wisdom, Knowledgement and Encouragement.

LIST OF T LES

Table Page

Chapter 3

3.1 The number and diversity of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled during winter 1992. 3-4

3.2 The number and diversity of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled during spring 1992. 3-5

3.3 The number and diversity of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled during summer 1992/1993. 3-5

3.4 The number and diversity of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled during autumn 1993. 3-6

3.5 The number and diversity of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled at the control area 1993. 3-7

3.6 Metal concentrations (wet mass) accumulated by the macroinvertebrate larvae during winter 1992. 3-8

3.7 Metal concentrations (wet mass) accumulated by the macroinvertebrate larvae during spring 1992. 3-8

3.8 Metal concentrations (wet mass) accumulated by the macroinvertebrate larvae during summer 1992/1993. 3-9

3.9 Metal concentrations (wet mass) accumulated by the macroinvertebrate larvae during autumn 1993. 3-9

3.10 Metal concentrations (wet mass) accumulated by the macroinvertebrate larvae at the control area 1993. 3-10


Chapter 4

4.1 The number and diversity of macroinvertebrate larvae samples during winter 1992. 4-5

4.2 The number and diversity of macroinvertebrate larvae samples during spring 1992. 4-6

4.3 The number and diversity of macroinvertebrate larvae samples during summer 1992/1993. 4-7

4.4 The number and diversity of macroinvertebrate larvae samples during autumn 1993. 4-8





4.9 Metal concentrations (dry mass) in organs and tissues of C. gariepinus at S4 4-11

4.10 Bioconcentration Factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment (BFs) with C. gariepinus at S4. 4-12

4.11 Metal concentrations (dry mass) in organs and tissues of C. gariepinus

vi

at Cl

4-13 4.12 Bioconcentration Factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment (BFs)

with C. gariepinus at Cl. 4-13 4.13 Metal concentrations (dry mass) in organs and tissues of C. gariepinus

at C2

4-13 4.14 Bioconcentration Factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment (BFs)

with C. gariepinus at C2. 4-14 4.15 Occurrence Evaluation Index 4-23

Chapter 5





5.5 Comparison of Case Study Mine Three to the controllocality 5-9 5.6 Families identified at each locality during a field trip using SASS3

(March 1993) 5-10 5.7 A summary of SASS3 and habitat scores 5-11 5.8 Guidelinne values by Kempster et al. (1982), Kiihn (1991) and

Environment Canada (1987). 5-12 5.9 Metal concentrations (wet mass) accumulated by the macroinvertebrate

larvae during winter 1993. 5-13 5.10 Metal concentrations (wet mass) accumulated by the macroinvertebrate

larvae during spring 1993. 5-14 5.11 Metal concentrations (wet mass) accumulated by the macroinvertebrate

larvae during summer 1993/1994. 5-15 5.12 Metal concentrations (wet mass) accumulated by the macroinvertebrate

larvae during autumn 1994. 5-16 5.13 Recommended daily allowed (RDA) metal concentrations (mWg) for

humans 5-48 5.14 Occurrence Evaluation Index 5-51 5.15 Metal concentrations (gg/g dry mass) in organs and tissues of

L. capensis - November 1993. 5-59 5.16 Bioconcentration Factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment

(BFs) with L. capensis - November 1993. 5-61 5.17 Metal concentrations (pg/g dry mass) in organs and tissues of

L. umbratus - November 1993. 5-63 5.18 Bioconcentration Factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment

(BFs) with L. umbratus - November 1993. 5-64 5.19 Metal concentrations (p.g/g dry mass) in organs and tissues of

C. carpio - November 1993. 5-65 5.20 Bioconcentration Factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment

(BFs) with C. carpio - November 1993. 5-65 5.21 Metal concentrations (gg/g dry mass) in organs and tissues of

C.gariepinus - November 1993. 5-66 5.22 Bioconcentration Factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment

(BFs) with C. gariepinus- November 1993. 5-66

vii

5.23 Metal concentrations (pg/g dry mass) in organs and tissues of L. capensis - March 1994. 5-67

5.24 Bioconcentration Factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment (BFs) with L. capensis - March 1994. 5-68

5.25 Metal concentrations (pg/g dry mass) in organs and tissues of C. carpio - March 1994. 5-70

5.26 Bioconcentration Factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment (BFs) with C. carpio - March 1994. 5-71

5.27 Metal concentrations (pg/g dry mass) in organs and tissues of L. umbratus - March 1994. 5-73

5.28 Bioconcentration Factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment (BFs) with L. umbratus - March 1994. 5-74

5.29 Metal concentrations (pg/g dry mass) in organs and tissues of C. gariepinus - March 1994. 5-75

5.30 Bioconcentration Factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment (BFs) with C. gariepinus- March 1994. 5-75

5.31 Mean values of the metal concentrations (.tg/g dry mass) per tissue per species. 5-75

Chapter 6









6.9 Comparison of the Olifants River and Locality X. 6-24 6.10 Occurrence Evaluation Index 6-30

Chapter 7

7.1 Mean Water Quality during the experiment 7-9

Chapter 8

8.3.1 Organs and tissues of L. capensis with the highest metal concentrations 8-11 8.3.2 Organs and tissues of L. umbratus with the highest metal concentrations 8-11 8.3.3 Organs and tissues of C. carpio with the highest metal concentrations 8-11 8.3.4 Organs and tissues of C. gariepinus with the highest metal concentrations 8-12 8.3.5 Organs and tissues that should be sampled for metal analysis 8-14

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

Chapter 3

3.1 Schematic diagram of Case Study Mine One indicating localities where the macroinvertebrate fauna were sampled

3-2

Chapter 4

4.1 Schematic diagram of Case Study Mine Two indicating localities where the macroinvertebrate fauna were sampled in the northern section of the mine. 4-2

4.2 Schematic diagram of Case Study Mine Two indicating localities where the macroinvertebrate fauna were sampled in the southern section of the mine. 4-3

Chapter 5

5.1 Schematic diagram of Case Study Mine Three indicating localities where the macroinvertebrate larvae were sampled. 5-2

5.2 Metal concentrations (gg/g dry mass) in the liver(A) and gills(B) of L. capensis -November 1993. 5-19

5.2 Metal concentration (gg/g dry mass) in the muscle(C) and skin(D) of L. capensis - November 1993. 5-20

5.3 Metal concentrations (gg/g dry mass) in the liver(A) and gills(B) of L. umbratus - November 1993. 5-21

5.3 Metal concentration (gg/g dry mass) in the muscle(C) and skin(D) of L. umbratus - November 1993. 5-22

5.4 Metal concentrations (gg/g dry mass) in the liver(A) and gills(B) of C. carpio - November 1993. 5-23

5.4 Metal concentration (gg/g dry mass) in the muscle(C) and skin(D) of C. carpio - November 1993. 5-24

5.5 Metal concentrations (gg/g dry mass) in the liver(A) and gills(B) of C. gariepinus - November 1993. 5-25

5.5 Metal concentration (gg/g dry mass) in the muscle(C) and skin(D) of C. gariepinus - November 1993. 5-26

5.6 Metal concentrations (gg/g dry mass) in the liver(A) and gills(B) of L. capensis - March 1994. 5-29

5.6 Metal concentration (gg/g dry mass) in the muscle(C) and skin(D) of L. capensis - March 1994. 5-30

5.7 Metal concentrations (gg/g dry mass) in the liver(A) and gills(B) of C. carpio - March 1994. 5-31

5.7 Metal concentration (pg/g dry mass) in the muscle(C) and skin(D) of C. carpio - March 1994. 5-32

5.8 Metal concentrations (gg/g dry mass) in the liver(A) and gills(B) of L. umbratus - March 1994. 5-33

5.8 Metal concentration (gg/g dry mass) in the muscle(C) and skin(D) of L. umbratus - March 1994. 5-34

5.9 Metal concentrations (gg/g dry mass) in the liver(A) and gills(B) of

ix

C. gariepinus - March 1994. 5-35

5.9 Metal concentration (ggig dry mass) in the muscle(C) and skin(D) of C. gariepinus - March 1994. 5-36

5.10 Mean values of the metal concentrations (i.ig/g dry mass) per tissue per species. 5-37

Chapter 6

6.1 The study area in the Upper Olifants River Catchment, indicating the localities where the macroinvertebrate fauna were sampled. 6-2

Chapter 7

7.1 Schematic diagram of the experimental flow-through system. 7-6

7.2 Zinc concentrations (.tg/g dry weight) in organs and tissues of 0. mossambicus. 7-10

Chapter 1

a)

INTRODUCTION

The availability of freshwater is essential for the survival of human populations throughout the

world. However, human populations exert an unusual stress on these resources resulting in

their continual degradation. Although awareness of the diminishing availability of unpolluted

freshwater is widespread, methods for evaluating the "health" and quality of aquatic

ecosystems have not been fully developed (Loeb & Spacie, 1994).

The health of an aquatic ecosystem is degraded when the ecosystem's assimilative capacity to

absorb stress has been exceeded. A healthy ecosystem is composed of biotic communities and

abiotic characteristics, which form a self-regulating and self-sustaining unit. Although changes

within an ecosystem can result from naturally occurring events, anthropogenic activities often

impose stress on these systems (Loeb & Spacie, 1994).

The community structure of an aquatic ecosystem is sensitive to, as well as determined by, the

conditions and resources available within a habitat. These conditions include abiotic

environmental factors, which vary with time and space (e.g., temperature, salinity and flow :

Begon et at, 1990). Resources are defined as all things utilized by an organism (e.g., food,

light and space : Tilman, 1982). Organisms that make up an aquatic community are those that

can endure, tolerate, compete, reproduce and persist within a given habitat. If a habitat is

characterised by conditions that are within acceptable limits and it provides all necessary

resources for a given species, then that species could potentially occur in that habitat (Begon et

al., 1990).

Stress on an aquatic ecosystem can be categorised into one of three types : (1) physical; (2)

chemical or (3) biological alterations (Loeb & Spacie, 1994). Firstly, physical alterations

include changes in water temperature, water flow, substrate/habitat type and light availability.

Secondly, chemical alterations include changes in the loading rates of biostimulatory nutrients,

oxygen consuming materials and toxins. Thirdly, biological alterations include the introduction

of exotic species. Activities that result in a change in any environmental characteristics can

lead to the deformation of an organism's niche, which could possibly lead to its extinction

(Loeb & Spacie, 1994).

Effects of Mining Activities on Selected Aquatic Organisms Chapter I

Water quality monitoring by employing biological indicators is becoming increasingly

important. The definition of water quality varies depending on the intended use of the water,

and the value of biological indicators needs to be judged on a similar basis.

Biological organisms are useful in determining the health of aquatic ecosystems and they can

be measured quantitatively. The organisms that inhabit aquatic ecosystems are the fundamental

sensors that respond to any stress affecting that system. The health of an aquatic ecosystem is

reflected in the health of the organisms that inhabit it, because any stress imposed on an aquatic

ecosystem manifests its impact on the biological organisms living within that ecosystem (Loeb

Spacie, 1994). The organisms most commonly used in water quality monitoring are :

periphyton, fish and benthic macroinvertebrates. Further discussion will focus on the effect of

mining effluent on the macroinvertebrates and fish species and the subsequent use of these

organisms for water quality monitoring.

MACROINVERTEBRATE FAUNA

Macroinvertebrates are defined as those organisms retained by mesh size 200 to 500 illt1 (Slack

et al., 1973; Weber, 1973; Wiederhohn, 1980), although the early life stages of some

macroinvertebrate species are smaller than this size designation. Nektonic and surface-dwelling

forms are sometimes also included (Rosenberg & Resh, 1993).

The term "benthic macroinvertebrates" refers to macroinvertebrates that inhabit the bottom

substrates (for example sediments, logs, debris, macrophytes, filamentous algae) of fresh water

habitats for at least part of their life cycle (Rosenberg & Resh, 1993).

Mining effluent is very often a multi-factor pollutant, and the importance of each factor will

vary within and between affected systems. Interpretations of the effects of mining effluent on

invertebrates are complicated by a variety of factors. In addition to factors such as acidity

itself, there may be the effect of high concentrations of suspended solids, the precipitation of

iron (III) hydroxide and elevated concentrations of metals. There is a general consensus that

under conditions of high acidity, there is a drastic reduction in the number of invertebrate

species normally found under these conditions. The effects of both constant and intermittent

mining effluent on the insects of some western Pennsylvania streams were studied by Roback

& Richardson (1969). These studies showed that, under conditions of constant mining effluent

drainage, the Odonata, Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera were eliminated, and the numbers of

1-2

Effects of Mining Activities on Selected Aquatic Organisms Chapter 1

Trichoptera, Megaloptera and Diptera species were reduced. Species tolerant of these

conditions included the caddisfly (Psilostomis), Siallis and Chironomus attenuatus. Certain

Hemiptera and Coleoptera were present in large numbers, thus confirming the tolerance

observed by from Koryak et al. (1972). Greenfield & Ireland (1978) clearly stated that

Chironomidae were tolerant to mining effluent itself. Areas exposed to mining effluent often

have zones where iron (III) hydroxides are deposited, and where the largest densities of

Chironomidae are observed. In a stream affected by intermittent mining effluent, the insect

fauna differed slightly from similar unpolluted streams, except for the absence of some

sensitive Ephemeroptera and Diptera. Generally, pollution affects stream community structures

predominantly by reducing species diversity. The elimination of non-tolerant species is often

accompanied by (1) increases in numbers of benthic invertebrates due to lack of predation and

competition, (2) changes and simplifications in food chains, and (3) in the case of organic

pollution, a seemingly inexhaustible source of food for the remaining tolerant species (Koryak

et al., 1972).

According to Campbell & Stokes (1985), the overall response of aquatic biota to metals is

frequently pH-dependent. Ephemeroptera are particularly sensitive to a low pH and are unable

to survive pH values below 5.3-5.5, whilst a pH of approximately 6 is required for emergence

and egg laying (Bell, 1971; Sutcliffe & Carrick, 1973). In streams with pH below 3, as with

some South African streams, it was found that the faunal diversity was greatly reduced,

consisting largely of the orbateid mite Hydrozetes and the Chironomidae Pentalpedilum anale

and Chironomus linearis (Harrison, 1958). Other organisms present included Argyrobothrus

(a hydroptilid caddis) and the Chironomidae larvae Lymnophyes spinosa and Tanytarsus

pallidulus. According to Raddum & Fjellheim (1984), the hydropcyclids are the best indicator

species in the Trichoptera for acidification. These authors also concluded that gastropods such

as Lymnea peregra and Planorbis acronicus were found in water of pH > 5.5 and Ca-content

> 0.75 mg/l. In a study of streams affected by a variety of pollutants, including acid-drainage,

Koryak et al. (1972) were able to distinguish the effects of low pH from those caused by

organic enrichment and increased suspended solid loads. They noted that, at sites of low pH

(mean 2.6), the benthos was composed predominantly of midge larvae and a few tipulid larvae,

whilst at pH 3.0 a few neuropteran larvae and Coleoptera were also present. The Chironomus

larvae were not found in nearby streams with higher Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

loads, although they are normally associated with heavy organic pollution. It may well be that

this commonly observed association is not specifically related to the organic enrichment, but

1-3


rather to the ability of this species to exploit almost any stressed environment, when there are

virtually no competitors.

In any freshwater environment, the macroinvertebrates form a vital link between the abiotic

environment and the organisms in higher trophic levels, such as fish, amphibians and

waterfowl. The abiotic environment where these macroinvertebrates occur, mainly comprises of

water and bottom sediments of running or stagnant water masses (Odum, 1971). It is thus true

that specific environmental conditions may directly affect the density and/or biomass of the

macroinvertebrates (Idyll, 1943; O'Connel & Campbell, 1953).

Macroinvertebrates are one of the groups of organisms most often recommended for use in

assessing water quality. In fact macroinvertebrates are by far the most commonly used group in

these studies (Hawkes, 1979).

Perhaps the most common type of biomonitoring using benthic macroinvetebrates is

surveillance. This approach includes surveys done before and after a project is completed

(Abel, 1989). Surveillance can also be used to determine whether water resource management

techniques are working (Hellawell, 1986; Abel, 1989). Biomonitoring using benthic

macroinvertebrates is also done to ensure compliance - either to meet immediate statutory

requirements (McBride, 1985) or to control long-term water quality (Wiederholm, 1980).

Benthic macroinvertebrates can be used to test effluents and to ensure receiving water

standards (Roper, 1985), or to ensure that standards are maintained during and after

implementation of a project (Rosenberg & Resh, 1993).

Benthic macroinvertebrates offer many advantages in biomonitoring, which explains their

popularity. Some of these advantages are intrinsic to the biology of the animals. Firstly they are

ubiquitous (Lenat et al., 1980), therefore they can be affected by environmental perturbances in

many different types of aquatic systems and in habitats within these systems. Secondly, the

large number of species involved offers a wide spectrum of responses to environmental stress

(Hellawell, 1986; Abel, 1989). Thirdly, their inherently sedentary nature allows effective

spatial analysis of pollutant or disturbance effects (Slack et al., 1973; Hellawell, 1986; Abel

1989). Fourthly, they have long life cycles compared to other groups, which allows elucidation

of temporal changes caused by perturbation (Gaufin, 1973; Slack et al., 1973). As a result,

benthic macroinvertebrates act as continuous monitors of the water they inhabit, enabling long-

1-4


term analysis of both regular and intermittent discharges, variable concentrations of pollutants,

single or multiple pollutants, and even synergistic or antagonistic effects (Gaufm, 1973).

There are, however, some difficulties in using benthic macroinvertebrates for biomonitoring. In

terms of study design; - firstly, quantitative sampling can be difficult because the extensive

distribution of benthic macroinvertebrates requires high numbers of samples to achieve

desirable precision in estimating population abundance (Hawkes, 1979). Alternative sampling

designs and the use of rapid assessment techniques may however reduce this problem

somewhat. Secondly, the distribution and abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates can be

affected by factors other than water quality for example the nature of the substrate or natural

conditions such as current velocity (Hawkes, 1979; Suess, 1982). This indicates the need for

ecological knowledge of the species involved. Thirdly, well defined seasonal variations in

abundance and distribution (especially of insects) may create sampling problems during

specific periods or in specific habitats (Weber, 1973), or may pose difficulties in comparing

samples taken during different seasons. The potentially confounding effects of seasonal

changes have to be accommodated for in the design of biomonitoring programs; life-history

knowledge of the species involved will help in this regard. Fourthly, drift behavior in lotic

waters can carry macroinvertebrates into areas in which they do not normally occur (Hellawell,

1986; Abel, 1989). Knowledge of habitat preference and drift behavior of certain species would

be valuable in dealing with this difficulty (Rosenberg Resh, 1993).

In terms of analysis - firstly, certain groups pose taxonomical difficulties (e.g., larvae of

Chironomidae, some Trichoptera and Oligochaeta), although progress is being made in

developing adequate keys for them (Hellawell, 1986). Secondly, the multiplicity of biotic and

diversity indices available for working with benthic macroinvertebrates may indicate that

researchers are not satisfied with the results that they provide (Hellawell, 1986).

FMS

The focal point of concern regarding the acidification of freshwater areas by mining effluent is

the devastating effect this phenomenon has on fish populations.

The addition of acid to a stream may release sufficient carbon dioxide from the bicarbonate in

the water to kill fish even though the pH level itself would not be directly lethal. An important

conclusion reached by Lloyd and Jordan (1964) during their investigations of factors affecting

1-5

Effeds of Mining Activities on Selected Aquatic Organisms Chapter 1

the resistance of fish to acid waters was the effect of sub-lethal concentrations of free carbon

dioxide. They considered that this alone could account for the considerable variation in the

lethal pH values, quoted in the literature.

The physiological mechanisms involved in acid-induced mortality of fish may vary in response

to different levels of acidity and the presence of synergistic components (for example heavy

metals, carbon dioxide : Schofield, 1976). At very low pH levels (pH < 3) coagulation of

mucus on gill surfaces and subsequent anoxia may be the primary cause of death, however

these low pH levels are rarely encountered. At less acute levels (pH 4 to 5), disturbances of the

normal ion and acid-base balance are more likely the cause of mortality.

High concentrations of suspended solids are frequently associated with acid mine drainage.

Experiments in the River Irwell (Lancashire), showed these to have significant effects,

including the production of excess mucus and the formation of deposits on the gills (Greenfield

Ireland, 1978). Parsons (1952) observed coagulation of the albumin in cells of the gills and a

decreased permeability of cell membranes in response to acidity, which lead to suffocation of

the fish. Associated with this were increases in the amounts of yawning and coughing behavior

in largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides, observed when the pH was artificially lowered to

4.3 (Orsatti & Colgan, 1978). Related to this was the observation by Lloyd and Jordan (1964)

of a breakdown in the bicarbonate alkalinity in the blood of Salmo giardneri at low ambient

pH values. Increased yawning and coughing have also been suggested as behavioral responses

to hypoxia in fish subjected to elevated concentrations of heavy metals (Lloyd and Jordan,

1964).

In recent years, more formal recognition has been given to natural fish populations as

indicators of water quality, particularly where improvements have taken place in watercourses

which had previously been seriously polluted (James & Evison, 1979).

Different kinds of experiments have been conducted in order to provide enough support for

using fish as biomonitors. Hasselrot (1975), who described the extensive use of caged fish

suspended in the watercourse or effluent which is being assessed, overcame some of the

difficulties of using natural fish populations. Adequate controls, however, must be used and

labour demand is high, especially in remote areas. Laboratory toxicity testing of effluents and

natural waters have many useful applications in water quality work, and have already been

used extensively by some authorities (Sprague. 1969; 1970; 1971). The disadvantages,

1-6


however, include the collection and transport of the large sample volumes required, doubts

about the reliability of the water samples tested, and the limitations of the static test, which is

necessary if water sample sizes are to be manageable and native fish species are to be used.

Toxicity testing in field laboratories has found little favour, but recent developments show

considerable promise for the use of automatic monitors employing fish. If a telemetry link is

installed between the monitoring station and the control center and automatic feeding is

adopted, the major disadvantages experienced with caged fish may be overcome and a more

sensitive measure of water quality achieved.

Fishes show distinct physiological and behavioural responses to low levels of pollutants and

recent studies have attempted to use these responses to devise automatic alarm systems.

Automatic fish monitors should provide rapid indications of deteriorating water quality, and

have potential uses for monitoring river waters and raw waters which are utilised for potable

supply and for monitoring effluents from treatment plants. Movements are monitored with

photosensitive cells and respiration by changes of potential between two electrodes (Evans et

al., 1986). Finally, because fish are the main "critical material" in freshwater (i.e., they are

the major component of the food chain leading to humans), there is clearly merit in using them

as bioindicators.

AIMS OF 1HE PROJECT

This research project consisted of three Case Studies undertaken at three different gold mines, a

study undertaken in the upper reaches of the Olifants River in coal mining areas, and

experimental work done in controlled environmental rooms in the aquarium of the Department

of Zoology at the Rand Afrikaans University.

The three Case Studies conducted at the gold mines formed part of a Water Research

Commission (WRC) project (Project No. K5/647/0/1) titled : "Establishment of Guidelines and

Procedures to Assess and Ameliorate the Impact of Gold-mine Operations on the Surface

Water Environment."

Samples were taken at three South African gold mines situated in the Witwatersrand and

Transvaal geological sequences.

1-7


The practical work for each of these Case Studies were divided into three different sections

conducted by different people. The sections were as follows :

Assessment of the effects of gold-mine effluent on :

the natural aquatic environment,

selected aquatic organisms, and

the geomorphological aspects.

This project concentrated on the effects of gold-mine effluent on selected aquatic organisms.

Sampling localities for water at each of the Case Studies were chosen by Venter (1995) and

some of these localities were selected for the purpose of this study.

The ecological aspect of this study aims to establish the following information :

Identification of the different species, their numbers, point in life cycle;

Establishment of their ecological niches;

Delineation of the reigning food chains and imbalances;

Chemical analyses of the different components of the food chain in order to identify

pollutant concentrations, points and factors.

Based on this information and data from previous studies, this study aims to : a) establish an

occurrence evaluation index for the macroinvertebrates occurring in the aquatic ecosystem at

the different mines, with reference to water quality data and metal concentrations in the water

and sediment compartments, b) identify an indicator group(s) of species with known narrow

limits of tolerance for certain pollutants or a combination of environmental factors. Further

studies will then concentrate on the indicator group(s).

After the results for the macroinvertebrates from the different mines were analysed,

experimental work was conducted on a specific fish species (Oreochromis mossambicus) and

macroinvertebrates (Daphnia pulex), which can be utilized in controlled experiments to

determine the toxicants in the food and water and the possible transfer of metals via the food

(macroinvertebrates) to the fish. Standard techniques were employed during the exposure

experiments and the analyses of organs and tissues. These values, as well as the metal

concentrations ingested via food, will give an indication of metal concentrations present in the

organs and tissues of the selected fish species.

1-8


The undertaking of this project is important in that it will contribute to the information required

to assist the mine industries in addressing water contamination. At the same time, this research

will make a positive contribution towards the development of equitable water management

strategies. The water authorities and the mining industries share firm commitment to the

principle of integrated environmental management and responsible self-regulation. The

practical implementation of these principles requires access to the type of information which

will result from meeting the objectives of this research project. This project will try to identify

the potential problems, define procedures for assessing their environmental impacts and identify

strategies to ameliorate these impacts.

1-9


FERENCES

ABEL, PD (1989) Water Pollution iollogy. Ellis Horwood, Chichester, England. 129 p.

BEGON, M; HARPER, IL & TOWNSEND, CR (1990) Ecology. 2nd Ed. Blackwell

Scientific Publications, Oxford, England. 945 p.

BELL, HL (1971) Effects of low pH on the survival and emergence of aquatic insects. Wat.

Res., 5 a 313-319.

CAMPBELL, PGC & STOKES, PM (1985) Acidification and toxicity of metals to aquatic

biota. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 42 a 2034-2049.

EVANS, GP; JOHNSON, D & WITHELL, C (1986) Development of the WRC Mk III Fish

Monitor : description of the system and its response to some commonly encountered

pollutants. In : Biology of freshwater Pollution, 2nd edition. ed. CF Mason. pp 154 -

159. John Wiley 1 Sons, Inc., New York.

GAUFIN, AR (1973) Use of aquatic invertebrates in the assessment of water quality. In :

Biologic Methods for the Assessment of Water Quality. eds. J Cairns & KL

Dickson. pp 96-116. American Society for Testing and Materials - Special Technical

Publication 528. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.

GREENFIELD, JP & IRELAND, MP (1978) A survey of the macrofauna of a coalwaste

polluted Lancashire system. Environ. Pollut., 16 > 105-122.

HARRISON, AD (1958) The effects of sulfuric acid pollution on the biology of streams in the

Transvaal, South Africa. Verh. Internat. Ver. Limnol., 13 0 603-619.

HASSELROT, TB (1975) Bioassay methods of the National Swedish Environmental

Protection Board. J. Wat., Pollut. Control Fed., 47(4) a 851.

1-10

Effects of Mining Activities on Selected Aquatic Organisms

Chapter 1

HAWKES, HA (1979) Invertebrates as indicators of river water quality. In : ttnolognc

indicators of water quality. eds. A James & L Evison. Chapter 2. John Wiley,

Chichester, England.

HELLAWELL, JM (1986) Biological indicators of freshwater pollution and environment

management. Elsevier, London. 250 p.

IDYLL, CP (1943) Bottom fauna of portions of the Cawichan River, B.C. J. IFish. es .

Canada., 6 0 133-139.

JAMES, A & EVISON, L (1979) Biological Indicators of Water Quality. John Wiley,

Chichester, England. 147 p.

KORYAK, M; SHAPIRO, MA & SYKORA, JL (1972) Riffle zoobenthos in streams

receiving acid-mine drainage. Wat. Res., 6 a 1239-1247.

LENAT, DR; SMOCK, LA & PENROSE, DL (1980) Use of benthic macroinvertebrates as

indicators of environmental quality. In : Biological monitoring for environmental

effects. ed. DL Worf. pp 97-112. DC Heath, Lexington, MA.

LLOYD, PJD & JORDAN, DHM (1964) Some factors affecting the resistance of rainbow

trout (Salmo giardneri, Richardson) to acid waters. Int. J. Air Wat. Poll., 8 0 393-

403.

LOEB, SL & SPACIE, A (1994) Biologic Monitoring of Aquatic Systems. Lewis

Publishers, London. 381 p.

MCBRIDE, GB (1985) The Role of Monitoring in the Management of Water Resources. In :

Biological Monitoring in Freshwaters o Proceedings of a Seminar, Hamilton,

November 21-23, 1984. Part 1. eds. RD Pridmore and AB Cooper. pp 7-16. Water

and Soil Miscellaneous Publications No. 82, National Water and Soil Conservation

Authority, Wellington, NZ.


O'CONNEL, TR & CAMPBELL, RS (1953) The benthos of Black River and Clearwater

Lake, Missouri. Univ. Missouri Stud., 26 0 25-41.

ODUM, EP (1971) Fundament s of ecology. 3rd ed. WB Saunders Comp., London. 574 p.

ORSATTI, SD & COLGAN, PW (1978) Effects of sulfuric acid exposure on the behaviour of

largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides. Environ. Biol. Fish., 19 a 119-129.

PARSONS, JW (1952) A biological approach to the study and control of acid mine pollution.

J. Tennessee Acad. Sci., 27 e 304-9.

RADDUM, GG & FJELLHEIM, A (1984) Acidification and early warning organisms in

freshwater in western Norway. Verh. Internat. Vero Limnol., 22 a 1973-1980.

ROBACK, SS RICHARDSON, JW (1969) The effects of acid-mine drainage on aquatic

insects. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 121 o 81-99.

ROPER, DS (1985) The Role of Biological Surveys and Surveillance. In : Biologic

Monitoring in Freshwaters o Proceedings of a Seminar, Hamilton, November 21-

23, 1985. Part 1. eds. RD Pridmore and AB Cooper. pp 7-16. Water and Soil

Miscellaneous Publications No. 82, National Water and Soil Conservation Authority,

Wellington, NZ.

ROSENBERG, DM & RESIN, VH (1993) Freshwater Biomonitoring anal enthic

M croinvertebrates. Chapman & Hall, New York, London. 488 p.

SCHOFIELD, CL (1976) Acid precipitation : Effects on fish. Ambio, 5 a 228-230.

SLACK, KV; AVERETT, RC; GROESON, PE & LIPSCOMB, RG (1973) Methods for

collection and analysis of aquatic biological and microbiological samples. In :

Techniques of water resources investigations of the United States Geological

Survey, Chapter 4A, Book 5, pp 1-165. TT.S. Department of the interior, Geological

Survey, Washington, D.C.

1-12


SPRAGUE, JB (1969) Measurement of Pollutant Toxicity to fish. I. ioassay methods for

acute toxicity. Wat. es., 3 793.

SPRAGUE, JB (1970) Measurement of Pollutant Toxicity to fish. II. Utilising and applying

bioassay results. Wat. Res., 4 3.

SPRAGUE, JB (1971) Measurement of Pollutant Toxicity to fish. III. Sublethal effects and

safe concentrations. Walt. es., 5 245.

SUESS, MJ (1982) Examination of water for Pollution Control. A Reference Handbook.

Vol 3. Biological, acteriologic and Virological Examination. Pergamon Press,

Oxford, England. 119 p.

SUTCLIFFE, DW & CARRICK, TR (1973) Studies on mountain streams in the English Lake

District. Freshwater Biol., 3 437-462.

TILMAN, D (1982) Resource Competition and Community Structure. Princeton University

Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 296 p.

VENTER, MA (1995) Assessment of the Effects of Gold-mine Effluent on the Natural

Aquatic Environment. Ph.D. Thesis. Rand Afrikaans University.

WEBER, CI ed. (1973) Biological Field and Laboratory Methods for Measuring the

Quality of Surface Waters and Effluents. EPA-670/4-73-001. U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.

WIEDERHOLM, T (1980) Use of Benthos in Lake Monitoring. J. Wat. PollutoContr. F

52 : 537-47.

1-13

Chapter 2

0

ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.1 Macroinvertebrates

2-1

2.1.1 Sampling of the soft bottom substrata 2-1

2.1.2 Sampling of the stone bottom substrata 2-1

2.1.3 Laboratory analysis of the macroinvertebrates 2-1

2.1.4 Preparation of the macroinvertebrates for acid digestion 2-2

2.2 Selected Fish Species 2-2

2.2.1 Sampling of the selected fish species 2-2

2.2.2 Laboratory analysis of the selected fish species 2-3

23 Acid Digestion 2-3

2.4 Washing of the Glassware 2-3

2$ Atomic Absorption Spectrophometry 2-4

2.6 Statistical Analysis 2-4

2.7 4 ioconcentration Factors 2-4

2.8 References 2-5


2.1 MAC OINVE RATES

2.1.1 Sampling of the soft bottom substrata

The sampling of macroinvertebrates from soft (mud and silt) bottom substrata was performed

by employing a Birge-Eckman grab (grab area = 225 cm 2). This apparatus proves most

effective for the quantitative sampling of macroinvertebrates in soft bottom substrata.

Due to a restricted number of macroinvertebrates present at the different sampling localities,

two to three random soft bottom samples were taken at each locality. Each sample was poured

into a close-grained gauze net (mesh size = 225/cm 2) and rinsed in the water at the locality to

rid the sample of excess mud. The sample was then poured into a labeled, 500 ml Consol glass

bottle and 10 in/ "Rose Bengal" (C.I. 45440-BDH Chemicals Ltd., Poole, England) was added

to the sample. "Rose Bengal", is a biological coloring-matter, which stains chitin-containing

organisms pink, enabling detection of benthic organisms in the sample. After approximately 30

minutes the sample was preserved with 20 ml concentrated formalin.

2.1.2 Sampling of stone bottom substrata

A Surber Sampler was used for quantitative collection of macroinvertebrates from stone

bottom substrata. Three surber samples were collected at each locality to minimize inherent

shortcomings of this technique (Chutter, 1972). The Surber sampler has a sampling area of

1000 cm2 and also consists of a close-grained gauze net with a mesh size of 225/cm 2 .

The large stones within the sampling area were hand washed whilst the finer sand and gravel,

collected from the top 5 cm of the substrate, were washed in the net of the surber. The sample

was poured into a 500 m/, labeled Consol glass bottle. Ten ml "Rose Bengal" was added to the

sample and after 30 minutes the sample was preserved with 20 nil concentrated formalin.

2.13 Laboratory analyses of maeroinvertebrates

In the laboratory, each sample was poured through a close-grained net and rinsed with running

tap water, to clear the sample of excess "Rose Bengal" and formalin. Each sample was divided

into smaller quantities and placed in a flat, calibrated perspex holder (300 squares of one cm 2

2-1


each). All the macroinvertebrates were systematically removed with the aid of a stereo traveling

microscope.

macroinvertebrates from each sample were identified to class and genus level, where

possible, according to descriptions by Usinger (1956), Pennak (1978) and Scholtz t• Holm

(1985). The organisms were then counted. The total number of the macroinvertebrate species

sampled at the soft bottom substrata was multiplied by a factor of 48.7 (Wetzel, 1983) while

the number of species sampled at stone bottom substrata was multiplied with a factor of 10

(Wetzel, 1983). Multiplications of the values were conducted in order to present the total

number of macroinvertebrates per square meter at each locality. The various organisms from

each sample were placed separately in 30 ml, labeled glass bottles containing 10 % formalin

for further analyses.

2.1.4 Preparation of the macroinvertebrates for acid digestion.

The various organisms from each sample were removed from the formalin and placed in 25 ml,

labeled test tubes filled with distilled water. The organisms were rinsed in the distilled water

using a WM/250/SC Whirlmixer (Fisons Scientific Apparatus), thereby ridding the organisms

of any possible traces of organic matter. The wet mass of the benthic organisms was

determined on a Sartorius electronic balance and the organisms were placed in 50 ml , labeled

Erlenmeyer flasks. The initial fixation solution (10 % formalin), in which the organisms were

stored, was added to each flask since some of the metals present in the organisms could have

diffused from the organisms into the formalin.

2.2 SELECTED FISH SPECIES

2.2.1 Sampling of the selected fish species

Sampling of selected fish species took place during different seasons at the specified localities

(see Chapter 1) in order to determine the bioaccumulation and possible changes in the metal

concentrations in the organs and tissues of the fish. The fish spesies sampled were Labeo

capensis — Orange River Mudfish, Labeo umbratus — Moggel, Cyprinus carpi° — Common Carp and Clarias gariepinus — Sharptooth catfish.

2-2


After capture, the length (using a measuring tape) and mass (using an electronic balance) of

each fish were determined. Samples of liver, gills, skin and muscle were dissected, placed in 50

ml, labeled Consol glass bottles, and frozen prior to further analysis.

2.2.2 Laboratory analysis of the selected fish species

In the laboratory, the organ and tissue samples were thawed. The wet mass of each sample was

determined on the Sartorius electronic balance and the samples were placed in a Gallenkamp

Hotbox oven at 60 °C for a period of 24 hours. The samples were removed from the oven and

placed in a dessicator to cool down. The dry weight of each sample was determined on the

electronic balance and one gram of each sample was placed in 50 ml, labeled Erlenmeyer flasks

for acid digestion.

2.3 ACID DIGESTION

For the purpose of acid digestion of the samples a 1:2 mixture of concentrated Perchloric acid

(HC1O4, 70 % Saarchem) and Nitric acid (HNO 3, 55 % Saarchem) was added to each sample

(Van Loon, 1980; Houba et al., 1983). Acid digestion was performed on a Gallenkamp

adjustable hotplate at temperatures ranging from 200 ° to 250 °C until the samples appeared

clear. After digestion each sample was separately filtered using acid resistant 0.45 gm filter

paper. The filtering apparatus was finally rinsed with hot water to remove all traces of metals

The macroinvertebrate samples were made up to 25 ml whilst the fish samples were made up to

50 ml with distilled water. The samples were poured into 100 ml, labeled glass bottles for

storage.

2.4 WASHING OF GLASSWARE

To ensure that the glassware used, for metal analyses of samples, during this study contained

no traces of residual metals, specific procedures were followed in the preparation of the

glassware. All glassware was soaked in a 2 % Contrad soap solution (Merck chemicals) for a

period of 24 hours and then rinsed with distilled water. Thereafter, the glassware was soaked in

a 1M HCI-solution for 24 hours and once rinsed with distilled water to remove all traces of

metals (Giesy & Wiener, 1977).

2-3


2.5 ATOMIC SC) TICS^N SPECTROP OTOMET

Metal contents of the different samples were determined with a Varian SpectrAA-10 atomic

absorption spectrophotometer. The samples were analyzed for levels of copper (Cu), iron (Fe),

manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn).

Standards for fish tissues (IAEA/R1/64) were purchased and analysed to verify the accuracy of

methods employed to determine metal concentrations in the fish tissues.

2.6 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Data was processed utilising STATGRAPHICS Version 5.0 and STATISTICA Version 5.0

statistical programs. STATGRAPH1CS was used to determine the average, standard deviation,

minimum and maximum values of the different data sampled. Stacked plots and bar/column

plots from STATISTICA were used for the graphical analysis and comparisons of organisms,

numbers, localities, seasons and metals using standardized data.

2.7 BIOCONCENTRATION FACTORS

Bioconcentration factors (Wiener Giesy, 1979) between the fish tissue and the water (BFw)

and the sediment (BFs) were determined using only the mean metal concentration for each

organ. The formula used was :

[Metal] in the organ/tissue (tg/g dry mass)

BFw/BFs

[Metal] in water (g//)/sediment (i.ig/g dry mass)

2-4


2.8 REFERENCES

CH TIER, FM (1972) A Reappraisal of Needham and Usinger's data on the variability of a

stream fauna when sampled with a surber sampler. Limn& Oceanogro, 17 : 139-141.

GIESY, JP & WIENER, JG (1977) Frequency distribution of trace metal concentrations in five

freshwater fishes. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 1 ' : 393-403. i

HOUBA, C; REMACLE, J; DUBOIS, D & THOREZ, J (1983) Factors affecting the

concentrations of cadmium, zinc, copper and lead in the sediments of the Verde River.

Wat. Res., 17 : 1281-1286.

PENNAK, RW (1978) Fresh-water Invertebrates of the United States. Wiley-Interscience

Publication. 803 p.

SCHOLTZ, CH & HOLM, E (1985) Insects of Southern Africa. Butterworths, Durban.

502p.

USINGER, RL (1956) Aquatic Insects of California. Univ. California Press, California.

205p.

VAN LOON, JC (1980) Analytical atomic absorption spectroscopy. Selected methods.

Academic Press, New York. 337 p.

WETZEL, RG (1983) Limnology, 2nd Edition. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelpia,

New York, Chicago and San Francisco. 767pp.

WIENER, JG GIESY, JP (1979) Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn in fishes in a

highly organic softwater pond. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 36 : 270 -279.

2-5

Chapter 3

CASE STUDY MINE ONE

TA E OF CONTENTS



3.3 Results 3-3

3.3.1 Identification and istribution of Macroinvertebrates 3-3

3.3.2 Metal Accumulation by Macroinvertebrates 3-7

3.4 Discussion 3-10


3.6 References 3-21

0


3.1 INTRODUCTION

This study was conducted at a mine on the West Rand within the Witwatersrand gold-mining

region, from March 1992 to April 1993. The mine is approximately one hundred years old and

can be classified as having an open water system in that the majority of the mine service water

(in excess of 55 %) discharges directly into a well-known tributary of a major South African

river system.

3.2 METHODS

For the purpose of the macroinvertebrate fauna sampling a total of ten localities (Figure 3.1)

were chosen where biseasonal sampling was done (see Chapter 1).

The sampling localities were divided into three main areas:

Area 1:

Locality 1 : This locality, situated in a canal, receives primarily underground mine service

water.

Locality 2 : Standing water in a small wetland above a water pollution control dam.

Locality 3 : At this locality there was inflow of underground water into a pollution control

dam.

Locality 5 : Situated at the outflow of the pollution control dam.

Area : 2

Locality 7 : This locality is a mine stream before a confluence with a natural stream from a

residential and industrial area.

Locality 8 : A natural stream (see Locality 7) before the confluence with the mine

stream.

Locality 9 : This locality is the mine stream after the confluence with the natural stream.

3-1


a) 0)

_CO

Co

a) CO

a)

C 0

CO

a)

a) a)

co a)

CO

O

C CO

C C — a)

0 a)

C

(7)

Co

CU 0) Co

0 E C) Co

co -o E o_

L.) E as C/3

3-2


Area 3

Locality K1 : A site upstream from the confluence (see Locality K2) with the mine stream.

Locality K2 : Confluence of the mine stream and the Klip River.

Locality K3 : A site in the Klip River ± 3 km downstream after the confluence of the

mine stream with the Klip River.

Control Area

A control locality, situated on the West Rand was chosen. A comparison was made between

macroinvertebrate numbers and species found at the localities of Case Study Mine One and

those found at the control locality. This was done to evaluate the water quality of metal

enriched water and that of natural or unpolluted water.

Sampling procedures and further analysis of the macroinvertebrate fauna were done employing

standard techniques (Chapter 2).

33 RESULTS

3.3.1 IDENTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MACROINVERTEBRATES.

Data of the macroinvertebrates sampled at Case Study Mine One and the Control Area are

proven in Tables 3.1 to 3.5. Each table portrays the quantitative presence of

macroinvertebrates in the three areas for a specific season.

Winter

Table 3.1 presents the total number and composition of macroinvertebrates sampled during

winter 1992.

3-3


Chapter 3

TA ILE 3.1 The total number and composition of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled

duriii g wi t,ter 1992 (numbers per square meter)

ORGANISM / LOCALITY K1 K2 K3 1 Annelida

Oligochaeta (Aquatic earthworms)

Haplotaxida

Tubificidae

Limnodrilus - - - - - 1949 - 1461 _ 2922

Crustacea Copepoda - - - - - 195 30 - - 487 Odonata (Dragonflies,Damselflies)

Anisoptera

Libellulidae

Trithemes - - - - - - - 49 - -

Trichoptera (Caddisflies)

Leptoceridae Athnpsodes

- - - - - - 20 - - -

Coleoptera (Beetles)

Hydrophilidae

Berosus - - - - - - - 49 _ -

Diptera (Flies, Mosquitoes, midges)

Tipulidae (Crane flies)

Chironomidae

Chironomus

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

10

900

-

14610

_

_

-

2992

Area 1 : At these localities no organisms were present during winter, mostly due to low water

temperatures and poor water quality (Venter, 1995).

Area 2 : At locality 7 no organisms were present. At localities 8 and 9 large numbers of

Chironomidae larvae were present. Aquatic earthworms such as Limnodrilus occurred in large

numbers at locality 8, while other macroinvertebrates such as Copepoda, Trichoptera

(Athripsodes) and Tipulidae (Crane flies) occurred in small numbers. The large presence of

both Tubificidae and Chironomidae may be due to the inflow of organic enriched water from

the Witpoortjie Spruit, which drains a residential and industrial area.

Area 3 : Only a few water insect larvae from the groups, Odonata (Trithemes) and Coleoptera

(Berosus) were present at Kl, while no organisms were present at K2. Tubificidae and

Chironomidae occurred in large numbers at K1 and K3 due to organic enrichment of the water

from the inflow from the Witpoortjie Spruit.

Spring

Table 3.2 presents the total number and composition of macroinvertebrates sampled during

spring 1992.

3-4


Chapter 3

LE 3.2 The total number and composition of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled

during spring 1992 (...umbers per square meter) ORGANISM / LOCALITY K1 T K2 K3 Diptera (Flies, Mosquitoes, Midges) Chironomidae

Chironomus

RI

- - - - - - 200 - 244 -

At area 1 and 2, except for locality 9 (area 2) where a few Chironomidae were present, no

signs of macroinvertebrate life were present.

Area 3 : During winter a pipeline from a small industrial area close to the Klip River

discharged effluent into the river at this point. After the winter sampling period construction

work was started on this pipeline and the discharge point was moved to a point lower down the

river. The absence of the effluent from the pipeline resulted in a decrease of not only species

but number of macroinvertebrate fauna. The presence of only Chironomidae was observed in

this area. Sewage works next to this locality caused organic enrichment of the water which

resulted in the thriving of Chironomidae.

Summer

Table 3.3 presents the macroinvertebrates samples during summer 1992/1993.

TABLE 3.3 The tot number and composition of macroinvertebrate lard.: e sampled

during summer 1992/1993 (numbers per square meter)

ORGANISM / LOCALITY 1 2 3 5 7 8 9 K1 K2 Annelida (Aquatic earthworms) Oligochaeta Haplotaxida Tubifex

Limnodrilus -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

97 -

2192 1948

- -

- -

- -

- 97

Crustacea Cladocera (Water fleas) Copepoda

- -

- 487

- -

- 730

- -

- 195

400 3000

- 10

- -

49 49

Collembola(Springtails) Arthropleana Isotomidae Isotomurus - - - - - - 10 - - -

Odonata (Dragonflies, Damselflies) Anisoptera Libellulidae Trithemis - 195 - - - - - - - -

Coleoptesa (Beetles) Haliplidae (Crawling water beetles) Haliplus

Gyrinidae (Whirling beetles) Aulonogyrus

-

-

49

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

70

-

-

-

-

-

- Diptera (Flies, Mosquitoes, Midges)

Psychodidae (Moth Flies) Pxychodo. Chironomidae (midges) Chironomus -

-

4870

-

-

-

244

-

1168

-

1802

10

1850

-

2143

-

5844

-

682 Gastropoda (Snails) Pulmonata

Se mentorbis 49

3-5


Area 1 : At locality 1 the absence of macroinvertebrate species, except for an empty shell from

the genus Segmentorbis, suggests that the quality of the water is not suitable to sustain normal

aquatic life. Localities 2, 3 and 5 presented a few crustaceans (Copepoda) and water insect

larvae (Odonata and Coleoptera) and large numbers of midge larvae (Chironomidae).

Area 2 : Small numbers of Crustacea (Cladocera - waterfleas and Copepoda) and water insect

larvae of the Collembola (Springtails), Psychodidae and Gyrinidae (Whirling beetles) were

present at localities 7, 8 and 9. Benthic invertebrates such as the Tubificidae and Chironomidae

occurred in relatively large numbers.

Area 3 : Moderate numbers of Tubificidae and Chironomidae were present, while only a few

crustacea (Copepoda and Cladocera) occurred at localities K 1 , K2 and K3.

Autumn

Table 3.4 summarizes the presence and number of benthic organisms sampled during autumn

1993.

TABLE 3A The total number and composition of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled

during autumn 1993 (numbers per square meter)

ORGANISM / LOCALITY 1 2 _

3 5 7 8 9 K1 K2 .

K3 Annelids Oligochaeta (Aquatic earthworms) Haplotaxida Tubificidae Tubifex - - - 97 - 970 - - - - Limnodrilus - - - - - 1948 - - - -

Crustacea Copepoda - - - - 97 584 100 - - 244 Diptera (Flies, Mosquitoes, Midges)

Culicidae (Mosquitoes) Culex - - - - - 10 - - - Chironomidae (Midges) Chironomus - - - - 2094 1940 330 731 2922 439

Area 1 : Only a small number of aquatic earthworms (Tubificidae) were present at locality 5,

and a definite decrease in the number of organisms was noted.

Area 2 : At localities 7, 8 and 9, Chironomidae and Tubificidae and a few copepods were

present.

Area 3 : Chironomidae larvae and a few Crustacea (Copepoda) were present while the

Tubificidae were absent. The decrease in the number of organisms during the autumn sampling

period may be due to a drop in water temperatures and a decrease in nutrient availability.

3-6


Control

Table 3.5 presents the results of sampling at the control area.

T 4 t. LE 3.5 The total number and composition of macroinvertebrate lary

the control area during 1993 (numbers per square meter)

a sampled at

ORGANISM / LOCALITY 1 2 3 4 Annelida Oligochaeta (Aquatic earthworms) Haplotaxida Tubificidae Tubifex Limnodrilus

-

- 49 -

487 - 1461

Crustacea Copepoda - 244 - - Ephemeroptera (Mayflies)

Baetidae Baetis Cloeon

97 49

49 -

633 -

- -

Odonata (Dragonflies, Damselflies) Anisoptera Libellulidae Trithemis 49 - - -

Trichoptera (Caddis flies) Hydropsyohidae Eammidae Ecnomus 49 - - -

Diptera (Flies, Mosquitoes, Midges) Chironomidae (Midges) Chironomus 7792 731 1510 1218

The control area presented a variety of water insect larvae such as the Ephemeroptera (Baetis

and Cloeon), Odonata (Trithemis) and Trichoptera (Ecnomus). A few copepods and larger

numbers of Tubificidae and Chironomidae were also present.

3.3/ METAL ACCUMULATION Y MACROINVERTEBRATES

Data on the metal levels in the macroinvertebrates are given in Tables 3.6 to 3.10 Each table

portrays the metal concentrations of the macroinvertebrates sampled during a specific season.

Due to the small number of macroinvertebrates sampled at each locality, Chironomidae and

Tubificidae were analysed separately and the remaining organisms were analysed together.

Winter

The variety of organisms sampled and analysed during winter 1992 are given in Table 3.6.

3-7


Chapter 3

'TA LE 326 Total metal concentrations (wet mass) in the macroiunvertebrate larvae during

winter 1 I 2

LOC ORGANISM Cu(p.g/g) Mn(trg/g) Ni( gig) Pb(sg/g) Zn(118/0 Fe(1118/8)

2 Group 1500 45333 12066.7 6200 11166.7 125.7 8 Tubificidae 3301.4 1812.8 2347 780.8 3689.5 63.9 9 Chironomidae 283.1 1019.1 1466.7 609.5 2466.7 26.9

Group 413.3 2080 4106.7 1440 7920 42.3 K1 Chironomidae 40 48.3 93.8 83.8 189.5 23.8

Tubificidae 378.9 1347.4 3547.4 1326.3 5042.1 94.6 Group 436.8 3206.9 3597.7 942.5 4126.4 62.5

K2 Chironomidae 25000 226020 332000 122000 615000 3000 K3 Group 412.4 1638.4 2231.6 677.9 2429.4 31.9

Chironomidae 418.3 996 1597.6 191.2 1988.1 14.2 Tubificidae 2444.4 7444.4 16666.7 4388.9 27444.4 180

Bold print : High concentrations

During this period, the lowest metal concentrations were found for copper and lead, while iron

concentrations were the highest. High metal concentrations were observed for some of the

Tubificidae (localities 8 and K3), Chironomidae (locality K2) and the group of remaining

invertebrates at locality 2.

Spring

The data presented for spring 1992 is given in Table 3.7.

TABLE 3,7 Total metal concentrations (wet mass) in the macroinvertebrate larvae during

spring 1992

LOC ORGANISM Cu(rgig) Mn(ttgig) Ni(trgig) Pb(sg/g) Zn(pg/g) Fe(mg/g) -7

9 Chironomidae 2222.2 11111.1 22222.2 8333.3 23666.7 211.1 K2 Chironomidae 18000 178000 190222 • 2.5000 321000 30


During the spring, concentrations for iron were the highest, while those for copper and lead

were the lowest. Exceptionally high concentrations for Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn were found for

the Chironomidae at locality K2. High iron concentration was observed at locality 9 for the

Chironomidae.

Summer

The data obtained during the summer 1992/1993 is given in Table 3.8.

3-8


Chapter 3

TA LE 3.8 Total met co cerattrations (wet mass) in the macroinvertehrate larvae during

summer 1992/1993 LOC ORGANISM Cu (nig) Mn(gg/g) Ni(gg/g) Pb(p.g/g) Zn(fig/g) Fe(tng/g)

1 Group 379.4 3350 1094.1 800 2932.4 13.2 2 Group 364.3 953.5 2837.3 1333.3 7868.2 24.9

Chironomidae 781.1 757.4 2165.9 798.8 3899.4 63.9 5 ,Group 857.1 3678.6 13000 6357.1 17080 108.6 7 Chironomidae 774.2 3451.6 10483.9 3741.9 14193.5 100

Tubificidae 1037 3592.6 12666.7 7000 20 • 9 109.6 8 Tubificidae 1066.9 224.2 282 333.5 593.2 21.2

Chironomidae 23443 1655.7 5229.5 2081.9 88033 81.9 Group 175.4 1026.3 4236.8 2078.9 3149.1 33.3

9 Chironomidae 76.1 42.6 66.5 26.7 169.9 3.5 Group 41.5 52.5 147.7 54.5 227.3 2.3

K1 Chironomidae 214.7 650.3 2128.8 1380.4 3251.5 30.8 K2 Chironomidae 83.3 106.2 194.9 53.9 279.3 7.4 K3 Group 1000 2939.4 5484.9 12242.4 86.9

Chironomidae 1266.7 7066.7 23266.7 12666.7 31333.3 216


Metal concentrations for the summer follow the same tendency as for the winter and spring

sampling periods. The lowest concentrations were obtained for copper and the highest for iron.

Very high metal concentrations were observed for the Chironomidae at localities 7, 8 and K3;

for the Tubificidae at locality 8; and for the group of remaining invertebrates at localities 5 and

K3.

Autumn

The data obtained from the organisms during autumn 1993 is given in Table 3.9.

TABLE 3.9 Total metal concentrations (wet mass) in the macroinvertebrate flary e during

autumn 1993

LOC ORGANISM Cu(pg/g) Mn(gg/g) Ni(gg/g) Pb018/0 Zn(I18/g) Fe(mg/g)

5 Tubificidae 8500 68500 157000 78000 144500 1265 7 Chironomidae 1057.1 8314.3 8742.9 3257.1 10371.1 118.9

Group 6750 64750 76000 16250 77750 710 8 Tubificidae 1237.6 794.3 2024.8 691.5 2397.2 70.2

Chironomidae 3171.4 9142.9 10171.4 5342.9 21542.9 130.9 Group 5000 58400 67400 41000 80600 600

9 Chironomidae 1068.9 8758.6 9655.2 1551.7 15379.3 101.4 Group 27000 286000 312000 110000 351000 2810

K1 Chironomidae 2285.7 167143 48714.3 18714.3 68142.9 410 K2 Chironomidae 76.4 168.4 212.6 37.1 230.5 10.2 K3 Group 13000 142000 155500 98500 174000 1360

Chironomidae _ 2500 32875 35000 3125 41250 405


3-9


Iron was present in high concentrations and copper and lead concentrations were the lowest.

The Tubificidae at locality 5 and the group of remaining invertebrates at localities 7, 8, 9 and

K3 presented exceptionally high metal concentrations.

Control

The data obtained for the control sample is given in Table 3.10.

TABLE 3,10 Total meta concentrations (wet mass) in the macrohuivertebrate larvae at the

control area,

LOC ORGANISM Cu(ng/g) Mn(tg/g) Ni(tgIg) PbOlg/g) Zn(pg/g) Fe(mg/g)

1 Group 1000 15727.3 15318.2 6636.4 16181.8 147.3 Chironomidae 324.2 3928.8 353.5 188.9 624.4 38.6

3 Chironomidae 1178.6 16464.3 10642.9 6678.6 15285.7 140 4 Group 813.9 17418.6 8697.7 4000 9441.9 5116.3

Chironomidae 695.7 16021.7 6304.4 869.6 10065.2 142.4 5 Chironomidae 708.3 10875 13583.3 6416.7 103333 162.1

Tubificidae 470.6 8514.7 5294.1 1147.1 4779.4 115.9


At the control sampling site, copper and lead represented the lowest metal concentrations while

manganese and iron were the highest. Outstanding high metal values were observed for the

Chironomidae (locality 3) and the group of remaining invertebrates (localities 1, 4 and 5).

304 DISCUSSION

Identification and Distribution of Macroinvertebrate Fauna

This study revealed definite seasonal differences in the number of species, with the summer and

autumn populations of the macroinvertebrates more abundant than the populations during

winter and spring. This study also revealed that there is a definite improvement in the water

quality at Case Study Mine One, from the pollution control dam downstream towards the blip

River. This observation is supported by the abundance of specific sensitive invertebrate

indicator species further downstream such as some Collembola (lsotomurus : locality 9 :

stunmer), Odonata (Ttiihemes : locality K 1 : winter), Trichoptera (Athripsodes : locality 9 :

winter) and Coleoptera (Berosus : locality K1 : winter; and Aulonogyrus : locality 9 : summer)

species.

3-10


AREA 1 : Venter (1995) confirmed the water quality indicative of the source being not typical

underground water, but also runoff from the surrounding rock dump, sand dump and a mine

training center. The p of water varied between 4.66 (locality 5) to 5.86 (locality 3) suggesting

acidic conditions (Venter, 1995). Due to these conditions only species such as Tubificidae

(Tubifex), Copepoda and Chironomidae (Chironomus - pupae and larvae) occurred throughout

the sampling period. Tubificidae and Chironomidae are organisms commonly remaining in

water polluted by acid mine drainage (metal pollution) and organic material (degradation of

plant materials : Koryak et al., 1972). Tubificidae as well as Chironomidae are therefore

clearly tolerant to acidity. Koryak et al. (1972) and Greenfield & Ireland (1978) stated that

large densities of these organisms were observed in the zones where iron (III) hydroxides are

deposited. Some species of Copepoda are quite tolerant to high metal concentrations in the

water (Brown, 1977). The presence of the empty shell of Segmentorbis species indicate that

acidic waters are not suitable for mollusc survival, since molluscs are highly sensitive to

acidification, resulting from the high CaCO 3 requirement of this group for shell formation

(Haines, 1981).

AREA 2 : Locality 7 is a mine stream (pH=3.85) before a confluence with the Witpoortjie

Spruit (locality 8; pH=7.39), which then continues as a mine stream (locality 9; p =4.20 :

Venter, 1995). The pH of the water therefore changes from acidic to less acidic (Venter, 1995).

The increase in species composition and number in this area supports a possible improvement

of the water quality. Benthic macroinvertebrate larvae such as Tubificidae (Tubifex and

Limnodrilus), Cladocera, Copepoda, Collembola, Odonata, Trichoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera

and Chironomidae were present. This increase in species composition and numbers can be

described to the inflow of the Witpoortjie Spruit at locality 8 and the subsequent dilution of the

water at locality 9 resulting in improved water quality when compared to area 1. Tubificidae

and Chironomidae were still present in large numbers because of their ability to utilize the

supply of organic material (degradation of plant materials) in the water (Koryak et al., 1972).

The presence of Odonata (Libellulidae), Trichoptera (Leptoceridae), Coleoptera

(Hydrophilidae, Haliplidae and Gyrinidae) and Diptera (Tipulidae, Psychodidae and Culicidae),

organisms that are tolerant to pollution (Gaufin & Tarzwell, 1956), are indicative that the

water could be of fairly good quality. According to Harrison (1958), Roback & Richardson

(1969) and Koryak et al. (1972) there are some Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Coleoptera

species sensitive to mine drainage. Chironomidae, Tubificidae and some species of Trichoptera

were tolerant (Roback Richardson, 1969; Koryak et al, 1972), while some dipterian taxa

were shown to be particularly tolerant (Moon & Lucostic, 1979). The shredder-type

3-11


Trichoptera proved to be sensitive during young or rapidly growing life stages and such species

might be able to tolerate episodic acidification, but would probably be eliminated by long-term

stream acidification (Hall et al., 1980).

AREA 3 : According to Venter (1995) the pH of the Klip River system before the confluence

with the mine stream is low (pH=4.02). The confluence of the mine stream with the Klip River

system generally resulted in poorer water quality and increased metal concentrations and

therefore also had an impact on the resulting downstream water quality (pH=4.08 : Venter,

1995). After winter a pipeline discharging effluent at K 1 , was moved downstream from K1

with a subsequent decrease of not only species but also the number of macroinvertebrate fauna.

Only Chironomidae was present in this area. The presence of sewage works next to locality K1

might have caused organic enrichment of the water and the thriving of Chironomidae.

CONTROL AREA : The organisms present at the control site are Tubificidae, Chironomidae,

Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Trichoptera. The presence of Tubificidae and Chironomidae are

due to organic enriched water caused by the degradation of plant material. The presence of

these two families at both Case Study Mine One and the control area, stresses the fact that

many organisms that occur in large numbers in extremely polluted waters, are also found in

limited numbers in less polluted situations (Gaufin & Tarzwell, 1956). The tolerance of both

Tubificidae and Chironomidae for metal levels are emphasised in their occurrence at localities

with varying degrees of pollution (Gaufin Tarzwell, 1952). The Ephemeroptera, Odonata

and Trichoptera are all restricted to unpolluted water or to water rich in organic matter (Gaufin

& Tarzwell, 1956). Mathias (1982) further explained that the mayflies (Ephemeroptera) were

the most sensitive group of insect larvae investigated. Furthermore some of these Baetis species

are presently regarded as the best early warning organisms for acidification. It can therefore be

concluded that the water at the control area is of a better quality than at Case Study Mine One

due to the presence and numbers of specific macroinvertebrate species.

It seems likely, that both food and water chemistry are important elements of the proximate

explanation for community structure in acid streams. A low species composition in acidic

waters could ultimately be explained because the meager resources would not lead to natural

selection in favour of colonists. For almost all groups of animals, there is a strong species-area

effect with species richness increasing with area (Williamson, 1981; Hildrew & Townsend,

1987). Perhaps the restricted area of acidic waters has limited the space and time available for

colonisation and adaptation to a new environment.

3-12


Metal levels l i Maeroinvertebrates

In the natural environment, a great number of pollutants are adsorbed by sedimentary particles,

whether deposited or in suspension. The metal distribution of the aquatic environment reveals

that the highest concentrations are usually found in the deposited sediment. The quantities of

metal concentrated thus present a special hazard to organisms, and particularly those living

within the sediment. Invertebrates living in close contact with the sedimentary compartment

may be classified within two categories according to their diet : filter-feeders, feeding on

particles suspended in the water column, and deposit-feeders finding nourishment primarily at

the sediment surface. In either case, the organism ingests living (bacteria, unicellular algae) or

inert organic particles as well as inorganic particles. Deposit-feeders can also filter suspended

matter (Amiard, 1992).

The contamination of living organisms can occur under the following three conditions :

via the aqueous phase,

via ingestion of food, or

via the sedimentary phase (Amiard, 1992).

In the case of benthic organisms, filter-feeders or deposit-feeders, the ingestion of a prey almost

always involves an uptake of sediment particles. Filter-feeders are directly contaminated by the

free water and suspended matter that they filter. Deposit-feeders are contaminated primarily by

the deposited sediments, and sometimes by the aqueous phase (free water and pore water :

Amiard, 1992)

Studies conducted by Smock (1983) also revealed that sediments play an important role in

metal accumulation by macroinvertebrates. Species such as Ephemeridae and some

Chironomidae ingest more sediment and thus had the highest concentrations of the metals

studied. The highest concentrations were found in Ephemeridae and the few Chironomidae

species, followed by filter feeders (Hydropsychiclae), detritivores and algae grazers

(Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera), while the carnivores and surface feeding species

such as Gerridae and Gyrinidae contained the lowest concentrations. The accumulation of

metals by an invertebrate can be divided into three phases : (1) metal uptake, (2) metal

regulation (transport and distribution), and (3) metal excretion (Kelly, 1988).

3-13


Metal Uptake

Aquatic invertebrates are bathed in a medium containing dissolved trace metals at

concentrations ranging from nanograms to milligrams per millilitre. The uptake of many trace

metals appear to be passive, while the uptake of major ions like sodium and potassium require

active pumps to cross the cell membrane.

During passive uptake metals in the external medium bind passively onto transport proteins in

the membranes of permeable surfaces of the invertebrates. By facilitated diffusion the trace

metal is transported across the membrane and into the cell, where it binds with a series of

metal-binding ligands.

The active metal uptake mechanism involves the incorporation of dissolved trace metals into

active pumps available for the major ions. Metal ions such as copper, manganese, iron and zinc

are moved across hydrophobic cell membranes against concentration gradients via active

transport pumps. It is inevitable that the free ions of some trace metals will become

incorporated into such pumps, but the relative significance of this route of entry for trace

metals will vary between organisms and with environmental conditions (Kelly, 1988).

Metal Regulation

Regulation as a metal accumulation strategy of invertebrates is much less common than

accumulation. Constant body concentrations of metals in specimens collected from different

sites of different metal bioavailabilities do provide some indication that regulation is occurring

(Bryan, 1968; White & Rainbow, 1984).

Met Excretion

If regulation is to be achieved when significant metal uptake is occurring, metal excretion needs

to balance metal uptake. Freshwater decapods and amphipods have an increased integument

impermeability that restricts osmotic entry of water and thus restricts trace metal uptake. Any

reduction in metal uptake will increase the possibility that metal excretion could match metal

uptake. Freshwater bivalves have huge gill surface areas for feeding, with the inevitable

potential for osmotic uptake of water across these permeable surfaces. However, the high exit

rate of osmotic water offers a route for metal excretion. High dissolved metal concentrations

3-14


are excreted during the larval development of the chironomid midge larvae Chironomus and

Stictochironomus and were associated with cast exuvia during molting (Timmermans

Walker, 1989).

Studies conducted by Venter (1995) revealed high copper, manganese, nickel, lead and zinc

concentrations in the top layers of the sediment at the various sampling localities of Case Study

Mine One. Metals such as iron and cadmium however, did not accumulate in the sediment on

the site, but was transported downstream via suspended sediments into the natural wetland

system (area 2 : Venter, 1995). Information further revealed exceedingly high iron, manganese

and zinc concentrations in the water column (Venter, 1995). From this information it is

therefore evident that the aquatic system of Case Study Mine One was subjected to very high

metal concentrations from the water and sediments.

During all four sampling seasons the same tendency was present for the metal levels in the

macroinvertebrates : Cu < Pb < Mn < Ni < Zn < Fe. The metal concentrations in the

macroinvertebrates at Case Study Mine One (Tables 3.6 to 3.9) were much higher than the

values obtained from organisms sampled at the control site (Table 3.10). Metal analysis

revealed organisms such as Tubificidae and Chironomidae with very high concentrations

(Table 3.6 to 3.9), while the group of macroinvertebrates (mostly consisting of a few

Copepoda, Cladocera and water insect larvae) presented much lower metal concentrations. The

macroinvertebrates at Case Study Mine One, and especially the Tubificidae and Chironomidae

are exposed to very high metal concentrations from a highly polluted system (as discussed in

the previous paragraph). Metal levels in organisms might be due to high metal concentrations

from the water column and sediment compartment where most of these organisms occur (Dixit

& Witcomb, 1983). These metal concentrations may also differ between organisms due to their

different degrees of association with the substrate and water (Dixit & Witcomb, 1983).

Kelly (1988) stated that feeding habits may have an effect on organism metal concentrations.

Tubificidae and Chironomidae are both substrate particle feeders and this process involves the

uptake of not only food particles but also sediment particles (Pennak, 1978). Bioaccumulation

can be attributed to feeding habits. The use made of particles by the organism during feeding as

well as the capacity of these particles to accumulate pollutants, may determine accumulation of

pollutants by the organisms (Amiard, 1992). Amiard (1992) further stressed the fact that it is

not possible to differentiate between sediment-derived metals (feeding habits) and metals

accumulated direct from the surrounding water column.

3-15


Metal concentrations in organisms may be affected by biological features of the organism such

as the stage in the life cycle (Getsova Volkova, 1962; Wright, 1980). Various toxic

experiments have indicated that immature stages of invertebrate fauna are more sensitive to

metal concentrations than the mature stages (Spehar et al., 1978).

From the results revealed by this study it is evident that invertebrate organisms such as

Tubificidae and Chironomidae were tolerant to mine pollution and were able to survive

(Roback & Richardson, 1969). Other factors contributing to these organisms' survival were the

availability of food and the absence of predators (Vangenechten et al., 1986). The more

sensitive organisms, such as the Copepoda, Cladocera and a few water insect larvae, were less

tolerant to mine pollution.

Copper concentrations are the lowest of all the metals analysed for at Case Study Mine One.

Copper is one of the most toxic metals for freshwater macroinvertebrates, even though it is an

essential trace metal (Cu occurs in hemocyanin the oxygen carrying molecule/pigment).

However, the low concentrations of this metal prevents it from being a threat to the

macroinvertebrates. Zinc on the other hand is also an essential trace metal as a co-factor in

many enzymatic reactions. Zinc was present in very high concentrations as Case Study Mine

One, and is toxic (Williams et al., 1985).

Acute effects of trace metal pollution on freshwater invertebrates are seldom encountered. It is

the long-term exposure that is the most realistic threat for organisms. According to

Timmermans et al. (1992) long-term exposure results in the delay in growth, larval

development and reproduction of freshwater invertebrates. Kelly (1988) also stated that the

prolonged exposure of invertebrates to heavy metals can lead to the development of tolerance.

If the mechanism of adaptation involves increased permeability of the invertebrates to heavy

metals and/or the increased efficiency of any other mechanism/tolerance (Bryan &

Hummerstone, 1973), it might explain the high body burdens. However, other factors such as

bioavailability of metals to animals at these localities could also be important.

3.5 OCCURRENCE EVALUATION INDEX

The index, given in Table 3.11, was compiled for the macroinvertebrates sampled at case Study

Mine One. This index consists firstly of the water quality data, including the different

constituents as well as the various metals analysed. Secondly, the macroinvertebrates sampled

3-16


at this mine ranging from the most sensitive organisms to the less sensitive/tolerant ones.

Included with the macroinvertebrates are the metal concentrations for these aquatic organisms

with averages, standard deviation and minimum and maximum values. Thirdly, the index

focused on the metal concentrations for the sediment samples at Case Study Mine One. With

this index an indication is given which organisms are expected with certain water quality and

sediment conditions.

When considering the different values for the water, it was evident that these values differed

from the guideline's values prescribed by Dempster et al. (1982), Kiihn (1991) and

Environment Canada (1987)(Chapter 5, Table 5.8). Variables such as sodium, magnesium,

calcium, chloride, silica, ammonia and the total dissolved solids were below the guideline

values. Whereas nitrates, sulphates, fluoride and metals such as iron, manganese, nickel, lead

and zinc, except for cobalt, were above the guideline values. According to these values, the

water variables (mostly being above the prescribed guideline values) could have an effect on

the survival of aquatic invertebrates occurring in the water and resulting in the subsequent

disappearance of these organisms from the system.

Metal concentrations for the sediment analysed presented very high concentrations for iron,

when considering not only the average of 22 960.8 .tg/g, but also the maximum concentration

of 51 470.0 .tg/g Fe. In comparison the other metal concentrations in the sediment varied from

a low for cadmium (5.9 ± 1.8 .tg/g Cd) to slightly higher concentrations for lead (35.2 ± 10.7

gg/g Pb), manganese (123.8 ± 97.3 .tg/g Mn) and zinc (129.9 ± 98.6 gg/g Zn).

From the aquatic invertebrates sampled and analyzed, it was evident that the Tubificidae

(Annelida) and Chironomidae (Diptera) were less sensitive or more tolerant to changes in water

quality caused by mining activities than aquatic insect larvae such as Collembola, some

Diptera insect larvae, Leptoceridae (Trichoptera), some Coleoptera, Gastropoda as well as

some crustaceans. After analyses both the Tubificidae (85 980.0 .tg/g Fe) and Chironomidae

(266 100.0 .tg/g Fe) presented high metal concentrations for iron and lower concentrations for

the other metals. Copper was the concentration lowest for both Chironomidae (3 245.5 gg/g

Cu) and Tubificidae (1 685.8 nig Cu).

Metal analyses of the remaining aquatic insect larvae presented low concentrations for copper

(4 179.2 .tg/g Cu) and lead (23 5067.4 .tg/g Pb) with very high concentrations for iron when

3-17


considering the average of 461 638.0 ± 768 377.0 .tg/g Fe and the maximum value of 2 810

000.0 mg/g Fe.

The application of the index proved that the Tubificidae and Chironomidae were the most

abundant in the aquatic system of Case Study Mine One. Small numbers of water insect larvae,

Crustacea and Gastropoda were also present. Metal analysis of Tubificidae as well as

Chironomidae presented low metal concentrations in comparison to the analysis of the other

macroinvertebrates.

The abundance and low metal concentrations of the Tubificidae and Chironomidae might

indicate the possible tolerance of these organisms to mining effluent (Aagaard Sivertsen,

1979) and their adaptation to a polluted environment. Bryan & Hummerstone (1973) indicated

that adaptation involved a decrease in permeability of these organisms to metals and a possible

increase in efficiency of any regulatory mechanism. This might explain the lower body burdens

of Tubificidae and Chironomidae but the availability of metals to these organisms could be of

importance (Bryan & Hummerstone, 1973).

Small numbers of water insect larvae, Crustacea and Gastropoda and high body metal

concentrations may indicate these organisms sensitivity to their polluted environment (Moon &

Lucostic, 1979; Kelly, 1988).

It can be concluded that both water and sediment quality reflected by variable values might

have an effect on the aquatic invertebrates occurring within the system. The invertebrates,

depending on their ability to regulate and tolerate metals accumulated from either water or

sediment, will become tolerant to pollution. This will eventually lead to greater species

diversity and numbers. On the other hand these invertebrates, such as Tubificidae,

Chironomidae and some water insect larvae, may be able to tolerate high pollution levels for a

period of time and eventually disappear from the aquatic system.

3-18

by . t ; 2 i _oz, , . . g ? w.Frzom 4P'.;i';1 1' . s . a M ct nt r.,- E a ,b 0 -

- I: g -`-°-. F - Et. g `'... - 0- .., g. g-- ig, - ._. ,.. c‘. .

°.

k k 8' 5 r.. g t:) R. g 02, 1-1.4. gke G.-

4-, IT c k i. • ck g it B. E .. .. , ...., y .... 4 - .., -- - z ,-, . ,_„,:._

-• sC c,:, ,... '-- ----zk,3- a = a CA t.g) (2 . .... t.„ ';' CA e- - g'

W ,P ...... ck .-/- 1... 'E.,': g if,

..-to

..... ..-. 9

.., C

onstituent

Wate

r quality data

,..,, _, ,..„ ,, 2, 4=. ....1 t.d. ,. ,t•-> ,i I.)

1,4 t., ,i. :41 p 0 ■• p .- ,.... o w ..- .4 ~ VD ,0 :4 ••-• t.A EA X 4. ■0 Oa . • o, -, L. L4 •-• •cr, 0 ■4 EA .L.,.. ED E0 EC. b :la .7. i, :c. i, ',0 H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- 4. H.. H. H-

H- H- t.,) t...> 1.4 p o o p o w 0 CA .P. .. LA 4 ••••• 1... 1,3

EC, ED EA1 bo . • L. br, •-• ..4 ; • W 4' 84 :0 v. 4:, 1- t 0, 1-,-, 'Z ,..., .... :p. rb - ,,, r ..I L. b, k7 4,

Average ± SD

n = 13

o. .... 84 t.. ... ,..) O 0 0 4- 0 0 0 0 0 0 to 2 Z. !''' li: E. .‘ a; 64 ?.. • n w 64 to :ga ■■ i..) ;-. ■-• La i.7 i.e ; . '-' b ."' " 7 ' .-: 4 7 k' ■ , . ''' '''' Os r. 0 t4 •-• 0 N 0 ... E-0" "... " td% .-. ::: 4 D. ' g 44.1 L 0 b., , io. i,„ i.... - -03 i...) so ...i. EN

Au OJN ..., :4 t gt.3 •LCEs. !..... O

z,7, - vo ;„,„ 6

X 5.

4 Al

G

I .

0

ig I.

An nelids

- Tubifi cidae

A A ∎-i u e) i' E g 4 .s & 2 1 &

0 Er D. 0

0 0 g

.2 g 5 • . . 6. S

2. a l- E.-0 i tit .°

Organism

s

Macroinverteb rates

Cu 3

245.5 ± 6 609.1

F e 2

26 100.0 ± 673 522.

Mn 2

6 677.8 ±

62 812 .9

Ni 3

7 021

.7 ± 83 446

.6

Pb 14 315

.6 ± 32 818.5

Zn 6

2 271

.5 ±

152 133.0

Cu

1 685.8 ±

1 170.2

F e 8

5 980.0±

58 8 36.2

Mn

2 324

.6 ± 2 973.6

Ni 4

973.6 ±

6 640.2

Pb 1 504.2 ±

1651.3

Zn

7 833

.3 ± 11 085

.2 6' 'Oct Z 6 7., g) u. ,..., , 4.. &

t. t,J e .p.

-.1

N0 ,... * C., .0 :4 11. .0 W CO NJ arl 4. U. co ,, ,

H- H- H- H- "'If ...., vz■ t, ,., ..... .--• tot --4 ....1 0 \ as.1 LA 0 ::: •-• .0.?, AA t . IV. as 8 N L.

b

E0 •0 to 1.4 .1 0

Avera ge ± SD

(it g/g w

et w

eight)

40.0 - 25 000.0

3 500.0 - 3 600 000

.0

42.6 - 226 000

.0

66.3 - 332 000.0

26.7 - 122 000.0

169.9 - 615 000

.0

378.9.3

301.4

21 200.0 - 18 0 000.0

224.2 - 7 444.4

282.0 - 16 666.7

333.5 - 4 388.9

539 .5 - 27 444.4

N

tlii ''.4'. F.1 NI § it EA, U. ■.1 1. b 6. . . ,... = EA V. N I-4 LA 0 "" CT CA " ..■ N

§ § 8 • 6 O b b O

0

b

4 3. 4

II

T

ray

E g * ik i „....., ,..., -4... ac, ri N

' t ;7";- '41 ."-' 0 *.-. 0 .. C) - A ,,,,, ..... s

a.

Variable

Metal C

oncentrations in th

e S edim

ent (arg/g d

ry w

ei ght)

... ri tx, •-• ..... ,... S0 LA CA " N N OA 0 E4 ED "::, r,,, 1..) k, ...c. H- H- H. } 4_ H- H- ,

:-... so so 8-., -d .0 . .., :.... O. L.., ;s° c.• ow, ,o

EA

Average ± SD

n = 13

g EN ha 1,4

" 44 0 0 0 C.S EA Ob. b o. c.... .7 -... b b . . ,.% t, 8 LI g t.1 ---, .... 0.

b 6 g b b ti 0

5 4

CO 1.1

TA

': LE 3

d1 1• courTence E

val uation Index.


3.6 EFERENCES

AAGAARD, K & SIVERTSEN, B (1979) The Benthos of Lake Huddingsvatn, Norway, after

five years of Mining Activity. In : C "ronomidae, Ecology, Systematics, Cytology

and Physiology. Proceedings of the 7th Intematio i, Symposium on

C "ronomidae, Dublin, August 1979. ed. DA Murray. pp 247-254. Pergamon Press,

Oxford, New York, Toronto, Sydney, Paris and Frankfurt.

AMIARD, J-C (1992) Bioavailability of sediment-bound metals for benthic aquatic organisms.

In : Impact of Heavy Metals o the Environment. ed. JP Vernet. pp 183-202.

Elsevier, Amsterdam, London, New York and Tokyo.

BROWN, BE (1977) Effects of Mine Drainage on the River Hayle, Cornwall. A) Factors

affecting concentrations of copper, zinc and iron in water, sediments and dominant

invertebrate fauna. Hydrobiologia, 52(2-3) 0 221-233.

BRYAN, GW (1968) Concentrations of zinc and copper in the tissues of decapod crustaceans.

J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K., 48 o 303.

BRYAN, GW & HUMMERSTONE, LG (1973) Adaptation of the polychaete Nereis

diversicolor to estuarine sediments containing high concentrations of zinc and

cadmium. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K., 53 e 839-957.

DIXIT, SS WITCOMB, D (1983) Heavy Metal urden in Water, Substrate, and

Macroinvertebrate Body Tissue of a Polluted River Irwell (England). Environ.

Ser. B, 6 0 161-172.

ENVIRONMENT CANADA (1987) Canadian Water Quality Guidelines. Report prepared by

the Task Force on Water Quality Guidelinnes of the Canadian Council of Resource

and Environment Ministers. 407 p.

GAUFIN, AR & TARZWELL, CM (1952) Aquatic Invertebrates as Indicators of Stream

Pollution. Public Health Reports, 67(1) e 57-64.

3-20


GAUFIN, AR & TARZWELL, CM (1956) Aquatic macro-invertebrate communities as

indicators of organic pollution in Lytle Creek. Sewage and Industri Wastes, 28 (9)

906-923.

*GETSOVA, AB & VOLKOVA, GA (1962) The accumulation of radioactive isotope by

certain aquatic insects. E t. Rev. (U.S.S.R.), 41 a 61-70.


polluted Lancashire system. Environs Pollut., 16 e 105-122.

HAINES, TA (1981) Acidic precipitation and its consequences for aquatic ecosystems : A

Review. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 110 (6) 0 669-707.

HALL, RJ; LIKENS, GE; FIANCE, SB & HENDREY, GR (1980) Experimental acidification

of a stream in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forrest, New Hampshire. Ecology, 61

(4) 0 976-989.



HILDREW, AG & TOWNSEND, CR (1987) Organization in freshwater benthic communities.

In : Organization of communities s past and present; Symposia of the British

Ecological Society. ed. JHR Gee & PS Giller. pp 317-410. Blackwell Scientific

Publications, Oxford.

KELLY, M (1988) Mining and the freshwater environment. Elsevier Applied Science,

London, New York. 223 p.

KEMPSTER, PL; HATTIGH, WAJ 7 VAN VLIET, HR (1982) Summarized water quality

criteria. Department of Water Affairs, South Africa. Technical Report No. TR 108.

45 p.


receiving acid-mine drainage. Wat. Res,, 6 0 1239-1247.

3-21


KUHN, AL (1991) Sensitiewe visspesies werkswinkel 1991. Kruger National Park Rivers

Research Programme. 37 p.

MATHIAS, U (1982) Der Einfluss der Wasserstoffioner Konzentration auf die

Zusammensetzung vo ie Bergbachbioconosen, dargestelle an einigen

Mittelgebirgsbachen des Kaufunger Waldes (Nordhessen/Siidnierdersachen).

Univ. d. Landes Hessen, Kassel 1982. 135 p.

MOON, TC & LUCOSTIC, CM (1979) Effects of acid mine drainage on a southern

Pennsylvania stream. Wat. Air Soil Polint., 11 a 337-390.

PENNAK, RW (1978) Fresh-water Invertebrates of the United States. Second E "tion.

John Wiley & Sons, New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto. 803 p.

ROBACK, SS & RICHARDSON, JW. (1969) The effects of acid-mine drainage on aquatic

insects. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 121 e 81-99.

SPEHAR, RL; ANDERSON, RL FIANDT, JT (1978) Toxicity and Bioaccumulation of

Cadmium and Lead in aquatic invertebrates. Environ. PoHut., 15 o 195-208.

SMOCK, LA (1983) The influence of feeding habits on whole-body metal concentrations in

aquatic insects. Freshwat. Biol., 13 a 301-311.

TIMMERMANS, KR & WALKER, PA (1989) The fate of trace metals during the

metamorphosis of chironomids (Diptera, Chironomidae). Environ. Pollut., 62 a 73.

TIMMERMANS, KR; SPIJKERMAN, E; TONKES, M & GOVERS, H (1992) Cadmium

and zinc uptake by two species of aquatic invertebrate predators from dietary or

aqueous sources. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 49 (4) 0 655.

VANGENECHTEN, JIHD; WITTERS, H VANDERBORGHT, OLJ (1986) Laboratory

Studies on Invertebrate Survival and Physiology in Acid Waters. Tn : Acid toxicity

and aquatic animals. eds. R Norris, EW Taylor, DJA Brown & IA rown. pp 154-

169. Society for Experimental Biology, Seminar, Series 34. Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge.

3-22


Chapter 3

\TENTER, MA (1995) Assessment of the Erects of Gold-mine E anent on the Natanr


WHITE, SL RAINBOW, PS (1984) Regulations of zinc concentrations by Palaemon

elegans (Crustacea : Decapoda) : zinc flux and effects of temperature, zinc

concentration and moulting. Mar. Ecol, Prog. Ser., 16 : 135.

WILLIAMS, KA; GREEN, DW & PASCOE, D (1985) Studies on the acute toxicity of

pollutants of freshwater macroinvertebrates. 1. Cadmium, Arch. Hydrobiolo, 102

461.

WILLIAMSON, MH (1981) Island populations. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

*WRIGHT, DA (1980) Cadmium and calcium interactions in the freshwater amphipod

Gammarus pulex. Freshwat. Biol., 10 : 123-133.

* These articles were not reviewed by the author.

3-23

Cht. 1 ,ter 4

ti)

CASE STUDY MINE TWO

TA LE OF CONTENTS



4.3 Results 4-4

4.3.1 Identification and Distribution of Macroinvertebrates 4-4


4.3.3 Metal Accumulation by Selected Fish Species 4-11

4.4 Discussion 4-15


4.6 References 4-24


4.1 !NT ODUCTIION

This study was conducted at a mine on the Far West Rand Gold Mining region in the Carletonville area from April 1992 to May 1993. The mine can be classified as having a closed water circuit, in that only excess water from the mine is discharged. The volume of water discharged is dependent on a number of factors, such as rainfall, wash-down service water and changing demands in sewage treatment systems.

4.2 MATE e LS AND METH

For the purpose of the macroinvertebrate fauna sampling, seven localities (Figures 4.1 and 4.2)

were chosen where biseasonal sampling was done (Chapter 1).

The sampling localities were divided into three main areas :

Area 1

Northern section of the mine (Figure 4.1).

Locality N2 : A site in the boundary dam. This dam is treated as a pollution control facility, and therefore, under normal circumstances, water is not allowed to overflow into the adjacent river system.

Locality N3 : A site in a small spruit which drains two dams adjacent to a hostel complex.

Area 2

Southern section of the mine (Figure 4.2) :

Locality S1 : A site in one of the two major tributaries which discharges into a large

dam on the boundary of the mine's property. The source of this water is

predominantly natural runoff from the catchment area as well as water from a shaft area.

Locality S2 : A site in the other major tributary discharging into a boundary dam. The source of this water is runoff from upstream of the mine itself, and an

overflow from the holding dam. The holding dam not only receives excess service water, but also acts as a receiving dam for treated sewage from the sewage plant.

4-1

Effects if Mining Activities on Selected Aquatic Organisms

ai a)

co C C co

a) io

O

"O

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U)

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C) C Co

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o E a)

—0

C%) a) T-5 ( Na)

C.) "5 2

coo o o-) co

L) Co E a) ECI

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C

tl

(/)

•–•

• =

Sam

plin

g S

ites

Hos

tel S

trea

m

Slim

es

Dam

Slim

es D

am

4-2

• E es

C n— co cl) E

8- c° c7)

Effects if Mining Activities on Selected Aquatic Organisms Chapter 4

Aq

ua

tic

Da

m

a) 7-6 0 a)

0)

0

ro

a) -z a)

0

.2 a) al 0. - E ro o (1.)

O O

o .._- o 0 ,-

2 tz

1:3

(

a) u) te a) (_) -c

a) CO a 6 co iTs

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1 > E a)

cri

4-3


Locality S4 : A site in the boundary dam which receives water from both localities Si and S2. This dam serves as the end point for all the water not re-used directly. Because the dam overflows at certain times of the year, and the majority of

the downstream users are farmers, the water in this dam must conform to guidelines for the protection of aquatic life as well as livestock.

Area 3

Control sites (Figure 4.2).

Locality C1 : A site at a dam in the upper reaches of a river which eventually discharges into the main boundary dam via Locality S2. The mine has no influence on the water in this dam.

Locality C2 : A site in a dam halfway between locality Cl and the boundary dam, described as locality S4 . The source of this water is therefore mainly natural runoff from Cl.

Sampling of selected fish species was done during 1993. Sampling mainly occurred within the control sites C 1 and C2.

Sampling procedures and further analysis of the macroinvertebrate fauna and selected fish species were conducted according to standard techniques (Chapter 2).

403 RESULTS

4.3.1 IDENTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MACROINVERTE RATES.

Data of the macroinvertebrates sampled at Case Study Mine Two are given in Tables 4.1 to

4.4. Each Table portrays the quantitative presence of macroinvertebrates in the three areas for a specific season.

Winter

Table 4.1 summarizes the number and composition of benthic organisms sampled during winter.

4-4


Chapter 4

TA tt LE 4.11 The total number and composition of an croinvertebrate larvae sampled

during winter 11992 (numbers per square meter).

ORGANISM /LOCALITY N2 N3 Si S2 S4 Cl C2

Coelenterata (Hydroids, Jellyfish) Hydroida Hydridae Hydra - - - 49 - - -

Turbellaria (Flatworms) Tricladida Planariidae Planaria - - - - 341 - -

Annelida Oligochaeta (Aquatic earthworms) Haplotaxida Tubificidae Tubifex

Hirudinea (Leeches) 731

- 1461

- 731 97

731 -

974 -

974 49

- -

Crustacea Copepoda Cyclopoida Cyclops Microcyclops

- -

487 -

- -

390 97

584 -

- -

- -

Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) Baetidae Baetis - - - - - 292 -

Odonata (Dragonflies, Damselflies) Anisoptera Libellulidae Orthetrum Ladona

- -

49 -

- 244

49 -

- -

- 49

- -

Hemiptera (Bugs) Corixidae Sigara - - - - 49 -

Trichoptera (Caddis flies) Hydropsychidae Ecnomidae Ecnomus - 682 - 49 - - -

Diptera (Flies, Mosquitoes, Midges) Tipulidae (Crane flies) Tipula

Culicidae (Mosquitoes) Culicinae (Phantom midges) Culex Chaoborinae Chaoborus Ceratopogonidae (Biting midges) Stilobezzia Chironomidae (Midges) Chironomus Pentaneura Anthomyiidae (Athomyiids) L no hora

-

-

-

-

- -

-

49

49

-

-

341 -

-

-

-

-

-

97 97

-

-

-

-

-

1948 877

-

146

-

97

390

97 -

-

-

-

-

-

731 487

49

-

-

-

-

-

-

Area 1 :The aquatic earthworm Tubifex was present in large numbers at both localities N2 and

N3, while Crustacea (Cyclops) and water insect larvae such as the Odonata, Trichoptera

(Caddis flies), Tipulidae (Crane flies), Culicidae (Mosquitoes) and Chironomidae (Midges)

were present only at locality N3.

Area 2 : At localities S 1, S2 and S4, macroinvertebrates consisted mainly of Hydra (hydroid),

Planaria, Tubifex, Cyclops and Microcyclops, larvae of Baetis (mayfly), Orthetrum and

Ladona (damselflies), Ecnomus, Tipula , Chaoborus, Stilobezzia (biting midge) and midge

larvae of Chironomus and Pentaneura.

4-5


Area 3 : The control site yielded a few Tubifex, mayfly larvae, leeches, damselfly larvae,

Sygara nymphs (bugs) and midge larvae.

Spring

Table 4.2 represents the macroinvertebrates sampled during spring.

T bLE 4.2 The tot31 number and composition of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled

during spring 1992 (numbers per square meter).

ORGANISM/LOCALITY N2 SI S2 S4 C1 C2

Annelida Oligochaeta (Aquatic earthworms) Haplotaxida Tubificidae Tubifex - - - - 487 390 -

Diptera (Flies, Mosquitoes, Midges) Chironomidae (Midges) Chironomus - 146 97 487 244

At locality N3 (Area 1), localities S1, S2 and S4 (Area 2) and the control locality Cl (Area 3)

aquatic earthworms (Tubificidae) and midges (Chironomidae) were the only macroinvertebrate

fauna present.

Summer

Table 4.3 presents macroinvertebrates sampled during summer. There is a definite increase in

the occurrence of benthic organisms for the summer period, probably due to higher

temperatures and nutrient availability.

Area 1 : Tubificidae and Chironomidae occurred in large numbers at both localities N2 and

N3. Some copepods and beetles were also present at N2 and a few Hydridae (Hydras),

Ephemeroptera (Mayflies), Odonata, Coleoptera and Pulmonata (Snails) were found at locality

N3

Area 2 : Tubificidae, Copepoda and Chironomidae occurred in large numbers, while smaller

numbers of mayflies and bugs (Hemiptera) were present.

Area 3 : The control localities presented a few Cladocera and Ephemeroptera and larger

numbers of Tubificidae, Copepoda and Chironomidae.

4-6


TA LE 4.3 The totall number and composition of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled

during suumner 1992/1993 (numbers per square meter).

ORGANISM / LOCALITY N2 N3 S1 S2 S4 Cl C2

Coelenterata (Hydroids, Jellyfish) Hydroida Hydridae Hydra - 487 - - - - -

Annelida Oligochaeta (Aquatic earthworms) Haplotaxida Tubificidae Tubifex Limnodrilus Branchiura sowerbyi

146 146

-

487 -

487

9740 - -

34090 -

1948

1948 - -

487 2435

-

- - -

Crustacea Cladocera (Water fleas) Bosminidae Bosmina

Copepoda Cyclopoida Cyclops

Harpacticoida Stenocaris

-

2435

974

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3896

-

390

292

-

-

1948

-

Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) Baetidae Baetis - 49 - 97 292 731

Odonata (Dragonflies, Damselflies) Zygoptera Coenagrionidae

Anisoptera Libelluloidea Corduliidae Hemicordula

-

-

97

-

-

49

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Herniptera (Bugs) Corixidae Corixinae Sygara - - - - 49 - -

Coleoptera (Beetles) Haliplidae Haliplus 49 - - - - - -

Diptera (Mosquitoes, Flies, Midges) Chironomidae (Midges) Chironomus Pentaneura

49 -

1461 974

195 390

- -

292 -

- 1948

2922 1948

Gastropoda (Snails, Limpets) Pulmonata

Biomphalaria Bulinus

- -

487 97

- -

- 49

- -

- -

- - —

Autumn

Table 4.4 summarizes the presence of benthic organisms during autumn. There is an overall

decrease in the number of the organisms present during autumn due to a decrease in nutrient

availability.

Area 1 : Small numbers of Chironomidae and Ephemeroptera were present.

4-7


T c LE 4.4 The tot

number and composition of macroinvertebrate larvae s

during autumn 1993.

:11

p Il liii

ORGANISM/LOCALITY N2 N3 S1 S2 S4 C1 C2

Coelenterata (Hydroids, Jellyfish) Hydroida Hydridae Hydra - - - - - - 49

Annelida Oligodiaeta (Aquatic earthworms) Haplotaxida Tubificidae Tubifex Branchiura sowerbyi

- -

- -

390 -

974 1948

3409 -

1218 -

1948 -

Crustacea Cladocera (Water fleas)

Daphnidae Ceriodaphnia

Copepoda Cyclopoida Cyclops

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

97

-

584

97

244

-

487

Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) Baetidae Baetis - 49 - 292 - 341 97

Odonata (Dragonflies, Damselflies) Coenagrionidae - - - 49 97 - -

Diptera (Flies, Mosquitoes, Midges) Chironomidae (Midges) Chironomus Pentaneura

_

- 244

-

244 -

731 195

- -

487 487

438 974

Area 2 : These localities yielded a large number of Tubificidae, smaller number of Chironomidae and only a few Copepoda, Ephemeroptera and Odonata. Area 3 : The control localities presented a few Cladocera, Ephemeroptera and Hydridae. Larger numbers of Tubificidae, Copepoda and Chironomidae were also present.

4.3.2 METAL ACCUMULATION BY MACROINVERTE RATES.

An introduction to metal accumulation by the macroinvertebrates, as well as the methods for

metal uptake, regulation and excretion are given in Chapter 3.

Data on the metal concentrations of the macroinvertebrates are given in Tables 4.5 to 4.8. Each table portrays the metal concentrations of the macroinvertebrates sampled during a specific season. Due to the small number of macroinvertebrates sampled at each locality, the Tubificidae, Copepoda, Chironomidae and Gastropoda were analysed separately and the remaining invertebrates were analysed together.

Winter

The data obtained for the organisms during winter are given in Table 4.5.

4-8


TA LE 4.5 Total met co eentrations (wet mass) hn the maeroinvertebrate larvae during

winter 1992. LOCALITY ORGANISM Cu&RFi_g) Fe(mg1.8) Mn(lgi8) Ni(o/g) PhOleLS) Zn - • • - N2 Tubificidae 132.8 3.2 47.6 203.9 48.1 549.9 N3 Tubificidae 47.8 7.7 301.9 112.3 22.5 269.1

Chironomidae 25.5 2.8 85.9 230.9 159.8 577.2 Group 22.5 4.7 183.6 162.3 98.7 461.1

Si Tubificidae 59.6 0.6 295.8 172.2 31.8 483.7 Chironomidae 1.9 1.7 31.5 193.2 125.1 378.9 Group 30.7 5.1 104.5 180.3 31.7 240.4

S2 Tubificidae 9.5 1.8 54.7 216.8 137.9 310.6 Chircatomidae 2.9 1.5 35.7 181.1 104.7 335.3 Group 12.4 1.5 45.7 173.9 114.8 258.2

S4 Tubificidae 82.4 2.7 73.8 334.4 242.9 4143 Copepoda 36.5 1.7 21.4 218.8 62.5 429.7 Chironomidae 61.5 2.6 652.1 225.9 45.5 515.3 Tipulidae 43.8 1.4 623.9 78.2 19.3 102.7 Group 45.8 1.7 198.9 227.1 143.5 345.9

Cl Tubificidae 19.9 2.9 39.4 183.5 119.6 238.7 Chironomidae 31.9 3.5 84.2 155.2 40.9 253.5 Group 0 1.6 41.2 161.1 121.3 170.9


During this period, the lowest metal concentrations were obtained for copper and lead, whilst

the highest values were obtained for iron. High metal concentrations were observed for the

Tubificidae (Localities N2, N3, S1 and S4), the Chironomidae (localities N3 and S4) and the

remaining group of invertebrates at localities N3, Si and S4. Area 1 (localities N2 and N3) and

area 2 (locality S4) presented high metal concentrations for the macroinvertebrates analysed.

Spring

The data for the metal analysis of macroinvertebrates during spring are given in Table 4.6.

TABLE 4.6 Total metal concentrations (wet mass) in the macroinvertebrate larvae during

spring 1992, LOCALITY ORGANISM Cu1arjs2 F AmS§) eiZg _.... Mn 1EWsl ._._.__._ ._.__Ni P Zn m

N3 Chironomidae 72.8 1.1 11807.2 3903.6 1831.3 11.8 SI Chironomidae 190.5 47.9 2142.9 152383 58573 36 S2 Chironomidae 135.1 35.7 1621.6 6756.8 4081.1 15.2 S4 Tubificidae 892.9 21.9 1571.4 6696.7 3750 6.2

Chironomidae 955.6 22.3 21933.3 10000 1733.3 20.9 Cl Tubificidae 307.7 1023 1923.1 4807.7 1730.8 8.9


Copper and lead were present in the lowest concentrations, while iron had the highest metal

concentrations. During this period exceedingly metal concentrations were observed for the

Chironomidae and Tubificidae sampled and analysed from areas 1, 2 and 3.

Summer

Data obtained during summer is given in Table 4.7.

4-9


Chapter 4

TA LE 4.7 Total metal concentrations (wet mass) in the macroinvertebrate larvae during summer 1992/1993.

LOCALITY ORGANISM Cu(lg/8) Fe(mgfg) Mil(118/8) zy Ni(tg/8) Pb(fle/8) Zn(ne8) N2 Tubificidae 5054.5 46.4 981.8 3863.6 1990.9 500

Copepoda 3500.2 72.3 1426.2 6672.1 3442.6 119 Group 1410.2 82.5 1282.1 9769.2 5769.2 127.2

N3 Tubificidae 589.7 17.9 3384.6 3393.2 820.5 21196.9 Chironomidae 741.7 125.7 13700 3441.7 733.3 123.2 Gastropoda 266.7 125.7 4146.7 2786.7 1786.7 674 Group 268.8 81 5107.5 4118.3 2548.4 110

,S1 Tubificidae 102.8 170.9 166.4 347.9 41.1 0.9

Chironomidae 94.4 8 275 377.5 198.1 0.9

Group 35.1 2.9 65.6 233 122.7 0.4

S2 Tubificidae 188.2 5.2 1844.4 174.1 20.1 0.4 Group 83.2 4.1 599.3 323.6 188.8 0.6

S4 Tubificidae 113.5 4.1 300.6 299.4 175.6 0.5 Copepoda 73.6 3.1 88.6 310.1 162.9 0.6 Chironomidae 60.4 2.9 60.4 302.8 169.7 0.4 Group 60.4 1.4 42.5 150 89.9 0.2

Cl Tubificidae 23.2 1.7 40.8 155.4 100.9 0.3 Chironomidae 53.7 2.4 52.9 158.3 89.3 0.2 Group 29.9 1.3 29.9 164.1 93.4 0.2

C2 Copepoda 22.9 6.5 61.7 278.1 144.8 0.4 Chironomidae 81 2.8 212 245.9 178.7 0.5

769.2 101.9 2461.5 10205.1 5564.1 173.1


Iron was present with the highest values, while copper and lead had the lowest. uring summer the Tubificidae (localities N2, N3 and Si), the group of remaining invertebrates (localities N2, N3 and C2) presented high metal concentrations. From Table 4.7 it was also evident that the highest metal concentrations were observed for the macroinvertebrates sampled and analysed

from area 1. Both localities in area 1 were subjected to definite levels of pollution as described previously (see 4.1 Introduction).

Autumn

The data obtained for the invertebrates during autumn, are given in Table 4.8.

TABLE 4.8 Tot met concentrations (wet mass) in the macroinvertebrate larvae during

autumn 1993. LOCALITY !ORGANISM Cu(IL0/8) Fe(lnW8) Mn(I-Le/8) Ni(118/8) Pb<18/0 Zn(itg/g)

N3 Chironomidae 35.6 2.7 72.6 286.9 188.3 798.4 Group 19.9 2 157.1 236.2 144.2 352.9

S1 Tubificidae 7.4 1.2 17.6 150.3 109.8 244.7 Chironomidae 27.6 2.1 39.8 266.8 146.2 873.9

S2 Tubificidae 104.5 3.7 724.2 137.8 30.6 357.6 Chironomidae 27 1.9 147.1 222.3 123.9 295.8 Group 20.9 1.4 251.2 152.2 86.9 236.8

S4 Tubificidae 101 1.9 99.3 240.1 146.6 331.1 Group 46.5 1.8 37.4 198.6 43.4 249.6

Cl Tubificidae 19.9 1.9 27.6 185.2 107.7 214.6 Chironomidae 5.5 2.1 31.8 182.8 109.1 280.4 Group 21.3 1.6 29.6 166.5 89.3 262.5

C2 Tubificidae 23.4 2.4 29.3 223.5 146.9 286.7 Chironomidae 24.8 2.6 41.6 223.5 155.5 286.7 Group 24.5 2.1 32.9 219.6 165.6 460.4


4-10


As for the previous three sampling periods, the metal concentrations found during this period had the same tendency. Iron was present in high concentrations, and copper and lead were the lowest. High metal concentrations were presented for the Tubificidae (localities Si, S2, S4 and

C2), Chironomidae localities N3, S1, S2 and C2) and the remaining group of invertebrates (localities N3, S2 and C2).

4.3.3 METAL ACCU1VIULATION tc, Y SELECTED SH SPECIES

Data on the metal concentrations in the barbel (Clarias gariepinus) are given in Tables 4.9,

4.11 and 4.13. Each table portrays the metal concentrations of the fish sampled at a specific locality. Bioconcentration factors (Wiener & Giesy, 1979) between the fish tissue and the water (BFw) and the sediment (BFs) were determined using only the mean metal concentration in each organ (Table 4.10, 4.12 and 4.14).

Clarias gariepinus at S4

The data obtained for the metal concentrations of the fish sampled and analysed at S4 are given in Table 4.9.

TABLE 4,9 Metal concentr tions (dry mass) in organs and tissues of Clarias gariepinus

at S4 (n=7).

r- FISH ORGAN Cu : :. F= Mn• • _ Ni • • P. 1 : Zn

1 Liver 31.0 4900 2.5 2.5 4.0 46.5 Gills 3.5 108.5 15.5 8.5 15.0 52.5 Muscle 3.0 94.0 1.0 2.0 7.0 14.5

2 Liver 25.5 675.0 3.0 4.5 5.0 19.5 Gills 4.5 172.0 10.5 9.5 14.0 54.0 Muscle .5 85.5 1.5 2.0 4.5 46.5

3 Liver 11.5 273.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 39.5 Gills 2.0 131.5 12.0 8.5 12.0 17.0 Muscle 2.5 80.5 1.0 2.5 7.0 22.0



6 Liver 15.5 144.0 3.5 5.5 6.0 93.5 Gills 5.5 242.5 12.0 6.0 13.5 39.0 Muscle .5 101.0 1.5 1.5 8.5 17.0

7 Liver 17.0 274.0 4.0 5.0 9.0 86.0 Gills 2.5 230.0 17.0 5.5 14.0 4R .n Muscle 80.0 2.5 5.5 7.5 33.0

x±SD Liver 19.1±7.6 1094.3±184.7 2.8±0.7 3.4±1.7 5.3±2.9 46.7±25.7 Gills Muscle

3.9±1.5 2.4±1.7

158.3±49.4 92.9±14.6

12.2±1.8 1.4±0.3

8.7±2.8 2.1±0.4

12.6±2.1 7.4±1.9

44.5±14.7 28.1±14.1

4-11


Chapter 4

TABLE 4.110 Bioco centration factors determined for water Fw) and sedime rt kt 1Fs)

with Clarias gariepinus at S4 (n=7).

FISH ORGAN BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs

1 Liver 387.5 0.07 13611.1 0.14 31.3 0.004 11.9 0.01 16.7 0.08 664.3 0.19 Gills 43.8 0.01 301.4 0.01 193.8 0.03 40.5 0.02 62.5 0.03 750.0 0.22 Muscle 37.5 0.01 261.0 0.003 12.5 0.002 9.5 0.01 29.2 0.14 207.1 0.06

2 Liver 318.8 0.06 1875.0 0.02 37.5 0.01 21.4 0.01 20.8 0.09 278.6 ( 0.08 Gills 56.3 0.01 477.8 0.01 131.3 0.02 45.2 0.03 58.3 0.3 771.4 0.23 Muscle 6.3 0.001 237.5 0.002 18.8 0.003 9.5 0.01 18.8 0.09 664.3 0.19





7 Liver 212.5 0.04 761.1 0.01 50.0 0.01 23.8 0.01 37.5 0.18 228.6 0.37 Gills 31.3 0.01 63.9 0.01 212.5 0.03 26.2 0.02 58.3 0.28 685.7 0.20 Muscle 0 0 222.2 0.002 31.3 0.004 26.2 0.02 31.3 0.15 471.4 0.14

x..tSD Liver 238.8 0.04 3039.7 0.03 35.0 0.01 16.2 0.01 22.1 0.1 667.1 0.19 Gills 48.8 0.01 439.7 0.004 152.5 0.02 41.4 0.02 52.5 0.25 635.7 0.19 Muscle 30.0 0.01 258.1 0.003 17.5 0.002 10.0 0.01 30.8 0.15 401.4 0.12

Nickel and manganese were present in low concentrations, while zinc and iron were present in high concentrations. Accumulation of copper, iron and zinc mainly occurred in the liver of the

fish while nickel, manganese and lead were accumulated in the gills.

The bioconcentration factors determined between C. gariepinus and the water (BFw) at S4

were exceptionally high for iron and zinc, with lower values for copper, manganese, nickel and

lead (Table 4.10). The bioconcentration factors determined between the fish and the sediment (BFs) were much lower in comparison to the BFw values. BFw and BFs for copper and iron in

the different organs and tissues of C. gariepinus were highest for the liver and lowest for the muscle. The gills presented the highest manganese, nickel and lead BFw and BFs values, while zinc BFw and BFs values varied between the liver and the gills (Table 4.10).

Clarias gariepinus at Cl and C2

Data for the metal concentrations in the fish at the control area is given in Tables 4.11 and 4.13.

4-12


Chapter 4

TA LE 4.11 Metal concentrations (dry mass) in organs and tissues of Clarias gariepirnds

at Cl (n=1).

FISH ORGAN Cu Mn • _ _ • _ : Zn • • _ 1 Liver 4.5 233.0 2.0 0.5 5.0 32.0

Gills 1.0 158.5 11.5 8.5 13.0 45.0 Muscle 1.5 98.5 1.5 1.0 4.5 26.5

TA LE 4,12 Bioconcentration factors determined for water (BFw) and sediment Fs) with Clarias gariepinus at Cl (n=1).

FISH ORGAN Cu(Ite/A) Fe(itg/g) M11(1-40 Ni(t.tg/g) Pb(tg/g) Zn(gg'g) BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs


TA LE 413 Met concentrations (dry mass) in organs and tissues of Clarias gariepinus

at C2 (n=10).

FISH ORGAN Cu F- : : Mn Ni::• • P . : : Zn • • - - 1 Liver 5.0 770.0 0.5 5.0 5.0 36.0

Gills 2.0 99.5 13.0 10.5 17.5 41.5 Muscle 2.0 82.5 0.5 4.0 10.0 -

2 diver 9.0 335.0 0.5 6.5 3.0 46.5 Gills 2.5 79.0 12.0 15.5 15.0 46.0 Muscle 0.5 67.5 0.5 1.5 3.5 9.5









x±SD Liver 8.8±2.7 414.4±270.3 0.8±0.5 4.7±2.2 5.2±2.6 43.2±6.7 Gills 1.7±0.8 172.9±92.9 9.3±3.2 13.5±2.7 14.6±1.9 45.9±6.3 Muscle 0.8±0.5 62.3±14.7 0.5±0.0 4.4±2.2 5.1±2.9 13.3±2.4

4-13


Chapter 4

T LE 4S4 Bioconcentration factors determined for water Fw) and sediment Fs) with Clarias gariepinus at C2 (n=10).

FISH ORGAN F Mn Ni ::) P Zn )

BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs 1 Liver 71.4 0.085 3500.0 0.014 12.5 0.002 27.8 0.065 20.8 0.102 150.0 0.367

Gills 28.6 0.034 452.3 0.002 32.5 0.046 58.3 0.136 72.9 0.357 172.9 0.424 Muscle 28.6 0.034 375.0 0.002 12.5 0.002 22.2 0.052 41.7 0.204 0.0 0.0

2 liver 128.6 0.153 1522.7 0.006 12.5 0.002 36.1 0.084 12.5 0.061 193.8 0.475 Gills 35.7 0.042 395.1 0.002 300.0 0.042 86.1 0.201 62.5 0.306 191.7 0.469 Muscle 7.1 0.001 306.8 0.001 12.5 0.002 8.3 0.019 14.6 0.071 39.6 0.097









2c.tSD Liver 125.7 0.149 18836 0.01 20.0 0.003 26.1 0.061 21.7 0.106 180.0 0.441 Gills 24.3 0.029 785.9 0.003 232.5 0.033 75.0 0.175 60.8 0.298 191.3 0.468

_Muscle _ 11.4 0.014 283.2 0.001 12.5 0.002 24.4 0.057 21.3 0.104 55.4 0.136

The highest metal values at the control sites were obtained for iron and zinc, while manganese and nickel occurred in low concentrations. Manganese, nickel and lead were accumulated in the gills of the fish while copper, iron and zinc were found mainly in the liver.

The bioconcentration factors determined between the different metal concentrations in the sediment and the organs and tissues of C. gariepinus (BFs) at Cl and C2 were drastically lower than the determined BFw values for the same data (Table 4.12 and Table 4.14). BFw and BFs for manganese, nickel, lead and zinc in the fish were highest for the gills, with lower values for the liver and the muscle. The liver presented the highest copper and iron BFs and BFw values, while zinc high BFw and BFs values varied between the liver and the gills.

Muscle BFw and BFs values determined for copper, iron and zinc at the control localities were low (Table 4.12 and Table 4.14).

4-14


4.6 ISCUSSI SN

ildentification and Distribution of Macroinvertebr tes

This study revealed definite seasonal differences. In comparison to the other seasons, summer presented an abundance of species composition and number of organisms.

Area 1 : Locality 2, treated as a pollution control facility, presented a pH of 7.82±0.47 (Venter, 1995). Venter (1995) further indicated a build up of nutrients in the water. This was due to dense algae populations in the dam causing an increase in nitrate concentrations (36.50 mg// to 48.20 mg// : Venter, 1995). The water of locality N3 was of moderate quality with a pH of 7.42 (Venter, 1995).

Both localities in area 1 presented a variety of organisms during summer while only locality N3 had a variety of organisms during winter. During spring and autumn only Chironomidae was present at locality N3.

The variety of organisms during summer included large numbers of Tubificidae, Chironomidae, Copepoda and a few Coelenterata, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Coleoptera and Gastropoda. This variety during summer might have been due to the water being of a better quality (pH 7.42 -7.82 : Venter, 1995), higher temperatures and greater food availability resulting in emergence and consequent survival of these aquatic macroinvertebrates. Blooming algae populations at locality N2 may have caused the smaller number and species of macroinvertebrates occurring at this locality (Armitage, 1980). The abundance of Tubificidae and especially Chironomidae throughout the year suggest their possible tolerance to survive unfavourable conditions (low

temperatures and a decrease in nutrient availability) as well as the absence of predators (Kajak, 1979).

Area 2 : Although the pH in this area ranged from 7.38 (locality Si) to 7.37 (locality S2) and

to a high of 9.08 (locality S4), it was evident from factors such as TDS that surface effluent from the mining operations was a dominant factor in the water quality (Venter, 1995). Venter (1995) further stated that the alkaline pH (9.08; locality S4) resulted from algal growth (stimulated by high nutrient conditions) and caused more alkaline conditions to prevail. An abundance of Tubificidae and Chironomidae with smaller numbers of other aquatic

macroinvertebrate such as Coelenterata, Turbellaria, Copepoda, Ephemeroptera, Odonata,

Trichoptera and Gastropoda were evident of organisms occurring in this area. Tolerance to water quality conditions, variation in temperature and food availability as well as absence/presence of predators (Kajak, 1979; Vangenechten et al., 1986) resulted in seasonal

4-15


changes in occurrence of the aquatic macroinvertebrate fauna (Chutter, 1971; Koryak et al., 1972).

Area 3 : The neutral pH (locality C1 = 7.58, and locality C2 = 7.83) as well as the average low conductivity and TDS of the water in this area confirms the theory that mining effluent has not

been directly in contact with these localities (Venter, 1995).

A diversity of organisms were present during the winter and summer sampling periods. Autumn

and spring sampling revealed smaller species diversity and number of organisms. Throughout the sampling period Tubificidae and Chironomidae were present in relatively large numbers in comparison to the other aquatic macroinvertebrates present. The thriving of both Tubificidae

and Chironomidae in polluted conditions (area 1 and 2) as well as at the control localities (area 3) indicate these organisms' adaptability or tolerance to different environmental conditions

(Gaufin & Tarzwell, 1952; Koryak et al., 1972). The smaller numbers or absence of species during specific sampling periods cannot always be due to pollution. Factors such as knowledge of the life history of organisms (Gaufin & Tarzwell, 1952), variation in temperatures and nutrient availability and the presence/absence of predators (Kajak, 1979) may also be taken into consideration when evaluating the presence and distribution of macroinvertebrate fauna over a period of time (Gaufin & Tarzwell, 1952).

Metal Accumulation by Macroinvertebrates

During the four sampling opportunities the same tendency was observed for metal concentrations accumulated by the aquatic macroinvertebrates : Cu<Pb<Mn<Ni<Zn<Fe.

Area 1 : Metal concentrations analysed for the water column presented exceedingly high zinc (3.56 m//) and manganese (1.39 mg//) concentrations (Venter, 1995). High iron, zinc and

manganese concentrations in the surfical sediment layers originated mainly from a metallurgical plant and training center (Venter, 1995).

These high concentrations for both the water column and sediment compartment resulted in high concentrations of copper, iron, manganese and zinc in the analysis of Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Gastropoda. The body metal concentrations of these organisms may be due to their close association with the sediment compartment (Dixit & Witcomb, 1983), but other factors such as the different stages in the organism's life cycle (Spehar et al., 1978; Burrows Whitton, 1983; Kelly, 1988) and feeding habits (Burrows & Whitton, 1983, Kelly, 1988) may also be of importance.

4-16


Area 2 : Venter (1995) described the metal concentrations in the water column ranging from

high manganese and nickel (locality S1) and lead (locality S2) values to concentrations at locality S4 comparable with the control localities at locality S4. The water from localities Si

and S2 have an impact on the environmental quality of locality S4 into which both these streams drain, but factors such as a slimes dam seepage may also have contributed to these elevated metal concentrations at locality S4 (Venter, 1995).

Analysis of the sediment compartment revealed high iron and manganese concentrations in the top layers of sediment with an alkaline pH at locality S1 (pH = 6.48 - 6.58 due to the elevated volume of water and algal activities : Venter, 1995). The water column is a potential source of

these high metal concentrations, since most metals will precipitate in an alkaline water column (Venter, 1995). At locality S2 the analysis of the top sediment layers presented high lead, iron and manganese contamination somewhere in the system. The average metal concentrations in the top sediment layers at locality S4 were higher than sediment metal concentrations at localities S 1 and S2 (Venter, 1995).

Metal analysis of the macroinvertebrate fauna revealed high copper, manganese, nickel, lead

and zinc concentrations for organisms, such as the Tubificidae and Chironomidae. These organisms' close relationship with the sediment compartment (Dixit Witcomb, 1983) and their overall water dependence for survival might explain their high body burden for certain metals (Kelly, 1988). Other factors contributing to body metal concentrations such as feeding habits (Kelly, 1988) and the stage of development when exposed to metal concentrations

(Getsova & Valkova, 1962; Spehar et al., 1978; Wright, 1980) should however not be disregarded. Kelly (1988) further emphasised the decrease in organisms' sensitivity to metal concentrations when reaching maturity. These factors as well as an organisms ability to excrete

or regulate metals by their physiological abilities contribute to an increase in organism

tolerance (Dixit & Witcomb, 1983).

Area 3 : Venter (1995) depicted this area (localities C1 and C2) as situated in the upper reaches of a river eventually discharging into a boundary dam (locality S4). It is further suggested by Venter (1995) that the mine has no influence on the environment in and around

the control sites.

The neutral pH at localities CI and C2 and the average low conductivity and TDS values confirms Venter 1995's suggestion that mining effluent is not directly in contact with this dam. High metal concentrations in the water column were iron, nickel, lead, zinc and aluminum (Venter, 1995).

4-17


Top layer sediment analysis revealed a pH ranging between 5.56 to 6.78 and high concentrations of iron, manganese, nickel, lead and zinc (Venter, 1995). Venter (1995) also stressed that both natural runoff and the geology of the area may have an effect on the pH of

the water column and the sediment compartment.

Metal analysis of the aquatic macroinvertebrates revealed high copper, iron, lead and zinc concentrations for organisms such as the Tubificidae and Chironomidae. These high concentrations correlate with the high values for the water column and the sediment

compartment. These organisms' close relationship with the sediment compartment (Dixit & Witcomb, 1983) and their overall water dependence for survival may explain their high body burden for certain metals (Kelly, 1988).

Met • Accumulation by Selected Fish Species

Metal Uptake

There are four possible routes for a substance to enter a fish : gills, food, drinking of water and skin. When metals enter natural waters their fate is diverse. A considerable amount of organic material or suspended solids will reduce the actual amount of dissolved metal available to be absorbed by the fish. This tendency to form complexes with organic and inorganic ligands varies with the metal. It is assumed that most metals are absorbed by fish in ionic form. The mechanism of metal uptake through the gills is probably simple diffiision. Uptake of metals via

food may also be quite important in nature. In general, invertebrates accumulate higher levels of metals than fish under similar conditions, due to invertebrates' faster metabolism tempo (Sorensen, 1991). Thus, predators of these invertebrates may obtain a considerable body

burden from this mode.

Transport of metals

Metals are carried by the blood, bound to protein. There may be a different protein for each

essential trace metal, and presumably nonessential metals use one of the existing proteins. Some metals may also bind to amino acids (Sorensen, 1991).

Regulation and excretion of metals

The term regulation refers to the ability to excrete a metal. Fish have different routes for possible excretion of harmful chemicals, these include the gills, bile (via faeces), kidney and skin (Matthiessen & Brafield, 1977). When metals are present in the water, the gills and skin of

4-18


certain species tend to accumulate or concentrate these metals rather than excrete it. Studies conducted by Mount & Stephan (1967) showed that under circumstances of severe contamination organs, such as the gills, showing great affinity for metals, presented elevated

metal concentrations.

The liver is the main organ for homeostasis in fish. The metal-binding protein metallothionein is of key importance in the accumulation of metals in the liver of fish. Several metals have been found at elevated concentrations in the bile of fish during or following the ingestion of or

waterbome exposure to the metals. It was also found that the concentrations of metals elevated in the bile first and then in the liver. An interpretation is that the liver accumulates the metals from the blood and immediately stores it in the gallbladder. When the concentration of metals in this organ exceeds a certain level, no more metal can be accumulated by the bile and storage then occurs in the liver (Jemelov & Lann, 1971; Sorensen, 1991). The excretion of metals via urine is currently unexplored, although it is generally assumed that the kidney does excrete some metals.

Loss of metals via the skin and gills probably involves mucus, which is a proteinaceous material constantly secreted and sloughed off by these tissues (Sorensen, 1991).

Water quality data presented for both Cl and C2 by Venter (1995) revealed a neutral pH (C1 = 7.58 and C2 = 7.83) with low average conductivity and TDS values. At locality S4 algal

growth, stimulated by high nutrient conditions, resulted in an increase in the average nitrate and ammonia concentrations and a high pH of 9.08 (Venter, 1995).

Metal concentrations in the water column of C 1 and C2 presented high iron, nickel, lead, zinc and aluminum values while only iron concentrations were high at S4 (Venter, 1995). The low water metal concentrations at S4 might be a result of the precipitated chemical form in which these metals occur when the pH of the water column is high (pH = 9.08 : Venter, 1995).

Analysis of the metal concentrations in the sediment compartment revealed low concentrations for the top sediment layers at C1 and C2 and higher concentrations at S4 due to other possible

factors such as slimes dam seepage contributing to these elevated metal concentrations (Venter, 1995).

Metal analysis of the organs and tissues of the fish sampled at S4, C 1 and C2 presented the following concentration tendency : Fe>Zn>Pb>Ni>Cu>Mn. Metal concentrations in the organs

and tissues of the fish sampled at S4 were slightly higher than the samples at C 1 and C2, that are regarded unaffected by mining activities.

4-19


Accumulation of copper and iron were mainly in the liver of C. gariepinus, while manganese,

nickel and lead accumulated in the gills. Bioaccumulation of zinc varied between the liver and the gills. There are many factors influencing the total pollutant content and concentrations of metals in organs and tissues such as age of the organism, sex, size, weight, time of year, sampling position and relative levels of other pollutants in tissues (Mason, 1991). Marked differences in fish species occur for accumulation of metals by various organs and tissues (Schofield, 1976; Mason, 1991). It is also evident that some organs have greater affinity for metals than other (Forstner Wittmann, 1979). Forstner & Wittmann (1979) stated that due to varying affinity of metals for certain organs, the muscle proved not to be a suitable body part for determining the extent of metal contamination of the entire organism. It has been found

that the increase in metal concentrations in the muscle tissue of exposed fish are often lower than in other organs (Forstner & Wittmann, 1979). It appears that an increase in muscle metal concentrations only takes place when fish are exposed to extremely high concentrations (Jemelov & Lann 1971). Further studies revealed organs such as the gills, liver and kidney to have greater affinity for metals and would therefore appear to be more suited for evaluation of

metal contamination in fish (Milner & Prosi, 1978).

McDonald (1983) pointed out that the gills of freshwater fish are covered with a thin layer of

mucus. Exposure of the fish to metals at all pH levels caused chelation of these metals by the proteinaceous mucus (Cusimano et al., 1986). Circulation of blood through the gills, as well as

the flow of water over the gills, can be interfered with by the precipitated mucus, which clog the gills, immobilizes the gill filaments (Doudoroff Katz, 1953), interferes with respiration (Tumpenny, 1989) and consequent anoxia (Schofield, 1976).

Jemelov & Lann (1971) found that during or following ingestion of metals by exposed fish,

elevated levels of the metals accumulated first in the bile and then in the liver. When the concentration of metals in the bile exceeds critical levels, storage then occurs in the liver (Jemelov & Lann, 1971; Sorensen, 1991).

Accumulation of metals by aquatic organisms provide an essential link between the concentrations of metals in the environment and the effect that these concentrations have on the biota. Bioconcentration factors were determined between C. gariepinus and the water (BFw) as

well as the sediment (BFs). The BFw and BFs values at localities S4, Cl and C2 were high for iron and zinc, with lower values determined for copper, manganese, nickel and lead. The BFw

values were higher in comparison to the BFs values. BFw and BFs for copper and iron were the highest for the liver and lowest for the muscle. The gills presented the highest manganese,

nickel and lead BFw and BFs values, while zinc BFw and BFs values varied between the liver and the gills. These overall high BFw values indicate possible biologically availability of

4-20


Chapter 4

metals in the water column to C. gariepinus. Coetzee (1996) indicated that metal

concentrations in the water had no effect on the biological availability of metals to fish. It is,

however, factors such as metal species and physico-chemical conditions of the water (Coetzee,

1996) that may determine the toxicity and speciation of metals. Regulatory processes in the fish

is a contributing factor in affecting bioavailability of metals in water to fish (Wiener Giesy,

1979). The rate of accumulation of pollutants will depend on factors both external and internal

to the organism. The concentrations of pollutants in the water are important, and many

organisms carry higher loading of pollutants when living in contaminated waters (Mason,

1991).

43 OCCURRENCE EVALUATION INDEX

The occurrence evaluation index of macroinvertebrate occurrence for Case Study Mine Two

(Table 4.15) was compiled after one year's sampling. The sensitivity of macroinvertebrates

were determined according to the number and composition of the species present, as well as

taking into consideration the metal concentrations that the macroinvertebrates were exposed to

from the water column and the sediment compartment.

The water variables analyzed for, were compared to guideline values suggested by Kempster et

al. (1982), Kuhn (1991) and Environment Canada (1987)(Chapter 5, Table 5.8). Water

variables such as sodium, manganese, calcium, fluoride, sulphate, silica, ammonia and TDS,

with the exception of the pH and nitrates, were below the values given by the guidelines. Metal

concentrations in the water presented manganese, nickel, lead and zinc being higher than

concentrations prescribed by the guidelines. Copper and iron concentrations were within the

prescribed ranges. From these results it was evident that, except for high metal loads in the

water, the water variables met most of the expected guideline values.

Sediment metal concentrations analyzed for presented low concentrations for metals such as

cadmium (5.8 ± 1.0 pg/g Cd), lead (46.3 ± 7.1 pg/g Pb), copper (105.3 ± 81.2 ilg/g Cu),

nickel (124.7 ± 48.7 pig/g Ni) and manganese (540.7 ± 279.1 flg/g Mn). The concentrations for

zinc were slightly higher than the above mentioned concentrations, while iron presented the

highest concentration (42 886.9 ± 16 242.6 lig/g Fe) for the analyzed sediment. The high metal

concentrations in the sediment may have an effect on the invertebrate species occurring within

the aquatic environment.

According to data from Case Study Mine Two and this index (Table 4.15), the Chironomidae

and Tubificidae occurred in large numbers throughout the sampling period. Metal analysis of

these organisms indicated high body metal concentrations. Chironomidae and Tubificidae's

4-21


close relationship with the sediment compartment (Dixit & Witcomb, 1983), as well as their

overall dependence on water for survival might explain these high body metal concentrations

(Kelly, 1988). Other macroinvertebrates such as the Crustacea, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera,

Coleoptera, Odonata, Coelenterata and Gastropoda occurred in smaller numbers. Overall high

body metal concentrations were revealed after metal analysis which were probably due to the

high metal concentrations in the water (Table 4.15).

When considering the occurrence pattern of the macroinvertebrates at Case Study Mine Two, it

might be concluded that the Chironomidae and Tubificiciae were more tolerant or less sensitive

towards factors (such as metals) affecting their aquatic environment (Scullion & Edwards,

1980). However, these organisms' exposure and their consequent survival in large numbers

(compared to smaller numbers of the other macroinvertebrates) might also be due to factors

such as : (i) developmental stage when exposed to metal concentrations (Getsova Valkova,

1962; Spehar et al., 1978; Wright, 1980), (ii) feeding habits (Kelly, 1988), (iii) the organism's

ability to exclude or regulate metals by their physiological abilities (Dixit & Witcomb, 1983)

and (iv) availability of food and the presence/absence of predators (Vangenechten et al., 1986).

The water insect larvae such as Odonata (Libellulidae and Coenagrionidae), some iptera

(Tipulidae, Culicidae, Ceratopogonidae and Anthomyiidae), Trichoptera (Ecnomidae),

Hemiptera (Corixidae), Coleoptera (Haliplidae) and Ephemeroptera (Baetidae), as well as the

leeches (Hirudinae), flat worms (Planariidae), hydras (Hydroida) and snails (Pulmonata)

occurred in small numbers at the sampling localities. These aquatic invertebrates also presented

high metal concentrations for iron with an average of 4 400.0 gg/g Fe and a maximum value of

25 500.0 tg/g Fe, and zinc with an average of 48 564.7 iiWg Zn and a maximum value of 115

300.0iug/g Zn.

The small numbers of the remaining aquatic macroinvertebrate species at Case Study Mine

Two may be indicative of their sensitivity to metal concentrations from both the sediment

compartment and the water column (Roback & Richardson, 1969).

4-22

1 g; i ?.. p ir 6i ir 1. 2 r p z O F ?'' g . , p, !..: 1 gl,,-...g. al 191 tit "gilg4 ̂̂14 ,“^° WWR'G'--7 g—.A: ....

g,4p7 iVea 4,1q—i.:-..-.16. 0..ts,-...‘.r-Z.._. 4 0 t0C"-- Xi4sa.

--'ztt. —Se— -9. Pu.e.5, c. ..._. ,9,=•—:,...1-"-T ...,...=R e.,

(-)..

94 0 v

Constit uent

Wate

r quality data

N N 0, N .4 ■4 N W 00 CA w ON VD

0 0 CI, S> 5D 0 0 0 F, N, C, .4 00 74 h !A, 0, 74 bj . 5, ,J W N

'0 '0 " W Lo N LA cr. N 64 4. 60 op

o ... N 4D :..4 N .4 47

W I+ W H- If 4" H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- H- ii. H- H- I+ 0 0 hJ co c, c> 5D L., = L,,, , ts, -.. .. 0>

N ;0 5D 2 i•J 1., ;C, 0 .4 6, ;; fx! ...!, !-.. :0 ll ...2 !,-, b., ∎

c, so w ... 4, . 1..

Average ± SD

n = 9

0 00 NA....4. -4 CD C' CD '' . 0 CD c> 5, 0 5, c> • " • - ;„ L. YD L., 4' L., 74 • 0 • io. 6' • - co 0 = i„,

•

" D" D. CO cA ,, = = u.I.,,,=.„ ...,.,.... . • . . . . co , w .-. ,-. t..J .:. .-. u. t,J .

G, ... 0 s i.i P P P t - • b t..) rit P P 47; O. a 2 ...i O. NI t :.° LA 0, ;0 „ g W 00 " ,4 ,,,, 64 CA :, 14 b 6. i,., ,,,, z , cr, ,4

.4. "

4 Er

4 07 M

i

1

I:

0 oir

.

I

.

R

1 0

0M.i 0 OH

20a4g.....

F.mvx

0 00

'8- P.,- g 8 g 'a- 8 R 0 gr —lir

. 2:7'..r.,

w2 tplj Eli ff...r 1 .

ta, H- U w bo -4

Organi sm

s

Macroinvert eb

rates

Cu

10

2.9 ± 286.1

Fe 9

10

0.0±

23 697.1 M

n 1

56

.9 ± 230.9 N

i 35

5.2 ± 683.2

Pb 128.6

± 242.1 Zn 5

5 700

.0 ± 48 019.9

Cu

33

.3 ± 59.9

Fe 3

584 .2 ± 7 465.9 M

n 6

97

.7 ± 1 522.9

Ni 4

78.6 ± 9 32.7

Pb 218

.5 ± 391.3

Zn

2 8

10.1 ± 7 186.9

Cu 2

27

.7 ± 433.3

Fe 5

225.0 ± 8 597.8

Mn

99.9 ± 171

.3 N

i 467

.4 ± 800.4

Pb 23

8.3 ±

415.1

Zn

2 8

10.1 ± 7 186.9

V.W,T,i2

,-t• `J .■ c, W :a. ts WW.4H-i:5 was0 ,"'..• 0,07...... W

-.:.1. 3; VD

T :0,

Average ± SD

(µg/g w

et weight)

1.9 - 1 263.6

200.0 - 98 300.0

4.4 - 846.2

12.0 - 2 500.0

5.0 - 937.5 100.0 - 137 500.0

0.5 - 213

.9 300.0 - 3

1400 .0

7.9 - 5 483

.3 38.8 - 3 809.5 10.2 - 146

4.3 63.4

- 30 800.0

5 .7 - 877.5 400.0 - 18 100

.0 5.4 - 356.6

54.7 - 1 668.0

15.6 - 860.7 63.4 - 30 800.0

W § W 0 .4,104 ,0 bk, i,,:4 b ,,

, . , .o ,.., t.1 ,,, ,... _....1, c. 1> O4 L. ''.2 8 -- r,J,, 13 .Ch 6 b

4 F

4 g

''''V .Pb" E.I. tx• '''

0--% .77: 2 2' te..5 (Q-2'gri'fil- '^ ag cb‘‘..ri v -0 64 --, m ,,, r, ,:::: --- = Z0 m

c) 43... X

0::

Variable

Metal C

oncentrations in the Sedim

ent (rg/g dry

weigh

t)

.p. N w _m

&,..I 0 E,* cA. L.- 6, 40--1 0 H- EF

14. H- ... H- H- If

:-.1;gtig , ....L.Ii,v N na

Average ±

SD

n = 9

;5 ,.., $ vz .p. b • 5" `^ " bb.?06b ' •L' = ,:, Z, ' uooL., ....„4 -4 --, b012 ,,ocw 6 04bb?.," G :6

FI

Ot

*np

ui u

ogvn

pA

z aa

uaLa

nza

t 61

7 T

x

p A ti


406 REF NCES

ARMITAGE, PD (1980) The Effects of Mine Drainage and Organic Enrichment of Benthos in

the River Nent System, Northern Pennines. Illydrobiologia, 74 > 119-128.

BURROWS, IG & WHIT TON, BA (1983) Heavy metals in water, sediments and

invertebrates from a metal-contaminated river free of organic pollution.

Hydroloiologia, 106 a 263-273.

CHUTTER, FM (1971) Hydrobiological Studies in the Catchment of Vaal Dam, South Africa.

Part 3. Notes on the Cladocera and Copepoda of stones-incurrent, marginal vegetation

and stony backwater biotyopes. Int. Revue ges. Hydrobiol., 56(3) s 497-508.

COETZEE, L (1996) Bioaccumulation of metals in selected fish species and the e ect of

pH on Aluminum toxicity i a cichlid Oreochromis mossambicus. M.Sc. Thesis.

Rand Afrikaans University.

CUSIMANO, RF; BRAKKE, DF & CHAPMAN, GA (1986) Effects of pH on the Toxicities

of Cadmium, Copper and Zinc to Steelhead Trout (Salmo gairdneri). Can. J. Fish.

Aquat. Sci., 43 0 1497-1503.

DIXIT, SS & WITCOMB, D (1983) Heavy Metal Burden in Water, Substrate and

Macroinvertebrate Body Tissue of a Polluted River Irwell (England). Environs Pollut.

Ser. B, 6 e 161-172.

DOUDOROFF, P & KATZ, M (1953) Industrial Wastes. Critical Review of literature on the

Toxicity of Industrial Wastes and their components to Fish. II. The Metals, as Salts.

Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 25(7) a 802-839.

ENVIRONMENT CANADA (1987) Canadian water quality guidelines. Report prepared by

the Task Force on water quality guidelines of the Canadian Council of Resources and

Environment Ministers. 407 p.

FORSTNER, U & WITTMANN, GTW (1979) Metal Pollution in the Aquatic

Environment. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 486 p.

4-24


Chapter 4

GAUEN, AR & TARZWELL, CM (1952) Aquatic Invertebrates as Indicators of Stream

Pollution. Public Eealth"'reports, 67(1) e 57-64.

'GETSOVA, AB & VALKOVA, GA (1962) The accumulation of radioactive isotopes by

certain aquatic insects. Ent. ev. (U.S.S.R.), 41 e 61-70.

JERNELOV, A & LANN, H (1971) Mercury accumulation in food chains. In : Met

Pollution in the Aquatic Environment. eds. U Forstner GTW Wittmann. pp 306-

313. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg & New York.

KAIAK, Z (1979) Role of . Invertebrate Predators (Mainly Procladius sp.) in Benthos. In :

Chironomidae, Ecology, Systematics, Cytology and Physiology. Proceedings of the

7th internation Symposium on Chironomidae, Dublin, August 1979. ed. A

Murray. pp 339-348. Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York, Toronto, Sydney, Paris

Frankfurt.


London & New York. 223 p.

KEMPSTER, PL; HATTINGH, HWJ & VAN VLIET, HR (1982) Summarized Water

Quality Criteria. Department of Water Affairs, South Africa. Technical Report No.

TR 108. 45 p.

KORYAK, M; SHAPIRO, MA & SYKORA, IL (1972) Riffle zoobenthos in streams

receiving acid-mine drainage. Wat. Res., 6 0 1239-1247.

KUHN, AL (1991) Sensitiewe visspesies werkswinkel 1991. Kruger National Park Rivers

Research Programmes. 37 p.

MASON, CF (1991) Biology of Freshwater Pollution. Second Edition. Longman Scientific

& Technical. Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 231 p.

MATTHIESSEN, P & BRAFIELD, AE (1977) Uptake and loss of dissolved zinc by the

stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus L. J. Fish Biol., 100 399-410.

*MCDONALD, DG (1983) The effects of H the gills of freshwater fish. Can. J. Zooll.,

61 a 691-703.

4-25


MOUNT, itt I & STEPHAN, CE (1967) A method for detecting cadmium poisoning in fish. In :

Metal Pollution in the Aquatic Environment. eds. U Forstner GTW Widmann. pp


MULLER, Cr & PROSI, F (1978) Verteilung von Zink, Kupfer und Cadmium in verscheidenen

von Plotzen (Rutilus rutilus L.) aus Neckar und Elsenz. In : Met Pollution in the

Aquatic Environment. eds. U Forstner & GTW Wittmarm. p 306. Springer-Verlag,

Berlin, Heidelberg New York.

ROBACK, SS & RICHARDSON, JW (1969) The effects of acid-mine drainage on aquatic

insects. Proc. Acad. Nat, Sci. Phil., 121 a 81-99.

SCHOFIELD, CL (1976) Acid Precipitation : Effects on Fish. Ambito, 5(5-6) 0 228-230.

SCULLION, J & EDWARDS, RW (1980) The effects of coal industry pollutants on the

macroinvertebrate fauna of a small river in the South Wales coalfield. Freshwat. Biol.,

10 s 141-162.

SORENSEN, EM (1991) Metal Poisoning in Fish. CRC Press, Florida. 374 p.

SPEHAR, RL; ANDERSON, RL & FIANDT, JT (1978) Toxicity and Bioaccumulation of

cadmium and lead in aquatic invertebrates. Environ. Polhit., 15 o 195-208.

T1URNPENNY, AWH (1989) Field studies on fisheries in acid waters in the United Kingdom.

In : Acid toxicity and aquatic animals. eds. R Morris, EW Taylor, DJA Brown JA

Brown. pp 45-65. Society of Experimental Biology, Seminar Series 34. Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge.

VANGENECHTEN, JHD; WI'l 1 ERS, H & VANDERBORGHT, OLJ (1986) Laboratory

studies on invertebrate survival and physiology in acid waters. In a Acid toxicity and

aquatic animals. eds. R Morris, EW Taylor, DJA Brown JA Brown. pp 45-65.

Society of Experimental Biology, Seminar Series 34. Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge.

VENTER, AJA (1995) Assessment of the Effects of Gold-mine Effluent on the Natural


4-26


WIENER, JO & GIESY, JP (1979) Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn in fishes in a

highly organic softwater pond. X. Fish. Res. d. Can., 36 : 270-279.

WRIGHT, DA (1980) Cadmium and calcium interactions in the freshwater amphipod

Gammarus pulex. Freshwat. iol., 10 0 123-133.


4-27

Chapter 5

0.)

CASE STUDY MINE THREE

TA LE OF CONTENTS



5.3 Results 5-3

5.3.1 Identification and Distribution of Macroinvertebrates 5-3


5.3,3 Metal Accumulation by selected fish species 5-17

5.4 Discussion 5-39


5.6 References 5-53

5.9 Appendix 5-59


5,1 INT UCTION

This study was conducted at a mine in the Klerksdorp gold-mining region from May 1993 to

June 1994. This mine has a complex water circuit; because certain percentage of the service

water is reused and/or discharged via effluent streams into the Vaal River.

5.2 MATERIALS AND METRO S

For the purpose of the macroinvertebrate fauna sampling a total of ten localities (Figure 5.1)

were chosen, where biseasonal sampling was conducted.

Four localities were chosen within the Vaal River and consisted of :

Locality 1 : This site was upstream from Case Study Mine Three in the Vaal River

(Vermaasdrift).

Locality 2 : This site in the Vaal River was at Western Transvaal Regional Water

Company.

Locality 7 : A site in the Vaal River.

Locality 15 : Downstream site of Case Study Mine Three, in the Vaal River (Figure 5.1).

Another six localities were chosen situated within the mining area and consisted of :

Locality 3 : This site is in a wetland stream receiving effluent water from a backfill plant,

rock-dump run-off and plant washing. The water disappears into dolomitic

structures and surfaces again some distance away.

Locality 4 : Site in a stream receiving surface run-off and effluent water from a rock-

dump, plant washing and a sewage plant

Locality 5 : This site receives water from various sources, including sewage treatment

effluent, rock-dump run-off

Locality 10 : Site in a constructed impoundment. Water contains borehole water and

effluent from gold and sewage plants.

Locality 12 : Effluent water from gold and uranium tailings dams.

Locality 13 : Effluent water flows from a slimes-dam as well as from uranium and gold

plants.

5-1


03 a)

COE

cr) a)

CO

ca 0)

a)

CO

C O

a)

(1)

CO•

O

C

0) a)

H a) C

D

a) 0.) co

CO

E ca 0)

a) a

N c7

Lri a)

C) LL

5-2


Control Locality

A locality on the East Rand which receives organic and industrial effluents was chosen as a

control site. A comparison was made between the number and species of macroinvertebrates

found at the control locality and those organisms found at Case Study Mine Three, in order to

establish values for high and low numbers of organisms.

Sampling of selected fish species (Labeo capensis, Labeo umbratus, Clarias gariepinus and

Cyprinus carpio) was done during November 1993 and March 1994. Sampling mainly

occurred within the Vaal River System with the exception of Locality 10.

Sampling procedures and further analysis of the macroinvertebrate fauna and selected fish

species were conducted according to standard techniques (Chapter 2).

5.3 RESULTS

5.3.1 IDENTIFICATION AN DISTRIBUTION OF MACROINVERTEBRATES

Data of the macroinvertebrates sampled are given in Tables 5.1 to 5.4. Each table portrays the

quantitative presence of macroinvertebrates for a specific season.

Winter

Table 5.1 summarizes the number and composition of benthic organisms sampled during winter

1993.

5-3

11 TA


Chapter 5

LE 5.11 The total member and composition of niacroinwertebrate larvae sarnmplled

during winter 11993 (numbers per square meter).

ORGANISM/LOCALITY 1 T 2 4 5 7 10 12 13 15

Coelenterata (Hydroids, Jellyfish)

Hydroida

Hydridae

Hydra - - - - - 1801 - - 48

Annelida


Haplotaxida

Tubificidae

Tubifex

Limnodrilus

Hirudinea (leaches)

Rhynchobdellida

Glossiphoniidae

Batrachobdella

1363

97

97

2337

-

-

-

-

-

48700

1558

-

2045

97

340

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

5844

633

97

Crustacea

Cladocera (Water fleas)

Copepoda

Cyclopoida

Cyclops

Microcyclops

Ostracoda (Seed shrimps)

1558

487

-

-

48

3165

970

-

-

-

-

-

48

-

-

-

-

340

-

-

1948

925

-

14600

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

12175

1412

243

-

Collembola (Springtails)

Artlu-opleona

Isotomidae

Isotomurus 97 - - - - - - - -

Ephemeroptera (Mayflies)

Baetidae

Baetis - 48 - - - - - - 730

Odonata (Dragonflies, Damselflies)

Anisoptera

Gomphidae

Paragomphidae - 48 - - - - - - -

Hemiptera (Bugs)

Corixidae (Water Boatman)

Sigara - - - - - 384 - - -


Haliplidae (Crawling water beetles)

Peltodytis - - - - 146 - - - -

Diptera (Flies, Mosquitoes, Midges)

Chironomidae (Midges)

Chironomus

Pentaneura

Ceratopogonidae (Biting midges)

Culicoides

-

48

-

-

-

48

-

97

48

-

-

-

-

48

-

-

86

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

584

-

48

Benthic macroinvertebrates such as Tubifex and Limnodrilus (Tubificidae - aquatic

earthworms), Cladocera (water fleas), Cyclops and Microcyclops (Copepoda) occurred in

relatively high numbers and Pentaneura (Chironomidae - midges) in lower numbers at most of

5-4


the localities. Lower numbers of Hydra (Coelenterata - hydroids), Batrachobdella (Hirudinea -

leeches) and water insect larvae such as Isotomurus (Collembola - Springtails), Baetis

(Ephemeroptera - mayflies), Paragomphidae (Anisoptera - dragonflies), Sigara (Corixidae -

water boatmen), Peltodytis (Haliplidae - crawling water beetles), Chironomus (Chironomidae -

midges) and Culicoides (Heleidea - biting midges) occurred at localities 1, 2, 4, 7, 10 and 15.

Ostracoda (seed shrimps) occurred in relatively large or high numbers at locality 10. The

absence of benthic macroinvertebrates at localities 12 and 13 might be indicative of mine

effluent from uranium and gold plants affecting the surface water and eliminating benthic

organisms.

Spring

Table 5.2 presents the number and composition of macroinvertebrates sampled during spring

1993.

TA B>LE 5.2 The total number and composition of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled

during spring 1993 (numbers per square meter).

ORGANISM/LOCALITY 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 12 13 15


Hydroida

Hydridae

Hydra - - - - - - 292 - - 48

Annelida


Lumbricida

Lumbricidae - - - - - - - - 146 -

Haplotaxida

Tubificidae

Tubifex 925 1266 438 7061 20600 - - - - 1071

Limnodrilus - - - 1461 2240 438 - - - 48

Branchiura sowerbyi - 292 - - - - - - - 243

Hirudinea (leaches)

Rhynchobdellida

Glossiphoniidae

Batrachobdella - - - - - - 48 - - -

Crustacea 48 180

Cladocera (Water fleas) 48 - - - - - - 535

Copepoda

Cyciopoida

Cyclops 487 194 2045 194 - 340 2922 - - -

Microcyclops - - - - - - 974 - - -

Ostracoda (Seed Shrimps) - - - - - - 6818 - - -

Decapoda (Crayfish, shrimps) - - - - - 292 - - - -

5-5


Chapter 5

TABLE 51 (Continued)


Zygoptera (Damselfly-nymphs)

Hemiptera (Bugs)

Corixidae (Water Boatmen)

Sigara (nymphs)

-

48

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

340

-

-

-

-

48

-

L,epidoptera (Aquatic Caterpillars)

Pyralidae - - 48 - - - - - - -



Chironomus (larvae) 146 97 535 48 - - - - - -

Chironomus(pupae) - - 194 - - - - - - -

Pentaneura - - - 48 - 3068 - - - 48


Culicoides - - 681 - - - - - - -

Bezzia - 97 - - - 48 - - - -

Gastropods (Snails)

Physa - 97 - - - - - - - -

Benthic macroinvertebrates occurring in low numbers at certain localities include hydroids,

water insects such as Cladocera, Decapoda, Odonata, Lepidoptera (Pyralidae) and Ciastropoda

(Physa). Most of the localities, except localities 12 and 13, contained Tubifex, Limnodrilus,

Cyclops, Chironomus and Pentaneura in relatively large numbers.

Summer

Table 5.3 presents the number and composition of macroinvertebrates sampled during summer

1993.

There was a slight increase in the occurrence of benthic organisms, especially the different

water insect larvae for the summer period. This was probably due to higher temperatures and

nutrient availability. At most of the localities benthic macroinvertebrates occurring in large

numbers include Tubifex, Limnodrilus, Branchiura sowerbyi, Cyclops, Microcyclops,

Chironomus (larvae and pupae) and Pentaneura. Lower numbers of Hydra, Planaria

(Turbellaria - flatworms) and water insects such as Cladocera, Decapoda, Collembola,

Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Trichoptera (Ecnomus), Dytiscidae, Tipulidae (Helius), Culicidae

(Culex) occurred at certain localities.

5-6


TA LE 5.3 The tot number and composition of macroinvertebratellarvae samplled during summer 1993/ 1994 (numbers pea square meter).

ORGANISM/LOCALITY 1 2 4 5 7 10 12 13 15

Coelenterate (Hydroids, Jellyfish)

Hydroida

Hydridae

Hydra - - - - - 1655 - - 48

Turbellaria (Flatworms)

Tricladida

Planaria - - 48 - - - - - -

Annelida


Haplotaxida

Tubificidae

Tubifex

Limnodrilus

Branchiura sowerbyi

Hirudinea (leaches)

Rhynchobdellida

Glossiphoniidae

Batrachobdella

970

146

584

-

1801

-

731

97

24350

2679

-

-

3409

-

-

48

-

-

-

-

-

1266

-

1705

-

-

-

-

194

-

-

-

-

292

-

-

Crustacea


Copepoda

Cyclopoida

Cyclops

Microcyclops

Decapoda (Crayfish, Shrimps)

-

-

-

-

-

-

48

-

-

1460

1266

-

48

146

-

-

-

48

-

146

-

1023

244

-

-

146

-

-

-

146

-

-

-

341

-

-

Collembola (SpringtaiLs)

Arthropleona

Isotomidae

Isotomurus - - - - - - - 194 -


Baetidae

Cloeon (nymphs)

Stenonema

97

-

-

-

-

-

-

- -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

97


Anisoptera

Libellulidae

Libellula - - - - - - - - 48

Trichoptera (Caddis flies)

Hydropsychidae

Ecnomus - - - - - - - - 146


Dytiscidae (Predaceous diving beetles)

Cybister - - - - - 48 - - -



Helius

Culicidae (Mosquitoes)

Culicinae

Culex (larvae)


Chironomus (larvae)

Chironomus(pupae)

Pentaneura

-

-

48

194

-

-

48

-

-

-

97

2922

244

-

-

-

970

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2192

292

779

-

146

-

-

-

48

-

-

-

877

-

-

-

-

-

5-7


Autumn

Table 5.4 summarizes the number and composition of benthic organisms sampled during

autumn 1994.

TA LE 504 The total number and composition of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled

during autumn 11994 (nu bers per square meter).

ORGANISM/LOCALITY 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 12 13 1 15


Hydroida

Hydridae

Hydra - - - - - - 1022 - -

gI

97

Aimelida


Haplotaxida

Tubificidae

Tubifex

Branchiura sowerbyi

Hirudinae (Leeches)

Glossiphonidae

Batrachobdella

1461

194

389

1461

389

48

-

-

-

8766

-

-

10714

-

-

-

-

-

3019

-

3506

-

-

-

-

-

-

584

97

584

Crustacea


Copepoda

Cyclopoida

Cyclops


Decapoda (Crayfish, shrimps)

-

-

-

146

-

-

-

-

-

8522

-

-

-

487

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

8766

1704

1940

-

584

-

-

-

-

1461

-

48

97

-

- _


Isotomidae

Isotomurus - - 48 - - - - - - -


Caenidae

Caenis

Baetidae

Baetis

48

-

-

48

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

584

-

-

-

194

-

2240


Anisoptera (Dragonflies)

Libellulidae

Libellula

Zygoptera (Damselflies)

Coenagriidae

Ischnura

48

48

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

97

-

-

- Hemiptera (Bugs)

Notonedidae (Back swimmers)

Corixidae (Water boatmen)

Sigara

-

-

48

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

340

-

-

-

-

-

-

Trithoptera (Caddis flies)

Hydropsythidae

Macronema - - - - - - - - - 438


Hydrophilidae (Water scavenger beetles) - - - - 48 - - - - -

5-8


Chapter 5

TA w4 LE 5.4 (Contina➢ed)

Diptera (Flies, mosquitoes, Midges)

Culicidae (Mosquitoes, Phantom midges)

Culex - - 48 584 48 - - - - -


Chironomus pupae - - - - - - - - - 340

Chironomus larvae 3896 876 - 3068 48 48 4675 48 4188 1217

Pentaneura - - - - - - - - - 438

There was a slight increase in the number of benthic macroinvertebrates sampled during

autumn when compared to the number of benthic organisms sampled during summer (Table

5.3). This might be due to prevailing high temperatures and nutrient availability.

Cladocera, Ostracoda, Decapoda, Collembola, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Hemiptera,

Coleoptera and Culicidae occurred in low numbers at certain localities (localities

2,4,5,7,10,12,13 and 15). At most of the localities high numbers of Tubificidae and

Chironomidae, as well as some Copepoda, were commonly present, which might indicate that

these benthic organisms were tolerant of mine effluent.

Control

Table 5.5 presents the total number of benthic organisms at both Case Study Mine Three and a

control locality receiving organic and industrial effluent.

TA =LE 5.5 Comparison of Case Study Mine Three to the control locality.

CLASSIFICATION SEASONS

WINTER SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN

Case 3 Control Case 3 Control Case 3 Control Case 3 Control

Coeladerata 1849 1060 340 916 1703 4990 1119 3507

Turbellaria - 478 - - 48 - - 163

Annelida 63208 134524 36131 1346573 38272 70419 31212 122120

Ostracoda 14600 138155 6818 379561 - 49049 1940 50351

Collembola 97 20 - - 194 - 48 390

Ephemeroptera 778 167 - 49 194 - 3114 420

Hemiptera 384 137 388 127 - 460 388 939

Trichoptera - 1209 - 188 146 263 438 1162

Coleoptera 146 118 - 176 48 167 48 99

Diptera 1007 187601 4913 146235 8857 78689 19960 56082

Gastropoda - 5177 97 12569 - 11026 - 20421

TOTAL SPECIES 14 20 18 23 20 36 19 24

5-9


A comparison was made between the total number of organisms at Case Study Mine Three and

the total number of organisms at the control locality to establish values for low and high

numbers of benthic organisms at the various sites.

From the comparison, it is clear that the control locality has a more abundant

macroinvertebrate fauna, than Case Study Mine Three. The Annelida during winter at the

control for example presented a total of 134 524 organisms to 63 208 at Case Study Mine

Three. During spring 146 235 dipterian individuals were present at the control localities in

comparison to 4 913 individuals at Case Study Mine Three.

When comparing species diversity (Table 5.5), it was evident that the control locality consists

of a great species diversity, while Case Study Mine Three had a lower species diversity and this

was most probably due to the effect of mine effluent (contaminants) on various benthic species.

SASS3 Comparison

TA LE 5.6 Families identified at each locality during a field trip using SASS3 (March

1994)(a=1-10; b=11-1 I I , ; c=101-1 I I ° d=>1000).

ORGANISM/LOCALITY 1 2 4 5 7 10 12 13 15 Amtelicla A a - - a - - a Ephemeroptera B - b a a a - b Odonata B a a a a a - b a Hemiptera B a b b b b b - a Megaloptera - - - - - - - - b Lepidoptera - - a a a - - - a Diptera A _ - c b - - a - a

Table 5.6 presents the results from a field trip during March 1994 to the mining area of Case

Study Mine Three. Rapid Biological Assessment (RBA) was carried out using methods

described by Moore McMillan (1992), and organisms were identified to family level in the

field.

From these results it was evident that all the areas sampled had poor water quality. A large

proportion of the invertebrates found were either beetles and insects from the vegetation; or low

scoring pollution-tolerant families found in the mud.

When comparing these results to the results obtained by using the grab-technique, the latter

offers a larger variety of aquatic benthic organisms occurring within the sediment and water

column. The use of SASS3 is ideal for rapid biological assessment of an aquatic system, but it

must be noted that should localities be chosen as RBA sampling points, sampling should be

5-10


Chapter 5

done at riffles. The absence of stones in the current can lower the score considerably (Moore &

McMillan, 1992).

TA LE 5.9 A summary of SASS3 and habitat scores.

Lsi CALITY SASS3 NO OF TAXON ASPT IBIABITAT 1 38 10 3.8 84 2 18 4 4.5 84 4 27 9 3 77 5 32 9 3.6 83 7 27 6 4.5 94 10 38 10 3.8 69 12 10 3 3.3 92 13 16 3 5.3 45 15 47 10 4.7 92

Table 5.7 shows the SASS3 score, the number of taxon present, the average score per taxa

(ASPT), and the habitat evaluation score. Good results from these scores would be SASS3 =

100, and/or number of taxon = 20, and/or an ASPT of 5. A habitat assessment was done at

each site to give a rough guide to its suitability. A maximum possible habitat score is 135.

Anything over 100 could be considered as being a good habitat for sampling, and below 70

should be identified as a poor habitat (Moore & McMillan, 1992).

When the results from Table 5.7 are evaluated, it is evident that no good SASS3 scores were

obtained. These scores were all far below the ideal score of 100. Low scores were also obtained

for the number of taxa (ideal value = 20), average score per taxa (ideal value = 5) and the

habitat evaluation. The ideal score for habitat evaluation is 135 and according to this value, the

values for the locality habitats were below (> 100). These values could, however, not be

considered as poor, since most of the values were above 70 (except for localities 10 and 13).

Guideline values for water quality data

From the SASS3 results and the results obtained by grab samples on the composition of

macroinvertebrates, the water quality of the surface water at Case Study Mine Three can be

assessed. It is clear that the water is not desirable for aquatic organisms since the sensitive

species have already disappeared from the system. Acceptable water quality is essential for

macroinvertebrate and fish survival in the freshwater environment and this aspect should

receive continuous attention. Comparing the water quality data by Venter (1995) with the

5-11


Chapter 5

guideline values given by Kempster et al. (1982), Kiihn (1991) and Environment Canada

(1987)(Table 5.8) will eventually provide information on assessment of water quality.

TA LE 5.8 Guideline values by Kempster et aL (1982)9 Kuhn (1991) and Environme t

Canada (1987)(a=depend on loc conditions and life species present; b=within 5°C of

back ground temperature; c=nitrate; d=depend on pH and DO; f=nitrite; g=aumnonia;

h=depe dent on hardness).

Variable Guideline values CSM3

Kempster et al. Main Canada Venter

min-max Median pH 6.0-9.0 6.6-9.0 - 6.5-9.0 7.9-1-0.2 Temperature (°C) - A b - Dissolved 02 (mg//) >4>5.8 >5 - >5 Conductivity (mS/m) - A - - 257.81176.6 Na (mg//) - 500 100 - 218.21164.5 Mg (mg//) - 1500 - - 98.4199.2 Ca (mg//) - 1000 - - 222.81172.6 F (mg//) 1.5 1.5 1.5 - 1.210.8 Cl (mg//) 50-400 - 100 - 194.61143.1 NO3+NO2+N (mg//) - - c6 f0.06 SO4 (mg/0 - 1400 250 - 1074.9±999.3 F04..N (mg//) - 0.1 - - Alkalinity (CaCO3 mg//) >20 >20 - - Silica (mg//) - 50 - - 4.212.3 K (mg//) - 50 50 - NH4N (mg//) 0.016-124 0.016 d0.01 d/g1.37-2.2 TDS (mg//) - - 800 - 2196.511791.7

Cr (ug//) 10-100 50 - 2 Cu (IWO 5-200 5 50 h2-4 0.2±0.3 Fe (pg/0 200-1000 200 300 300 0.110.03 Mn (Ma) 100-1000 - 50 - 3.116.2 Ni (gg//) 25-50 50 50 h25-150 0.310.2 Pb (14/0 20-100 30 2 hl-7 0.210.04 Zn (gg//) 30-100 100 50 30 0.210.2

The metal concentrations analised for in the water were higher than the suggested guideline

values. An exceptional high maximum value of 19.8 mgll for manganese was observed in

comparison to the 1.0 mg// manganese value sucroected by the guidelines. Other water variables

met the required values while pH, chloride, phosphate, ammonia and TDS values were higher.

5-12


532 METAL ACCIUMULATIION tr V MAC (131INVE s TEBRA't

An introduction to metal accumulation by the macroinvertebrates, as well as the methods for

metal uptake, regulation and excretion are given in Chapter 3.

Data on the metal concentrations of the macroinvertebrates are given in Tables 5.9 to 5.12.

Each table portrays the metal concentrations in the macroinvertebrates sampled during a

specific season. Due to the low number of macroinvertebrates sampled at each locality, some

benthic organisms occurring as individual representatives of different species, were analysed as

a group, whilst others present in high numbers were analysed according to families.

Winter

The data obtained for the benthic organisms during winter are given in Table 5.9.

TA LE 5..9 Tot metal concentrations (wet mass) in the macroinvertebrate larvae during winter 1993.

LOCALITY / ORGANISMS Cu ing/g Fe taig/g Mira pag/g NI pag/g Pb nig Zen pig/g

1 Tubificidae 202.9 17.8 615.9 1123.2 492.8 434.8 Copepoda 845.2 34.4 904.8 3654.8 1500 1702.9 Cladocera 365.4 29.5 769.2 3086.6 1144.2 1519.2 Group 291.7 22.4 680.6 2986.1 944.5 923.6

2 Tubificidae 29.8 5.7 3753.1 564.9 151.9 372.2 Copepoda 258.8 4.4 2390.4 1289.2 535.1 706.2 Group 164.6 3.9 3717.5 826.0 262.5 435.9

5 Tubificidae 12.9 2.3 215.8 22.9 4.4 82.8 Group 231.6 12.6 2750.0 1287.7 674.5 424.5

7 Tubificidae 276.6 21.7 2765.9 2260.7 728.7 1138.3 Copepoda 1269.2 55.2 2307.7 8923.1 2557.7 3923.1 Group 330.7 19.4 1112.9 2016.1 1145.2 838.7

10 Coelenterata 207.2 19.6 10742.9 2278.6 1000.0 1057.2 Cladocera 431.8 30.1 5202.6 3568.2 14313.2 1284.1 Copepoda 379.0 21.5 6713.7 2185.5 455.6 798.4 Ostracoda 136.5 4.3 9548.8 548.9 216.7 310.4 Chironomidae 59.9 1.8 2474.2 243.8 72.2 226.9 Group 83.9 4.8 2072.9 644.2 255.5 352.2

15 Tubificidae 44.4 1.9 2066.8 122.2 26.7 111.5 Copepods 772.7 35.7 2227.3 5579.6 1375 1261.4 Cladocera 119.9 7.6 2010.2 367.9 145.7 252.1 Chironomidae 95.7 8.9 1145.3 638.7 226.6 248.1 Group 173.4 10.1 1599.1 819.8 310.8 515.8

Bold print a High concentrations

During this period, the lowest metal concentrations were obtained for copper and lead, with the

highest metal values for iron and manganese.

5-13


Exceedingly high metal concentrations were observed for the Copepoda (localities 1,7,10 and

15), the Cladocera (localities 1 and 10) as well as the Coelenterata and Ostracoda at locality

10. Thus, it was evident that aquatic macroinvertebrates occurring at locality 10 were

subjected to high levels of manganese, nickel, lead and zinc.

Spring

Data for the metal analysis of macroinvertebrates during spring are given in Table 5.10.

TABLE 5.10 Tot metal concentrations (wet mass) in the macroinvertebrate larvae during spring 1993.

LOCALITY ORGANISM Cu pg/g Fe mg/g Mn pg/g Ni ing/g Ph psg/g Zn 'nig

1 Tubificidae 103.1 8.7 546.1 68.3 293.9 309.2 Copepoda 480.8 25.3 740.6 2798.1 1221.2 836.6 Chironomidae 295.5 17.6 539.8 1801.1 693.2 727.3 Group 804.4 29.1 7717.4 3500 1271.7 1195.7

2 Tubificidae 262.1 13.2 2686.7 987.9 412.7 611.5 Copepoda 512.5 162.5 5750 18750 8375 10501) Chironomidae 2550 56.3 2650 7225 3275 2675 Gastropoda 184.7 4.9 866.7 468.1 191.7 202.8

3 Tubificidae 1937.5 58.3 1645.8 9145.8 3062.5 208.3 Copepoda 960.5 38.8 1052.6 3894.7 1763.2 1912.1 Chironomidae 887.9 24.6 1017.2 4034.5 1103.5 1293.1 Group 296.9 21.4 554.7 2039.1 960.9 812.5

4 Tubificidae 108.2 3.4 1718.1 194.1 42.3 250.9 Group 509.6 41.5 4567.3 2990.4 1250 1730.8

5 Tubificidae 38.4 3.4 450 54 18.3 131.6 Chironomidae 13.2 0.9 108.3 79.2 33.4 46.3

7 Tubificidae 491.4 24.2 896.6 2362.1 965.5 1146.6 Copepoda 3178.6 93.6 3000 9500 4035.7 3392.9 Decapoda 725 35 975 5225 1375 1425 Group 718.8 44.7 1109.4 6328.1 1828.1 1390.6

10 Coelenterata 716.1 12.6 1259.6 1355.8 447.1 663.5 Cladocera 1053.6 50.4 3071.4 7089.3 2017.8 2285.7 Copepoda 635.4 31.1 2947.9 458.3 1052.1 1083.3 Ostracoda 231.4 13.2 3799 1343.2 593.2 730.4 Chironomidae 416.7 14.3 6407.4 1342.6 541.6 828.7 Group 612.1 21.2 482.8 2568.9 750 965.5

13 Group 14750 323.8 9000 36875 11250 25625 15 Tubificidae 117.4 8.5 551 513.6 158.2 273.8

Group 397.1 22.1 1125 2161.8 544.1 742.7


Iron concentrations are given as mg/g as opposed to pg/g because of the high concentrations of

this metal. Copper and manganese had the lowest concentrations, while iron and nickel were

present in high concentrations.

Some of the macroinvertebrates presenting high metal values during spring were the

Tubificidae (locality 3), Copepoda (localities 2 and 7) and the remaining group of invertebrates

5-14


(localities 1 and 3). Exceedingly manganese and nickel concentrations were observed for most

of the macroinvertebrates sampled and analyzed at localities 2, 3, 4 and 10.

S mmer

Data on the metal concentrations accumulated by the macroinvertebrates during summer are

presented in Table 5.11. Concentrations for iron and zinc are given in mg/g wet mass due to

high concentrations.

TA LE 5.11 Metal concentrations (wet mass) accumulated by the macroinvertebrate larvae during summer 1993/19940

LOCALITY ORGANISM Pa pag/g Fe mg/g Mn nig Ni pag/g Ph pag/g Zan mg/g

1 Tubificidae 212.9 18.3 997.5 1180.7 403.5 9.6 Ephemeroptera 553.6 28.1 901.8 3294.7 1392.9 11.9 Chironomidae 900 47.1 1050 5887.5 2062.5 9.6

2 Tubificidae 47.5 6.4 2399.9 383.8 118.4 0.4 Chironomidae 212.5 23 1050 2563 1025 0.7 Group 275 19.5 1543.8 2862.5 825 2.2

4 Tubificidae 229.4 6.4 2283.1 538.1 68.1 0.7 Copepoda 382.8 28.2 4821.5 3507.8 1273.5 1.6 Chironomidae 238.5 8.5 2395.6 687.4 103.3 0.5 Group 961.6 73.7 5384.6 8942.3 2903.9 2.9

5 Tubificidae 69.9 9.5 1951.9 341.9 91.9 0.9 Chironomidae 244.6 20.8 1771.7 2461.9 880.4 9.6 Group 521.7 40.9 1706.6 4956.5 1576.1 2.1

7 Group 260.9 17.5 543.5 2201.1 826.1 0.6 10 Coelenterata 615.4 26.2 1480.8 2615.4 1519.2 1.3

Tubificidae 700 41.8 1687.5 3337.5 2025 1.6 Copepoda 958.3 85.8 3416.7 8958.3 2937.5 3.1 Coleoptera 1519.5 6.4 210.8 696.1 348.1 0.3 Chironomidae 101.4 4.9 3286.5 585.1 210.8 0.3

12 Copepoda 660.7 513 1125 7125 2803.6 2.3 13 Tubificidae 816.7 48.8 1883.3 5650 23333 2.3

Chironomidae 537.5 35.5 2021.5 5262.5 1800 1.7 Group 16023 34.6 800 4318.2 1693.2 3.7

15 Tubificidae 269.2 14.2 141.6 1180.8 542.3 0.9 Copepods 593.8 43.8 1515.6 4635 2125 1.8 Group 366.1 26.2 973.2 2776.8 1312.5 1.1

Bold print e High concentrations

Iron was present in the highest concentration, while copper concentrations were the lowest.

During summer the Diptera at locality 1, the Copepoda at localities 10 and 12 as well as the

group of remaining invertebrates at localities 4 and 13 presented high concentrations for the

majority of metals analysed. Very high manganese, nickel and lead concentrations were

observed for most of the macroinvertebrates sampled and analysed.

5-15


Auttanninm

Data obtained for metal concentrations in the benthic organisms during autumn are given in

Table 5.12. During this period, iron and manganese were in the highest concentrations, while

lead and copper were present in low concentrations.

TA LE 5,12 Tot metal concentrations (wet mass) in the macroinvertebrate larvae

during autumn 1994.

LOC ORGANISM Cla Ilagig Fe eng/g Mnitrig/g Ni pag/g Pb ng/g Zn ilig/g

1 Tubificidae 94.5 22.7 2713.9 986.1 422.2 530.6 Hirudinae 50 8.8 1167.9 1239.3 835.7 478.6 Decapoda 17.4 1.2 231.8 74.5 17.4 35.1 Odonata 10.2 1.6 321.7 123.2 51.1 53.3 Chironomidae 34.1 9.2 779.6 276.5 87.1 343.2 Group 0 14.3 850 2533.3 658.3 683.3

2 Tubificidae 15.8 8.9 859.2 438.2 142.1 190.8 Chironomidae 287.5 48.5 1700 8212.5 3612.5 1950 Group 0 11.5 418.8 2306.3 1406.3 825

3 Copepoda 12333 11.1 391.7 2533.3 1208.3 1608.3 Group 0 38.3 850 7950 2600 1825

4 Tubificidae 113.7 24.4 13490.9 1893.2 295.5 2983.2 Copepoda 0 43.4 1862.5 7725 4375 1475 Chironomidae 123.8 5.9 3696.4 826.2 247.6 654.8 Group 0 26.2 1525 5291.7 47411.7 1133.3

5 Tubificidae 60.9 10 2803.2 159.1 61.7 216.2 Group 0 13.9 2485 1575 600 405

7 Chironomidae 0 14.8 766.7 2458.3 1466.7 2975 10 Coelenterata 250 39 1675 8025 1900 1775

Tubificidae 60 9.9 2015 1825 1255 640 Hirudinae 10.5 0.3 261.3 69.4 32.7 115.6 Cladocera 0 15.3 2933.3 2883.3 2058.3 691.7 Copepoda 0 20.8 1687.5 3950 2000 737.5 Ostracoda 100 13.3 1375 2616.7 658.3 658.3 Ephemeroptera 45 8.4 1260 1625 885 1800 Hemiptera 30 4.9 1622.5 882.5 180 320 Chironomidae 17.9 2.8 2313.3 253.1 61.7 159.4

12 Cladocera 287.5 39.9 1337.5 6900 800 1700 Chironomidae 375 42 1250 8300 2775 1825

13 Copepoda 137.5 21 787.5 4037.5 1812.5 1112.5 Ephemeroptera 437.5 41.9 1550 7100 1275 2437.5 Odonata 85.7 11.9 525 2042.9 442.9 1332.2 Chironomidae 804.7 7.9 1762.5 662.5 304.7 1153.2

15 Tubificidae 50 14.5 1525 1825 412.5 575 Hirudinae 39.7 3.3 1717.7 536.8 297.1 258.9 Decapoda 20 32.3 3566.7 4841.7 1433.3 1450 Ephemeroptera 33.3 7.5 2673.3 576.7 260 265 Trichoptera 10 1.7 676.3 172.5 53.8 83.8 Chironomidae 75 17.1 2646.9 2021.9 1171.9 1003.1 Group 22.2 20.9 450 891.7 261.1 300

Bold pint igh co centrations

Metal analysis of the different groups of macroinvertebrates indicated high concentrations for

the Chironomidae (localities 2, 4, 12 and 13), Tubiricidae (locality 4), Copepoda (localities 3

and 4), Ephemeroptera (locality 13), Decapoda (locality 15) and the remaining group of

macroinvertebrates at localities 3 and 4.

5-16


53.3 METAL ACCUMULATION SELECTED MEI SPECIES

An introduction on metal uptake, transport, regulation and excretion of metals by fish are given

in Chapter 4.

Data on the metal concentrations of the selected fish species are given in Figures 5.2 to 5.9.

Figures 5.2 to 5.5 portray the metal concentrations in L. capensis - Orange River Mudfish

(Figure 5.2), L. umbratus - Moggel (Figure 5.3), C. carpio - Common carp (Figure 5.4) and C.

gariepinus - Sharptooth catfish (Figure 5.5) caught during November 1993. Figures 5.6 to 5.9

portray the metal concentrations in L. capensis (Figure 5.6), C. carpio (Figure 5.7), L.

umbratus (Figure 5.8) and C. gariepinus (Figure 5.9) caught during March 1994. Additional

Tables on the data of the organs and tissues of the different fish species, for the two sampling

periods are given in an appendix at the end of this chapter.

Met analysis of the selected fish species sampled during November 1993.

Bioconcentration factors (Wiener Giesy, 1979) between the fish tissues and the water (BFw)

and the sediment (BFs) were determined using only the mean metal concentration in each

organ. This data is presented in Tables 5.15 to 5.30 in the Appendix.

Labeo capensis

Iron accumulation in L. capensis (Figure 5.2) were high in the liver (850.9+492.8 .tg/g), gills

(399.9+213.9 µg/g), muscle (204.6+166.1 .tg/g) and skin (873.2+620.7 tg/g). High zinc

concentrations were also recorded (liver = 223.9+118.4 µg/g, gills = 180.1+145.9 mg/g, muscle

= 152.7+167.8 p.g/g and skin = 283.9+142.8 .tg/g. Other metals such as copper (liver =

337.7+242.7 µg/g), manganese (gills = 139.7+50.2 .tg/g) and lead (skin = 33.6+32 pg/g) were

present in high concentrations (Table 5.15, Appendix).

The bioconcentration factors determined between L. capensis and the water (BFw) were

exceptionally high for iron and zinc, with lower values for copper, manganese, nickel and lead

(Table 5.16, Appendix). The bioconcentration factors determined between the fish and the

sediment (BFs) were much lower in comparison to the BFw values. BFw and BFs for copper in

the different organs and tissues of L. capensis were highest for the liver and lowest for the

muscle, while for manganese the highest were in the gills. The skin presented the highest iron,

nickel, lead and zinc BFw and BFs values (Table 5.16, Appendix).

5-17


Labeo tapnbratus

Accumulation of copper mainly occurred in the liver (953.911904.2 nig) and manganese in

the gills (83.4±47.6 nig) of L. umbratus (Figure 5.3). Iron (liver = 935.91411.6 µg/g, gills =

361.81210.2 nig, muscle = 432.71230.1 lAg/g and skin = 1191.111475.4 µg/g) as well as

zinc (liver = 435.411723.4 pg/g, gills = 197.11121.5 pg/g, muscle = 68.9115.9 pg/g and skin

= 284.21102.3 pg/g) presented continuous high concentrations in all the organs and tissues

analysed (Table 5.17, Appendix).

The bioconcentration factors determined between the different metal concentrations in the

sediment and the organs and tissues of L. umbratus (BFs) were drastically lower than the

determined BFw values for the same data (Table 5.18, Appendix). BFw and BFs for iron,

nickel and lead in the fish were highest for the skin, with lower values for the gills and muscle.

The gills presented the highest manganese BFs and BFw values, while high copper and zinc

values occurred for the liver (Table 5.18, Appendix).

Cyprinus carpio and Clarias gariepinus

Both C. carpio (Figure 5.4) and C. gariepinus (Figure 5.5) presented continuous high iron (C.

carpio : liver = 2173.411554.8 pg/g, gills = 490.7±596.3pg/g, muscle = 154.51196.5 nig

and skin = 323.91357.4 pg/g; C. gariepinus : liver = 780.91688.9 12g/g, gills = 494.9166.1

pg/g,. muscle = 458.7±203.3 .tg/g and skin = 956.8±1073.1 12g/g). High zinc concentrations

(C. carpio : liver = 900.1±1040.3 pg/g, gills = 1355.5±1404.3 pg/g, muscle = 101.4172.4

lAg/g and skin = 164.91144.7 pg/g; C. gariepinus : liver = 302.21131.3 pg/g, gills =

144.9110.9 pg/g, muscle = 61.71131.3 ;..ig/g and skin = 397.41290.5 pg/g) were recorded in

the organs and tissues analysed. In both these cases lower manganese concentrations in the gills

(C. carpio = 161.9133.2 pg/g and C. gariepinus = 182.21209.8 µg/g) and nickel

concentrations in the muscle (C. carpio = 26.9116.3 pg/g and C. gariepinus = 31.412.2 pg/g)

and skin (C. carpio = 84.619.3 1..tg/g and C. gariepinus = 100.4196.9 nig) were observed

(Tables 5.18 and 5.19, Appendix).

The bioconcentration factors determined between the fish organs and tissues and the sediment

(BFs) were much lower in comparison to the BFw values. BFw and BFs for copper and iron in

the fish were highest for the liver, while BFw and BFs for nickel and lead were highest in the

skin of C. carpio and C. gariepinus. The gills presented the highest manganese BFs and BFw

values, while zinc BFw and BFs values varied between the skin and the gills (Tables 5.20 and

5.22, Appendix).

5-18

Pb Zn Cu Fe

Mn Ni

Metals

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0 Con

cen

ture

lion

s (u

ag/g

)

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Met tiffi

GILLS

T [ 1 ]

s 600

500

in 400

14.0 300

200 aa

100

U 0


Chapter 5

A

FIGURE 5.2 Met concentrations (la ig dry mass) in the liver (A) and gills (B) of L.

capensis - November 1993 (n=27).

5-19

Mn Ni

Me Pb Zn Cu Fe

Zn Cu Fe Mn Ni

Metals Pb

250

200

150

100

50

0 Con

cent

rati

ons

(pg/

g)

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0 Con

cent

rati

ons

tag

/g)

MUS

SKIN

T

T


Chapter 5

C

B

FIGURE 5.2 Metal concentrations Wig dry mass) in the muscle (C) and skin ) off L.

capensis - November 1993 (n=27).

5-20

Zn Pb Cu Fe Mn Ni Metals

1500

1000

500

0 Coga

cent

rati

o11115

(n

ig)

uvER

Mn Me.

Ni Pb Zn Fe Cu

GILLS

a 600 sap 500

400

300

t 200

ce:4 100

C5 0


Chapter 5

A

FIGURE 5.3 Met: concentrations (ug/g dry mass) in the liver (A) and o CHs (B) of L.

mmbratids - November 1993 (n=12).

5-21

Ni Mn

Me f Is

MUSCLE

Pb Zn Fe Cu

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 Con

cent

rati

ons

(pg/

g)

S

2500

2000

1500

1000

500 I

0 Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Metal s

Co

ncen

trat

ions

(p.g

/g)


Chapter 5

C

D

FIGURE 53 Metal concentrations (pg/g dry mass) in the muscle (C) and skin (D) of L.

upnbrattas - November 1993 (n=12).

5-22

Metals

LIVER

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500 1.--, 0

Cu 1_-

Fe Mn Fe Ni Pb

Con

cent

rati

ons

(pg/

g)

T Zn

GILLS

2500

2000

1500

I

,

1000

500

0 Mn Ni Pb Zn

Metals

Coe

rce:

tra

tion

s (p

,g/g

)

Chapter 5 Effects of Mining Activities on Selected Aquatic Organisms

A

FIGURE 5.4 Met concentrations (fagig dry mass) in the liver (A) and gills of C.

carpio - November 1993 (n=3).

5-23


C

•—• 300 orD 250

2 200

150

100

50 0 U 0

MUSCLE

Cu Fe Mn Ni

Pb

Zn

Metal s

rtio 600

500

400

300

tj 200

c 100

U) 0

S

Cu

Fe

Mn Ni

Pb

Zn

Metals

D

FIGURE SA Met concentrations (nig dry mass) in the muscle (C) and skin (D) of C.

carpio - November 1993 (n=3).

5-24

Zn Pb Cu

Fe

Mn Ni

Metal s

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

Co

ncen

trat

ions

(pg

/g)

0 Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Metals

GILLS

7.0 600

tr. 500

400

eel 300

t' 200

100 cu es)

-2-

0


Chapter 5

A

FIGURE 5.5 Metal concentrations (jtg/g dry mass) in the liver (A) and gills (B) of C.

gariepinus - November 1993 (n=4).

5-25

Pb Zn Cu

Fe

Mn Ni

Metals

MUSCLE

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Me s

700

600 500

400 300

200 100

0 Co,

cen

tr: t

ions

(pig

/g)

SKIN

r

a 2000

1500

1000

500

0


Chapter 5

C

11)

FIGURE 53 Met concentration (Qa.g/g dry mass) in the muscle (C) and skin of C.

gariepinus - November 1993 (n=4).

5-26


Metal analysis of selected fish species during March 1 I) 4 4.

Labeo capensis

High iron concentrations were measured the organs and tissues of L. capensis (n=27) analysis

(liver = 2333.413250.8 .tg/g, gills = 345.61558.3 .tg/g, muscle = 88.8113. lag/g and skin =

492.41408.0 .tg/g). Lower concentrations of zinc in the gills (283.51574.6 tg/g), muscle

(33.916.3 .tg/g) and skin (125.1+62.4 tg/g); copper in the liver (355.4±62.4 .tg/g) and skin

(157.1±166.6 1.1g/g) and manganese in the gills (237.5±437.3 .tg/g) were recorded (Table 5.23,

Appendix).

The bioconcentration factors determined between L. capensis and the water (BFw) were

exceptionally high for iron and zinc, with lower values for copper, manganese, nickel and lead

(Table 5.24, Appendix). The bioconcentration factors determined between the fish and the

sediment (BFs) were much lower in comparison to the BFw values. BFw and BFs for copper,

iron and lead in the different organs and tissues of L. capensis were highest for the liver and

lowest for the muscle. The gills presented the highest manganese and zinc BFw and BFs values,

while nickel BFw and BFs values were high in the skin (Table 5.24, Appendix).

Cyprintas carpio

Data on the accumulation of metals by C. carpio (n=3) confirmed high concentrations of iron

(liver = 1312.8±667.5 .tg/g, gills = 357.6±158.7 .tg/g, muscle = 118.1±24.2 .tg/g and skin

2260.21694.7 .tg/g) and zinc (liver = 332.21106.9 tg/g, gills = 484.6129.6 .tg/g, muscle =

57.4116.5 .tg/g and skin = 610.9±861.9 .tg/g) in all the organs and tissues analysed (Figure

5.7; Table 5.25, Appendix).


sediment and the organs and tissues of C. carpio (BFs) were drastically lower than the

determined BFw values for the same data (Table 5.26, Appendix). BFw and BFs for copper

and nickel were high in the skin, for iron and lead high in the liver and for manganese and zinc

high in the gills.

5-27


Labeo umbratus

Analysis of the organs and tissues of L. umbratus (n=12) provided high concentrations of

copper in the liver (602.5±391.5 .tg/g) and manganese in the gills (95.0±40.1 pg/g). High iron

and zinc concentrations were present in the liver (1044.1±1014.9 1.1g/g; 159.1+33.4 µg/g), gills

(239.8+122.6 pg/g; 90.1±18.2 .tg/g) and skin (556.1±388.7 .tg/g; 105.2±53.0 lig/g)(Figure

5.8; Table 27, Appendix).

The bioconcentration factors determined between the fish organs and tissues and the sediment

(Bp's) were much lower in comparison to the BFw values. BFw and BFs for copper, iron, lead

and zinc in the different organs and tissues of L. umbratus were highest for the liver. The gills

presented the highest manganese and the skin the highest nickel BFw and Fs values (Table

5.28, Appendix).

Clarias gariepinus

In C. gariepinus (n=4)(Figure 5.9) high iron and zinc concentrations were present in the organs

and tissues sampled. Values obtained were liver = 266.9 lig/g Fe and 191.1 .tg/g Zn; gills =

269 .tg/g Fe and 100.9 pig/g Zn; muscle = 103.0 .tg/g Fe and 34.8 nig Zn; skin = 145.6 .gig

Fe and 18.1 .tg/g Zn. High copper concentrations in the liver (65.4 .tg/g) and manganese

concentrations in the gills (57.9 12g/g) were also present (Table 5.29, Appendix).


sediment and the tissues as well as organs of C. gariepinus (BFs) were drastically lower than

the determined BFw values for the same data (Table 5.30, Appendix). Fw and BFs for

copper, nickel, lead and zinc were highest for the liver. The gills presented the highest iron and

manganese BFw and BFs values.

5-28


A

LIVER

Ts@ 4000 .set)

ef.4

C.)

0

3000

2000

1000

0 Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Melds

GILLS

"618 800 sai)

600

ez 400

a.) 200

0 U 0

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Metal s

B

FIGURE 5.6 Metal conce trations (lagig dry mass) in the liver (A) and gills ) off /L.

capePisis - March. 1994 (n=20).

5-29

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Con

cent

rati

ornts

(g

/g) 120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Con

cent

ratio

ns (

gg/g

) 1000

800

600

400

200

0

MUS

Me

S KIN

Metal s


Chapter 5

C

D

FIGURE 5,6 Metal concentrations (nig dry mass) in the muscle (C) and skin (D) of L.

capensis - March 1994 (n=20).

5-30

11',6 2000

1500

1000

500

0 Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Met

GILLS

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Metals

Con

cent

rati

ons

(ag/

g)

800

600

400

200

0


A

FIGURE 5a Metal concentrations (p.g/g dry mass) in the liver (A) and 'lls ) of C.

carpio - March 1994 (n=20).

5-31

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Co

ncen

tr : t

ions

(gg

/g) 150

100

50

0

MUS CLE

Methil s

SKIN

Metals

Con

cent

rati

ons

(pag/

g)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0 11-

I 1


C

D

FIGURE 5.7 Met concentrations (iagig dry mass) in the musclle (C) and skin (D) of C.

carpio - March 1994 (n=20).

5-32

LIVER

2500

2000

1500

1000

500 —

0 Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Me

CO

ncen

tr::t

ions (

lag/

g)

f---,,----, 1 1

I

GILLS

Metall s

Ni Pb Zn

S 400 .sal) N.

300 c

*4-60 200

a' tv 100 w 0 0

(..) 0 Cu

Fe

Mn


A

B

FIGURE 5.8 Met concentrations (iag/g dry mass) in the liver (A) and gills ) of L.

umbratus - March 1994 (n=13).

5-33

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Co

ncen

trat

ions

(pag

/g) 1000

800

600

400

200

0

Metals

MUSCLE

400

300

200

100

-r 0

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb

Con

ce4I

tra t

ions

(pg

/g)

1±1 Zn

SKIN

Metals


C

D

FIGURE 5,8 Met concentrations (nig dry mass) in the muscle (C) and skin (13) of L.

umbratus - March 1994 (n=13).

5-34

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Co

ncen

tr: t

ions

(pg

/g) 300

250

200

150

100

50

0

LIVER

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Metals

Co

ncem

itrat

io s

(p.ag

/g) 300

250

200

150

100

50

0

GILLS

Metals


Chapter 5

A

FIGURE 5S t concentrations (lag/g dry mass) in the liver (A) and gills (B) of C.

gariepinus - March 1994 (n=1).

5-35

Co

ncen

trat

ions

(pag

/g) 120

100

80

60

40

20

0

MUSCLE

Met

SIGN

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

Met

Con

cent

ratio

ns (

gg/

g)

150

100

50

Cu Fe Mn I 1

Ni Pb Zn


Chapter 5

C

D

FIGURE 5.9 Metal concentrations (nig dry mass) in the made (C) and skin (D) of C.

gariepinus - March 1994 (n=1).

5-36

D Cu

Fe

Mn

Ni

Pb

0 Zn

0

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200 Met

al C

once

ntra

tion

s (p

g/t

Fish species

GILLS

1000

900

800 Cu

Fe

Mn

Ni

Pb

Zn

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 ----t

L. capensis L. umbra:us C. ganepinus C. carpio

Fish species

Met

all C

orm

cent

ratio

mis (

itag/

g

-I' 1-

C. gariepinus C. carpio L. capensis L. umbra:us


FIGURE 5.10 Mean values of the met concentrations (p,g/g dry mass) per tissue per

species

5-37

Cu

Fe

Mn

Ni

Pb

0 Zn

o Cu

Fe

Mn

Ni

Pb

0 Zn

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50 Met

a➢ C

once

ntra

tion

s (ia

g/g;

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200 Met

al C

once

ntra

tion

s (ia

g/g

MUSCLE

SION.

1 1 r, , L. um bratus C. gariepinus

Fish s cies

___,

L. capensis C. carpio

F i

L. capensis

I -J L__, ____J L_,

L. umbratus C. gariepinus

1sh species

C. carpio


FIGURE 5 10 (Continued)

5-38


Figure 5.10 (Table 5.31 in the Appendix) summarizes the mean metal content in various organs

and tissues sampled for the fish species.

5.4 DISCUSS

'IP

From the data analysed the following information was made available concerning the water

quality data at Case study Mine Three, by Venter (1995) :

pH values varied from neutral (7.46 locality 5) to alkaline (8.28 locality 12).

Mining activities were responsible for changes observed in TDS, where a 26.30 %

increase occurred from locality 1 (399.22 mg/1) to locality 15 (504.31 mg/1).

Constituents such as trace metals and non-determined constituents contributed 28.70

%, resulting in an expected increase in electrical conductivity (64.65 mS/m/ : locality 1

to 77.13 S/m/ : locality 15.

Mining activities influenced the ionic composition of the water as the concentrations of

these constituents in the water of the Vaal River were much lower than those in the

water of the mining area.

Guideline values for the water quality data.

When comparing the water quality data of Case Study Mine Three (Venter, 1995) with

guideline values given by Dempster et ad. (1982), Environment Canada (1987) and Kiihn

(1991)(Table 5.8) the following was evident :

the metal concentrations analised for in the water were higher than the suggested

values of the guidelines,

variables such as sodium, magnesium, calcium, sulfate and silica met the required

values, while

chloride, phosphate, ammonia and TDS values were higher.

Identification and Distribution of Macroinvertebrates

An overall abundance of Tubificidae and Crustacea (Cladocera, Copepoda and Ostracoda)

were present during winter with declining numbers towards summer. A drop in water level of

the streams during winter as well as a decrease in predators (Chironomidae usually prey on

5-39


Crustacea) resulted in an increase in the number of organisms per unit volume water, despite

other limiting factors such as low temperature and low nutrient availability.

Low numbers of water insect larvae (Collembola, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Hemiptera,

Coleoptera and Diptera) and Hirudinea were present during winter, while these organism's

numbers increased towards summer and autumn. This was probably due to an increase in

temperature and nutrient availability. The start of the rainy season and consequent volume

increase in stream water resulted in a decrease in number of Tubificidae and Crustacea due to

these organisms being flushed or washed away.

Throughout the sampling period Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Crustacea (Cladocera and

Copepoda) occurred in large numbers at the sampling localities. These large numbers of

Tubificidae and Chironomidae resulted from their survival of polluted conditions such as

mining activities (effluent from rock-dumps and slimes dams). Gaufin & Tarzwell (1952) as

well as Eyres et al. (1978) confirmed the presence of Tubificidae and Chironomidae to be

important evidence of polluted conditions of the aquatic environment. The occurrence of

Tubificidae and Chironomidae can also be attributed to their possible physiological adaptations

to operate in polluted conditions (Aston, 1973), which enabled these organisms to survive and

reproduce, while predators such as leeches and bottom feeding fishes occur in reduced numbers

or are excluded from the aquatic system (Freedman, 1989). Survival of Tubificidae and

Chironomidae may also depend on other factors such as physical conditions of the water

(hardness, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature and increase in sulfates : Aston, 1973;

Brkovic-Popovic & Popovic, 1977; Moon & Lucostic, 1979) and food availability (Haines,

1981; Vangenechten et al., 1986).

Uimonen-Simola Tolonen (1987) stated that the size and composition of Cladocera and

Copepoda populations are linked by food resources and predators, but factors such as the

nature and stability of the stream beds may also be indicative (Gaufin Tarzwell, 1952;

Chutter, 1971).

The presence of Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Cladocera, despite limiting factors, indicate

their physiological tolerance (Roback & Richardson, 1969; Koryak et al., 1972; Vangenechten

et al., 1986) and their consequent abundance were determined by resources available to them

(Godfrey, 1978).

5-40


In comparison to the abundance of Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Cladocera, only a few water

insect larvae (Collembola, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, Coleoptera and iptera) and

Hirudinea were observed throughout the sampling period. Most species of water insect larvae

are severely affected by products of mine drainage (Roback & Richardson, 1969). However,

the sensitivity of water insect larvae to mine effluent vary from one species to another within

the same family (Raddum & Fjellheim, 1984). Water insect larvae such as Ephemeroptera,

Odonata and Trichoptera have been described as species which are more sensitive to mining

effluents (Roback & Richardson, 1969; ell, 1971; Godfrey, 1978; Moon & Lucostic, 1979;

Haines, 1981; Raddum & Fjellheim, 1984), while some Coleoptera, Hemiptera and Trichoptera

were less sensitive (Roback Richardson, 1969; Bell, 1971, Moon & Lucostic, 1979; Haines,

1981). Factors other than sensitivity to mining effluent may also determine the abundance of

these organisms. These factors include knowledge of the life histories (Gaufin & Tarzwell,

1952), availability of food (Vangenechten et al., 1986; Tumpenny, 1989) and the

presence/absence of predators (Kajak, 1979; Vangenechten et al., 1986; Tumpenny, 1989).

Metal Accumulation by Macroinvertebrates

Information presented by Venter (1995) regarding the metal analysis of the water proved that :

Copper concentrations in the Vaal River were at or below the detection limit for the

metal 0.05 mg//), while concentrations at the mining localities fluctuated between 0.13

inW/ to 1.16 mg//.

The mean iron concentrations at the localities in the Vaal River fluctuated. Iron

concentrations were higher than concentrations for the localities within the mining area

compared to the Vaal River, suggesting that Case Study Mine Three had a limited

impact on the dissolved iron concentrations in the Vaal River (0.11 me = locality 15

and 0.16 mg/1= locality 1).

Mining activities did not change zinc concentrations at localities 1 and 15 (0.07 mg//)

but definitely at localities 11, 12 and 13 (0.39-0.53 mg//).

Mining activities resulted in high manganese levels at localities 11, 12 and 13 and in

general values varied between 0.05 to 0.08 mg// at localities 1 and 15..

The mean nickel concentrations at the localities in the mining area were much higher

(0.10-3.30 mg// Ni) than those present in the Vaal River ; which fluctuated between

0.09 (locality 1) and 0.11 mg// (locality 15).

The average lead concentration in the Vaal River was lower than those found in the

surface water of the mine.

5-41


Possible run-off from a slimes-dam might have caused the high aluminum

concentrations at locality 12.

Sediment concentrations at all the localities suggested that metal contamination was linked to

the concentration levels recorded in the surface water (Venter, 1995).The following data on

sediment analysis was presented by Venter (1995) :

Sediment at certain localities receiving effluent water from slimes dams presented

higher copper concentrations than localities receiving water effluent from plants, rock-

dumps and sewage works.

Sediment nickel and zinc concentrations at the localities in the mining area revealed

that surface contamination was more abundant than bottom-layer contamination.

Manganese contamination, originating from mining activities in the area, was already

observed in 1985. However, manganese concentrations seem to have decreased since

then, and can be related to more effective management of the effluent water.

Certain localities (locality 13) in the mining area presented iron concentrations in the

bottom layers (25-30 cm below surface) exceeding 190 000.0 .tg/g Fe, indicating

stagnant water seeping into the soil. Iron is, however, not a problematic element and

these results only suggested the impact of mining operations on sediment-iron

concentrations.

Lead concentrations in the Vaal River were lower than surface sediment concentrations

at localities within the mining area.

An introduction to maximum metal accumulation by macroinvertebrates, as well as methods

for metal uptake, regulation and excretion are given in Chapter 3.

The overall sequence for metal accumulation by the macroinvertebrate fauna presented the

following : Fe > Ni > Mn > Zn > Pb > Cu.

During the sampling periods, analysis of metals accumulated by the macroinvertebrates

presented extremely high iron concentrations. These high concentrations was probably due to

the release of iron into the system because of mining activities (Venter, 1995).

The mean nickel concentrations in the surface water and top sediment layer of the localities in

the mining area were high (Venter, 1995) with similar high concentrations in the

macroinvertebrates analysed. Moore & Ramamoorthy (1984) described high nickel as non

5-42


toxic, but the toxicity can be affected by changes in water chemistry. Uptake of nickel depend

on concentrations within the water and food, but factors such as changing water temperature

and the organism's stage of development may also have an effect on nickel uptake (Burrows &

Whitton, 1983; Moore & Ramamoorthy, 1984).

High surface water manganese concentrations were determined at the localities in the mining

area, with lower concentrations in the sediment and macroinvertebrates.

Zinc concentrations determined for the surface water and sediment revealed elevated levels in

the mining area. However, zinc concentrations presented for the macroinvertebrate analysis

were lower than iron, nickel and manganese concentrations and thus also being less toxic than

most metals (Moore Ramamoorthy, 1984). Zinc uptake by the macroinvertebrates depend on

concentrations available in the water, sediment and food, but uptake can be limited by factors

such as temperature and water hardness (Moore & Ramamoorthy, 1984).

Both lead and copper revealed higher levels in the water and sediment at localities in the mining

area than in the Vaal River (Venter, 1995), while these two metal concentrations were the

lowest for the macroinvertebrates analysed. Accumulation of lead and copper is species

dependent and toxicity of these metals are determined by pH, water hardness and salinity

(Moore & Ramamoorthy, 1984; Dixit & Witcomb, 1983).

Data presented by Forstner (1982) revealed that the surplus of metal contaminants introduced

into the aquatic system from the mining activities, usually exists in relatively unstable chemical

forms and are, therefore, predominantly accessible for biological uptake.

Organisms such as the Tubificidae, Cladocera, Copepoda and Chironomidae presented

exceptionally high metal concentrations in comparison to the other organisms analysed. It has

been well documented that Chironomidae larvae and to a lesser extent Tubificidae, can

accumulate substantial amounts of metals (Timmermans & Walker, 1989). Chironomidae

larvae is, however, also involved in the removal of metals from the aquatic to the terrestrial

system (Timmermans Walker, 1989). Physiological changes during metamorphosis and

shedding of the exoskeleton of Chironomidae when molting, results in significant loss of

accumulated trace metals - an important method of elimination (Namminga & Wilhm, 1977;

Timmermans Walker, 1989). The high body metal concentrations for Tubificidae may be

accounted for by the fact that these organisms burrow in and ingest bacteria and sediment

5-43


particles from the top layer of sediment (Brinkhurst et al., 1972). Mathis & Cummings (1973)

stated that the bottom sediment acts as a "sink" for most metals and, therefore, explains the

high metal levels in the bottom-dwelling organisms.

SASS3 Comparison

During this study it was decided to perform the SASS3 Rapid Bioassessment at certain chosen

localities. These localities were in concurrence with the localities originally chosen for Case

Study Mine Three where sampling was performed. This was done to compare results from the

different techniques.

The South African Scoring System (SASS) is a rapid bio-assessment protocol which has been

developed for local conditions (Chutter, 1991). This indice is based on the occurrence of

families of invertebrate fauna in rivers as a measure of water quality (Roux, 1993). Roux

(1993) further pointed out a few facts regarding the SASS3 technique :

This method uses family-level classification of taxa resulting in non-specialist

taxonomists carrying out the monitoring.

It is relatively simple as well as time and cost efficient.

It can be carried out at the sampling site, without the use of sophisticated equipment

(microscopes).

This method is non-destructive in that living organisms are returned to the site of

collection.

This method, however, is flow dependent. Factors such as strong water flow can

hamper sampling during rainy seasons, thus restricting sampling to the dry season.

A few important features regarding the grab-technique are as follows :

This method uses genus/species-level classification of taxa and only specialist

taxonomists can carry out the monitoring.

It involves sampling at various localities and further identification is conducted with a

microscope in a laboratory.

Information can be gathered on recent and newly discovered species which eventually

adds to the academic value of information.

It allows the detection of trends over time and space, but can be time consuming.

This method is not flow dependent and can be conducted during any season.

5 -4 4


When comparing the results, the grab-technique offered a larger variety of aquatic benthic

organisms, while no good SASS3 scores were obtained (Table 5.7). This can be attributed to

standing water at most of the localities, limiting results for SASS3. Localities chosen should

represent flowing well-mixed riffle areas, required for conducting the SASS protocol (Roux,

1993). The localities at Case Study Mine Three were originally chosen for implementation of

the grab technique and the conditions do not satisfy the requirements for SASS protocol. It is

thus evident that both the above techniques have advantages and disadvantages. Choosing a

specific technique should depend on the type of study, information needed and time available.

Met Accumulation by selected fish species.

Water quality data for Case Study Mine Three presented pH values ranging from 7.46 to 8.28

(Venter, 1995). Mining activities lead to the increase of ionic composition of the water, as well

as TDS and electrical conductivity (Venter, 1995). Metal analysis of the water revealed

elevated aluminum, copper, manganese, nickel, lead and zinc concentrations at localities within

the mining area, while these metal levels in the Vaal River were below detection limits for the

various metals (Venter, 1995). However, the direct opposite was evident for iron, suggesting

that Case Study Mine Three had a limited impact on dissolved iron concentrations in the Vaal

River (Venter, 1995).

Sediment metal concentrations at all the localities in the mining area suggested that metal

contamination was linked to the concentration levels recorded in the surface water (Venter,

1995). Venter (1995), however, found lower sediment concentrations in the Vaal River than

surface sediment concentrations at the localities within the mining area.

Metal analysis of the organs and tissues of the fish sampled during November 1993 and March

1994, presented the following sequence : Fe > Zn > Ni > Cu > Mn > Pb. Each fish species

presented the following :

Labeo capensis : Accumulation of copper and iron were mainly in the liver, manganese

and zinc in the gills, with nickel and lead in the skin.

Labeo umbratus : Bioaccumulation of copper, iron, lead and zinc were in the liver,

while manganese accumulated in the gills and nickel in the skin.

Clarias gariepinus : Iron, nickel, lead and zinc accumulated in the skin of C.

gariepinus, while copper accumulation were mainly in the liver and manganese in the

gills.

5-45


Cyprinus carpio : Copper, nickel and lead accumulated in the skin of C. carpio.

Accumulation of iron and zinc were in the liver, while manganese accumulated in the

gills.

The surplus of metal contaminants introduced into the aquatic system by activities such as

industries, power plants, agricultural and mining activities, usually exists in relatively unstable

chemical forms in the water column and are, therefore, predominantly accessible for biological

uptake (Forstner, 1982). Coetzee (1996) indicated that metal concentrations in the water have

no effect on the biological availability of metals to fish. Factors such as metal species and

physico-chemical conditions of the water may determine the toxicity and speciation of metals

(Coetzee, 1996).

Some of the metals in the water column tend to accumulate in sediments. Gibbs (1973)

proposed several mechanisms of metal accumulation in sediments such as : (1) Adsorptive

bonding of fine-grained substances, (2) precipitation of discrete metal compounds, (3)

coprecipitation of metals by hydrous iron and manganese oxides and by carbonates, (4)

association with organic molecules and (5) incorporation in crystalline minerals. Forstner

(1982) also stated that sediment bound metals may again be bioavailable to some extent.

Experiments conducted by Luoma & Jenne (1977) indicated that the bioavailability of metals is

inversely related to the strength of metal-particulate associations in the sediments.

Accumulation of metals by aquatic organisms provide an essential link between the

concentrations of metals in the environment and the effect that these concentrations have on

biota. Bioconcentration factors were determined between organs and tissues of the four fish

species and the water (BFw) as well as the sediment (BFs). BFw values were very high in

comparison to BFs values. These high BFw values indicate the bioavailability of metals in the

water column to be higher than metals in the sediment compartment to the fish species. The

concentrations of the pollutants in the water are very important, and many organisms carry

higher loads of pollutants when living in contaminated water (Mason, 1991). Regulatory

processes in the fish are, however, a contributing factor in affecting bioavailability of metals in

water to fish (Wiener & Giesy, 1979). Thus, the rate of accumulation of pollutants will depend

on factors both external and internal to the organisms.

Iron and zinc presented very high BFs and BFw values, while values for copper, manganese,

nickel and lead were lower. Accumulation of metals were mainly in organs and tissues such as

5-46


the liver, gills and skin. However, accumulation of specific metals in certain organs varied,

from one fish species to another (Schofield, 1976; Mason, 1991). There are many factors such

as age of the organism, sex, size, weight, time of year, sampling position and relative levels of

other pollutants in the tissues, influencing the total pollutant content and concentration of

metals in organs and tissues (Mason, 1991). It is also evident that some organs have greater

affinity for metals than other (FOrstner & Wittmaim, 1979).

Four possible routes exists for a substance to enter a fish : through the gills, ingestion of food,

drinking of water and absorption through the skin. Metals are then carried by the blood, bound

to a protein. Different proteins may exist for each essential trace metal, and presumably

nonessential metals use one of the existing proteins some metals may also bind to amino acids

(Sorensen, 1991). Fish have different routes for possible excretion of harmful chemicals which

include the gills, bile (via faeces), kidney and skin (Matthiessen & Brafield, 1977).

When metals are present in the water, the gills and skin of certain species tend to accumulate

these metals rather than excrete it. Studies conducted by Mount Stephan (1967) showed that

under circumstances of severe contamination organs such as the gills, showing great affinity for

metals, presented elevated metal concentrations. Under normal circumstances the gills of

freshwater fish are covered with a thin layer of mucus (McDonald, 1983). Exposure of fish to

metals at all pH levels will cause chelation of these metals by the proteinaceous mucus

(Cusimano et al., 1986). Circulation of blood through the gills as well as the flow of water over

the gills, is affected by the precipitated mucus, which clog the gills, immobilizes the gill

filaments (Doudoroff & Katz, 1953), interferes with respiration (Turnpenny, 1989) and causes

consequent anoxia (Schofield, 1976).

The liver is the main organ for homeostasis in fish. The metal binding protein metallothionein

plays an important role in the accumulation of metals in the liver of fish. Several metals have

been found at elevated levels in the bile of fish during or following ingestion of or waterborne

exposure to metals. It was found that the concentrations of metals elevated firstly in the bile

and then the liver. A possible explanation is that the liver accumulates the metals from the

blood and then stores it in the gallbladder. When the concentrations of metals in this organ

exceeds critical levels, metals can then be accumulated by the bile and storage occurs in the

liver (Jernelov & Lann, 1971; Sorensen, 1991).

5-47

Effeds of Mining Activities on Selected Aquatic Organisms Chapter 5

Accumulation of metals in the muscle tissue of the four fish species remained at low

concentrations. Due to varying affinity of metals for certain organs, the muscle proved not to

be a suitable tissue for determining the extent of metal contamination of the entire organism

(Forstmer & Wittmann, 1979). Forstner & Wittmann (1979) noted that, as in the case of muscle

tissue in this study, the increase in metal concentrations in muscle tissue of exposed fish were

lower than in other organs. It appears that an increase in muscle metal concentration only takes

place when fish are exposed to extremely high concentrations (Jernelov & Lann, 1971). Studies

conducted by Muller Prosi (1978) revealed organs such as the gills, liver and kidney to have

greater affinity for metals and would therefore appear to be more suited for evaluation of metal

contamination in fish.

Table 5.13 indicates the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) of metal concentrations for

humans. When considering this table, it is evident that the metal concentrations found in the

tissues and organs of the fish sampled at Case Study Mine Three are below the recommended

RDA for metals such as copper, iron, manganese and zinc. The fish can therefore be considered

safe for human consumption.

TABLE 5J3 Recommended daily lowed (RDA) metal concentrations (mg/g) for humans

HUMANS METAL CONCENTRATION

Cu Fe Mn Zn

Adult 3-Feb 18-Oct 2.5-5 15 Children 1-2.5 15-Oct 1-2.5 10-Mar

Furthermore, the accumulation of metals such as manganese, lead and zinc in the gills of the

fish, suggest possible chronic exposure to these metals. Chronic exposure takes place over a

long period of time, when the metals are absorbed, regulated and stored in bony structures. The

high concentrations of copper, iron, nickel, lead and zinc which accumulated in the liver of the

fish, may even suggest possible acute exposure to these metals. Acute exposure takes place

when metals are absorbed, regulated in the liver and excreted before accumulation can take

place (Hodson et al., 1980).

5-48


53 CCURRENCE EVALUATION IN EX

The occurrence evaluation index for Case Study Mine Three (Table 5.14) was compiled for the

mining industry and management where the presence and diversity of aquatic

macroinvertebrates in the natural water on the mining property, can give an indication of the

water quality and sediment metal concentrations to which these organisms were exposed. The

water quality and sediment data can also be implemented to predict macroinvertebrate

occurrence in the natural water on the mining property in water of a specific quality. The

macroinvertebrates were indexed according to number and thus also sensitivity - from the most

sensitive to the least.

The water quality data was compared to guideline values prescribed by Kempster et al. (1982),

Kuhn (1991) and Environment Canada (1987) (Table 5.8). The metal concentrations analised

in the water were higher than the suggested values in the guidelines. An exceptionally high

maximum value of 19.8 mgll for manganese was observed in comparison to the 1.0 mg//

manganese value suggested by the guidelines. The majority constituents measured met the

required values, while pH, chloride, phosphate, ammonia and TDS values were higher.

The high values for iron and manganese (31 721.9 ± 16 056.2 tg/g Fe and 3 404.8 ± 2 944.3

lig/g Mn) were alarming. Lower sediment metal concentrations were observed for zinc, copper,

nickel and lead (Table 5.14). Although some macroinvertebrates accumulated these metals to

very high levels, toxicity of the metal concentrations to macroinvertebrates depend on factors

both external (such as water chemistry : Moore & Ramamoorthy, 1984) and internal (such as

the stage of organism development : Burrows & Whitton, 1983; and an organisms'

physiological tolerance towards metals : oback & Richardson, 1969).

The abundance of aquatic macroinvertebrates in the natural water of the mining system are

determined by a variety of factors. These factors include (1) knowledge of organism's life

histories (Gaufin & Tarzwell, 1952), (2) availability of food (Vangenechten et al., 1986;

Tumpenny, 1989) and (3) the presence/absence of predators (Kajak, 1979; Vangenechten et

al., 1986; Tumpenny, 1989). Survival of these organisms also depend on physical conditions

of the water such as hardness, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen ; pH, temperature and increases in

sulfates (Aston, 1973; Brkovic-Popovic & Popovic, 1977; Moon Lucostic, 1979). At the

sampling localities of Case Study Mine Three a large variety and number of

macroinvertebrates occurred due to the more acceptable water quality (Table 5.14). Low

5-49


numbers of Gomphidae, Libellulidae and Coenagrionidae were present at the localities

throughout the sampling period with slightly larger numbers of some Coleoptera, Lepidoptera,

Gastropoda, Collembola, Hemiptera, Trichoptera and Coelenterata. Copepoda, Cladocera,

Ostracoda, Chironomidae and Tubificidae occurred in large numbers. The numbers of aquatic

organisms may also be indicative of a specific species sensitivity or tolerance towards its

physical environment. Thus classifying species such as Gomphidae, Libellulidae and

Coenagrionidae as perhaps being the most sensitive of the organisms identified during this Case

Study, while the slightly larger numbers of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Gastropoda, Collembola,

Hemiptera, Trichoptera and Coelenterata can be seen as organisms more tolerant to conditions

of the aquatic environment. The large numbers of Crustacea, Chironomidae and Tubificidae

may indicate these organisms tolerance to changes within the aquatic environment. The

presence of Tubificidae and Chironomidae have been confirmed by Gaufin Tarzwell (1952)

and Eyres et al. (1978) as important evidence of the polluted conditions of the aquatic

environment. The presence of organisms such as Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Crustacea,

despite limiting factors, indicate their physiological tolerance towards contaminants (Roback &

Richardson, 1969; Koryak et al., 1972; Vangenechten et al., 1986) and their consequent

abundance may also have been determined by resources available to it (Godfrey, 1978).

Metal analysis of the aquatic macroinvertebrates revealed outstanding high iron concentrations,

probably due to the release of iron into the aquatic system because of mining activities (Venter,

1995).Lower nickel, manganese and zinc values were observed for the macroinvertebrates.

Venter (1995) described the mean nickel, manganese and zinc concentrations in the surface

water and top sediment layers in the mining area to be high. The bioavailability and consequent

uptake of metal by the macroinvertebrates depend on metal concentrations in the water,

sediment and food, but uptake can be limited by factors such as changing water temperature,

water hardness, salinity (Moore Ramamoorthy, 1984) and the organisms stage of

development (Burrows Whitton, 1983).

It is evident that the overall abundance and consequent sensitivity of macroinvertebrates in the

natural water on the mining property depend on a variety of factors. In the event of indexing

macroinvertebrates according to their possible sensitivity, the above discussed factors should

all be taken into consideration and not be seen as separate limiting factors.

5-50

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5.6 RE1FERENCES

ASTON, RJ (1973) Tubificids and Water Quality : A review. Environ. PoIllut., 5 : 1-10.

BELL, HL (1971) Effects of low pH on the survival and emergence of aquatic insects.

W t.Res., 3 : 313-319.

BRINKHURST, 0; CHUA, KE KAUSHIK, N (1972) Interspecific interactions and

selective feeding by tubificid oligochaetes. Limnol. Oceanog. 9 19 : 122-133.

BRKOVIC-POPOVIC, & I POPOVIC, M (1977) Effects of heavy metals on survival and

respiration rate of tubificid worms : Part 1. Effects on Survival. Environ. Polinto, 13

65-72.

BURROWS, IG WHITTON, BA (1983) eavy metals in water, sediments and

invertebrates from a metal-contaminated river free of organic pollution.

Hydrobiolo 'a, 1

263-273. I V

CHUTICER, FM (1971) Hydrobiological Studies in the Catchment of Vaal Dam, South Africa.

Part 3. Notes on the Cladocera and Copepoda of Stones-Incurrent, Marginal

Vegetation and Stony Backwater Biotopes. Into Revue ges. Hydrobiol., 56(3) : 497-

508 .

CHUTFER, FM (1991) Biological Monitoring of Water Quality - A New Approach.

Proceedings : Seminar and Workshop on Environmental Waste Management

Technology, 22-24 October 1991. Kempton Park, South Africa.

COETZEE, L (1996) ioaccumulatio of met s in selected fish species and the effect of

pH on AIUMIIIILIUM toxicity in a cichlid Oreochroinis rnossambicus. M.Sc. Thesis.

Rand Afrikaans University.

CUSIMANO, RF; BRAKKE, DF & CHAPMAN, GA (1986) Effects of pH on the Toxicity of

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5-53


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Effects of Mining Activities on Selected Aquatic Or ganisms Chapter 5

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5-58


5.9 AP:KENDE%

p ata on the metal concentrations of the selected fish species are given in Tables 5.15 to 5.29.

Tables 5.15 to 5.21 portray the metal concentrations in L. capensis - Orange River Mudfish

(Table 5.15), L. umbratus - Moggel (Table 5.17), C. carpio - Common Carp (Table 5.19) and

C. gariepinus - Sharptooth catfish (Table 5.21) caught during November 1993. Tables 5.23 to

5.29 portray the metal concentrations in L. capensis (Table 5.23), C. carpio (Table 5.25), L.

umbratus (Table 5.27) and C. gariepinus (Table 5.29) caught during March 1994.

TA LIE 5.15 Metal concentrations (kag/g dry mass) in organs and tissues of L. capepasis -

November 1993 (L=Liver, G=Gills 9 M=Muscle9 S=S1dn)(n=29).

FISH ORGAN Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

1 L 111.7 341.9 6.1 34.8 10.6 177.3 G 8.6 228.8 99.5 26.6 12.8 172.3 M 10.8 103.4 6.4 12.8 6.4 28.6 S 58.5 785 20.5 97 35.5 192

2 L 39.3 501.5 12.5 46.4 2.7 123.5 G 12.5 204 116.8 24.4 15.3 125.9 M 7.6 143.5 7.7 20.1 2.8 25.1 S 20.2 498.7 19.9 59.8 22.6 104.5

3 L 243.9 781.8 14.3 46.1 8.6 207.9 G 10.9 126 163.9 13.8 11.7 86.3 M 11.7 381 6.6 53.9 11.2 54.9 S 10.8 241.1 28.9 38.9 11.8 218.9

4 L 859.2 268.4 8.4 16.9 2.1 185.4 G 13.2 673.2 82.2 81.1 16.9 425.7 M 8.6 158.2 5.5 20.6 9.9 40.1 S 30 620.7 26.2 58.6 40.4 283.2

5 L 253.1 1234.9 11.5 48.3 14.7 184.8 G 16.7 340.9 115.9 35.9 27.1 218.4 M 5.9 110 1.2 12.1 6.3 54.1 S 10.2 760 11.4 56 10.2 263

6 L 131.4 596.4 16.2 24.8 7.4 122.2 G 24.4 208 137 24.9 12.5 406 M 19.4 98.4 7.8 10.9 4.5 32.6 S 43.9 623.1 27.7 105.8 47.7 298.9

7 L 234.7 303 4.4 22.6 2.6 112.1 G 28.2 248.4 163.4 25.2 16.8 446.9 M 8.9 238.5 6.9 31.7 8.2 61.9 S 15.4 1153.6 47.5 152.7 19.3 303.1

8 L 357.2 451.7 8.2 28 13.2 140.9 G 11.7 362.4 105.5 26.1 15.9 192 M 11.9 88 4.1 9.1 6.8 39.2 S 31.6 607.7 34.3 74.6 26.9 286.6

9 L 358.8 1903.9 16.9 83.6 11.9 256.9 G 10.4 238.7 135.7 27.5 17.3 129.7 M 6.5 61.5 3.2 8.2 4.3 31.5 S 26.8 621.5 43.2 75.4 46.1 250.7

10 L G rs.4

548.5 14.6 15.2

670.3 350 361

7.9 141.3 8.7

33.5 29.9 50.5

15.9 15.9 8.8

142.7 146.7 72.7

S 21.3 1000 45 116 27.3 278.8

5-59


Chapter 5

TA LE 5.15 (Continued)

11 L G M S

402.7 19.4 9.9

27.9

1384.2 404.8 177

704.2

37.4 143.3 8.3

28.8

48.8 25.9 22.5 73.4

3.6 13 7.8

47.1

126.9 87.9 27.4 260.3

12 L 664.4 1542.2 37.5 87.1 11.6 301.5 i G 11.5 266.5 157.1 22.2 13.7 106.2 1 M 12.8 144 11.3 18.8 9 28.8 S 14.3 547.1 45.9 65.3 22.3 290

13 L 181.9 635.3 15.9 24.4 2.9 196.7 G 11.7 427 201.8 42.3 10.1 387.5 M 9.9 158.8 9.2 20.2 11.2 53.2 S 24.1 3204.8 45.9 65.3 53.6 290

14 L 68.2 1805.3 39.8 116.3 38.9 305.8 G I 12.5 228.9 191.3 21.8 15.9 464.5 M 5.5 266.5 11.8 23.2 1.9 54.2 S 45.3 3204.8 84.6 138.1 23.2 335.3

15 L 74.9 953.4 11 58.5 2.7 115.4 G 12.6 350.5 91.1 32.8 20 450 M 6 494 7.4 26.9 11.8 68.3 S 15.7 854.2 24.6 96.6 23.2 334.6

16 L 826.3 248.1 8.8 19.1 7.9 111.4 G 10.4 233 84.6 25.3 17.4 107.3 M 8.9 73 8.9 10.2 3.6 23.3 S 17.2 303.6 23.1 37.5 9.3 147.2

17 L 387.1 1076.9 7.7 39.4 17.7 180.2 G 14.5 456 280.2 49.3 19.1 239.6 M 44 245 10.7 31.7 15.9 69.6 S 25.7 1193.8 72.5 166.9 61.9 829.4

18 L 392.1 382.6 7.4 21.5 8.5 147.8 I G , 14.6 204 76.2 21.5 10.9 49.2 1 M 10.6 83 4.6 11.3 6.2 196.2

S 24.6 365.9 30.9 40.7 30.7 403.9 19 L 88.3 744.9 19.2 15.4 6.4 370.5

G 8.2 513 102.8 36.3 17.6 40.3 M 7.7 ' 75.5 7.2 9.4 6.6 153.6 S 27.8 452.8 2.5 55.3 16.1 216.4

20 L 403.6 647.4 12.6 36.2 9.1 43.9 G 18.3 289 125.2 25.1 17.8 61.3 M 5.7 137 4.5 22.8 4.8 286.8 S 12.2 386 36.2 46.2 24 245

21 L 289.7 85.3 3.3 67.4 15.6 177.9 G 21.6 353.5 228.9 40.9 28.1 70.2 M 9.1 275.5 7.9 40.5 8.9 501.5 S 18.5 700 26.5 105.5 4 213.1

22 L 228.3 1058.9 10.7 49.5 15.6 399 G 11 770 113.2 33.7 19.5 58.5 M 5.6 92.5 7.2 10.4 3.3 419.2 S 18.8 775 31.3 95.4 32.5 444.1

23 L 588.7 463.7 10.5 44.6 12.8 454 G 20.5 677 73.9 34.6 18.7 84.5 M 11.9 106.9 3.8 12.9 4.5 380.9 S 74.2 1466.7 42.5 141.7 108.4 165.9

24 F L 502.8 875 4.7 55.3 3.1 161.7 G 25 917.8 190.5 53.4 25.7 45.2 M 8.6 184.5 21.7 14.6 6.7 517.5 S 30.7 1267.9 25 190 57.5 287.4

25 L 505.9 1786.9 128 58.9 20.5 510.5 G 37.8 847 170 75.9 14.3 73.1 M 11.1 237.4 10.9 31.8 12.8 428 S 26 1150 57 159 25.7 100.5

26 L 54.7 639.8 5.2 21.8 9.2 171.9 G 25.5 473.9 150.7 32.9 19.2 55 M 7.2 825 23.9 41.1 18.2 320.5 S 32.3 1850 65.9 145.5 70 457.5

27 L 122.3 2750 97.7 159.1 38.6 138.6 rl 25.7 350.6 82.9 20.6 18.3 138.6 M 15.2 92.5 6.9 11.5 4.7 76.5 S 19.8 734.8 31.8 81.8 36.8 76.5

x±SD L 337.31242.7 850.9±492.8 17.9124.6 46.5±24.3 10.617.9 223.9+118.4 G 16.417.1 399.91213.9 139.7±50.2 34.2115.8 17.5±4.6 180.2±145.9 M 10.817.5 204.6±166.1 8.4±4.9 22.2±12.9 15.4+7.9 152.7±167.8 S 27.1±14.8 873.2±620.7 35.1±18.9 88.6147.8 328.8±134.5 283.9±142.8

5-60


TA LE 5.116 ioconcentration factors determine for water 'w) amid sediment Fs)

with L capensis - November 1993 ( =27).

FISH ORG. Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs 1 L 558.5 0.940 3491.0 0.011 1.9 0.002 116.0 0.332 53.0 0.253 586.5 0.581

G 43.0 0.072 2288.0 0.007 32.1 0.029 88.7 0.254 64.0 0.306 861.5 0.564 M 54.0 0.091 1034.0 0.003 .21 0.002 42.7 0.122 32.0 0.153 143.0 0.094 S 292.5 0.492 7850.0 0.025 6.6 0.006 323.0 0.926 177.5 0.847 960.0 0.629

2 L 196.5 0.331 5014.0 0.016 4.0 0.004 154.7 0.443 13.5 0.064 617.5 0.405 G 62.5 0.105 2040.0 0.006 37.7 0.034 81.3 0.233 76.5 0.365 629.5 0.412 M 38.0 0.064 1435.0 0.005 2.5 0.003 67.0 0.192 14.0 0.067 125.5 0.082 S 101.0 0.170 489.5 0.016 6.4 0.006 199.3 0.571 113.0 0.539 522.5 0.342

3 L 1219.5 2.053 7818.0 0.025 4.6 0.004 153.7 0.439 43.0 0.205 1039.5 0.681 G 54.5 0.092 1260.0 0.004 52.9 0.048 46.0 0.132 58.5 0.279 431.5 0.283 M 58.5 0.099 3810.0 0.012 2.1 0.002 179.7 0.514 56.0 0.267 274.5 0.179 S 54.0 0.091 2411.0 0.008 9.3 0.008 129.7 0.371 59.0 0.282 1094.5 0.717

4 L 4296.0 7.232 2684.0 0.008 2.7 0.003 56.3 0.161 10.5 0.050 927.0 0.607 G 66.0 0.111 6732.0 0.021 26.5 0.024 270.3 0.774 84.5 0.403 2128.5 1.394 M 43.0 0.072 1582.0 0.005 1.8 0.002 68.7 0.197 49.5 0.236 200.5 0.131 S 150.0 0.253 6207.0 0.019 8.5 0.008 195.7 0.559 202.0 0.964 1416.0 0.928

5 L 1265.5 2.130 12349. 0.039 3.7 0.003 161.0 0.461 73.5 0.351 924.0 0.605 G 83.5 0.141 3409.0 0.011 37.4 0.034 119.7 0.343 135.5 0.647 1092.0 0.715 M 29.5 0.049 1100.0 0.004 0.4 0.001 40.3 0.116 31.5 0.150 270.5 0.177 S 51.0 0.086 7600.0 0.024 3.7 0.003 186.7 0.534 510.0 0.243 1315.0 0.862

6 L 657.0 1.106 5964.0 0.019 5.2 0.005 82.7 0.237 37.0 0.177 611.0 0.400 G 122.0 0.025 2080.0 0.007 44.2 0.040 83.0 0.239 62.5 0.298 2030.0 1,329 M 97.0 0.163 984.0 0.003 2.5 0.002 36.3 0.104 22.5 0.107 163.0 0.107 S 219.5 0.369 6231.0 0.019 8.9 0.008 352.7 1.013 238.5 1.138 1494.5 0.979

7 L 1281.5 1.976 3030.0 0.009 1.4 0.001 75.3 0.217 13.0 0.062 560.5 0.367 G 141.0 0.237 2484.0 0.008 52.7 0.048 84.0 0.244 84.0 0.401 2234.5 1.464 M 44.5 0.075 2385.0 0.008 2.2 0.002 105.7 0.304 41.0 0.196 309.5 0.203 S 77.0 0.129 11536 0.036 15.3 0.014 509.0 1.463 96.5 0.461 1515.5 0.993

8 L 1786.0 3.007 4517.0 0.014 2.7 0.002 93.3 0.268 66.0 0.315 704.5 0.462 G 58.5 0.099 3624.0 0.011 34.0 0.031 87.0 0.250 79.5 0.379 960.0 0.629 M 59.5 0.100 880.0 0.003 1.3 0.001 30.3 0.087 34.0 0.162 196.0 0.128 S 158.0 0.266 6077.0 0.019 11.1 0.010 248.7 0.712 134.5 0.642 1433.0 0.939

9 L 1794.0 3.020 10039 0.060 5.5 0.005 278.7 0.801 59.5 0.284 1284.5 0.842 G 52.0 0.088 2387.0 0.008 43.8 0.039 91.7 0.263 86.5 0.413 648.5 0.425 M 32.5 0.055 615.0 0.002 1.03 0.001 27.3 0.079 21.5 0.103 157.5 0.103 S 134.0 0.226 6215.0 0.019 13.9 0.013 251.3 0.722 230.5 1.100 1253.5 0.821

10 L 2742.5 4.617 6703.0 0.021 2.6 0.002 111.7 0.321 79.5 0.379 713.5 0.467 G 73.0 0.123 3500.0 0.011 45.6 0.042 99.7 0.286 79.5 0.379 733.5 0.481 M 76.0 0.128 3610.0 0.011 2.8 0.003 168.3 0.484 44..0 0.210 363.5 0.238 S 106.5 0.179 10000 0.032 14.5 0.013 386.7 1.111 136.5 0.652 1394.0 0.913

11 L 2013.5 3.389 13842 0.044 12.1 0.011 162.7 0.467 18.0 0.086 634.5 0.416 G 97.0 0.163 4048.0 0.013 46.2 0.042 86.3 0.248 65.0 0.310 439.5 0.288 M 49.5 0.083 1770.0 0.006 2.7 0.002 75.0 0.216 39.0 0.186 137.0 0.089 S 139.5 0.235 7042.0 0.022 9.3 0.009 244.7 0.703 235.5 1.124 1301.5 0.853

12 L 3322.0 5.592 15422 0.049 12.1 0.011 290.3 0.834 58.0 0.277 1507.5 0.988 G 57.5 0.097 2665.0 0.008 50.7 0.046 74.0 0.212 68.5 0.327 531.0 0.348 M 64.0 0.108 1440.0 0.005 3.7 0.003 62.7 0.180 45.0 0.215 144.0 0.094 S 71.5 0.120 5471.0 0.017 14.8 0.013 217.7 0.625 111.5 0.532 1450.0 0.949

13 L 909.5 1.531 6353.0 0.020 5.1 0.005 81.3 0.234 14.5 0.069 983.5 0.644 G 58.9 0.099 427.0 0.013 65.1 0.059 141.0 0.405 50.5 0.241 1937.5 1.269 M 49.5 0.083 1588.0 0.005 2.9 0.003 67.3 0.194 56.0 0.267 266.0 0.174 S 120.5 0.203 32048 0.101 14.8 0.013 217.7 0.625 268.0 1.279 1450.0 0.949

14 L 341.0 0.574 18053 0.057 12.8 0.012 387.7 1.114 194.5 0.928 1529.0 1.002 G 62.5 0.105 2289.0 0.007 61.7 0.056 72.7 0.209 79.5 0.379 2322.5 1.521 M 27.5 0.046 2665.0 0.008 3.8 0.004 77.3 0.222 9.5 0.045 271.0 0.176 S 226.5 0.381 32048 0.101 27.3 0.025 460.3 1.323 116.0 0.554 1676.5 1.098

15 L 374.5 0.631 9534.0 0.030 3.6 0.003 195.0 0.560 13.5 0.064 577.0 0.378 0 63.0 0.106 3505.0 0.011 29.4 0.027 109.3 0.314 100.0 0.477 2250.0 1.474 M 30.0 0.051 4940.0 0.016 2.4 0.002 89.7 0.258 59.0 0.282 341.5 0.224 S 78.5 0.132 8542.0 0.027 7.9 0.007 322.0 0.925 116.0 0.554 1673.0 1.096

16 L 4131.5 6.955 2481.0 0.008 2.8 0.003 63.7 0.183 39.5 0.189 557.0 0.365 G 52.0 0.088 2330.0 0.007 27.3 0.025 84.3 0.242 87.0 0.415 536.0 0.351 M 44.5 0.075 730.0 0.002 2.9 0.003 34.0 0.098 18.0 0.086 116.5 0.076 S 86.0 0.145 3036.0 0.009 7.5 0.007 125.0 0.359 46.5 0.222 736.0 0.482

5-61


Chapter 5

TA s LE 5.16 (Continued)

17 L 1935.5 3.285 10769 0.034 2.5 0.002 131.3 0.377 85.0 0.422 901.0 0.592 G 72.5 0.122 4560.0 0.014 90.4 0.082 164.3 0.472 95.5 0.456 1198.0 0.785 M 220.0 0.370 2450.0 0.007 3.5 0.003 105.7 0.304 79.5 0.379 348.0 0.228 S 128.5 0.216 11938 0.038 23.4 0.021 556.3 1.599 309.5 1.478 4147.0 i 2.717

18 L 1960.5 3.301 3826.0 0.012 2.4 0.002 71.7 0.205 42.5 0.203 739.0 0.484 G 73.0 0.123 2040.0 0.012 24.6 0.022 71.7 0.206 54.5 0.260 246.0 0.161 M 53.0 0.089 830.0 0.006 1.5 0.001 37.7 0.108 31.0 0.148 981.0 0.643 S 123.0 0.207 3659.0 0.003 9.9 0.009 135.7 0.389 153.5 0.733 2019.5 1.323

19 L 441.5 0.743 7449.0 0.024 6.2 0.006 51.3 0.148 32.0 0.153 1852.5 1.214 G 41.0 0.069 5130.0 0.016 33.2 0.030 121.0 0.348 88.0 0.420 201.5 0.132 M 38.5 0.065 755.0 0.002 2.3 0.002 31.3 0.090 33.0 0.158 768.0 0.503 S 139.0 0.234 4528.0 0.014 0.8 0.001 184.3 0.529 80.5 0.384 1082.0 0.709

20 L 2018.0 3.397 6474.0 0.020 4.1 0.004 120.7 0.347 45.5 0.217 219.5 0.144 G 91.5 0.154 2890.0 0.009 40.4 0.037 83.7 0.240 89.0 0.425 306.5 0.201 M 28.5 0.048 1370.0 0.004 1.5 0.001 76.0 0.218 24.0 0.115 1434.0 0.939 S 61.0 0.103 3680.0 0.012 11.7 0.011 154.0 0.445 120.0 0.573 1225.0 0.803

21 L 1448.5 2.439 853.0 0.003 1.1 0.001 224.7 0.646 78.0 0.372 889.5 0.583 G 108.0 0.182 3535.0 0.011 73.4 0.067 136.3 0.392 140.5 0.671 351.0 0.229 M 45.5 0.077 2755.0 0.009 2.6 0.002 135.0 0.388 44.5 0.212 2507.5 1.643 S 92.5 0.156 7000.0 0.022 8.6 0.008 351.7 1.011 20.0 0.096 1065.5 0.698

22 L 1141.5 1.922 10589 0.033 3.5 0.003 165.0 0.474 78.0 0.372 1995.0 1.307 G 55.0 0.093 7700.0 0.024 36.5 0.033 112.3 0.323 97.5 0.465 292.5 0.192 M 28.0 0.047 925.0 0.003 2.3 0.002 34.7 0.099 16.5 0.079 2096.0 1.373 S 94.0 0.158 7750.0 0.024 10.1 0.009 318.0 0.914 162.5 0.776 2220.5 1.455

23 L 2943.5 4.995 4637.0 0.015 3.4 0.003 148.7 0.427 64.0 0.306 2270.5 1.487 G 102.5 0.173 6770.0 0.021 23.8 0.022 115.3 0.331 93.5 0.446 422.5 0.277 M 59.5 0.100 1069.0 0.003 1.2 0.001 43.0 0.124 22.5 0.107 1904.5 1.248 S 371.0 0.625 14667 0.024 13.7 0.012 472.3 1.357 542.0 2.587 829.5 0.543

24 L 2514.0 4.232 8750.0 0.028 1.5 0.001 184.3 0.529 15.5 0.074 808.5 0.529 G 125.0 0.210 9178.0 0.029 61.5 0.056 178.0 0.512 128.5 0.613 226.0 0.148 M 43.0 0.072 1845.0 0.006 7.0 0.006 48.7 0.139 33.5 0.159 2587.5 1.695 S 153.5 0.258 12679 0.039 8.1 0.007 633.3 1.819 287.5 1.372 1473.0 0.941

25 L 2529.5 4.285 17869 0.056 41.3 0.038 196.3 0.564 102.5 0.489 2552.5 1.672 G 189.0 0.318 8470.0 0.027 54.8 0.049 253.0 0.727 71.5 0.341 365.5 0.239 M 55.5 0.093 2374.0 0.008 3.5 0.003 106.0 0.305 64.0 0.306 2140.0 1.402 S 130.0 0.218 11500 0.036 18.4 0.017 530.0 1.523 128.5 0.613 502.5 0.329

26 L 273.5 0.460 6398.0 0.020 1.7 0.002 72.7 0.209 46.0 0.219 859.5 0.563 G 127.5 0.215 4739.0 0.015 48.6 0.044 109.7 0.315 96.0 0.458 275.0 0.180 M 36.0 0.061 8250.0 0.026 7.7 0.007 137.0 0.394 91.0 0.434 1602.5 1.049 S 161.5 0.272 18500 0.058 21.3 0.0019 485.0 1.394 350.0 1.671 2287.5 1.499

27 L 611.5 1.029 27500 0.087 31.5 0.029 530.0 1.524 193.0 0.921 193.0 0.454 G 128.5 0.216 3506.0 0.011 26.7 0.024 68.7 0.197 91.5 0.437 193.0 0.454 M 76.0 0.128 925.0 0.003 2.2 0.002 38.3 0.100 23.5 0.112 382.5 0.251 S 99.0 0.167 7348.0 0.023 10.3 0.009 272.7 0.784 184.0 0.878 382.5 0.251

x_+SD L 1686.5 2.839 8509.0 0.027 5.8 0.005 155.0 0.445 53.0 0.253 1119.5 0.733 G 82.0 0.138 3999.0 0.013 45.1 0.041 114.0 0.347 87.5 0.418 901.0 0.590 M 54.0 0.091 2046.0 0.007 2.7 0.003 74.0 0.213 77.0 0.368 763.5 0.500 S 135.5 0.228 8732.0 0.028 11.3 0.010 295.3 0.849 168.0 0.802 1419.5 0.929

5-62


Chapter 5

ILE 5.117 Mete concentrations tag/g dry mass) in organs and tissues off L. umbragus -

November P (L=Liver, G=Gilis, M=Musele, S=sidn)(n=12).


1 L G M S

6671.8 10

15.7 46.9

1314.5 512.5 108

361.9

70.8 60.4 6.6 16.2

52.9 32.1 15.2 50.5

21.2 37.1 7.3

25.9

598.4 319 58.9 193.6

2 L G M S

E 169.7 7.6

23.6 19.5

639.7 170

177.5 658.6

11.7 59.9 10.2 42.9

22.7 16.1 16.5 57.4

7.4 15.1 5.6 19.5

719.1 111 66.2 288.6

3 L G M S

402.1 5.2 3.6

33.1

1190.2 222.5 533.5

5334.7

23.8 107.8 8.6 55.8

118.9 19.6 28.1 247.7

19.4 14.8 9.5

92.7

305.4 160.2 63.6

498.1 4 L

G M S

i 600.6 8.9 10.1 8.8

1073.2 245

693.5 383.4

22.5 18.1 12

12.9

50.8 14.9 73.4 51.6

10.5 8.7 3.3 18.8

490.3 146 89.5

313.4 5 L

G M S

E 107.5 7.8 4.9 5.9

393.8 610

543.5 470.8

8.9 44.7

5 12.8

22.1 32.5 30.4 34.7

7.9 19.4 11.6 11.9

503.9 128.5

61 160.5

6 L G M S

411.1 4.9

i 5.1 11.5

1092.3 208

348.5 890

14.8 102.6 5.9

39.5

112.7 19.7 53.3 108.8

26.6 13.7 2.9 36

308.9 110.6 72.4

340.3 7 L

G M S

591.4 7.7 3.3 2.8

1070.2 776.5 317

188.2

17.6 76.8 10.8 4.7

100.4 43.1 50.2 27.6

26.3 16.7 3.8 9.7

585.5 440 59.5

404.9 8 L

G M S

196.9 5.3 6.3

t 12

458.7 188.5 285.5 1865

9.3 57.6 3.7

33.7

45.7 23.9 38

164.5

16.8 11.1 7.2

20.9

211.5 148.5 98.2 254.5

9 L G M S

298.9 5.8 5.2 10.8

718.1 268.5 587.5 1700

6.6 58.7 7.2 16.6

28.3 21.7 28.1 58.7

10.7 12.2 8.2 19.8

550.8 373 90.4 177.8

10 L G M S

415.6 7.8 5.4 6.8

600 549.5 558 714

10.1 165.3 8.7 7.2

55.8 49.8 29.8 61.2

18.7 16.3 12.2 21.2

267.3 139.2 51.4

217.8 11 L

G M S

626.9 5.2 2.5 6.4

1745.3 228 147

543.9

81.3 165.8 3.9

25.6

114.7 19.5 16.3 50.8

27.1 11.7 6.2 18.8

248.1 162.7 48.2 277.5

12 L G M S

329.8 8.9 3.4 16.1

1069.1 673.3 154.1

1635.7

13.6 128.9 4.8

72.2

99.8 69.3 23.2 221.3

21.7 15.8 8.4

72.6

398.1 394.2 68.8 637.9

x±Sll

E.

L G M S

953.9±1904.2 6.9±1.8 7.8±6.4

14.9±13.5

935.9±411.6 361.8±210.2 432.7±230.1

1191.9±1475.4

25.2±25.8 83.4±47.6

7.5±2.8 24.3±16.5

65.9+38.3 26.6±11.4 34.4±17.6 78.2±70.6

17.5±7.5 28.6±29.6

7.1±3.2 26.8±22.9

435.4±1723.4 197.1±121.5 68.9±15.9

284.2±102.3

5-63


Chapter 5

TA LE 5.18 ioconcentration Factors determined or water tflFw) and sediment Fs)

with L. unthreads - November 1993 (n=12). FISH ORGAN Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb

BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs 1 L 33359 56.159 13145 0.041 22.8 0.021 176.3 0.507 106.0 0.506 2992.0 1.960

G 50.0 0.048 5125.0 0.016 19.5 0.018 107.0 0.308 185.5 0.885 1595.0 1.045 M 78.5 0.132 1080.0 0.003 2.1 0.002 50.7 0.146 36.5 0.174 294.5 0.193 S 234.5 0.395 3619.0 0.011 5.2 0.003 168.3 0.484 129.5 0.618 968.0 0.634

2 L 848.5 1.429 6397.0 0.020 3.8 0.003 75.7 0.217 37.0 0.177 3595.5 2.355 G 38.0 0.064 1700.0 0.005 19.3 0.018 53.7 0.154 75.5 0.360 555.0 0.364 M I 118.0 0.199 1775.0 0.006 3.3 0.003 55.0 0.158 28.0 0.134 331.0 0.217 S 97.5 0.164 6586.0 0.021 13.8 0.013 191.3 0.549 97.5 0.465 1443.0 0.945

3 L 2010.5 3.385 11902 0.038 7.7 0.007 396.3 1.139 97.0 0.463 1527.0 1.000 G 26.0 0.044 2225.0 0.007 34.8 0.032 65.3 0.188 74.0 0.353 801.0 0.525 M 18.0 0.030 5335.0 0.017 2.8 0.003 93.7 0.269 37.5 0.227 318.0 0.208 S 165.5 0.279 533347 0.168 18.0 0.016 825.7 2.373 463.5 2.212 2490.5 1.632

4 L 3003.0 5.056 10732 0.034 7.3 0.007 169.3 0.487 52.5 0.251 2451.5 1.606 G 44.5 0.075 2450.0 0.007 5.8 0.005 49.7 0.143 43.5 0.208 730.0 0.478 M 50.5 0.085 6935.0 0.022 3.9 0.004 244.7 0.703 16.5 0.079 447.5 0.293 S 44.0 0.074 3834.0 0.012 4.2 0.004 172.0 0.494 94.0 0.449 1567.0 1.027

5 L 537.5 0.905 3984.0 0.012 2.9 0.003 73.7 0.212 39.5 0.189 2519.5 1.651 G 39.0 0.066 610.0 0.019 14.4 0.013 108.3 0.311 97.0 0.463 642.5 0.421 M 24.5 0.041 5435.0 0.017 1.6 0.002 101.3 0.291 58.0 0.277 305.0 0.199 S 29.5 0.049 4708.0 0.015 4.1 0.004 115.7 0.332 59.5 0.284 802.5 0.526

6 L 2055.5 3.460 10923 0.034 4.8 0.004 375.7 1.079 133.0 0.635 1544.5 1.012 G 24.5 0.041 2080.0 0.007 33.1 0.030 65.7 0.189 68.5 0.327 553.0 0.362 M 25.5 0.043 3485.0 0.011 1.9 0.002 177.7 0.511 14.5 0.069 362.0 0.237 S 57.5 0.097 8900.0 0.028 12.7 0.012 362.7 1.042 180.0 0.859 1701.5 1.115

7 L 2975 4.978 10702 0.034 5.7 0.005 334.7 0.962 131.5 0.628 2927.5 1.918 G 38.5 0.065 7765.0 0.025 24.8 0.023 143.7 0.413 83.5 0.399 2200.0 1.441 M 16.5 0.028 3170.0 0.009 3.5 0.003 167.3 0.481 19.0 0.091 297.5 0.195 S I 14.5 0.024 1882.0 0.006 1.5 0.001 92.0 0.264 48.5 0.232 2024.5 1.326

1 8 L 984.5 1.657 4587.0 0.015 3.0 0.003 152.3 0.438 84.0 0.401 1057.5 0.693 G 26.5 0.045 1885.0 0.006 18.6 0.017 79.9 0.229 55.5 0.265 742.5 0.484 M 31.5 0.053 2855.0 0.009 1.2 0.001 126.7 0.364 36.0 0.172 491.0 0.322 S 60.0 0.101 18650 0.588 10.9 0.009 548.3 1.576 104.5 0.499 1272.5 0.834

9 L 1494.5 2.516 7181.0 0.023 2.1 0.002 94.3 0.271 53.5 0.255 2754.0 1.804 G i 29.0 0.049 2685.0 0.009 18.9 0.017 72.3 0.208 61.0 0.291 1865.0 1.222 M i 26.0 0.044 5875.0 0.019 2.3 0.002 93.7 0.269 41.0 0.196 452.0 0.296 S 54.0 0.091 17000 0.054 5.4 0.005 195.7 0.562 99.0 0.473 889.0 0.582

10 L 2078.0 3.498 6000.0 0.019 3.3 0.003 186.0 0.535 93.5 0.446 1336.5 0.876 G 39.0 0.066 5495.0 0.017 53.3 0.049 166.0 0.477 81.5 0.389 696.0 0.456 M 27.0 0.046 5580.0 0.018 2.8 0.003 99.3 0.285 61.0 0.291 257.0 0.168 S 34.0 0.057 7140.0 0.023 2.3 0.002 204.0 0.586 106.0 0.506 1089.0 0.713

11 L 3134.5 5.277 17453 0.055 26.2 0.024 382.3 1.099 135.5 0.647 1240.5 0.813 G 26.0 0.044 2280.0 0.007 53.5 0.049 65.0 0.187 58.5 0.279 813.5 0.533 M 12.5 0.021 1470.0 0.005 1.3 0.001 54.3 0.156 31.0 0.148 241.0 0.158 S 32.0 0.054 5439.0 0.017 8.3 0.008 169.3 0.487 94.0 0.449 1387.5 0.909

12 L 1649.0 2.776 10691 0.034 4.4 0.004 332.7 0.956 135.5 0.518 1990.5 1.304 G 44.5 0.075 6733.0 0.021 41.6 0.038 231.0 0.664 79.0 0.377 1971.0 1.291 M 17.0 0.066 1541.0 0.005 1.6 0.002 77.3 0.222 42.0 0.201 344.0 0.225 S 80.5 0.136 16357 0.052 23.3 0.021 737.7 2.119 363.0 1.733 3189.0 2.089

x±SD L 4769.5 8.029 9359.0 0.029 8.1 0.007 58.3 0.631 87.5 0.418 2177.0 1.426 G 34.5 0.058 3618.0 0.011 26.9 0.025 88.7 0.255 143.0 0.683 985.5 0.646 M 39.0 0.066 4327.0 0.014 2.4 0.002 114.7 0.329 35.5 0.169 344.5 0.226 S 9 74.5 0.125 11919 0.038 7.8 0.007 260.7 0.749 134.0 0.639 1421.0 0.931

5-64


Chapter 5

TABLE 5.19 Metal concentrations (ggig dry mass) in organs and tissues off C. carpio -

November 11993 (L=Liver, M=Muscile, S=Skin)(n=3).


1 L 66.3 1073.9 14.2 45.8 12.1 1635.5 G 10.9 912.3 138.5 48.5 28.9 2348.6 M 5.4 293.4 5.2 38.5 12.2 152.6 S 11 576.7 8.7 78 27 626.7

2 L 44 3272.8 12.6 49.6 16.6 164.6 G 5.9 669 185.4 39.9 22.2 362.5 M 3.5 170.5 10.2 15.5 4.9 50.2 S 10.2 71.3 43.7 91.1 42.1 267.2

3 L 438 720 4.5 30.9 12.6 968 G 7.4 340.5 124.4 35 19.3 382 M 3.6 246.5 6.7 32.3 11.5 63.1 S 6.2 287.9 34.7 34.1 16.1 214.9

x1SD L 55.2115.8 2173.411554.8 13.411.1 47.712.7 14.413.2 900.1±1040.3 G 8.413.6 490.71596.3 161.9±33.2 44.216.1 25.6+4.8 1355.511404.3 M 4.2±1.1 154.51196.5 7.412.6 26.9±16.3 8.515.2 101.4172.4 S 10.610.6 323.91357.4 29.0118.2 84.619.3 34.6±9.3 164.9±144.7

TABLE 5.20 Bioconcentration Factors determined for the water (BFw) and sediment

(BFs) with C. carpio - November 1993 (n=3).

FISH ORGAN _

Ni Pb Zn

BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs 1 L 331.5 0.559 10739 0.034 4.6 0.004 1527.0 0.439 60.5 0.289 8177.5 5.357

G 54.5 0.092 9123.0 0.029 44.7 0.041 161.7 0.465 144.5 0.689 1174.3 7.693 M 27.0 0.046 2934.0 0.009 1.7 0.002 128.3 0.369 61.0 0.291 763.0 0.499 S 55.0 0.093 5767.0 0.018 2.8 0.003 260.0 0.747 135.0 0.644 31335 2.053

2 L 220.0 0.370 32728 0.103 4.1 0.004 165.3 0.475 83.0 0.396 823.0 0.539 G 29.5 0.049 6690.0 0.021 59.8 0.055 133.0 0.382 111.0 0.529 1812.5 1.187 M 17.5 0.029 1705.0 0.005 3.3 0.003 51.7 0.149 24.5 0.117 251.0 0.164 S 51.0 0.086 713.0 0.002 14.1 0.013 303.7 0.873 210.5 1.005 1334.0 0.875

3 L 2190.0 3.687 7200.0 0.023 1.5 0.001 103.0 0.296 63.0 0.301 4840.0 3.171 G 37.0 0.062 3405.0 0.011 40.1 0.037 116.7 0.335 96.5 0.461 1910.0 1.251 M 18.0 0.030 2465.0 0.008 2.2 0.002 107.7 0.309 57.5 0.275 315.5 0.207 S 31.0 0.052 2879.0 0.009 11.2 0.010 113.7 0.327 80.5 0.384 1074.5 0.704

x1SD L 276.0 0.465 21734 0.069 4.3 0.004 159.0 0.457 72.0 0.344 4500.5 2.948 G 42.0 0.071 4907.0 0.016 52.2 0.048 147.3 0.423 128.0 0.611 6777.5 4.439 M 21.0 0.035 1545.0 0.005 2.4 0.002 89.7 0.258 42.5 0.203 507.0 0.332

_ S 53.0 0.089 3239.0 0.010 9.4 0.009 282.0 0.810 173.0 0.826 824.5 0.540

5-65


Chapter 5

TA LE 5.211 eta➢ concentrations (pagig dry mass) in organs and tissues of C. gariepinus

- November 1993 (L=Liver, S=S1dn)(n=4).

FISH ORGAN Ni Pb Zai

1 L 37.4 121 23.7 29.2 8 151.1 0 7.2 439.5 424 22.2 19.5 132.7 M 4.4 649.5 6.9 30.6 10.5 60.6 S 21.3 2150 56.9 201.9 58.2 520

2 L 36.9 1495 12.6 42.8 17.3 387.5 G 7.5 477 49.4 56.9 10.2 153.4 M 3.8 244.5 6.3 33.9 10.7 71.7 S 13.1 650 0.4 90.8 27.7 606.6

3 L 60.2 726.5 19.2 29.5 12.9 368 G 6.6 568 73.2 35.4 27.4 148.8 M 3.4 478 5.9 29.7 11.9 52.7 S 15.5 70.9 0.2 8.8 0.2 65.7

4 L 30.5 535.6 17.1 34.5 11.7 177.1 G 6.7 199.5 67.9 17.7 13.7 124.8 M 4.4 257 5.9 39.3 2.8 63.3 S 18.8 1981.3 38.2 304.4 91.9 481.3

x±SD L 44.8±13.3 780.9±688.9 18.5±5.6 33.8±7.8 10.1±8.9 302.2±131.3 G 29.4±39.1 494.9±66.1 182.2±209.8 36.2±18.4 29.0±8.6 144.9±10.9 M 3.8±0.5 458.7±203.3 6.4±0.5 3174±2.2 11.0±0.8 61.7±9.6 S 16.6±4.2 956.8±1073.1 19.2±32.7 100.4±96.9 11.2±14.6 397.4±290.5

TA LE 5.22` oco nceotrati®sr Factors determined for the water ((Fw) and se 11 I melt

Fs) with C. gariepinus - November 1993 (n=4).


BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs 1 L 187.0 0.315 1210.0 0.004 7.7 0.007 97.3 0.279 40.0 0.191 755.5 0.495

G 36.0 0.061 4395.0 0.014 136.8 0.125 74.0 0.213 97.5 0.465 633.5 0.435 M 22.0 0.037 6495.0 0.021 2.2 0.002 102.0 0.293 52.5 0.251 303.0 0.199 S 106.5 0.179 21500 0.068 18.4 0.017 673.0 1.934 291.0 1.389 2600.0 1.703

2 L 184.5 0.311 14950 0.047 4.1 0.004 142.7 0.409 86.5 0.413 1937.5 1.269 G 37.5 0.063 4770.0 0.015 15.9 0.015 189.7 0.545 51.0 0.243 767.0 0.503 M 19.0 0.032 2445.0 0.008 2.0 0.002 113.0 0.325 53.5 0.255 358.5 0.235 S 65.5 0.110 6500.0 0.205 0.1 0.0001 302.7 0.869 138.5 0.661 3033.0 1.987

3 L 301.0 0.507 7265.0 0.023 6.2 0.006 98.3 0.283 64.5 0.308 1840.0 1.205 G 33.0 0.056 5680.0 0.018 23.6 0.022 118.0 0.339 137.0 0.654 744.0 0.487 M 17.0 0.029 4780.0 0.015 1.9 0.002 99.0 0.285 59.5 0.284 263.5 0.173 S 77.5 0.130 709.0 0.002 0.06 0.0001 29.3 0.08 1.0 0.005 328.5 0.215

4 L 152.5 0.257 5356.0 0.017 5.5 0.005 115.0 0.331 58.1 0.279 885.5 0.580 G 33.5 0.056 1995.0 0.006 21.9 0.019 59.0 0.169 68.5 0.327 624.0 0.475 M 22.0 0.037 2570.0 0.008 1.9 0.002 131.0 0.376 14.0 0.067 316.5 0.207 S 94.0 0.158 19813 0.063 12.3 0.011 1014.7 2.916 459.5 2.193 2406.5 1.576

x±SD L 224.0 0.377 7809.0 0.025 5.9 0.005 112.7 0.324 50.5 0.241 1511.0 0.989 G 147.0 0.248 4949.0 0.016 58.8 0.054 120.7 0.347 145.0 0.692 724.5 0.475 M 19.0 0.032 4587.0 0.015 2.1 0.002 104.7 0.301 55.0 0.263 308.5 0.202 S 83.0 0.139 9568.0 0.030 6.2 0.006 334.7 0.962 56.0 0.267 1987.0 1.302

5-66


TA LE 5.23 Metall concentrations (itag/g dh mass) in organs and tissues off IL. capensis -

March 1994 (L=Liver 9 G--=GilEs9 M=Muscile9 S=S6-An)(n=20).

r- FISH ORGAN Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

1 L 320.1 3746.9 14.7 21.1 5 104.9 G 15.3 240 159.6 17.9 18.4 261.5 M 3.2 74.5 4.2 8.8 12.2 22.7 S 103.9 575 10.6 64.1 0.2 117.3

2 L 214.1 4316.1 5.9 9.1 6.6 95.3 G 4.3 128.5 135.4 10.7 26.3 127.8 M 5.9 190 5.5 19.2 15.1 74.9 S 93.9 408.1 7.9 31.4 6.6 65.4

3 I L 245.4 450 6.1 10.7 2.7 120.7 G 12.8 192 155.3 11.8 15.1 199 M 2.9 124.5 2.8 10.3 8.4 32.3 S 93.9 691.7 11.6 58.4 4.5 57.7

4 L 772.2 610 15.1 11.1 7.9 142.9 G 14.4 174.5 139.7 13.1 11.5 82.2 Ni 2.6 88.5 5.1 9 12.4 26.9 S 90.1 361.9 11.9 35 2.6 94.2

5 L 349.5 2615.4 12.4 14.1 8.2 148.3 G 12.9 217.5 107.9 13.1 16.8 133.8

I M 3.7 110.5 9.9 10.3 9 41.7 S 78.8 189.6 5 21.6 7.6 63

6 L 295.4 4875 13.4 26.7 255.1 149.4 G 18 211 102.7 20.9 17.7 140.7 M 3.1 94.5 4.7 10.2 7.4 45.1 S 125.9 250 10.2 32.2 7.1 118.1

7 L 158.7 697.1 4.6 9.9 7.8 122.2 G 11.3 166.5 210.8 9.6 13.5 101.1 M 2.4 87 7.4 9.9 8.6 27.7 S 164.3 1420.4 27.6 141.1 0.6 268.7

8 I L - - - - - - G 6.6 130.5 100.7 8.8 9.3 117.8 Ni 2.2 71.5 6.9 9.9 7.4 30.4 S 173.1 1495.3 16.5 71.7 31.7 107.2

9 L 122.2 1000 89.9 11.3 14.1 171.2 G 8.4 103 89.9 11.3 13.9 127.8 M 3.5 95.6 3.7 9.4 8.9 35.7 S 116.1 443.9 13.2 29.1 12.1 106.8

10 L 90.2 14131.6 13.8 26.7 16.5 74.5 G 14.1 190.5 85.9 15 7.7 125.1 M 3.4 66.5 12.1 10.4 7.9 43.8 S 134.4 286.6 5.4 11.1 5.8 67.9

11 I L 508.5 520.4 10 26.1 28.2 121.5 G 9.9 344.6 141.8 12.2 16.1 94.9 M 3.4 78.5 9.3 9.6 12.9 337.5 S 235.3 908 18.3 70.3 22.3 158

12 L 279.2 2375 17.8 32.4 5 136.7 G 14.3 177 170.5 17.2 13.1 263 M 4.6 80 5.6 9.3 12.9 29.7 S 137.7 1225 26.6 133.9 15.2 183.9

13 L 1423.2 543.8 21.3 12.6 6.7 159.2 G 4.3 240 142.9 18.6 84.8 208.5 M 3.1 99.5 7.4 9.3 9.2 29.7 S 804.7 711.1 11.1 26.9 35.6 93.6

14 L 151.8 1095.2 8.1 20.9 20.6 101.5 G 8.4 218 70.1 11.6 15.1 91.8 M 2.8 88.5 5.1 9.7 8.6 29.1 S 30 272.9 11.2 27.9 10.7 119.9

15 L 149.8 920 15.2 53.6 33.2 544.1 G 17.9 228.5 59.4 16.8 11.6 119.3 M 3.2 84.5 11.8 11.1 9.1 34.6 S 99.9 675.8 10.5 65.1 9.1 83.7

16 L 105.6 867.7 10.9 36.5 30.6 120.3 G 18.4 227.1 134.2 21.2 28.2 185.7 M 4.5 84 8.9 9.8 12.7 43.1 S 78 416.7 28.3 62.7 11 227

5-67


Chapter 5

TA LE 5.23 (Continalied) 17 L

G M S

485.6 84.4 5.1

134.9

635.3 2631.3

82.5 572.2

41.2 4141.3

10.4 9.5

38.8 268.2 10.2 36.4

38.5 200.7

7.6 23.2

149.1 2643.7

32 83.6

18 L 149.4 910 6.7 8.9 5.7 115.2 G 14.6 224 132.3 12.7 14.6 239

I M I 2.5 86 8.9 10.7 9 29.1 S 127.9 1178.2 20.3 125.3 16.7 239.9

19 L 275.8 1277.8 12.7 26.4 13.9 101.9 G i 6.9 414 167.6 13.8 14.2 161.3 M 3.5 96 9 10.8 8.9 33.5 S 93.7 409.6 16.1 47.6 21.3 127

20 @L 701.2 1111.6 10 49.3 59.3 144.9 G II 17.4 445.5 185.7 21.6 20.9 154.5 M 4 2.6 86 8.4 10.1 8.4 38.9 S 267.9 402.9 7.7 18.9 12.9 141.8

x±SD L 355.4+325.4 2333.4+3250.8 18.6±21.5 24.2±13.7 14.8±11.3 148.9±101.9 G 31.8±52.3 345.6±558.3 237.5±437.3 29.1±59.8 29.5±46.1 283.5±574.6 M 4.7±6.3 88.8±13.6 7.2±2.9 10.2±1.1 9.5±2.0 33.9±6.3 S 157.1±166.6 492.4+408.0 13.3±6.4 49.9±30.8 12.8±10.1 125.2±62.4

TABLE 524 ioconcentration Factors determined for the water (BFw ➢ and sediment

Fs) with L capensis - March 1994 (n=20).

FISH . ORGAN i d

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn


G 76.5 0.129 2400.0 0.008 51.5 0.047 59.7 0.172 92.0 0.439 1307.5 0.857 M 16.0 0.027 745.0 0.002 1.4 0.001 29.3 0.084 61.0 0.291 113.5 0.074 S 519.5 0.875 5750.0 0.018 3.4 0.003 213.7 0.614 1.0 0.005 586.5 0.384

2 L 1070.5 1.802 43161 0.136 1.9 0.002 30.3 0.087 33.0 0.158 476.5 0.312 G 21.5 0.036 1285.0 0.004 43.7 0.039 35.7 0.103 131.5 0.628 639.0 0.419 M 29.5 0.049 1900.0 0.006 1.8 0.002 64.0 0.184 75.5 0.360 374.5 0.245 S 469.5 0.790 4081.0 0.013 2.6 0.002 104.7 0.301 33.0 0.158 327.0 0.214

3 L 1227.0 2.066 4500.0 0.014 1.9 0.002 35.7 0.103 13.5 0.064 603.5 0.395 G 64.0 0.108 1920.0 0.006 50.1 0.046 39.3 0.113 75.5 0.360 995.0 0.652 M 14.5 0.024 1245.0 0.004 0.9 0.001 34.3 0.099 42.0 0.201 161.5 0.106 S 469.5 0.790 6915.0 0.002 3.7 0.003 194.7 0.559 22.5 0.107 288.5 0.189

4 L 3861.0 6.500 6100.0 0.019 4.9 0.004 37.0 0.106 39.5 0.189 714.5 0.468 G 72.0 0.121 1745.0 0.006 45.1 0.041 43.7 0.126 57.5 0.275 411.0 0.269 M 13.0 0.022 885.0 0.003 1.7 0.002 30.0 0.086 62.0 0.296 134.5 0.088 S 450.5 0.758 3619.0 0.011 3.8 0.004 116.7 0.335 13.0 0.062 471.0 0.309

5 L 1747.5 2.942 26154 0.082 4.0 0.004 47.0 0.135 41.0 0.196 741.5 0.486 G 64.5 0.109 2175.0 0.007 34.8 0.032 43.7 0.126 84.0 0.401 669.0 0.438 M 18.5 0.031 1105.0 0.004 3.2 0.003 34.3 0.099 45.0 0.215 208.5 0.137

, S 394.0 0.663 1896.0 0.006 1.6 0.002 72.0 0.207 38.0 0.181 315.0 0.206 6 L 1477.0 2.487 48750 0.154 4.3 0.004 89.0 0.256 1275.5 6.088 747.0 0.489

G 90.0 0.152 2110.0 0.007 33.1 0.030 69.7 0.200 88.5 0.422 703.5 0.461 M 15.5 0.026 945.0 0.003 1.5 0.001 34.0 0.098 37.0 0.177 225.5 0.148 S 629.5 1.059 2500.0 0.008 3.3 0.003 107.3 0.308 35.5 0.169 590.5 0.386

7 L 793.5 1.336 6971.0 0.022 1.5 0.001 33.0 0.095 39.0 0.186 611.0 0.400 G 56.5 0.095 1665.0 0.005 68.0 0.062 32.0 0.092 67.5 0.322 505.5 0.331 M 12.0 0.020 870.0 0.003 2.4 0.002 33.0 0.095 43.0 0.205 138.5 0.091 S 821.5 1.383 14204 0.045 8.9 0.008 470.3 1.352 3.0 0.014 1343.5 0.880

8 L - - - - - - - - - - - G 33.0 0.056 1305.0 0.029 32.5 0.029 29.3 0.084 46.5 0.222 589.0 0.386 M 11.0 0.019 715.0 0.002 2.2 0.002 33.0 0.095 37.0 0.177 152.0 0.099 S 865.5 1.475 14953 0.005 5.3 0.005 239.0 0.687 158.2 0.757 536.0 0.351

9 L 611.0 1.029 10000 0.032 2.9 0.002 37.7 0.108 70.5 0.337 856.0 0.561 G 42.0 0.071 1030.0 0.003 29.0 0.026 37.7 0.108 69.5 0.332 639.0 0.419 M 17.5 0.977 956.0 0.003 1.2 0.001 31.3 0.090 44.5 0.212 178.5 0.117 S 580.5 0.029 4439.0 0.014 4.3 0.004 97.0 0.279 60.5 0.289 534.0 0.349

10 L 451.0 0.759 141316 0.446 4.5 0.004 89.0 0.256 82.5 0.394 372.5 0.244 G 70.5 0.119 1905.0 0.006 27.7 0.025 50.0 0.144 38.5 0.184 625.5 0.409 M 17.0 0.029 665.0 0.002 3.9 0.004 34.7 0.099 39.5 0.189 219.0 0.144 S 672.0 1.131 2866.0 0.009 1.7 0.002 37.0 0.106 29.0 0.138 339.5 0.222

5-68


TAis LE 5.24 (Continued)

11 L G M S

2542.5 71.5 17.0

1176.5

4.280 0.083 0.029 1.981

5204.0 3446.0 785.0

9080.0

0.016 0.011 0.003 0.029

3.2 45.7 3.0 5.9

0.003 0.042 0.003 0.005

87.0 40.7 32.0

234.3

0.250 0.117 0.092 0.673

141.0 80.5 64.5 111.5

0.673 0.384 0.308 0.532

605.5 474.5 1687.5 790.0

0.398 0.311 1.106 0.518

12 I

L G

M S

1369.0 71.5 23.0 688.5

2.350 0.120 0.039 1.159

23750 1770.0 800.0 12250

0.075 0.006 0.003 0.089

5.7 55.0 1.8 8.6

0.005 0.050 0.002 0.008

108.0 57.3 32.0 446.3

0.310 0.165 0.089 1.283

25.0 65.5 64.5 76.0

0.119 0.313 0.308 0.363

683.5 1315.0 148.5 919.5

0.448 0.862 0.097 0.602

13 L G M

7116.0 21.5 15.5

11.979 0.836 0.026

5438.0 2400.0 995.0

0.017 0.008 0.003

6.9 46.1 2.4

0.006 0.042 0.002

42.0 62.0 31.0

0.121 0.178 0.089

33.5 424.0 46.0

0.159 2.024 0.219

796.0 1042.5 148.5

0.521 0.683 0.097

S 4023.5 6.774 7111.0 0.022 3.6 0.003 89.7 0.258 178.0 0.849 468.0 0.307

14 L 759.0 1.278 10952 0.035 2.6 0.002 69.7 0.200 103.0 0.492 507.5 0.332

G 42.0 0.071 2180.0 0.007 22.6 0.021 38.7 0.111 75.5 0.360 459.0 0.301

M 14.0 0.024 885.0 0.003 1.7 0.002 32.3 0.093 43.0 0.205 145.5 0.095

S 150.0 0.253 2729.0 0.009 3.6 0.003 93.0 0.267 53.5 0.255 599.5 0.393

15 : L 749.0 1.261 9200.0 0.029 0.1 0.005 178.9 0.514 166.0 0.792 2720.5 1.782

G 89.5 0.151 2285.0 0.007 19.2 0.017 56.0 0.161 58.0 0.279 596.5 0.391

M 16.0 0.027 845.0 0.003 3.8 0.004 37.0 0.106 45.5 0.217 173.0 0.113

S 499.5 0.841 6758.0 0.021 3.4 0.003 217.0 0.624 45.5 0.217 418.5 0.274

16 ' L 528.0 0.889 8677.0 0.027 3.5 0.003 121.7 0.349 153.0 0.730 610.5 0.394

G 92.0 0.155 2271.0 0.007 43.3 0.039 70.7 0.203 141.0 0.673 928.5 0.608

M 22.5 0.038 840.0 0.003 2.9 0.003 32.7 0.094 63.5 0.303 215.5 0.014

S 390.0 0.657 4167.0 0.013 9.1 0.008 209.0 0.601 55.0 0.263 1135.0 0.744

17 L 2428.0 4.088 6353.0 0.020 13.3 0.012 129.3 0.372 192.5 0.919 745.5 0.488

G 422.0 0.710 26313 0.083 133.5 1.216 894.0 2.569 1003.5 4.789 13218 8.659

1 M 25.5 0.043 825.0 0.003 3.4 0.003 34.0 0.098 38.0 0.181 160.0 0.105

S 674.5 1.136 6722.0 0.018 3.1 0.003 121.3 0.349 116.0 0.554 418.0 0.274

18 ' L 747.0 1.258 9100.0 0.029 2.2 0.002 29.7 0.085 28.5 0.136 576.0 0.377

73.0 0.123 2240.0 0.007 42.7 0.039 42.3 0.122 73.0 0.349 1195.0 0.783

M 12.5 0.021 860.0 0.003 2.9 0.003 35.7 0.103 45.0 0.215 145.5 0.095

S 639.5 1.077 11782 0.037 6.6 0.006 417.7 1.200 83.5 0.399 1199.5 0.786

19 L 1379.0 2.322 12778 0.040 4.1 0.004 88.0 0.253 69.5 0.332 509.5 0.334

G 34.5 0.058 4140.0 0.013 54.1 0.049 46.0 0.132 71.0 0.339 806.5 0.528

M 17.5 0.029 860.0 0.003 2.9 0.003 36.0 0.103 44.5 0.212 167.5 0.109

S 468.5 0.789 4096.0 0.013 5.2 0.005 158.7 0.456 106.5 0.508 635.0 0.416

20 L 3506.0 5.902 11116 0.035 3.2 0.003 164.3 0.472 296.5 1.415 724.5 0.475

G 87.0 0.147 4455.0 0.014 59.9 0.056 72.0 0.207 104.5 0.499 772.5 0.506

M 13.0 0.022 800.0 0.003 2.7 0.003 33.7 0.097 42.0 0.201 194.5 0.127

S 1339.5 2.255 4029.0 0.013 2.5 0.002 63.0 0.181 64.5 0.308 709.0 0.465

x±SD L 1777.0 2.992 23334 0.074 6.0 0.006 80.7 0.232 74.0 0.353 744.5 0.488

G 159.0 0.268 3456.0 0.011 76.6 0.069 97.0 0.279 147.5 0.704 1417.5 0.929

M 23.5 0.039 888.0 0.003 2.3 0.002 34.0 0.098 47.5 0.226 169.5 0.111 S 785.5 1.322 4924.0 0.016 4.3 0.004 166.3 0.478 64.0 0.306 262.0 0.499

5-69


Chapter 5

TA LE 5,25 Met concentrations (tag/g dry mass) in organs and tissues off C. carpio -

arch. 1

4 (L=Liver9 G=Gii➢s 9 ME=Musc9e 9 S=Skin)(n=20)0 1k I

FISH - ORGAN Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

1 L - - - - -

G 27.3 228 82.3 10.3 16.8 565

M 7.2 155.5 10.1 12.9 12.9 67.8 S 29.2 745 11.5 54.7 21.9 202.6

2 L 34.4 880 4.2 12 16 275.5 G 10 368 66.4 12.3 6.8 528.7 M 3.2 116 11.9 8.3 13.1 52.6 S 40 460 11.5 38.7 26.5 426.5

3 L 19.3 1157 5.1 20 6.8 300.5 G 31.9 584 25.4 17.5 44 673 M 3.6 120.5 12.5 9.5 13.4 44 S 221.7 572.6 118.2 510 1463.4 2878.4

4 L 24.1 111.8 13.2 37.7 40.3 340.3 G 9.7 317 62.3 8.9 14.2 364

M 2.5 81 3.8 9.6 9.2 384

S 19.5 572.6 15 35 7.4 162.1

5 L 19.2 695.7 18.5 29.4 28.5 314.9 G 13.9 286.3 68.5 13.9 15.5 317.4

M 3.5 113 7.1 10.6 9.7 49.5 S 123.2 925 20.7 45 42.2 364.3

6 L 16.8 1044 69.4 34.8 33.2 490 G 7.2 247.5 97.1 14.8 7.8 808.5 M 3.2 96 4.5 10.3 9.2 50.2 S 592.9 30645.2 1595.2 362.3 568.7 2040.3

7 L 778 3327.3 144.6 197.3 7.3 347.3 G 9.7 437.8 75.5 9.9 16.4 375

M 3.9 113 3.3 9.8 7.3 41.9 S 67.1 936.4 19.3 69.3 26.9 198.7

8 i L 84.7 2322.2 28.4 126.1 26.9 399.5 G 5.6 503 58.1 13.8 11.6 437.5 M 7.4 144.5 8.5 9.3 12.5 57.1 S 33.4 959.3 16.3 72.4 13.9 289.5

9 1 L 124.6 1837.5 25.4 50.4 34.2 232.9 G 6.3 99.5 92 13.2 7.8 449.5

M 4.3 120.2 4.1 11.1 9.9 38.9 S 731.1 368.4 9.5 27.4 23.4 255.6

10 L 44 1236.5 13 25 37 278.7 G 18 262 52.5 7.6 14.9 286.5 M 4.5 167.5 9.9 9.3 13.3 74.9 S 100.7 1088.7 17.9 87.4 17.9 263.6

11 L 55.7 1100 41 42.4 60.4 583.4 G 17.3 298.5 67.9 12.8 17.5 538 M 3.5 110 3.1 9.7 9.3 45.4 S 101.7 564.1 11.2 33.7 31.6 198.6

12 L 31.5 1950 58.2 51.1 59.3 176.1 G 12.4 328 59.2 15.6 20.6 375 M 2.9 105 11.8 9.1 12.6 50.9 S 32.1 418.6 13.5 34.1 5.7 179.5

13 L 598 910 23.2 29.4 9.4 387.6 G 6.2 451 8.3 14.2 12.7 388.5

M 5.3 119.5 7.8 9.3 12.6 79.2 S 28.5 423.4 10.9 29.1 21.5 244.7

14 L 34.6 1078.9 6.9 14.5 23.1 210.9 G 37.8 817 93.5 26.9 12.4 392 M 6.6 106.5 4.3 10.9 9.5 62.4 S 129.7 564.5 11.5 41.3 26.2 325.7

15 L 26.8 1133.8 4.2 10.2 10.5 452.5

G 12.9 247 71.7 8.9 16.9 410.5

M 3.4 102.5 6.6 84.5 12.5 47.2 S 716.6 3011.4 1885.3 459.6 693.4 2628.4

16 L 38.8 1002.4 10 50.9 37.4 0 G 13 28.3 68.8 19.5 17.6 599

M 5.3 156 19.5 11.1 8.3 67.4 S 22.6 205.2 6.5 10.4 10.5 176.7

5-70


TA LE 5,25 (Conti used) 17 L

G M S

52.2 12 2.3 60

863.9 241 87

727.1

16.1 71.1 3.9 13.3

22.8 8.5 9.9

60.8

32.2 18.6 8.8

25.2

332.2 509.5

65 273.1

18 L 101.7 1379.6 11.2 36.9 16.1 321.3 G 14.8 420 89.9 15.1 10.6 597 M 5.1 136.5 18.5 10.4 8.7 105.5 S 86.9 623.8 10.7 46.4 6.7 235

19 L 30.2 600 6.9 16.7 20 320.6 G 4.9 386.5 45.7 13.5 12.3 442 Ni 2.2 92.5 5.1 9 12.8 47.6 S 51.4 437.7 9 38.5 6.9 213.7

20 L 28.2 1992.9 15.2 60.4 22.7 203.2 G 5.5 404.5 77.1 13.5 13.2 526.5 M 3 96 8.4 9.4 12.9 42 S 613.3 954.6 21.9 40.9 12.5 244.2

x±SD L 48.7130.6 1312.81667.5 27.8±34.5 43.9144.5 28.6115.2 332.21106.9 G 14.3±9.1 357.61158.7 66.3120.8 12.714.4 15.417.9 484.61129.6 M 4.2±1.6 118.1±24.2 44.8±158.9 13.9±17.2 11.1±1.9 57.4±16.5 S 167.8±234.6 2660.21694.7 200.4±545.4 108.21152.5 159.21370.6 610.91861.9

TABLE 5.26 Bioconcentration Factors determined for the water (BFw) and sediment

(BFs) with C. carpi° - March 1994 (n=20). FISH ' ORGAN Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs 1 L - - - - .. - - - - - - -

G 136.5 0.229 2280.0 0.007 26.5 0.024 34.3 0.099 84.0 0.401 2825.0 1.851 M 36.0 0.061 1555.0 0.005 3.3 0.003 43.0 0.124 64.5 0.308 339.0 0.222 S 146.0 0.246 7450.0 0.024 3.7 0.003 182.3 0.524 109.5 0.523 1013.0 0.664

2 L 172.0 0.289 8800.0 0.028 1.4 0.001 40.0 0.115 80.0 0.382 1377.5 0.902 G 50.0 0.084 3680.0 0.012 21.4 0.019 41.0 0.118 34.0 0.162 2643.5 1.732 M 16.0 0.027 1160.0 0.004 3.8 0.004 27.7 0.079 65.5 0.313 263.0 0.172 S 200.0 0.337 4600.0 0.015 3.7 0.003 129.0 0.371 88.3 0.632 2132.5 1.397

3 L 96.5 0.162 11570 0.037 1.7 0.002 66.7 0.192 34.0 0.162 1502.5 0.984 G 159.5 0.269 5840.0 0.018 8.2 0.008 58.3 0.168 220.0 1.050 3365.0 2.204 M 18.0 0.030 1205.0 0.004 4.0 0.004 31.7 0.091 67.0 0.319 220.0 0.144 S 1108.5 1.866 5726.0 0.018 38.1 0.035 1700.0 4.900 737.0 34.926 14392 9.428

4 L 120.5 0.203 1118.0 0.004 4.3 0.004 125.7 0.361 210.5 0.962 1701.5 1.115 G 48.5 0.082 3170.0 0.009 20.1 0.018 29.7 0.085 71.0 0.339 1820.0 1.192 M 12.5 0.021 810.0 0.003 1.2 0.001 32.0 0.092 46.0 0.219 1920.0 1.258 S 97.5 0.164 5726.0 0.018 4.8 0.004 116.7 0.335 37.0 0.177 810.5 0.531

5 L 96.0 0.162 6957.0 0.022 5.9 0.005 98.0 0.282 142.5 0.680 1574.5 1.032 G 69.5 0.117 2863.0 0.009 22.1 0.020 46.3 0.133 77.5 0.3969 1574.5 1.039 M 17.5 0.029 1130.0 0.004 2.3 0.002 35.3 0.102 48.5 0.232 1587.0 0.162 S 616.0 1.037 9250.0 0.029 6.7 0.006 150.0 0.431 211.0 1.007 1821.5 1.193

6 L 84.0 0.141 104.40 0.033 22.4 0.020 116.0 0.333 166.0 0.792 2450.0 1.605 G 36.0 0.061 2475.0 0.008 31.3 0.029 49.3 0.142 39.0 0.186 4042.5 2.648 M 16.0 0.027 960.0 0.003 1.5 0.001 34.3 0.099 46.0 0.219 251.0 0.164 S 2964.5 4.991 306452 0.966 514.6 0.469 1207.7 3.470 2843.5 13.573 10201 6.683

7 L 3890.0 6.549 33273 0.105 46.7 0.043 657.7 1.889 36.5 0.174 1736.5 1.138 G 48.5 0.082 4378.0 0.014 24.4 0.022 33.0 0.095 82.0 0.391 1875.0 1.228 M 19.5 0.033 1130.0 0.004 1.1 0.001 32.7 0.094 36.5 0.174 209.5 0.137 S 335.5 0.565 9364.0 0.029 6.2 0.006 231.0 0.664 134.5 0.642 993.5 0.651

8 L 423.5 0.713 23222 0.073 9.2 0.008 420.3 1.208 134.5 0.642 1997.5 1.307 G 28.0 0.047 5030.0 0.016 18.7 0.017 46.0 0.132 58.0 0.277 2187.5 1.433 M 37.0 0.062 1445.0 0.005 2.7 0.003 31.0 0.089 62.5 0.298 285.5 0.187 S 167.0 0.281 9593.0 0.030 5.3 0.005 24.1 0.694 69.5 0.332 1447.5 0.984

9 L 623.0 1.049 18375 0.058 8.2 0.008 168.0 0.483 171.0 0.816 1164.5 0.763 G 31.5 0.053 995.0 0.003 29.7 0.027 44.0 0.126 39.0 0.186 2247.5 1.472 M 21.5 0.036 1202.0 0.004 1.3 0.001 37.0 0.106 49.5 0.236 194.5 0.127 S 3655.5 6.154 3684.0 0.012 3.1 0.003 91.3 0.263 117.0 0.559 1278.0 0.837

10 L 220.0 0.370 12365 0.039 4.2 0.004 83.3 0.239 185.0 0.883 1393.5 0.913 G 90.0 0.152 2620.0 0.008 16.9 0.015 25.3 0.073 74.5 0.356 1432.5 0.938 M 17.5 0.038 1675.0 0.005 3.2 0.003 31.0 0.089 66.5 0.317 374.5 0.245 S 503.5 0.848 10887 0.034 5.8 0.005 291.3 0.837 89.5 0.427 1318.0 0.863

5-71


Chapter 5

TAyc LIE 526 (Continued)

11 L 278.5 0.469 11000 0.035 13.2 0.012 141.3 0.406 302.0 1.442 2917.0 1.911 G 86.5 0.146 2985.0 0.009 21.9 0.019 42.7 0.123 87.5 0.418 2690.0 1.762 M 17.5 0.029 1100.0 0.004 1.0 0.009 32.3 0.093 46.5 0.222 227.0 0.149 S 508.5 0.856 5641.0 0.018 3.6 0.003 112.3 0.323 158.0 0.754 993.0 0.651

12 L 157.5 0.265 19500 0.062 18.8 0.017 170.3 0.489 296.5 1.415 880.5 0.577 G 62.0 0.104 3280.0 0.010 19.1 0.017 52.0 0.149 103.0 0.492 1875.0 1.228 M 14.5 0.024 1050.0 0.003 3.8 0.004 30.3 0.087 63.0 0.301 254.5 0.167 S 160.5 0.270 4186.0 0.013 4.4 0.004 113.7 0.327 28.5 0.136 897.5 0.647

13 L 2290.0 5.034 9100.0 0.029 7.5 0.007 98.0 0.282 47.0 0.224 1938.0 1.269 G 31.0 0.052 4510.0 0.014 2.7 0.002 47.3 0.136 63.5 0.303 1942.5 1.273 M 26.5 0.045 1195.0 0.004 2.5 0.002 31.0 0.089 63.0 0.301 396.0 0.259 S 142.5 0.239 4234.0 0.013 3.5 0.003 97.0 0.279 107.5 0.513 1223.5 0.802

14 p L 173.0 0.291 10789 0.034 2.2 0.002 48.3 0.139 115.5 0.551 1054.5 0.691 G 189.0 0.318 8170.0 0.026 30.2 0.028 98.3 0.258 62.0 0.296 1960.0 1.284 M 33.0 0.056 1065.0 0.003 13.9 0.001 36.3 0.105 131.0 0.227 312.0 0.204 S 648.5 1.092 5645.0 0.018 3.7 0.003 137.7 0.396 131.0 0.625 1628.5 1.069

15 L 134.0 0.226 11338 0.036 1.4 0.001 34.0 0.098 52.5 0.251 2262.5 1.482 G 64.5 0.109 2370.0 0.008 23.1 0.021 29.7 0.085 84.5 0.403 2052.5 1.345 M 17.0 0.029 1025.0 0.008 2.1 0.002 281.7 0.809 62.5 0.298 236.0 0.155 S 3583.0 6.032 30114 0.095 608.2 0.554 1532.0 4.402 3467.0 16.549 13142 8.609

16 L 194.0 0.327 10024 0.032 3.2 0.003 169.7 0.488 187.0 0.893 - G 65.0 0.019 283.0 0.001 22.2 0.020 65.0 0.187 88.0 0.420 2995.0 1.962 M 26.5 0.045 1560.0 0.005 6.3 0.006 37.0 0.106 41.5 0.198 337.0 0.221 S 113.0 0.190 2052.0 0.007 2.1 0.002 34.7 0.099 52.5 0.251 883.5 0.579

17 L 261.0 0.439 8639.0 0.027 5.2 0.005 76.0 0.218 161.0 0.769 1661.0 1.088 G 60.0 0.101 2410.0 0.008 22.9 0.021 28.3 0.081 93.0 0.444 2547.5 1.669 M 11.5 0.019 870.0 0.003 1.3 0.001 33.0 0.095 44.0 0.210 325.0 0.213 S 300.0 0.505 7271.0 0.023 4.3 0.004 202.7 0.582 126.0 0.601 1365.5 0.895

18 L 508.5 0.856 13796 0.044 3.6 0.003 123.0 0.353 80.5 0.384 1606.5 1.052 G 74.0 0.125 4200.0 0.013 29.0 0.026 50.3 0.145 53.0 0.253 2985.0 1.960 M 25.5 0.043 1365.0 0.004 5.9 0.005 34.7 0.099 43.5 0.208 527.5 0.346 S 434.5 0,732 6238.0 0.019 3.5 0.003 154.7 0.444 33.5 0.159 1175.0 0.769

19 L 151.0 0.252 6000.0 0.019 2.2 0.002 55.7 0.159 100.0 0.477 1603.0 1.051 G 24.5 0.041 3865.0 0.012 14.7 0.013 45.0 0.129 61.5 0.294 2210.0 1.448 M 11.0 0.019 925.0 0.003 1.7 0.002 30.0 0.086 64.0 0.306 238.0 0.156 S 257.0 0.433 4377.0 0.003 2.9 0.003 128.3 0.369 34.5 0.165 1068.5 0.699

20 L 141.0 0.237 19929 0.063 4.9 0.005 210.3 0.579 113.5 0.542 1016.0 0.666 G 27.5 0.046 4045.0 0.013 24.9 0.023 45.0 0.129 66.0 0.315 2632.0 1.725 M 15.0 0.025 960.0 0.003 2.7 0.003 31.3 0.090 64.5 0.308 210.0 0.138 S 3066.5 5.162 9546.0 0.030 7.1 0.006 136.3 0.392 62.5 0.298 1221.0 0.799

x±sp L 243.5 0.409 13128 0.041 8.9 0.008 146.3 0.421 143.0 0.683 1661.0 1.088 G 71.5 0.120 3576.0 0.011 21.4 0.019 42.3 0.122 77.0 0.368 2423.0 1.587 M 21.0 0.035 1181.0 0.004 14.5 0.013 46.3 0.133 55.5 0.265 287.0 0.188 S 839.0 1.413 26600 0.084 64.7 0/059 360.7 1.036 796.0 3.799 3054.0 2.001

5-72


T 5.27 Meta➢ concentrations (jn.g/g dry Films) in organs and tissues di-. tansbratus -

March. 1994 (L=Liver, G=Gnfl1s 9 M=Muscie, S=Ski)(n=113).


1 L 481.5 965 17.5 61 66 185.5 G 27.8 391.5 168.5 30.9 21.1 92.5 M 235.8 1646.1 29.6 122.3 88.1 197.7 S 443.8 2137.5 61.9 102.5 29.4 238.2

2 L 1429 586.3 8.3 23.9 11.9 182 G 10.5 229.5 99.9 14.1 28.9 71.4 M 30.3 211.4 4.1 15.3 5.2 67.2 S 27.6 757.4 12.2 58.7 23.9 91.3

3 L 496 1005 19.5 80.5 56.5 191 G 5.9 218.5 111.2 18.7 19.4 91.9 M 3.2 91.9 7.3 10.8 14.5 40.3 S 248.9 1110.7 28.6 71.5 15.7 158.9

4 L - - - - - - G 8.6 170 50 11.3 25.4 106.8 M 2.7 77 4 9.4 8.9 32.3 S 71.1 646.1 12.4 69.6 29.2 91.5

5 L 83.9 584.2 12.8 40.9 55.7 102.9 G 6.5 141.5 129.4 11.6 14.9 66 M S

4.2 76.4

123.5 588.8

2.6 12.4

10.1 41.7

7.1 13.7

37.8 ff 62.3

6 L 600.2 925 9.2 12.5 18.8 169.4 G 5.4 487.5 51.3 11.4 6.3 92.9 M 3.1 97.5 3.5 9.9 9 34.9 S 99.7 573.9 10.9 51.4 5.4 99.4

7 L 89.2 4067.7 14.7 7.8 8.6 116.5 G 24.8 279.5 36.3 12.6 10.9 80.5 M 21 134 3.6 10.3 29.7 35.4 S 167.2 390.7 7.7 25.3 8.8 69.2

8 L 558 662.5 4.4 7.7 93 211.5 pVp G 12 203 85 13.5 38.7 61.7 M 2.9 95.5 3.9 10.3 9.4 24.3 S 6.3 166.1 10.9 20.9 8.5 51.5

9 L 906.8 597.5 13.2 13.2 15.7 181.7 G 12 262.5 54.3 15.6 20.2 99.6 M 5.9 96.5 5 10.5 9.2 55.4 S 72.9 547.6 10.4 55.9 16.9 51.3

10 L 827.4 627 7 19.3 16.9 144.4 G 7.2 292 120.5 11.3 16.4 87.9 M 3 110 8.8 9.2 13.3 41.8 S 87.3 1064.8 26.2 82.2 10.6 108.7

11 L 846.3 727.5 12.8 25 31.3 153.3 G 11.4 199.4 115.1 12.6 18.4 104.8 M 3.4 142.5 10.1 9.6 13 47.8 S 18.1 654.8 15 49.3 11.7 136.5

12 L 308.9 737.2 15.1 13.2 6.5 144.7 G 8.8 393 118.9 13.8 9.4 124.8 M 3.7 105 3.6 9.6 7.2 47.4 S 5.8 172.4 12.7 22.2 7.2 103.3

13 L 779.7 482.9 14 13.4 10.6 148.9 G 6.5 244.5 108.2 15 13.4 101.4 M 2.9 95.5 4.6 8.7 12.3 33.4 S 37.6 - 354.6 10.9 30.7 16.8 57.1

x+SD L 602.5+391.5 1044.1+1014.9 12.2±4.6 28.4+23.4 34.6+28.7 159.2+33.4 G 11.7+7.2 239.8±122.6 95.0±40.1 14.8+5.3 19.2+8.9 90.1+18.2 M 26.6±66.5 244.2±442.9 7.3±7.5 19.8±32.4 17.9±23.0 55.2±46.3 S 110.4±126.3 556.1±338.7 18.5+15.1 54.3±24.9 15.2±7.9 105.2±53.0

5-73


Chapter 5

TA LE 5. noconcentration Factors determined for the water

Fw and sediment L is

Ifs) with L. umbratus - March 1994 (n=13).


BFw BFs T BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs BFw BFs 2407.5 4.033 9650.0 0.030 5.7 0.005 203.3 0.584 330.0 1.575 927.5 0.608

G 139.0 0.234 3915.0 0.012 54.4 0.049 103.0 0.296 105.5 0.504 462.5 0.303 M 1179.0 1.985 16461 0.052 9.5 0.009 407.7 1.172 440.5 2.103 988.5 0.648 S 2219.0 3.736 21375 0.067 19.9 0.018 341.7 0.982 147.0 0.702 1191.0 0.780

2 L 7145.0 12.029 5863.0 0.019 2.7 0.002 79.7 0.229 59.5 0.284 910.0 0.596 G 51.5 0.088 2295.0 0.007 32.2 0.029 47.0 0.135 144.5 0.689 357.0 0.234 M 151.5 0.255 2114.0 0.007 1.3 0.001 51.0 0.147 26.0 0.124 336.0 0.220 S 138.0 0.232 7574.0 0.024 3.9 0.004 195.7 0.562 119.5 0.570 456.5 0.299

3 L 2480.0 4.175 10050 0.032 6.3 0.006 268.3 0.771 282.5 1.349 955.0 0.626 G 29.5 0.049 2185.0 0.007 35.9 0.033 62.3 0.179 97.0 0.463 459.5 0.301 M 16.0 0.027 919.0 0.003 2.4 0.002 36.0 0.104 72.5 0.346 210.5 0.132 S 1244.5 2.095 11107 0.035 9.2 0.008 283.3 0.685 78.5 0.375 794.5 0.521

4 L - - G 43.0 0.072 1700.0 0.005 16.1 0.015 37.7 0.108 127.0 0.606 534.0 0.349 M 13.5 0.023 770.0 0.002 1.3 0.001 31.3 0.090 44.5 9,212 161.5 0.106 S 355.5 0.599 6461.0 0.020 4.0 0.004 232.0 0.667 146.0 0.697 457.5 0.299

5 L 419.5 0.706 5842.0 0.018 4.1 0.004 136.3 0.392 278.5 1/329 514.5 0.337 G 32.5 0.055 1415.0 0.005 41.7 0.038 38.7 0.111 74.5 0.356 330.0 0.216 M 21.0 0.035 1235.0 0.004 0.389 0.001 33.7 0.097 35.5 0.169 189.0 0.124 S 382.0 0.643 5888.0 0.019 4.0 0.001 139.0 0.399 68.5 0.327 311.5 0.204

6 L 3001.0 5.052 9250.0 0.029 2.9 0.003 41.7 0.199 94.0 0.449 847.0 0.555 G 27.0 0.046 4875.0 0.015 16.6 0.015 38.0 0.109 31.5 0.150 464.5 0.304 M 15.5 0.026 975.0 0.003 1.1 0.001 33.0 0.095 45.0 0.215 174.5 0.114 S 498.5 0.839 5739.0 0.018 3.5 0.003 171.3 0.492 27.0 0.129 497.0 0.326

7 L 446.0 0.751 40677 0.128 4.7 0.004 26.0 0.075 43.0 0.205 582.5 0.382 G 124.0 0.209 2795.0 0.009 11.7 0.011 42.0 0.121 54.5 0.260 402.5 0.264 M 105.5 0.177 1340.0 0.004 1.2 0.001 34.3 0.099 148.5 0.709 177.0 0.116 S 836.0 1.407 3907.0 0.012 2.5 0.001 84.3 0.242 44.0 0.210 346.0 0.227

8 L 2790.0 4.697 6625.0 0.021 1.4 0.001 25.7 0.074 465.0 2.219 1057.5 0.693 G 60.0 0.101 2030.0 0.006 27.4 0.025 45.0 0.129 193.5 0.924 308.5 0.202 M 14.5 0.024 955.0 0.003 1.3 0.002 34.3 0.099 47.0 0.224 121.5 0.079 S 31.5 0.053 1661.0 0.005 3.5 0.003 69.7 0.200 42.5 0.202 257.5 0.169

9 L 4534.0 7.633 5975.0 0.019 4.3 0.004 44.0 0.126 78.5 0.375 908.5 0.595 G 60.0 0.101 2625.0 0.008 17.5 0.016 52.0 0.149 101.0 0.482 498.0 0.326 M 29.5 0.049 965.0 0.003 1.6 0.002 35.0 0.101 46.0 0.219 277.0 0.182 S 364.5 0.614 5476.0 0.017 3.4 0.003 186.3 0.535 84.5 0.403 256.5 0.168

10 L 4137.0 6.965 6270.0 0.019 2.3 0.002 64.3 0.185 84.5 0.403 722.0 0.473 G 36.0 0.061 2920.0 0.009 38.9 0.035 37.7 0.108 82.0 0.391 439.5 0.288 M 15.0 0.025 1100.0 0.004 2.8 0.003 30.7 0.088 66.5 0.317 209.0 0.137 S 426.5 0.735 10648 0.034 8.5 0.008 274.0 0.787 53.0 0.253 543.5 0.356

11 L 4231.5 7.124 7275.0 0.023 4.1 0.004 83.3 0.239 156.5 0.747 766.5 0.502 G 57.0 0.096 1994.0 0.006 37.1 0.034 42.0 0.121 92.0 0.439 524.0 0.343 M 17.0 0.029 1425.0 0.005 3.3 0.003 32.0 0.092 65.0 0.310 239.0 0.157 S 90.5 0.152 6548.0 0.021 4.8 0.004 164.3 0.472 58.5 0.279 682.5 0.447

12 L 1544.5 2.600 7372.0 0.023 4.9 0.004 44.0 0.126 32.5 0.155 723.5 0.474 G 44.0 0.074 3930.0 0.012 38.4 0.035 46.0 0.132 47.0 0.224 624.0 0.409 M 18.5 0.031 1050.0 0.003 1.2 0.001 32.0 0.092 36.0 0.172 237.0 0.155 S 29.0 0.049 1724.0 0.005 4.1 0.004 74.0 0.213 36.0 0.172 516.5 0.338

13 L 3898.5 6.563 4829.0 0.015 4.5 0.004 44.7 0.128 53.0 0.253 744.5 0.488 G 32.5 0.055 2445.0 0.008 34.9 0.032 50.0 0.144 67.0 0.319 507.0 0.332 M 14.5 0.024 955.0 0.003 1.5 0.001 29.0 0.083 61.5 0.294 167.0 0.109 S 188.0 0.317 3546.0 0.011 3.5 0.003 102.3 0.294 84.0 0.401 285.5 0.187

x±SD L 3012.5 5.072 10441 0.033 3.9 0.004 94.7 0.272 173.0 0.826 796.0 0.521 G 58.5 0.099 2398.0 0.006 30.7 0.028 49.3 0.142 96.0 0.458 451.0 0.295 M 133.0 0.224 2442.0 0.008 2.4 0.002 66.0 0.189 89.5 0.427 276.0 0.181 S 552.0 0.929 5561.0 0.018 5.9 0.005 181.0 0.520 76.0 0.363 526.0 0.345

5-74


TABLE 5,29 Metal concentrations (2.1g/g dry mass) in organs and tissues of C. gariepinms

arch. 1994 (L=Liver, G=Gilis, M=FV1uscle 9 S=Skin)(n=1)

FISH ORGAN • Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

1 L 65.4 266.9 9.3 24.7 11.9 191.1 G 9 9.3 269 57.9 14.1 10.9 100.9 M 2.9 103 4.3 8.4 10.1 34.8 S 14.4 145.6 2.6 16 4.8 18.1

TA t LE 5.30 ioconcentration Factors determined for the water (BFw) and se of meat

(BFs) with C gariepinus - March 1994 (n=1).



G 46.5 0.078 2690 0.009 18.7 0.017 47.5 0.135 54.5 0.260 504.5 0.331 M 14.5 0.024 1030 0.003 1.4 0.001 28.0 0.081 50.5 0.241 174.0 0.114

72.0 0.121 1456 0.005 0.893 0.001 53.3 0.153 24.0 0.115 90.5 0.059

TA LE 5.31 Mean v ues of the metal concentrations (p,g/g dry mass) per tissue per

species (L=Liver; M=Muscie; S=skin),

FISH SPECIES ORGAN METAL

Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn Labeo capensis L 346.4+284.1 1592.2+1871.8 18.3+23.1 35.4+19.0 12.7+9.6 186.4+110.2

G 24.1+29.7 372.8+386.1 188.6+243.8 31.7+37.8 23.5+25.4 231.9+360.3 M 7.8+6.9 146.7+89.9 7.8+3.9 16.2+7.0 12.5+4.9 93.3+87.1 S 92.1+90.7 682.8+514.4 24.2+12.7 69.3+39.3 170.8+72.3 204.6+102.6

Labeo umbratus L 778.2+1147.9 990.0+713.3 18.7115.2 47.2+30.9 26.1+18.1 297.31102.9 G 9.3+4.5 300.8+166.4 89.2+43.9 20.7+8.4 23.9+19.3 143.6+69.9 M 17.2136.5 338.5+326.5 7.4+5.2 27.1+25.0 12.5+13.1 62.1+35.6 S 62.7+69.9 874.0+907.1 21.4+15.8 66.3+47.8 21.0+15.4 194.7+77.7

Clarias gariepinus L 49.9114.9 652.4+618.2 16.2+6.5 31.6+7.8 12.5+3.8 274.41120.7 G 7.7+1.2 438.0+125.2 151.11182.2 32.2+18.7 17.0+8.1 133.9+23.8 M 3.7+-0.8 368.5+243.1 5.9+1.1 25.7+11.6 10.8+0.8 54.9+15.5 S 16.1+3.6 754.1+965.5 20.6+26.8 79.4+89.7 22.7+26.5 302.6+303.7

Cyprinus carpio L 51.9+23.2 1743.1+111.2 20.6+17.8 45.8+23.6 21.5+9.2 616.2+573.6 G 11.4+6.4 424.2+377.5 114.1+27.0 28.5+5.3 20.5+6.4 920.1+766.9 M 4.2+1.4 136.3+110.4 26.1+80.8 20.4+16.8 9.8+3.6 32.5+64.9 S 89.2+117.6 1492.1+526.1 114.7+281.8 96.4+80.9 96.9+80.9 387.9+503.3

5-75

Chapter 6

Effects of Coal Mining Effluent on the Num er

and Species Diversity of Macroinvertebrate

Fauna in the Upper Olifants River Catchment.

TABLE OF C NTENTS

6J Introduction 6-1


63 Results 6-1

63.1 Identification and Distribution of Macroinvertebrates 6-1

63.2 Metal Accumulation by Macroinvertebrates 6-14

6,4 Discussion 6-24

63 Occurrence Evaluation Index 6-28

6.6 References 6-34

Effects of Mining Effluent on Selected Aquatic Organisms Chapter 6

601 INTRO UCTION

The upper catchment area of the Olifants River is being subjected to increased mining and agricultural

activities, industrial development and urbanization. As a result of this, the water quality of the Olifants River

and some of its tributaries has been deteriorating since 1983. This causes reason for concern as one of the

downstream users in the Olifants River Catchment area is the Kruger National Park. The Kruger National

Park requires water of good quality to sustain its terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. It is therefore necessary

to determine to what extent activities upstream of the °Hants River, especially in the Witbank and

Middelburg areas, influence the water quality of the Olifants River (Van Vuren et al., 1995).

6.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study is part of a larger project for the Water Research Commission, Report No. K5/608 : Lethal and

sublethal effects of metals on the physiology of fish : an experimental approach with monitoring support. This

study was conducted in the upper reaches of the Olifants River and Klein Olifants River between Dave! and

Middelburg in coal mining areas from March 1993 to February 1994. The aim of this study was to

investigate the effect of coal mining effluent on the numbers and species diversity of macroinvertebrate fauna.

For the purpose of the macroinvertebrate fauna sampling, a total of fourteen localities (Figure 6.1) were

chosen where seasonal sampling were done. A locality X, situated on the East Rand (receiving organic and

industrial effluent) was chosen as a reference site. A comparison was made between the number and species

of macroinvertebrates found at locality X and those organisms found at the Olifants River and to establish

values for large and small numbers of organisms. Sampling procedures and further analysis of the

macroinvertebrate fauna were conducted according to standard techniques (Chapter 2).

63 RESULTS

6.3.1 IDENTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MACROHNVERTE c RATES.

Data of the macroinvertebrates sampled are given in Tables 6.1 to 6.4. Each table portrays the quantitative

presence of macroinvertebrates for a specific season.

Summer

Table 6.1 summarizes the number and diversity of macroinvertebrates sampled during summer 1994/1995.

6-1


yQ

Olifants River

ch

13

Middelburg Middelburg Dam

0

Bosnia

Witbank

O Witbank Dam

Soes,.7. 9„4.7,0,wi.

0150° 06°- Hendrina

0

cm

Kriel Steenkoo/sproit

C Bethel

Trichardtfontein Dam

Trichardt

1 Witbank Dam

5 Koringspruit

9 Middelburg Dam

13 Aasvoelkrans 2 Boesmanspruit

6 Steenkoolspruit

10 Suurstroom

14 Olilants River Lodge 3 Boesmanspruit

7 Davel

11 ()Wants River 4 Olitants River at Duhva

8 Woes-Alleenspruit

12 Spookspruit

Figure 6.1 The study area in the Upper Olifants River Catchment, indicating the localities where macroinvertebrate fauna were sampled

C

6-2


T ii LE 6J The tot all number and com s'il;on o m n croinvertebrate larvae samplled during summer

1994/11995 umbers per square meter).

!Annelids (Aquatic earthworms)

Oligichaeta

Haplotaxida

Tubificidac

Tubifex

Limnothilus

Branchiura sowerbyi

Ifirudinae (Leeches)

Rhynchobdella

Glossiphoniidae

Helobdella

-

584

-

I-

-

-

7938

-

-

-

-

-

-

146

-

877

-

97

-

1315

-

9740

-

-

-

-

2435

-

-

-

195

877

-

-

-

-

1169

731

-

-

292

1315

195

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1753

-

2240

146

633

-

-

-

97

877

-

-

-

-

3799

584

-

-

Crustacea Cladocera (Waterfleas) Copepods


- 779

-

- 292

-

- 49

-

974 3117

-

1071 146

-

3603 1266

-

1266 2143

-

- 146

-

- 584

-

- -

-

3068 4334

1899

- -

-

- -

-

97 244

-


Baetidae

Baetis - - - - - - 195 - 146 - 487 146 97 2045

Odonata (Dragon-, damselflies)

Anisoptera

Libelhilidae

Orthemis

Plathemis

Gomphidae

Gomphus

Zygoptera

Lestidae

Lester

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

49

-

-

-

-

-

-

49

-

292

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

49

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Hemiptera (Bugs)

Corixidae d

Sigara

- I

-

-

-

97

49

-

877

-

-

-

390

97

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

341


Hydroptilidae

Hydroptila

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

146

97

-

-

-

-

49

Lepidoptera (Aquatic caterpillars)

Pyralidae - - - - - - 49 - - - - - - -


Dytiscidae

Hydroporus

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

195

97

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Diptera (Flies,Mosquitoes,Midges

Culicidae

Culex

Simulidae


Chironomus larvae

Chironomus pupae

Pentaneura

C,eratipogonidae (Biting midges)

Bezzis

49

-

-

925

-

-

49

-

-

-

-

-

-

49

-

-

-

244

-

-

244

-

-

-

3312

-

-

-

-

-

-

438

49

-

-

-

-

-

1023

-

-

292

-

-

-

1753

-

-

97

-

-

-

49

-

-

49

-

-

-

487

49

-

49

-

-

14610

-

-

-

-

-

974

2629

97

-

-

-

97

-

1313

97

-

-

-

-

-

2484

49

-

-

-

-

-

5601

146

390

49

TABLE 6.1 (Continued)

6-3

438

Effects of Mining Effluent on Selected Aquatic Organisms

Chapter 6

Locality 1 - presents a small number of benthic macroinveitebrates such as Limnodrilus ('Fubificidae -

aquatic earthworms), Chironomus (Chironomidae - midges) and Culicoides (Ceratopogonidae - biting

midges). Other aquatic organisms present were Copepoda (copepods) and Culex (Culicidae - mosquitoes).

The small number of organisms present at this locality could firstly be due to organic e want from the

Naauwpoort Sewage Works, secondly to recreational activities at Witbank Dam during summer, and thirdly

to thermal pollution from the Duva Power Station.

Locality 2 - This locality represents a stream entering a mining area. A few aquatic earthworms, leeches,

copepods and biting midges were present at this locality.

Locality 3 - This locality is situated in the Boesman Spruit downstream from a mining area. Degradation of

plant material (organic pollution) and high values for phosphates and nitrates may have contributed to the few

Chironomidae and other water insects present at this locality.

Locality 4 - Koring Spruit receives some organic enrichment form the degradation of plant materials, cattle

grazing near the river and recreational activities such as angling. The presence of the Tubificidae (Tubifex,

Limnodrilus and Branchiura sowerbyi) and Chironomidae (Chironomus) confirms the fact that there is some

form of organic enrichment of the system at this locality. Other water organisms present were leeches, water

fleas, copepods and waterboat men (Corixidae - Hemiptera).

Locality 5 - 'phis locality at Van Dycks Drift receives some mining and thermal effluent from the surrounding

mines and the power station, and some organic enrichment due to the degradation of plant materials. Only a

few water organisms such as Cladocera and Copepoda were present and the benthic organisms present were

Limnodrilus (Tubificidae) and Chironomus (Chiranomidae).

Locality 6 - (Steenkool Spruit) Organic enrichment of the system (cattle grazing in the vicinity and an

informal settlement) and silt and algae contribute to the muddiness of the water. Organisms present at this

locality included Limn/v .1rib, o (Tub;,4ciA^o), Cladocera, Copepoda, Sigara (Corixidae), Pyralidae

(Lepidoptera), Hydroporus (Dytiscidae), Chironomus (Chironomidae) and Culicoides (Ceratopogonidae).

6-4


Chapter 6

Locality 7 - This is the control locality at Davel (Klein Olifants River). At this locality there is organic

Enrichment of the system (mainly from the surrounding farming area) and algae. Benthic macroinvertebrates

consist of Tubificidae (Tubifex and Limnodrilus) and Chironomidae (Chironomus) while other aquatic

organisms present were Cladocera, Copepoda, Baetidae (Baetis), Lestidae (Lester - damselfly nymph),

Corixidae (waterboat men) and Ceratopogonidae (Culicoides).

Locality 8 - (Woes-Alleenspruit) An organically enriched system (cattle grazing near the river) receiving

mining and thermal effluent from the nearby mines and the Amon Power Station respectively. The only

benthic organisms present at this locality were a few Tubificidae, Copepoda, Chironomidae and

Ceratopogonidae.

Locality 9 - At Middelburg Dam, there are many recreational activities during summer which affect the

occurrence of the macroinvertebrate fauna. Only a few Tubificidae (Tubifex, Limnodrilus and Branchiura

sowerbyi), water insects (Copepoda, Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Ceraropogonidae) and Chironomidae

(Chironomus larvae and pupae) were present in this dam.

Locality 10 - (Suurstroom) At this locality organic enrichment of the system occurs by degradation of plant

material and industrial effluent from the nearby industries that enters the river. Low pH, sometimes as low as

3, and high levels of iron and nitrate occur in the system. The only benthic organisms surviving in this system

are a few Odonata and Chironomidae.

Locality 11 - The Olifants River receives some effluent from the Suurstroom, as well as effluent from sewage

works in Witbank (organic enrichment). There are many algae present in the system, along with high levels of

nitrates and nitrites. Benthic organisms present at this locality were Tubificidae, Hirudinae, Cladocera,

Copepoda, Ostracoda (seed shrimps), Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Culicinae (mosquito larvae) and

Chironomidae (larvae and pupae).

Locality 12 - The Spook Spruit system is affected by effluent from mines, brick-works and surrounding

farming areas. Tubificidae were present in the system while water insects such as Baetis (Ephemeroptera),

Gomphus (Odonata), Hydroptilidae (Trichoptera) and Culex (Diptera) occurred in small numbers.

Locality 13 - At Olifarrts River Lodge, organic enrichment is caused by geese. Only a few Tubificidae,

Chironomidae and Ephemeroptera were present.

6-5


Locality 14 - Aasvoelkrans has large concentrations of algae during summer. Water organisms such as

Baetis (]Ephemeroptera), Sigara (Hemiptera), Hydroptila (1'richoptera) were present, while Tubificidae

(Limnodrilus and Branchiura sowerbyi) and Chironomidae (Pentaneura and Chironomus) represented the

benthic macroinvertebrate fauna in the area.

Autumn

Table 6.2 summarizes the number and composition of benthic organisms sampled during autumn 1994.

TABLE 6,2 The total num

r and composition of macroinvertebrate larvae sampl during •

autumn 1 I 4 (numbers per square meter).

ORGANISM / LOCALITY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 _, i


Hydroida

Hydrides

Hydra - 49 - - - - - - - - - - - -

Nematoda (Roundworms)

DoriLsimida

Dotylaimidae

Tobrilus - - - - - - - - - - 487 - -

Annelids (Aquatic eartworms, Polychaeta)


Haplotaxida

Tubificidae

Tubifex - - - - 487 - 584 - 341 - 292 - - -

Limnodrilus 584 11591 6185 2825 877 3263 1461 1753 3263 - 1753 877 925 1688

Branchiura sowerbyi f - - - - - - - 779 - - - - 49 -

Hbudinea (Leeches)

Rhynchobdella

Glossiphoniidae

Helobdella 731 3263 49 - 49 - 97 - 633 - 1656 - - -

Crustacea Cladocera (Waterfleas) Daphnidae 633 2581 341 1218 925 244 4042 49 195 - - - 49 -

Copepoda

Cyclopoida

Cyclops 390 2630 2338 2581 1851 438 2776 - 2045 146 3214 - -

Ostracoda (Seed shrimps) - - - - - - 3506 - - - - - -

Decapoda 97 - . - - - - - - - - - - if -


Baetidae I- - 49 - - - - - - - - - - -

Baetis 292 - - - - - 828 - 1656 - 292 97 - 97

Cloeon - 195 - 195 341 - 584 - 292 - - - - -

6-6


Chapter 6

TA LE 6.2 (Continued) Odonata (Dragonflies, Damselflies)


Libelhdidae

Libellula

Zygoptera

Lestidae

Lestes

Aesbnidae

-

-

-

49

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

195

-

-

-

-

-

-

49

-

-

49

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

HemiPtera (Bugs)


Sigara

-

-

-

-

292

-

-

1510

49

-

-

-

146

-

-

-

49

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

- -


HYdloPtilidze

Hydroptila 49 - - - - - - 49 - - - 49 - -


Dytiscidae (Predaceous diving beetles)

Hydroporus

I DYtiscus

-

-

-

-

49

-

97

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

49

49

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Diptera (Flies, mosquitoes, midges)


Culicidae (Mosquitoes, Phantom midges)

Culicinae

Culex

I Simulidae (Black flies)


Chironomus

Chironomus pupae

Pentaneura

Ceratopogouidae (Biting midges)

Palpomyia

Bezzia

-

-

-

633

-

-

-

-

-

49

-

-

-

487

49

-

49

49

-

244

-

-

-

-

49

-

-

3701

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2484

-

-

49

-

-

-

-

97

.

-

-

-

-

-

49

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2532

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3263

-

-

-

-

-

877

-

97

146

-

-

-

-

1023

-

-

536

-

-

-

-

1169

49

-

-

-

Gastropods (Snails, Limpets)

Puhnonata

Physidae - - - - - - - - - - 49 - - -

Pelecypoda (Clams, mussels)

Sphaeriidae - - - - - - - - - - - 49 - 97

Locality 1 - presents some benthic macroinvertebrates (Limnodrilus and Chironomus) and an increase of

aquatic organisms such as Cladocera, Copepoda, Decapoda (Caridina nylotica), Ephemeroptera, Odonata

and Trichoptera. A decrease in recreational activities at Witbank Dam during autumn could be the reason for

the increase in organisms at this locality.

Locality 2 - There was a definite increase in not only the number, but also the variety of water insects

(Cladocera, Copepoda, Ephemeroptera, Coleoptera and Tipulidae) and benthic macroinvertebrates such as

Tubificidae and Chironomidae.

6-7


Locality 3 - There was a slight increase in the number of water insects and benthic macroinvertebrates at this

locality within the mining area.

Locality 4 - A slight increase in the number of Limnodrilus and Chironomus stresses the fact that there was

still some organic enrichment of the system at Koringspruit during autumn. Tipulidae (biting midges),

Corixidae (waterboat men) and Baetidae (mayflies) were also present.

Locality 5 - Beatific organisms such as Tubifex and Limnodrilus (Tubificidae) were present in smaller

numbers than during summer (fable 6.1), while Chironomus (Chironomidae) were absent from Van Dycks

There was a definite increase in the number of water organisms such as I-Iirudinae, Cladocera,

Copepoda, Ephemeroptera and Hemiptera.

Locality 6 - At Steenkool Sprit, there was a slight decrease in the number and variety of water insects and

benthic macroinvertebrates during autumn.

Locality 7 - Increases in both the benthic organisms, and the water insects occurred at the control locality

near Davel.

Locality 8 - Small numbers of Simulidae (Black flies), Hydroptilidae (Trichcptera) and Copepoda occurred

at Woes-Alleenspruit, with a very slight increase in the number of Tubificidae from summer to autumn.

Locality 9 - An increase in benthic macroinvertebrates and water insects occurred at Middelburg Dam during

autumn, probably due to a decrease in recreational activities.

Locality 10 - During autumn there was a very slight increase in benthic organisms in the Suurstroom.

Odonata and Chironomidae were present in increased numbers and the presence of Copepoda and Coleoptera

was noted.

Locality 11 - At this locality in the Olifants River, there appeared to be a decrease in the number of benthic

organisms such as Tubificidae, Hirudinae, Copepoda and Ephemeroptera with the Cladocera, Ostracoda and

Chironomidae being totally absent during autumn.

Locality 12 - During autumn there was a definite decrease in not only the number of benthic organisms

(Tubificidae and Chironomidae) but also in the number of water organisms such as Baetidae, Libellulidae,

Hydroptilidae and Ceratopoganidae.

6-8


Locality 13 - 'Tubificidae such as Limnodrilus and Branchiura sowerbyi, Chironomidae such as Chironomus

and Cullicoides (Heleidae) were present at Spook Spruit in smaller numbers than during summer (Table 6.1).

Locality 14 - During autumn only Tubificidae and Chironomidae were present at Aasvoellcrans in moderate

numbers.

Winter

Table 6.3 indicates the number and composition of macroinvertebrates sampled during winter 1994.

TABLE 63 The total number and composition of macroinvertebrate larvae sampll

during .4

winter 1

4 (numbers per square meter). 1.1

ORGANISM / LOCALITY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Nematoda (Roundworms)

Dorilaimida

Dorylairnidae _ — 97 — _ _ 779 97 — _ 49 — — —

Enoplida

Tobrilus 49

Annelida

Oligochaeta (Aquatic earthwomrs)

Haplotaxida

Tubificidae

Tubifmr — _ _ _ 196 _

Limnodrilus 1071 1364 12175 3117 1364 12029 17045 1364 2581 _ 12175 682 390 _

Branchiura sowerbyi _ — _ — _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Lumbriculida 49

Irnudinea (Leeches)

Rhynchobdella

Glossiphoniidae

lielobdella 536 1169 _ 146 _ — — 683 _ 1023 _ _ _

Crustacea Cladoccra (Waterfleas) Daplmidae _ — 146 97 2045 6623 2532 292 292 _ 196 _ 49

Bosminidae 244 _ 1997 2289 _ _ _ _ _ _

CoPePodo

CYcloPoida

Cyclops 779 3360 292 292 1753 1315 4091 _ 49 _ 2386 146 — 390

Macrocyclops — -

— 1315 — — _ — _ — 292 _ _

Ostracoda (Seed shrimps) _ — _ _ _ _ _ — 244 — _


Baetidae

Baetis 1364

— — — 682 — 49 — 4042 — — 97 4334

Odonata (Dragon- and Damselflies)


Gonmhidae

Gomphus — — 97 — — — — — — — — —

6-9


T LE 6.3 (Continued) HemiPtera (Bugs)


Sigara 49 731 146 197 49 — — — — — — Pleidae (Pigmy backswinmien)

Plea _ 146 — — — — — — — — — — — —

Belostomatidae (Giant water bugs

Lethocerus _ — — — _ _ _ — — — _ —


Hydroptilidae 779 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — _ — — — 877

Hydroptila _ — _ _ 146 — _ _ 341 _ _ 49 — —


Hytiscidae(Predaceous diving beetles)

Hydroporus — — — — — — — — — 49 — — Ehnidae (Riffle beetles)

— 341 — — — — — — — _ — — DiPtera (Fliessnosquitoes,midges

Tabanidae (Horseflies)

Cluysops — — — — — — — — — 49 — — Tabarna _ _ _ — _ _ _ — — — —

96 — _

Psychodidae (Moth flies) — — — —

96 — — — — —


Chironomus 1 1802 292 197 4675 2386 49 1607 3019 6136 438 244 341 — 3312

Chironormis pupae _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — _ — 97


Palpornyia j 1558 — _ 49 390 49 _ _ _ 536 — _

Bezzia _ _ _ _ _ — — _ _ _ _

Gas-tropoda (Snails, Limpets)

Pulmonata

Physidae _ 341 _ _ _ — 96 — _ _ _ —

Locality 1 -There was a decrease in the number of the water insect larvae species with only a few Copepoda,

Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera and Trichoptera present. The Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Ceratopogonidae

were more abundant.

Locality 2 - This locality presented a few Nematoda, water insect larvae (Hemiptera and Coleoptera) and

Chironomidae. Larger numbers of Tubificidae and Copepoda were present.

Locality 3 - At Boesrnan Spnfit there was a slight increase in the number of Tubificidae, while smaller

numbers of water insect larvae, Nematoda, Chironomidae and Pulmonata were present.

Locality 4 - An overall decrease in macroinvertebrate diversity occurred with only some Tubificidae,

Hirudinae, Cladocera and Chironomidae present at this locality.

Locality 5 - At Van Dycks Drift, the same tendency for autumn occurred for winter with water insect larvae

and large numbers of Tubificidae, Cladocera, Copepoda and Chironomidae present.

6-10


Locality 6 - An increase in the number of Tubificidae, Cladocera and Copepoda occurred at Steenkool Spruit

but a decrease was observed for the Chironomidae.

Locality 7 - At the control locality, only a few Hemiptera were present, while larger numbers of Tubificidae,

Nematoda, Cladocera, Odonata and Chironomidae occurred.

Locality 8 - Nematoda (Dorylaimidae), Cladocera (Daphnidae), Chironomidae and Gastropoda (Physidae)

were more abundant during winter than during autumn. Tubificidae occurred in smaller numbers than during

autumn and no water insect larvae were present.

Locality 9 - Following the absence of Hirudinae (leeches) and Chironomidae (midges) at Middelburg Dam

during autumn, these aquatic organisms reappeared in abundant numbers. Larger numbers of Cladocera

(water fleas), Ephemeroptera (mayflies) and Trichoptera, and smaller numbers of Tubificidae and Copepoda

were present. This is probably due to almost no recreational activities.

Locality 10 - At Suurstroom, Chironomidae were the only macroinvertebrates remaining during winter.

Locality 11 - At this locality in the Olifants River, only a few water insect larvae (Trichoptera - Hydroptila)

were present while the water leeches and copepods were less abundant than during autumn. Larger numbers

of Nematoda and Tubificidae occurred during winter than during autumn, while the Cladocera and

Chironomidae occurred in large numbers during winter after being absent during autumn.

Locality 12 - Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera were present. Only a few Chironomidae were present while the

Tubificidae and Coleoptera occurred in large numbers and Tabanidae occurred for the first time at Spook

Spruit.

Locality 13 - At °Hants River Lodge, Tubificidae and Cladocera were present in small numbers while a few

moth flies (Psychodidae) occurred for the first time.

Locality 14 - This locality at Aasvoelkrans presented some Cladocera, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera and

Chironomidae in larger numbers than during autumn.

Spring

Table 6.4 presents the number and composition of macroinvertebrate larvae sampled during spring 1994.

6-11


T LE 6A 'The totall number and composition of macroinvertebrate Ilarvae samplled during

spring 1 1 '44 (numbers per square meter).

ORGANISM / LOCALITY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 10 11 12 13 14

Coelenterate (Hydroids, Jellyfsh)

Hydroicla

Hydrid

r

e°

Hydra - — — 97 - — — — —

292 — — 49

Nematode (Roundworms)

Dorylaimide

Dorylaimidae 49 — 779 925 — 2727 584 49 — 97 — — —

Annelida (Aquatic earthworms)

Oligichaeta

Haplotaxida

Tubificidae

Tubifer

Limnodrilus

Ifimdinae (Leeches)

Rhynchobdella

Glossiphoniidae

Helobdella

_

1169

—

— 1510

49

_

24350

49

— 8766

244

1315

4188 —

29220

—

— 19480

49

— 14610

—

— 1412

1023

— 49

_

1656

390

97

925

—

— 487

_

6915

Crustacea Cladocera (Waterfleas) Daphnidae

Bosminidae

Copepoda

Cyclopoida

Cyclops

Macrocyclops


146

_

1 974 ; p, _

_

_

_

1899

292

_

_

_

146

_

828

97

146

97

_

828

34090

_

6575

2289

2873

1607

1071

_

682

4675

1218

7305

390

341

—

390

_

_

97

438

—

_

—

_

146

_

_

3506

—

6575

1315

_

_

—

_

—

_

97

292

—

_

_

146

_

292

_


Lsotomidae

/sotomo _ 97 _ _ — _ — i


Baetidae

Baetis

Caenidae

Caenis

I 244 _

_

_

—

_

—

146

—

_

—

_

— —

_

—

828

—

_

—

—

—

_

—

_

i

3799

—

Hemiptera (Bugs)

Ccaixidae

Sigara

Notonectidae

Notonecta

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

—

97

_

—

244

146

_

_

97

_

_

49

_

_

_

_

_

—

_

49

—

_

—

—

_

—

—

—


Hydroptilidae

Hydroptila

Hydropsychidae

Leptonema _ _

_

_

146 _

_

_

_ _

— 97

_

—

_

—

_

—

—

—

_

—


Dytiscidae

Hy4r,catur

Deronectes

Cybister

_

i

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

97

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

—

—

_ 97

49

i

—

6-12


Chapter 6

TA LE 6A (Continued) Diptera (Flies,Mosquitoes,Midges


Tipula

Psychodidae (Moth flies)


Chironomus i Chironomus pupae

Ceratipoganidae (Biting midges)

Bezzia

1218

_

97

97

925

_

_

_

—

2240

—

_

—

2094

—

—

3068

_

—

—

1412

_

49

—

438

49

49

—

3799

_

2386

—

195

—

1461

244

_

—

2386

49

49

—

195

_

97

—

3019

49

97

—

4773

—

146

Gastropoda (Snails, Limpets)

Puhnonata

Physidae — — —

_ —

146 — — _ — —

_

Pelecypoda (Clams, mussels)

Sphaeriidae _ — —

_ 341 — _ — —

49 — _

Locality 1 - After the winter there was a decrease in the number and diversity of macroinvertebrates

occurring at this locality. Some Tubificidae, Cladocera, Copepoda, Ephemeroptera and Chironomidae were

present.

Locality 2 - At this locality a slight increase in the numbers of Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Tipulidae

occurred while only a few Copepoda and Hirudinae were present.

Locality 3 - There was a decrease in the number of Copepoda, while an increase in the number of

Tubificidae, Hirudinae, Cladocera and Chironomidae occurred.

Locality 4 - At Koringspruit a slight increase in the number of Tubificidae signifies organic enrichment of this

system. Nematodes, leeches, seed shrimps and bugs occurred in large numbers, with the waterfieas, copepods

and midges present in smaller numbers.

Locality 5 - An overall increase in the macroinvertebrate numbers and diversity occurred at Van Dycks Drift

during spring with only the Ephemeroptera and Ttichoptera occurring in smaller numbers.

Locality 6 - At this locality Tubificidae (Limnodrilus), Ostracoda, Hemiptera, Chironomidae and Heleidae

(Biting midges) were present in large numbers, and Cladocera and Copepoda in smaller numbers.

Locality 7 - An overall increase in the numbers of Nematoda, Tubificidae, Cladocera, Cop epoda and water

insect larvae (Hemiptera and Coleoptera) was observed, while Ostracoda and Chironomidae were present in

smaller numbers.

6-13


Locality 8 - Nematoda, Tubificidae, Cladocera, Copepoda, Hemiptera and Chironomidae were more

abundant during spring than during winter at Woes-Alleenspruit.

Locality 9 - There was a slight decrease in the number of benthic organisms (Tubificidae) and crustaceans

(Cladocera), while an increase in the numbers of Nematoda, Hirudinae, Copepoda and Trichoptera occurred.

Locality 10 - During spring there was once again a slight increase in macroinvertebrates in the Suurstroom. A

few Tubificidae, Cladocera and Chironomidae were present during this season.

Locality]] - At this locality in the Olifants River there appeared to be an increase in the number of Hydridae,

Cladocera, Copepoda, Chironomidae and Ceratapogonidae. Smaller numbers of Tubificidae and Hirudinae

also occurred.

Locality 12 - At Spook Spruit it was evident that the effluent from the mines, brick-works and surrounding

farming areas affected the occurrence of macroinvertebrates in this system. Only some Tubificidae,

Chironomidae and Pelecypoda (clams, mussels) were present.

Locality 13 - Although a slight increase in the numbers of macroinvertebrates occurred, the numbers of

Ephemeroptera present, decreased.

Locality 14 - During spring at Aasvoelkrans smaller numbers of Copepoda, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera and

Chironomidae were observed. The numbers of Hydridae, Tubificidae and Cladocera occurring in spring were

larger than in winter.

632 METAL ACCUMULATION BY MACROINVERTEBRATES

An introduction to metal accumulation by the macroinvertebrates, as well as the methods for metal uptake,

regulation and excretion are discussed in Chapter 3.

Data on the metal concentrations of the macroinvertebrates are given in Tables 6.5 to 6.8. Each table portrays

the metal concentrations accumulated by the macroinvertebrates sampled during a specific season. Due to the

presence of moderate numbers of macroinvertebrates, these onzanisms were analyze d according to families.

Summer

The data obtained for the benthic organisms during summer 1994/1995 are given in Table 6.5.

6-14


Chapter 6

LE 6.5 Teta nmekall coneentr • ens (wet mass) in the merroiniiveutelboate larvae during summer

1 /1995.

11

LOCAliTY ORGANISM Al pg/g Cr pg/g Cu pg/g Fe pg/g Mn pg/g Ni pg/g Pb pg/g Zn pg/g

Tubificidae 1313.3 1623.3 210 8200 216.7 1140 366.7 753.3

Chironomidae 2773.4 3382.8 390.6 19843.8 460.9 2117.2 820.3 3468.8

Ceratopogonidae 408.1 800.3 100.6 4051.7 96.3 533.1 229.9 209.8

Copepoda 849.4 950.3 134.6 6105.8 133 1166.7 246.8 429.5

2 Tubificidae 1861.3 63.1 12.3 2580.7 234.9 47.7 12.1 70.9

Glossiphoniidae 6833.3 6464.3 880.9 53333.3 1619.1 4166.7 1511.9 3559.5

Copepoda 5864.6 5531.3 843.8 31875 718.8 3812.5 1312.5 2656.3

Ceratopogonidae 6480.8 3163.5 1125 41442.3 1221.2 6000 1278.9 4009.6

3 Tubificidae 15812.4 159.2 48.3 14723.8 460.6 87.9 37.9 593.8

Chironomidae 10790.3 4379 572.6 30080.7 991.9 2879 798.4 3379

Ceratopogonidae 19196.4 10250 1607.1 48035.7 2517.9 7089.3 1982.1 5839.3

Copepoda 20452 12425 1750 79250 1925 8225 2000 5850

Corixidae 5161.1 2351.7 296.6 15974.6 822 1491.5 572 5025.4

4 Tubificidae 4807.9 478.9 57 5859.7 385.1 323.7 137.7 265.8

Cnossiphoniidae 595.7 187.5 26.1 2944.6 215.5 123.7 43.7 141.4

Chironomidae 2184.9 97.7 19.9 2584.9 119.1 66.5 24 94.9

Copepoda 5032.9 3671.1 401.3 18289.5 703.9 2375 703.9 1710.5

Cladocera 7000 4758.9 803.6 50535.7 1133.9 3098.2 839.3 2348.2

Corixidae 1839.4 665.2 87.1 4852.9 460.4 412.9 121.1 382.4

5 Tubificidae 4241.3 69 13.1 4191.2 151.7 45.2 16.4 59.8

Chironomidae 2160.5 603.2 89.6 6815.9 303.5 493.8 235.1 221.4

Cladocera 2767.9 3113.1 458.3 16547.6 577.4 2208.3 988.1 1583.3

Copepoda 13941.2 7338.2 1147.1 46470.6 1000 5294.1 2191.2 3529.4

6 Tubificidae ¢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Chironomidae 5552.3 1830.7 286.3 12903.2 790.3 1286.3 806.5 725.8

Ceratopogonidae I 57.3 97.7 11.6 442.7 20.5 60.5 46.2 34.7

Cladocera 328.1 111.3 16.8 1174 68.7 73.8 38.9 55.2

Copepoda 85.3 106.4 14.4 411.3 22.2 76.2 32.3 39.4

Corixidae 373.9 76.2 15.7 1130.9 34.3 57.1 28.9 43.1

Sphaeriidae f 330.1 28.1 7.7 625.2 86.4 30.1 19.5 32.8

Dytiscidae 201.8 106.5 15.2 1049.2 63.4 69.1 43.7 71.9

Pyralidae i 157.8 121.8 16.4 710.8 34.5 80.9 34.5 159.1

7 Tubificidae 22968.8 15906.3 2781.3 80312.5 4156.3 11468.8 6343.8 6906.3

Chironomidae 6194.3 795.6 175.7 10895.3 662.2 670.6 250 587.8

Ceratopogonidaz I53000 59000 10875 1007500 27750 45625 19500 28000

Cladocera 19950 11725 2200 88500 2775 8673 4125 17225

Copepoda 23571.4 16875.1 2857.1 128571.4 3964.3 12464.3 5892.9 13035.7

Baetidae 10510.9 4750 869.6 33369.6 1130.4 3369.6 1554.4 2319.3

Corixidae 32125 29187.5 5187.5 219375 5875 22500 9812.5 28875

Lestidae 7559.5 5642.9 928.6 28809.5 1059.5 3869.1 1773.8 6059.5

Dytiscidae 29850 23900 4700 129500 4700 17400 7900 22150

8 Tubificidae 5679.6 131.2 34.8 8011.1 383.2 106.1 26.8 92.3

Chironomidae 4250 2986.8 1315.8 43552.6 1171.1 5684.2 1263.2 2539.5


Copepoda 8454.3 8159.1 1568.2 45227.3 1227.3 5681.8 1954.6 4295.5

Sphaeriidae 726.9 430.7 83.1 3360.9 138.9 270.5 13.2 139.1

6-15


TABLE 6.5 (Contemned)

9 Tubiftcidae

Copepoda

Chironomidae

Ceratopogonidae

Gomphidae

Baetidae

10921.1

13181.8

8250

5053.6

968.7

163.1

2796.1

9500

8214.3

4866.1

47.1

93

664.5

2022.7

1482.1

991.1

16.4

18.4

89078.9

55000

45357.1

31339.3

3247.4

542.4

1559.2

1613.6

1464.3

678.6

39.7

28.6

2388.2

6909.1

6107.1

3758.9

52.7

63.6

1000

2704.6

1392.9

848.2

13.4

20.8

2703.9

8045.5

2964.3

3178.6 Id 57.5

112.9

10 Chironomidae 9572.5 247.8 50.9 14810 660.2 180.1 46.2 160.6

Anisoptera 1269.8 110.7 24.6 3191.2 120.4 81.8 26.5 55.8

11 Tubificidae 7027.8 2588.9 544.4 30333 1705.6 5938.9 911.1 2988.9

Chironomidae 1509.5 569.1 117.9 6773.8 244.1 407.1 94.1 276.2


Osracoda 16375 10589.3 2482.1 708928.6 10571.4 7750 2214.3 10392.9

Cladocera 5233.9 3943.6 733.9 73225.8 895.2 2588.7 975.8 3225.8

Copepods 4076.9 2072.1 437.3 13750 506.6 1706.7 745.2 1793.3

Baetidae 5555.6 2494.4 550 1150. 405.6 1855.6 1011.1 1727.8

Simulidae 1479.938 479.9 174.4 6404.3 195.9 649.7 199.1 351.9

Hydroptilidae 1348.8 2284.9 604.7 14186.1 494.2 5970.9 732.6 1813.9

Physidae 262.1 102.5 17.8 708.4 75.9 51.3 16.4 92.5

12 Tubificidae 3733.7 2016.3 472.8 16739.1 1364.1 16033 407.6 1320.7

Chi onomidae 3231.9 935.6 286.1 8092.8 858.2 778.4 121.1 1353.2

Baetidae 1443.9 765.3 237.2 106122.4 1505.1 676 114.8 1227

Culicidae 3136.4 2359.1 618.2 19318.2 600 1977.3 0 2263.6

Libellulidae 5113.9 658.2 183.7 6683.7 1301 561.2 81.6 807.8

Hydroptilidae 1780.9 1126.5 1450.6 21265.4 515.4 941.4 197.5 1228.4

13 Tubificidae 2109.2 445.4 177.8 7816.9 397.9 818.7 184.9 410.2

Chironomidae 2485.8 819.1 207.3 6869.9 463.4 662.6 160.6 780.5

Baetidae 1238.9 1158.3 258.3 43361.1 650 908.3 230.6 538.9

14 Tubificidae 1516.9 34.8 14.8 1333.1 273.6 41.8 14.2 177.5

Chironomidae 1434.7 100 56.6 4877.2 4943 177.6 67.9 157.9 1

Hydroptilidae 1479.4 610.8 296.4 9432.9 1180.4 1177.8 342.8 1221.7

Cladocera 1327.8 1147.2 266.7 7305.6 202.8 919.4 330.6 708.3

Copepods 3330.7 1786.3 383.1 91532.3 1443.6 1318.6 556.5 1064.5

Baetidae 579.2 275 55.4 2244.1 327.9 203.9 58.3 194.1

Corixidae 351.3 319.1 65.6 1375.7 91.5 236 125 201.8

Ceratopogonidae i 437.1 383.7 85.7 2115.4 119.8 279.7 119.8 230.8


Iron and aluminum occurred in the highest concentrations while manganese, lead and copper occurred in low

concentrations.

Very high metal concentrations were observed for the macroinvertebrates occurring at localities 3, 7, 8 and 9.

The Ostracoda at locality 11 also presented high metal concentrations. The high metal concentrations at

locality 3 may be due to the fact that this locality is just below a mining area and thus receiving effluent from

the mine. At locality 7 the hi0 metal concentrations observed for the organisms analyzed, were due to

effluent kiln the surrounding fanning area resulting in organic and metal enrichment of this specific locality.

6-16


Chapter 6

Autumn

The data obtained for the macroinvertebrates during autumn 1994 are given in Table 6.6.

T FLE 606 To dal concentrations (wet mass) the macroinvertebrate larvae swamp! during

autumn 1994,

Chironomidae

Tubificidae

Cladocera

Copepoda

Glossiphoniidae

Decapoda

Baetidae

27500

27861.1

51916.7

288333

3005.2

511.9

8350

18694.4

19722.2

26958.3

39979.2

2005.2

495

4943.8

1388.9

1361.1

1958.3

1604.2

139.2

26.9

343.8

139444.4

124166.7

187500

173125

11855.7

2581.2

31562 .3

0

9833.3

0

1104.2

1025.8

71.9

56.3

18722.2

18944.4

27791.7

28229.2

1762.9

417.6

4562.5

4833.3

4888.9

6750

5250

554.1

49.8

1293.8

6555.6

6805.6

7791.7

7562.5

564.4

76.9

968.8

Aeshnidae 19390.6 10703.1 703.1 64062.5 0 10765.6 2921.9 1453.1

Hydtoptilidae 17812.5 17050 750 86750 287.5 15487.5 2162.5 3437.5

Dytiscidae 11341.7 5233.3 400 33416.7 0 5491.7 1308.3 1575

2 Tubificidae 19555.3 1229.7 135.4 35375.5 737.2 2022.7 126.3 677.9

Glossiphoniidae 15750 20966.7 816.7 153833.3 11166.7 16550 3466.7 9100

Hydridae 8411.8 11617.7 264.7 61911.8 1279.4 10117.7 2314.7 3352.9

Copepods 8423 9675 325 66250 1537.5 8525 1700 8000

44687.5 39062.5 1500 221875 5437.5 34000 10375 44937.5 Cladocera

Chironomidae 23178.6 25071.4 607.1 123214.3 2357.1 19035.7 7535.7 6285.7


Culicidae 19333.3 20694.4 500 108888.9 1944.4 17638.9 4722.2 5277.8

Baetidae 10171.1 8539.5 276.3 73552.6 1328.9 7032.6 2236.8 1855.3

Dytiscidae 1662.5 1864.6 45.8 9979.2 202.1 1456.3 391.7 352.1

3 Tubificidae 4743 491.5 20.7 8717.6 464.5 393.6 31.9 94.1

Tipulidae 7463.5 3286.3 244.8 19427.1 0 3119.8 1114.6 781.3

Chironomidae 14288.5 6423.1 461.5 62019.2 0 6644.2 1692.3 2230.8

Baetidae 9243.9 4792.7 298.8 35182.9 0 4243.9 1426.8 676.8

Cladocera 7967.7 1629.3 129.3 24762.9 698.3 1601.3 441.8 428.9

Dytiscidae 2132.9 1000 66.8 6529.1 95.9 889.6 256.1 348.3

Corixidae 3579.6 1437.5 107.9 10946.9 524.6 1407.2 386.4 484.9

Culicidae 5929.1 2410.5 186.6 15559.7 0 2727.6 429.1 1022.4

Gloss iphonfidae 9920.7 4262.2 335.4 28902.4 0 4548.8 914.6 2865.9

Copepoda 49000 17916.7 1527.8 126666.7 0 19666.7 3833.3 22305.6

4 Tubificidae 5414.7 2308.8 602.9 18500 385.3 1923.4 505.8 682.4

Chironomidae 1259.6 88.2 4.3 1687.7 46.2 71 8.1 33.6

Cladocera 4833.3 4020.8 130.2 26927.1 411.5 3447.9 708.3 1760.4

Copepoda 3349.5 1925.9 85.7 15138.9 259.3 1537 497.7 2773.2

Corixidae 59.2 346.6 18.8 2206.6 32.1 260.9 79.8 195.6

Baetidae 2179.9 1399.7 39.8 10302.6 176.8 1148.1 286.6 383.8

Notonectidae 1753.3 1330.9 39.6 8021.6 196 1122.3 289.6 422.7

5 Tubificidae 1135.4 630.2 23.1 4330.4 66.2 492.6 125.7 1853

Cladocera 692.4 684.8 21.3 3643.7 57.2 560.9 107 348

Copepods 470.7 440.8 20.5 3180.3 287.1 370 97.4 299.8

Baetidae 1033.9 654.2 20.3 4118.6 59.3 572.9 130.5 268.6

Corixidae 732.1 716.9 25.1 3888.9 56.5 589.6 150.5 283.2


Chironomidae 468.9 258.1 12.5 2431.2 54.2 237.1 84.1 83.7

6-17


TA ltrLE 606 (Continued)

6 Tubificidae

Chironomidae

Cladocera

Copepoda

Ceratopogonidae

2163.4

605

271.9

30625

6467.7

193.5

519.1

1140.4

31166.7

2806.5

8.9

32.8

23.4

2375

116.9

5200.4

2289

6630.4

233333.3

19838.7

110.7

102.6

105.3

4166.7

245.9

186.8

436.2

1045.3

29541.7

2427.4

27.5

125.3

159.4

4208.3

681.5

97.9

326.4

325.4

14625

923.4

7 Tubificidae 13877.6 5969.4 301 48775.5 841.8 4877.6 1158.2 3653.1

Ostracoda 4258.1 13008.1 403.2 57983.9 1395.2 10967.7 2129 4322.6

Cladocera 1510.6 42073 159.6 27073 315.9 3824.5 819.2 4920.2

Copepods 7059.2 3071.4 1513 27927.6 447.4 3562.5 782.9 3328.9

Chironomidae 42440.2 48442.4 190.2 44891.1 586.9 4331.5 885.9 6239.1

Glossiphoniidae 2096.8 5451.6 145.2 27500 411.3 4717.7 1177.4 3330.7

Baetidae 2007.8 1574.2 83.9 12421.9 277.3 1328.1 369.1 1798.8

Corixidae 1000 2690.5 833 175893 330.4 2229.2 613.1 2720.2

8 Tubificidae 3675.1 236.3 16.9 5581.2 319.5 207.2 21 123.6

Cladocera 5666.7 16857.1 845.2 133333.3 2809.5 28166.7 2214.3 5107.1

Simulidae 5310.6 1348.5 196.9 59090.9 530.3 5583.3 1916.7 2734.9

Hydroptilidae 22812.5 24187.5 1895.8 237916.7 4208.3 49416.7 4416.7 9562.5

9 Chironomidae 14177.9 10572.1 600.9 93413.5 2134.6 14548.1 13173 2894.2

Tubificidae 6670.3 7496.4 3913 66702.9 3170.3 6253.6 768.1 3125.2


Copepoda 3871.2 7931.8 363.6 46893.9 7537.8 7734.9 1583.3 3477.3

Cladocera 1415.2 6464.3 125 33973.2 2102.7 5196.4 1066.9 1674.1

Corixidae 877.6 2750 68.9 14642.9 405.6 2467.9 596.9 1081.6

Baetidae 2115.5 968.9 37.4 7929.9 371 1013.5 195.9 432.3

10 Copepoda 1993.2 4263.5 128.4 30472.9 655.4 4662.2 1635.1 1959.5

Chironomidae 6414.7 1328.6 59.8 21438.2 357.5 1124.3 176.7 436.8

Libellulidae 623.2 135.6 7.3 2206.2 26.5 112.2 27.5 68.3

Dytiscidae 792.9 530.9 30.1 4103.9 171.7 643.1 177.7 250.8

11 Tubificidae 878.4 1931.2 68.8 12568.8 419.7 1598.6 383 12225

Glossiphoniidae 249.7 420.9 17 2301.4 127.7 327.6 60.5 234.9

Chironomidae 2937.5 1635.4 112.5 11875 564.6 1372.9 439.6 747.9

Copepoda 704.6 2284.1 62.5 13314.2 407.2 1625 433.2 7973

Baetidae 1994.4 2977.4 62 16597.7 310.2 2347.7 477.4 546.9

Physidae 503.5 152.5 23 1527.6 917.2 87.2 19.6 164.9

12 Tubificidae 911.9 2571.4 69.1 25428.6 647.6 2057.1 507.1 390.5

Chironomidae 1626.4 2804.6 66.1 16235.6 583.3 2304.6 652.3 479.9


Baetidae 581.8 4309.1 109.1 21727.3 563.6 3831.8 886.4 781.8

Hydroptilidae 642.9 4994.9 107.1 24234.7 607.1 4244.9 1066.3 1102

Libellulidae 22068.2 7668.2 163.6 55136.4 940.9 6340.9 1004.6 1304.6

Ostracoda 7387.5 5087.5 167.5 31575 6825 4162.5 447.5 1152.5

Sphaeriidae 280.6 250.6 49.8 1544.8 841.1 183.2 65.9 83.5

13 Tubificidae 1950.2 1192.9 303 110388.4 515.8 929.6 280.3 309.5

Chironomidae 2377 728 33.2 5852.8 275.6 560.1 111.8 241

Ceratopogonidae 397.1 1803.3 40.4 8878.7 431.9 1501.8 386 322.1

Cladocera 947.8 3731.3 82.1 20261.2 447.8 2932.8 940.3 705.2

14 Tubificidae 339 1039.6 23.4 6142.1 142.1 732.9 250.9 187.9

Cho' onomidae 339.4 1013.7 22.8 4644.1 121.4 706.2 250 302.9

Baetidae pp

1136.2 3529.5 106.7 15955.1 417.1 2602.5 362.4 855.3

Sphaeriidae 40.8 11.2 3.6 1193 114.5 16.9 13.2 14.7


6-18


High metal concentrations were observed for the Chironomidae at localities 1, 3 and 7, Tubificidae at locality

1, the Cladocera and Copepoda at localities 1, 3 and 7. The high metal concentrations at locality 1 are firstly

due to organic effluent from the Naauwpoort Sewage Works and secondly to thermal pollution from the

Duva Power Station.

Winter

The data obtained for the metal concentrations in the macroinvertebrates during winter 1994 are given in

Table 6.7.

TABLE 6.9 Tot m concentrations (wet mass) in the macroinvertebrate larvae sampled during

winter 1994.

Glossiphoniidae

Lumbricidae

Tubificidae

Copepoda

Ceratopogonidae

Chironomidae

Hydroptilidee

1587.5

3864.8

4537.5

4216.7

489.9

4341.4

2290.8

4287.5

2528.7

7425

7450

1403.6

307.9

1627.6

158.3

69.7

175

383.3

35.9

86.5

191.3

22270.8

18872.9

46623

170555.6

6681.6

23774

25000

808.3

436.5

1925

9616.7

502.2

1567.3

1038.3

3722.9

2071.7

6168.8

8205.6

1126.7

2685.7

3936.2

420.1

448.8

1287.5

1111.1

262.3

466.4

538.3

687.5

571.7

1668.8

3027.8

520.2

1036.1

1581.6

Baetidae 4169.1 7911.8 279.4 39191.2 1621.3 6694.9 485.3 1492.7

Corixidae 4272.4 4873.1 235.1 33731.3 828.4 5712.7 716.4 891.8

2 Tubificidae 7103.7 7024.4 432.9 61341.5 1518.3 10219.5 1201.2 2329.3

Glossiphoniidae 1443.5 2769.4 86.3 13779.8 297.6 2187.5 288.7 683

Chironomidae 3465.4 4753.9 103.9 23461.5 484.6 3823.1 846.2 1130.8

Copepoda 1468.8 8125 393.8 52937.5 1168.8 10075 1156.3 2031.3

Pleidae 2193.4 4136.8 301.9 42075.5 886.8 7839.6 834.9 1042.5

Ehnidae 1395 2965 420 49850 1000 9345 1020 2205

Nematode 127234 7952.1 867 257446.8 4234 38515.9 962.8 3542.6

3 Tubificidae 3555.9 65.9 13.9 7055 412.4 57 9.6 58.1

Chironomidae 4639.5 8040.7 145.3 36627.9 1209.3 5680.2 1418.6 1767.4


Copepoda 6308.3 9916.7 216.7 46750 1275 8083.3 1691.7 2491.7

Cladocera 7295.5 4761.4 488.6 64318.2 1397.7 12068.2 1465.9 2102.3

Corixidae 1641.2 1391.2 35.9 8815.8 809.7 1042.9 226.3 215.8

Anisoptera 12202.5 257.8 17.5 6976.2 276.6 228.2 25.1 108.5

Nematode 2776 2343.8 484.4 14895.8 552.1 25526 286.5 1598.9

Physidae 2988 38.6 9.4 3246.7 447.1 30.9 8.6 47.3

4 Tubificidae 6968.1 2350.5 188.7 30465.7 2446.1 4392.2 348 8873


Chironomidae 1486.4 43.2 6.7 1856.6 806.5 40.2 4.8 32.2

Copepoda 1395.8 6010.4 161.5 28489.6 1677.1 4661.5 947.9 1536.5

Cladocera 2256.9 5958.3 416.7 57083.3 1875 10298.6 1229.2 2284.7

6-19


Chapter 6

TA tcLE 607 (Con naned)

5 Chironomidae

Tubificidae

Copepoda i

Cladocera

Ilydroptilidae

CerathPogonidae

Baetidae

2829.8

3785.3

3101.4

2540

3828.6

1 2458.3

3385.7

324.4

5500

4871.6

6090

7078.6

6779.8

4482.1

30.9

203.8

418.9

140

721.4

404.8

103.6

5097.7

26032.6

52027

29650

83428.6

51726.2

33250

1198.7

1883.2

1864.9

1540

1700

1333.3

1203.6

473.1

4176.6

9513.5

4960

16228.7

9422.6

3635.7

56.2

516.3

1412.2

830

1271.4

1125

782.1

130.3

812.5

2141.9

1335

2771.4

1083.3

925

Corixidae 1 4273.4 87718.8 265.6 45390.6 2742.2 7343.8 1585.9 2343.8

6 Tubificidae 5465.9 550.5 41.9 13300.1 329.3 461.9 70.8 131.9

Chironomidae 2670.5 8551.1 193.2 38238.6 863.6 6812.5 857.9 1317.1

Ceratopogonidae 2769.7 8710.5 197.4 37894.7 802.6 62303 1353.3 2513.2

Cladocera 5186.7 4216.7 123.3 26566.7 823.3 3510 536.7 790

Copepoda 897.3 3804.8 85.6 33219.2 541.1 3342.5 458.9 1215.8

Corixidae 905.7 5012.3 94.3 28401.6 553.3 3877.1 918 1057.4

7 Tubificidae 1293.3 110.8 40.2 4087.7 214.9 97.2 15.4 91.4

Chironomidae 1227.1 539.3 21.7 4024.9 164.9 417.7 87.1 79.1

Ceratopogonidae 4187.5 18250 339.4 96093.8 3468.8 14593.8 2718.8 4531.3

Ostracoda 1348.6 2632.2 64.9 14615.4 403.9 2038.3 483.2 540.9

Cladocera I 1714.7 3682.4 100 20500 579.4 2811.8 564.7 532.4

Copepods 723.6 789.6 53.8 9330.2 209.4 1435.9 159.4 303.8

Corixidae 494.7 16423 37.2 7832.5 170.2 12713 2333 299.2

Baetidae 741.1 2113.5 44.3 9893.6 274.8 1540.8 332.8 875.9

Nematoda 1729.2 3229.2 4653 14652.8 416.7 2027.8 534.7 1437.5

8 Tubificidae 2275.2 1585.4 46.6 10124.2 16582 1216.6 2373 416.4

Chironomidae 4093 53.3 7.6 2000.2 258.3 42.9 7.9 34.2

Cladocera 5426.4 1053.5 21.5 6563.6 170.6 771.7 112 173.1

Nematoda 39375 60312.5 9937.5 281250 6250 36500 7500 14187.5

Physidae G 731.2 807.8 112.7 3901.7 303.5 515.9 183.5 342.5

9 Tnbificidae 207.5 160.2 8.4 1897.5 543 260.3 61.5 78.3

Giossiphonfidae 313.1 5083 25.9 4845.1 110.1 361.2 97.4 164.8

Chinmomidae 952.7 511.5 34.1 7945.1 263.7 352.8 97.8 182.9

Cladocera 3266.7 49833 261.1 26722.2 588.9 36833 816.7 1061.1

Copepoda 80313 12625 718.5 65625 1328.1 8828.1 2609.4 4296.9

liydroptifidae 2024.3 3062.5 173.6 15451.4 378.5 2233.5 541.7 819.4

Baetidae 870.6 656.7 47.5 3660.2 253.3 502.6 138.2 279.1

10 Chironomidae 980.3 2799.3 138.2 15460.5 309.2 2082.2 549.3 582.2

11 Tnbificidae 255.2 350.3 30.1 2477.7 2723 253.7 88.8 163.5


Chironomidae 9125 3548.6 187.5 15937.5 451.4 2288.2 739.6 711.8

Cladocera 3110.7 3204.9 180.3 55614.8 881.1 2622.9 479.5 10533

Copepoda 1095.7 1467.6 81.8 8641.9 3333 10833 274.7 291.7

Belastcrmatidae 182.1 105.6 12.5 667.1 237.3 78.4 23.2 743

Nematoda 23666.7 395833 5166.7 190000 4000 24000 3833.3 17750

12 Tnbificidae 1488.3 1562.5 82 9355.5 898.4 1166 318.4 464.8

Copepoda 1746.6 2962.8 158.8 15979.7 439.2 2317.6 516.9 797.3

Chironomidae 1076.1 2004.4 158.7 14434.8 445.7 1447.8 3413 467.4

Ceratopogonidae 2300 5914.3 357.1 36857.1 1285.7 45143 771.4 10643

Ostracoda 846.3 2126.2 114.7 9977.1 247.7 1433.5 431.8 373.9

Baetidae 1814.1 1756.2 254.1 9607.4 419.4 1336.8 2913 555.8

Hydroptilidae 569.4 1344.1 81.8 6250 359.6 899.7 311.7 425.9

Tabanidae

Dytiscidae

162.2

344 .2

236.6

512.3

33.6

52.5

1228.6

2569,6

211.4

252.1

162.7

357.1

47.4

111.9

101.2

138.7

6-20


Chapter 6

'IF LE 6.9 (Continued) 13 Tubificidae 468.8 1066.1 53.8 4775.8 149.1 715.2 244.4 235.4

Cladocera 672.5 1180.5 68.2 6029.4 121.7 795.5 272.7 316.9

1 1Psychodidae 987.9 1325.8 187.9 7969.7 177.3 969.7 266.7 686.4

14 Chironomidae 306.8 336.7 27.9 1838.4 150.4 230.9 71.4 177.2

Copepoda 728.4 1123.9 63.6 6670.5 127.3 782.9 220.5 281.8

Hydroptilidae 617.8 1038.6 52.9 5671.8 145A 738.9 172.9 272

Baetidae 2643 235.2 18.2 1342.4 162.7 169 48.4 120.9


Manganese, lead and capper occurred in the lowest concentrations, while iron and aluminum were present in

the highest concentrations.

During this period very high metal concentrations were observed for the Copepoda at localities 1, 3 and 9, the

Nematoda at localities 2, 8 and 11 and the Ceratopogonidae at localities 3 and 7.

A variety of water insect larvae, such as Dytiscidae (Predaceous diving beetles), Elmidae (Riffle beetles),

Tabanidae (Horseflies), Belastomatidae (Giant water beetles) and Chironomidae (midges) had low metal

concentrations as did the leeches (Glossiphanidae), aquatic earthworms (Lumbricidae) and mollusks

(Physidae). Other macroinvertebrates such as Anisoptera, Ceratopogonidae, Baetidae and Tubificidae had

metal concentrations varying from high to low.

Spring

Data on the metal concentrations accumulated by the macroinvertebrates during spring 1994 are presented in

Table 6.8.

TABLE 608 To metal concentrations (wet mass) in the macroinvertebrate larvae sampled saarinsi 1•u 4.

LOCALITY ORGANISM Al pg/g Cr pg/g Cu pg/g Fe lig/g Mn tg/g _ .

Ni pg/g mmVg Zn pg/g

1 Tubificidae 28830 5560 1210 73300 2010 3710 980 4040

Chironomidae 2427.3 1051.4 148.9 9875.9 195 682.6 171.9 604.6

Ceratopogonidae 48279.4 8720.6 1397.1 80000 2720.6 5808.8 1455.9 5514.7

Cladocera 15647.7 7045.5 1079.6 54204.6 829.6 4181.8 2011 4704.6

Copepoda 9116.7 17666.7 22833 94500 1983.3 11783.3 2100 6450

Baetidae 5821.4 4919.6 660.7 37053.6 758.9 3250 1151.8 2839.3

2 Tubificidae 1543.4 889.2 115.3 7500 851.8 580.8 187.1 908.7

Glossiphoniidae 4023.8 2148.8 288.7 183333 672.6 1267.8 479.2 872

i Copepods 3012.3 1128.5 193.7 12500 1352.1 741.2 198.9 968.3

Chironomidae 2313.4 2211.3 588 10035.2 911.9 1278.2 510.6 2042

Psychodidae 1744.5 1648.4 219.8 9807.7 620.9 942.3 390.1 1046.7

Tipulidae 386.3 282.2 46.7 2833.2 86.5 163.9 82.4 142.7

Nematoda 50150 32550 4650 226000 4350 32200 2200 14700

6-21


Chapter 6

TA LE 6.8 (Continued

3 obificidae

Chironomidae

Glossipboniidae

Ostracoda

CoPePoda

1905.9

713.2

2720.6

3995.3

3886.4

50.9

52.9

2416.7

2643.6

3761.4

14.7

9.9

348

396.2

426.1

3968.4

3424.9

15196.1

15432.7

17329.6

466.3

289.3

642.2

605.8

431.8

33.9

34.5

1651.9

1692.3

2130.7

17

11.1

426.5

490.4

988.6

83.7

43.8

2127.5

2663.5

1232.9

4 Tubificidae 5528.6 934.7 218.2 15987.3 1880.6 581.2 226.1 735.7

Glossiphonridae 6637.5 1991.7 450 19541.7 1833.3 1420.8 666.7 1808.3

Chironomidae 1197.3 112.2 32.5 2628.3 1171.2 77.7 25.8 117

Ostracoda 14923 15250 2550 68500 3200 7625 4700 8825

Cladocera 25625 76750 11750 278750 8375 38500 17500 62625

Copepods 53625 90000 16250 382500 8750 45125 16625 39375

Corixidae 17875 279583 4791.7 145000 3375 145833 4791.7 13291.7

Nematoda 2046.8 3828.1 632.8 18515.6 453.1 2171.8 992.2 2031.3

5 ITubificidae 6205.4 469 12.7 9561.9 1371.6 249.2 141.2 429

Chironomidae 3067.3 528.5 87.6 6582.9 1867.5 236.4 130.4 389.9

Copepoda 31285.7 27571.4 3607.1 114285.7 6500 11464.3 6285.7 12392.9

Cladocera 8589 784.2 107.9 13981.2 1695.2 410.1 148.1 399.8

Ostracoda 22000 27142.9 2750 96071.4 7875.1 10321.4 6464.3 12857.1

Hydroptilidae 26650 39850 4450 105000 5450 16250 9100 13350

Hydridae 36300 40700 4950 137500 4300 16150 9150 20500

Corixidae 176750 193000 24500 717500 34500 79750 36500 77750

Bretidae 1459.9 1625.9 152.7 5782.4 166 683.2 316.8 841.6

Nematoda 353125 28895.8 3020.8 758333.3 4000 9166.7 1104.2 9125

6 Tubificidae 4464.9 88.1 16.2 6158.9 286.2 45 14 93.5

Chironomidae 6130.8 2595.9 305.2 17180.2 1029.1 1145.4 313.9 1267.4

Ceratopogonidae 41250 54625 5312.5 176875 10500 23187.5 7687.5 16875

Cladocera 25297.6 6363.1 625 59464.3 1571.4 2744.1 1142.9 2291.7

Ostracoda 50859.4 18921.9 2250 185312.5 2687.5 8750 2500 6546.9

Copepoda 97000 112750 19625 435000 9500 44625 19125 57000

Corixidae 65750 45650 4800 222000 4500 18050 8150 17200

7 Tubificidae 5912.9 228.4 86.7 15530.3 672.3 202.7 66.3 279.9

Glossiphonfidae 144875 73250 12000 723750 14500 49125 19625 30000

Copepoda 16725 7175 1025 73500 3125 4812.5 1537.5 4025

Cladocera 34428.6 17857.1 2964.3 136428.6 4464.3 12392.9 3071.4 11500

Ostracoda 71500 64125 9000 371250 9875 41375 12125 34125

Chironomidae 9042.7 3487.8 554.9 31385.4 1085.4 2085.4 829.3 1512.2

Ceratopogonidae 53687.5 35062.5 4375 336250 5187.5 21562.5 9125 17250

Corixidae 1620833 480833 6833.3 4533333 7416.7 29166.7 9833.3 30250

Dytiscidae 2149 1033.1 201.9 7367.6 344.4 574.5 278.2 567.9

Isotomidae 71083.3 440833 6750 925833.3 13166.7 28416.7 7666.7 200833

Nematoda 3153.8 2435.8 403.8 13782.1 519.2 1730.8 0 1596.2

Sphaeriidae 179.1 133.1 24.7 849.5 96.3 2137.7 17.4 46.7

Physidae 6762.1 236.4 35.6 3839.9 156.8 127.8 49.9 69.8

8 Tubificidae 721.9 14.7 4.3 1268.9 124.6 12.7 3 34.4

Chironomidae 1315 28.6 7.5 1868.9 164.5 19.4 5.3 32.2

Copepoda 4233.9 2816 377.4 28207.6 750 1575.5 679.3 316

Cladocera 5065.8 3269.7 394.7 11776.3 447.4 1782.9 940.8 1625

Corixidae 4437.3 3181.3 418.8 19875 425 1825 518.8 2600

Nematoda 600833 9091.7 1550 85916 1191.7 4733.3 1183.3 1975 1

6-22


lr LE 600 (Continued) 9 , Chironomidae

Glossiphoniidae

Tnbificidae

Ceratopogonidae

Copepoda

aetidae

C 'doe

5564.1

396.4

1962.8

1552.4

3266.2

410.1

427.1

834.9

220.2

1128.1

1143.2

1821.4

287.6

368.1

97.8

28.2

115.7

125

220.8

43.4

53.8

7884.6

1401.3

5661.2

4737.9

7922.1

1913.3

1718.8

479.2

119.8

371.9

221.8

240.3

81.6

753

445.5

117.3

588.8

550.4

879.9

214.9

296.9

174.7

39.8

188

227.8

389.6

142.2

174.5

278.9 /

137.2

855.4

407.3

944.8

107.8

281.3

Nematoda 821851.9 14703.7 4824.1 475925.9 25240.7 11046.3 7527.8 23250

10 Chironomidae 814.2 364 65.9 3361.5 174.8 288 195.9 205.2

CoPePoda 515.1 493.9 88.7 3598.8 78.6 365.9 215.7 322.9

ubificidae 1179.2 1068.8 204.2 10291.7 277.1 8583 387.5 577.1

11 ubificidae 2415.3 1612.9 286.3 8790.3 451.6 1205.7 778.2 987.9

Glossiphoniidae 322.2 252 33.3 1702 49.5 169.2 103.5 144.4

Hydridae 445.1 340.3 50.6 1900.3 59.3 223.9 158.2 162.6

Corixidae 1376.5 787 106.5 4058.6 103.4 487.7 311.7 677.5

Chironomidae 189.1 181.2 27.2 942 42.8 102.9 80.4 88.4

1 ; Copepoda 208.4 123.1 19.5 709.5 85.1 66.7 51.5 58.2

Cladocera 290.2 183.4 28.5 957.9 79.1 109.7 76.2 132.8

Ceratopogonidae 237.1 191.5 26.9 1341.2 34.9 110.6 76.4 72.2 ..

Nematoda 1992.1 3592.9 614.3 16785.7 428.8 2128.6 771.4 1850

12 Tubificidae 618.2 229.5 34.3 1716.6 104.9 130.9 85.2 92

Chironomidae 353.2 190.1 25.8 1009.1 33 110.8 64.9 51.2 1

Cemtopogonidae 197.7 180.9 28.7 755.8 45.4 100.7 71.2 84.3 I

Spaeriidae 393.4 71 14.5 1806.2 227.5 65.2 33.1 198.8 1

13 Tubificidae 24062.5 6125 1037.5 31625 1200 3912.5 2750 47012.5

Chironomidae 4487.9 1245.9 229.8 13750 639.1 731.9 296.4 889.1

Ceratopogonidae 4494.2 3139.5 401.2 25639.5 622.1 1750 906.9 2034.9

Copepods 1891 3173.1 461.5 13461.5 429.5 2384.6 871.8 2660.3 1

Cladocera 5821.4 6261.9 809.5 31547.6 916.7 4345.2 1964.3 3273.8 i

Caenidae 1192.5 1292 194.7 8827.4 269.9 840.7 289.8 389.4

Dytiscidae 532.4 667.6 82.4 3216.2 158.1 429.7 237.8 294.6

Notonectidae 510.7 796 115 4509.2 147.2 593.6 236.2 394.2

14 Tubificidae 1563.7 643.9 104.9 4716.9 329 438.7 1663 395.1

Chironomidae 528.9 296.7 41.9 1759.7 263.4 211.4 95.5 222.1

Cladocera 1769.6 2906.9 348 12500 338.2 1887.3 813.7 1210.8

Copepods 3180.6 2629.6 324.1 22083.3 467.6 1791.7 476.9 1726.9

Hydridae 2513.6 2609.1 381.8 20136.4 681.8 1768.2 659.1 1050

Hydropsychidae 1522.7 1556.8 184.7 5823.9 289.8 988.6 480.1 497.2

Baetidae 410 53 13.4 597.4 304.5 46.3 16.2 104

ld print : High concentrations

A variety of water insect larvae, such as Chironomidae, Tipulidae (Crane flies), Baetidae (mayflies),

Hydroptilidae (Caddisflies), Notonectidae (back swimmers) and Dyriscidae, as well as some mollusks

(Gastropoda - Physidae and Pelecypoda - Sphaeriidae) had low metal concentrations. High metal

concentrations were observed for macroinvertebrates such as the Crustacean Ostracoda and Cladocera,

hydroids (Hydra) and water insect larvae Corixidae and Isotomidae.

6-23


Variable metal concentrations were observed for macroinvertebrates such as Copepoda (crustacea),

Helobdella (leeches), Tubificidae (aquatic earthworms) and Ceratopogonidae (Biting midges).

The metal values dining spring varied from high concentrations for iron and aluminum to low manganese,

lead and copper concentrations.

6,4 DISCUSSION

Identification and Distributio of Macroinvertebrates

Kotze (1997) described the surface water of the Olifants River as generally more alkaline than acidic. The pH

varied form 3.32 (locality 8) to 9.40 (locality 1 : Kotze, 1997). Water temperature ranged from 7.2°C

(locality 8 during winter) to 28.7°C (locality 5 during summer 1995 and locality 7 during summer 1994 :

Kotze, 1997). Factors such as algal blooms (locality 14 causing low oxygen levels), agricultural and mining

activities (locality 13 causing low turbidity levels due to increased siltation) had a direct effect on the surface

water of the Olifants River and eventually influencing the aquatic macroinvertebrates occurring at the various

localities.

TABLE 6.9 Comparison of The Olifants River and Locality X CLASSIFICATION SEASONS

Winter Spring Sannuner Autumn

OR Loc X OR Loc X OR Loc X OR Loc X

Coelenterata - 1060 438 916 - 4990 49 3507

Annelids 69695 134524 117953 1346573 40324 70419 46055 122120

Ostracoda 1851 138155 5017 379561 1899 49049 3506 50351

Collembola - 20 97 - - - - 390

Ephemeroptera 10568 167 5066 49 3116 - 4918 420

Hemiptera 1367 137 731 127 1851 460 2046 939

Trichoptera 2192 1209 292 188 292 263 147 1162

Coleoptera 390 118 243 176 292 167 244 99

Diptera 27808 187601 30730 146235 37745 78689 17681 56082

Gastropoda 437 5177 146 12569 438 11026 49 20421

TOTAL SPECIES 22 19 22 22 18 36 25 24

In Table 6.9 the total number of benthic organisms during the four seasons for the Olifants River are

compared to locality X (a reference site receiving organic and industrial effluent). A comparison is made

between the total number of organisms at the Olifants River and the total number of organisms at locality X,

to establish values for small and large numbers of benthic organisms.

6-24

Effects of Mining Diktat on Selected Aquatic Organisms Chapter 6

From the comparisons, locality X clearly has large numbers of macroinvertebrate fauna for the Coelenterata,

Nematoda, Annelids, Ostracoda and Diptera, water insect larvae found at the Olifants River localities were

more abundant.

When comparing species diversity (Table 6.9), a large number of species is evidently present at the reference

locality. The sampling sites in the Olifauts River showed less species diversity, probably due to the effect of

mine and other effluent on various benthic species.

Seasonal differences in the number of organisms and diversity of species in the Olifants River were evident.

There was an increase in the number of certain organisms such as Annelida (Tubificidae), Cladocera and

Copepoda towards winter as well as during spring. This might be due to a drop in water level at most of the

localities, resulting in the concentration of macroinvertebrates per unit volume water. The decrease in the

number of water insect larvae (Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, Coleoptera and Diptera) and molluscs

observed towards winter is the result of lower temperatures and low nutrient availability. During summer,

with the start of the rainy season, water volume increases, higher temperatures and nutrient availability

resulted in an increase in water insect larvae and especially Chironomidae. Less individuals of Nematoda,

Cladocera and Copepoda were observed during summer. This phenomenon could be ascribed to a volume

increase in the streams and some of the organisms then being flushed away. However, information on the life

history of a species is another important factor when considering increases and/or decreases in the number of

organisms as well as species diversity in the Olifants River for certain periods of the year (Gaufin

Tarzwell, 1952; Pennak, 1978).

The large numbers of Tubificidae, Cladocera, Copepoda and Chironomidae were present at most of the

localities throughout the sampling period, can be attributed to their physiological tolerance to agricultural,

industrial and mining effluents (Vangenechten et al., 1986), as well as the nature and stability of the stream

beds (Chutter, 1971). Availability of food (Aagaard & Sivertsen, 1979; Vangenechten et al., 1986) and the

presence or absence of predators are also determining factors for species abundance (Kajak, 1979; Haines,

1981; Vangenechten et al., 1986). Tubificidae and Chironomidae are species considered to be tolerant to

various forms of pollution (Gaufin & Tarzwell, 1956; Brinkhurst, 1966; Aagaard & Sivertsen, 1979; Moon

Lucostic, 1979). Determining factors for both species' survival in surface waters include temperature

(Gaufin Tarzwell, 1956), alkalinity, water hardness, dissolved oxygen and pH (Brinkhurst, 1966; Brkovic-

Popovic & Popovic, 1977; Godfrey, 1978; Moon Lucostic, 1979). Considering the presence and

abundance of Tubificidae, Cladocera, Copepoda and Chironomidae, it is evident that some form of tolerance

had been developed by these species ensuring their survival in a polluted system (Gaufin Tarzwell, 1956).

6-25


Decreased numbers of Ostracoda, some water insect larvae such as Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Hemiptera,

Trichoptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera as well as Gastropoda and Pelecypoda occurred at some of the

localities throughout the sampling period, is probably caused by predators (Kajak, 1979; Haines, 1981) and

food availability (Aagaard J Sivertsen, 1979; Vangenechten et al., 1986). Physico-chemical conditions of the

surface water affecting water insect larvae numbers, are pH (Bell, 1971; Haines, 1981), low dissolved

oxygen and alkalinity (Godfrey, 1978). Moon and Lucostic (1979) as well as Bell (1971) confirmed that

Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Plecoptera are fairly sensitive to changes in chemical conditions of the surface

water. 11 (1971) further stated that low pH conditions may cause aquatic insect emergence to be one of the

most critical stages of their life cycle. However, safe pH levels for aquatic insects can vary from one family to

another (Bell, 1971; Kelly, 1988).

When conditions are favourable for organisms which can adapt to pollution, they thrive and with high

population densities. For this reason, the number and diversity of organisms found in polluted water are

significant in offering clues to the level of pollution and the degree of recovery.

Metal Accumulatio by Marroinvertebrates

Kotze (1997) indicated a few areas in the Olifants River catchment regarding metal pollution of immediate

concern. These areas included localities 3 (high Cu, Zn, Fe, Ni and Pb), 6 (Fe, Ni, Mn and Pb), 8 (Zn, Al, Ni,

Mn and Cu), 10 (Mn and Ni) and 11 (Cu, Fe, Pb and Cr) where the water at these localities were all

subjected to coal mining activities in the upper reaches (Kotze, 1997). L,ow pH at localities 3,6 and 10 had a

negative impact not only on the aquatic life, but also influenced bioavailability of metals (Kotze, 1997). Kotze

(1997) further indicated an increase in mean copper, chromium, nickel and lead concentrations in the water of

the Olifants River moving downstream from localities 12 to 14. These levels might have been due to sewage

treatment effluent containing industrial effluent discharges, urban runoff from Middelburg Town and coal

mining at locality 12 (Kotze, 1997). The dam investigated by Katze (1997) contained high levels of metals

and thus also acted as a sink for metal pollution occurring in their sub-catchments. According to Kotze

(1997) high concentrations of copper, zinc, iron, nickel, lead and chromium at locality 7 (Witbank Dam)

could be ascribed to polluted coal mining effluent from the Steenkool Spruit and the Boesman Spruit.

Locality 13 (Middelburg Dam) presented high levels of zinc, iron, nickel, lead and chromium due to mining

activities in the catchment of Woes-Alleenspruit (Kotze, 1997).

Iran, copper and chromium concentrations in the sediment at all the localities to exceed the E A-guideline,

while manganese and zinc concentrations showed the apposite trend (Steenkamp et al., 1994; Kotze, 1997).

6-26


Metals released into an ecosystem tend to accumulate in sediments and thus become part of the ecosystem

(Steenkamp et al., 1994). Metals can be reintroduced into the water in a bioavailable form, transformed into a

more or less toxic form or migrate from the sediment into the macroinvertebrates from which it can be taken

up into the food chain (Burton, 1992). Whether the contaminants will remain in place or contaminate the

ecosystem, is difficult to predict (Steenkamp et al., 1994).

During the sampling period iron and aluminum concentrations were high in the macroinvertebrates analysed.

This tendency is probably due to mining and industrial effluents, which are general sources of elevated metal

concentrations in surface water High iron and aluminum concentrations were observed at most of the

localities for the sediment (Van Vuren et al., 1995). Aluminum averages 82 % of the mass of the earth's crust

(Freedman, 1989) and high iron concentrations could be related to the presence of Fe-hydroxides, Fe-oxides

and organic carbon on these particles (Venter, 1995). The possibility is thus that both iron and aluminum

either migrated from the sediment to the macroinvertebrates or were reintroduced from the sediment to the

water in which these organisms live.

The following sequence for metal concentrations in the macroinvertebrates sampled and analysed can be

derived from the results obtained : Cu < Pb < Mn < Cr < Zn < Ni < Al < Fe.

Macroinvertebrates such as Nematoda, Tubificidae, Crustacea (Cladocera, Copepoda and Ostracoda) and

some water insect larvae (Hydroptilidae, Corixidae, Chironomidae and Ceratopogonidae) presented very high

metal concentrations throughout the sampling period. Brown (1977) confirmed that the concentrations of

metals in sediment and water and their consequent bioavailability to aquatic life may vary with chemical and

physical factors such as pH, temperature (Dixit & Witcomb, 1983), sediment load and water hardness. Metal

contaminants introduced into the aquatic system, from mining and industrial activities, usually exists in

relatively unstable chemical forms and are, therefore, predominantly accessible for biological uptake

(Forstner, 1982). Accumulation of metal concentrations by aquatic invertebrates are determined by several

factors : firstly, the organism's stage of development (Burrows & Whitton, 1983) - some immature and also

moulting stages are more sensitive to metal concentrations than the mature stages (Martin, 1970; Spehar et

a/., 1978; Burton et al., 1985). Secondly, habitat - organism metal levels differ according to their association

with the substrate (Dixit & Witcomb, 1983). Thirdly, varying physiological abilities to exclude metals from

organism's bodies (Dixit & Witcomb, 1983) - each group of species have different element concentrations as

each concentrate a particular element through different mechanisms (Martin, 1970). According to Brown

(1977) the mechanism of adaptation for insects involve decreased permeability to metals and increased

e ciency of any regulatory mechanism (Bryan & Hummerstone, 1973). Fourthly, feeding habits - organisms

6-27


with different fearling habits may concentrate metals to different levels (Anderson, 1977; own, 1977;

is urrows & Whitton, 1983; Uimonen-Simola & Tolonen, 1987; Amiard, 1992).

The above mentioned aquatic invertebrates have been exposed to a variety of environmental contaminants.

Although accumulating these contaminants by means of different pathways to high levels, these organisms

have survived, thus becoming more tolerant to pollution (Dixit & Witcomb, 1983; Freedman, 1989).

Toxic metal pollution from either mining or industrial effluent, reduced species numbers and abundance. The

presence of a species will depend on its environmental tolerance, but its abundance will be determined by the

resources available to it.

63 OCCURRENCE EVALUATION INDEX

The Occurrence Evaluation Index (Table 6.10) was compiled for the aquatic invertebrates sampled at the

different localities of the upper Olifants River catchment. The water quality data, as well as metal

concentrations for the water column and sediment compartment were taken into consideration when

determining the sensitivity of the different aquatic organisms to mining effluent.

The water quality data of the index was compared to water quality guidelines (Chapter 5) suggested by

Dempster et al., 1982; Kuhn (1991) and prescribed by Environment Canada (1987). From the variables

determined for the water it was evident that only phosphate and ammonia levels were higher than the

prescribed guidelines. The water metal concentrations were well above the guidelines indicating a possible

detrimental effect the survival of macroinvertebrates in this river system.

Very high iron and aluminum concentrations were observed for the sediment analysed. The iron sediment

concentrations could be related to the presence of Fe-hydroxides, Fe-oxides and organic carbon on these

particles (Venter, 1995). The high aluminum concentrations could possibly be the result of aluminum which

averages 82 % of the mass of the earth's crust. Therefore, aluminum is the third most abundant element after

oxygen (47 %) and silicon (28 % : Freedman, 1989).

A great diversity and number of aquatic macroinvertebrates occurred at the different localities. In Table 6.10

the organisms were presented from the least abundant to the most abundant species. Metal concentrations for

the various organisms were included to give an indication of the metal levels, these organisms were exposed

to. Aluminum and iron concentrations averaged high levels for the organisms analysed. High aluminum and

iron concentrations were also observed for the water and sediment analysed (Table 6.10). Thus aluminum

6-28


and iron the water column as well as the sediment compartment contributed to elevated levels in the

macroinvertebrates (Brown, 1977). Aquatic macroinvertebrates occurring in the upper Olifants River

catchment have, to some extent, adapted to high metal concentrations, either from the water column or

sediment compartment (Scullion & Edwards, 1980). Organisms such as the Chironomidae, Tubificidae and

Crustacea thrived with high population densities (Table 6.10). These organisms' exposure and consequent

survival in large numbers might also be due to contributing factors such as developmental stage when

exposed to metal concentrations (Getsova & Valkova, 1962; Spehar et al., 1978; Wright, 1980), feeding

habits (Kelly, 1988), the organism's ability to exclude or regulate metals through physiological processes

(Dixit & Witcomb, 1983), the availability of food and the presence and/or absence of predators

(Vengenechten et al., 1986).

The decreased numbers of organisms (water insect larvae, Coelenterata, Gastropoda and Pelecypoda) may be

indicative of their sensitivity towards very high metal concentrations in the surrounding water column and

sediment compartment (Roback Richardson, 1969).

Thus, the population of organisms found in this river is significant in offering clues to frequency and levels of

pollution and the consequent degree of recovery.

6-29

Me

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206

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8 ±

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l 2

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014

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18

135.

2 ±

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40.9

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u 2 28

9.3 ±

5 52

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416

9.6

± 18

1 38

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3 05

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± 7

506.

2 N

i 9 2

82.9

± 1

8 12

5.3

Pb

3 63

3.0

± 8

194.

7 Z

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0.9

± 18

262

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422.

0 ±

33 75

7.4

Cr

7 27

4.3

± 17

653.

4 C

u 8

30

.0 ±

2 79

4.9

Fe 6

0 13

3.2

± 16

9 21

0.0

Mn

2 21

8.6

± 4

144.

2 N

i 5

209.

4 ±

11

629.

9 P

b 67

0.2

± 86

8.8

Zn

3 0

21

.4 ±

7 0

1.3

• 4E 2 ...

i

.2, 4

.i 1

b' .0

4 1 0

Tri

chop

tera

- H

ydro

psyc

hida

e - H

ydro

ptili

dae

Hem

ipte

ra •

Cor

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ae

6

LLI

.s

1

o'da-Ak".4t1 ac)dilAk- 44 ae.-3,5,=A4m

Ch O ci 00 e4 et, -47,

el . ,r Ch

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Tr Tn

ap - if ee es 4?

Cl r4 en .1

cD c, 0 CD 01 0, el 0, wr „, en ec .n

". ". el e. r,

. . . . . " VD MOO wt CA rq

cO Ti ei c5 cr; Ti 00 ,r „ en CA

o 0 e5 cs p .., CD 0. CD

.n wi c>.6 rc> re el CD el

sc. t- CAeal 0, 01 r-

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•

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co Ca . Tr

CD Cl g C) Cl 00 .n

eH el f= VD 00 el g 00 r- t,

00 CA e.4 aa 00 N •.• a-, .1.

a a • Ca 0 CP 0 6 O ° GI' 6 G ° 6

4

a

43 0 C wC

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s T

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TA

BL

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onti

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)

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TAB

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(Con

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d)

cn M


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UIMONEN-SIMOLA, P & TOLONEN, K (1987) Effects of recent acidification on Cladocera in small

clear-water lakes studied by means of sedimentary remains. Hydrobiologia, 145 > 343-351.

VANGENECHTEN, JHD; MITERS, H VANDERBORGHT, OLJ (1986) Laboratory studies on

invertebrate survival and physiology in acid water. In : Acid toxicity and aquatic animals. eds.

Norris, EW Taylor, DJA Brown & JA Brown. pp 154-169. Society for Experimental Biology,

Seminar Series 34. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

VAN VUREN, JHJ; U PREEZ, HH & WEPENER, V (1995) Lethal and sublethal effects of metals on the

physiology of fish : An experimental approach with monitoring support. Report to : Water Research

Commission.

VENTER, MA (1995) Assessment on the effects of gold mine e azent on the natural aquatic

environment. Ph.D. Thesis, Rand Afrikaans University, South Africa.

WRIGHT, A (1980) Cadmium and calcium interactions in the freshwater amphipod Gammarus pulex. In :

Heavy metals in water, sediments and invertebrates from a metal-contaminated river free of

organic pollution. eds. 10 Burrows & A Whitton. Hydrobiologia, 106 0 263-273.


6-37

C pten. 7

IOACCUMULATION OF ZINC IN TW

FRESHWATER ORGANISMS (Da hni

pulex, Crustacea and Orevchromis

mossambicus , Pisces)

LE OF C NTENTS TA 1;

7d Introduction

902 Materials and Methods

902011 Experimental Design

7.2.1.1 Daphnia pulex

7.2.1.2 Oreochromis mossambicus

7021 Experimental Procedures

9.3 Results

705 References

9A iscussion v

7-1

7-2

7-2

7-2

7-4

7-5

7-8

7-11

7-15


7J TIN 0 UCTI LN

Metal contamination and its effects on freshwater aquatic life are well documented. Zinc is a

relatively rare metal in nature (Hale, 1977) and is predominantly found in the sulfide form. It

is, however, a common pollutant of surface fresh waters. Zinc concentrations in fresh waters

are elevated by domestic, industrial and mining effluents (Weatherley et al., 1980).

Environmental factors such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and the occurrence of

organic and inorganic ligands influence the toxicity of zinc (Hellawell, 1986).

Zinc is an essential element and a physiologically important trace element as well as a co-factor

in many enzymatic reactions, but it is toxic at high concentrations (Taylor et al., 1982). The

bioaccumulation of zinc has been investigated in the laboratory in organisms of different

trophic levels of marine and freshwater ecosystems, and also in artificial food chains. The

results of these studies are, however, manifold. Investigations about the contribution of

enriched food to the accumulation in consumers provide contradictory results (Memmert,

1987). According to Luoma (1983) this may depend on the kind of food, the feeding rate, zinc

concentrations and physico-chemical factors influencing the chemical form of metals in the

water.

Because it is unknown whether aquatic organisms accumulate metals from water and/or food

(transfer of metals via the foodchain), it is necessary to determine which rate predominates

during the bioaccumulation of zinc. During the Case Studies discussed in the previous chapters

(chapters 3, 4, 5 and 6), very high zinc concentrations were observed in the surface waters at

the various localities. Analysis of the organs and tissues of the different fish species sampled

also presented high zinc concentrations. ata concerning the high zinc concentrations were

utilised during this experimental project in proving the possible uptake of zinc by natural food

resources such as Daphnia. Daphnia pulex and Oreochromis mossambicus,. important test

organisms in toxicity tests, were used in this study to try and establish the role of metal

accumulation from water and food.

7-1


7.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

7.2.1 Experimental design

9.2.1.1 Daphnia pulex

Selection of test organism

Selection of a test organism depends on the questions that are being asked and how the test data

will be used. The assessment of toxicity and the control of the effluent discharges require the

collection of consistent and comparable data (Rosenberg & Resh, 1993).

According to Rosenberg et al. (1978) an "ideal" test organism should :

represent an ecologically or economically important group (in terms of taxonomy,

trophic level),

occupy a trophic position leading to humans or other "important" species,

have adequate background data (e.g., physiology, genetics),

be widely available, amenable to laboratory testing, easily maintained, genetically

stable and not prone to disease, infection or physical damage,

have response characteristics which are comparable to those of indigenous species,

be sensitive to chemicals and exhibit a consistent response to the same test chemical,

and

have an endpoint that is easily identified and measured.

D. pulex was chosen for the purpose of this study. D. pulex is an important test organism in

standardised acute and chronic toxicity tests (Memmert, 1987). Khangarot & Ray (1987)

described Daphnia as having several other practical advantages such as :

These organisms are inexpensive and easy to culture in a laboratory.

They have a short life cycle, discrete growth, aging period and size allowing large

numbers to be used for statistical design and analysis.

Daphnia comprises a small volume, are easy to handle, and have a high fecundity

minimizing the test apparatus.

MI the above mentioned aspects make these macroinvertebrates extremely desirable test species

for aquatic toxicological tests (Maciorowski & Clarke, 1980).

7-2


Obtaining a test organism

The laboratory population of D. pulex (Straus) was obtained from a stock culture at the

Institute for Water Quality Studies, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) in

Pretoria.

Gener h 1 g syste and laboratory conditions

Culture vessel : At the aquarium, the D. pulex were kept in 3 I marked, Consol glass culture

beakers. Each vessel was covered with a fine gauze net to minimise evaporation of the culture

medium. The vessels were kept in a room where the following culture conditions were

applicable :

Temperature - D. pulex cultures were protected from sudden changes in temperatures,

which might cause death. The optimum temperature was approximately 20° to 22° C.

illumination - Ambient laboratory illumination with a photoperiod of 16 hours light, 8

hours dark was provided each day.

Aeration - D. pulex can survive at low oxygen concentrations but it is recommended

that the dissolved oxygen concentration in the cultures be maintained at 5 mg// or

above. Unless the cultures were too crowded or overfed, aeration was usually not

necessary.

pH - The optimum pH range for Daphnia is 7.0 to 8.6, which was maintained within

this range.

Culture medium : Each culture vessel contained culture medium which was prepared according

to standard procedures described by the APHA (Standard Methods, 1992).

Food preparation and feeding : Providing the appropriate amount of the correct food is

extremely important in D. pulex culturing. The food consisted of a suspension of commercial

yeast, trout pellets and cerophyll (YTC), and was prepared according to APHA (Standard

Methods, 1992). The feeding rate and frequency were important in maintaining the organisms

in optimum condition so that they could achieve maximum reproduction. The culture also

7-3


performed better if fresh food was prepared weekly and kept refrigerated. When removed from

the refrigerator, the YTC was thoroughly mixed by shaking before dispensing. Five ml of YTC

per 2500 ml culture was added three times per week (Monday, Wednesday and Friday).

Culture media replacement (mass cultures) : Careful culture maintenance was essential. The

medium in each stock culture vessel was replaced twice weekly with fresh medium. This was

best accomplished by changing the medium on Mondays and Fridays. Replacement was

employed through acceptable procedures by APHA (Standard Methods, 1992).

7.21.2 Oreochromis mossanibicies

Selection of test organism

Researchers such as Buikema et al. (1982) and Haslam (1990) found fish to be the most

popular test organisms. Fish are presumed to be the best understood aquatic organisms and are

perceived as valuable. Fish have been valued as excellent indicators of water quality

(Hellawell, 1986). Other factors contributing to the value of fish in polluted studies are :

They are generally at or close to the end of the food chain in the aquatic ecosystem.

They are sensitive to a variety of pollutants.

The size of fish make them easily visible when dead.

0. mossambicus was chosen as test organism for this part of the study. The fish species is

widely distributed in the warmer waters of Southern Africa. 0. mossambicus had been used in

a variety of pollution studies and can be safely maintained under laboratory conditions.

Obtaining of the test organism

0. mossambicus specimens were obtained from the University of Zululand, Kwa-Zulu, Natal.

The fish were placed in a 1 000 liter plastic transport tank filled with borehole water and

transported to the aquarium at the Rand Afrikaans University. The water of the transport tank

was aerated with compressed air.

7-4


GefleIr holding system and laboratory con ,I, 7tions

The fish were kept in 1000 1 reservoirs with biological filters creating a recirculating system.

Borehole water was circulated from the reservoir through the biological filters and pumped

back to the reservoir. The recirculating system comprised of PVC fittings to discount the any

toxic effects copper, galvanized plumbing or brass fittings may have (Nussey et al., 1995).

The water quality of the borehole water was held constant : Temperature = 25° C, pH = 7.3,

Conductivity = 22.2 mg//, Total hardness = 79 mg/g as CaCo 3, Total Alkalinity = 76 mg/1 as

CaCo3, Calcium = 26 mg//, Magnesium = 3 mg//, Sodium = 7 mg/l, Bicarbonate = 63 mg//,

Chloride = 7 mg/l, Sulphate = 11 mg/l, Nitrate = 0.67 mg// and Fluoride = 0.2 me.

Fish were not fed during the first 72 hours after their arrival in order to minimize stress-

induced mortalities (Carmichael et al., 1984). The fish underwent a week long disinfection

treatment using course salt. The fish were allowed to acclimitise for three months at 23±1°C

and fed commercial trout pellets (Protein = 39.9%, lipid = 5.3%, ash = 9.6 %, carbohydrate =

45.2% and energy = 22.8kJ/g) daily. The food ratio did not exceed 3% of the body weight

(Sprague, 1973). Due to the fact that day-length can influence metabolism and behaviour of

fish (Grobler et al., 1989), the night : day conditions were regulated with as electric timer to

produce 12 : 12 hours.

7.12 Experimental procedures

Daphnia pulex

After the culture grew large enough, the D. pulex were transferred from the general culture

vessel to five 60 1 glass tanks. Two of the tanks did not contain zinc and therefore were used as

controls and three tanks were contaminated with 250 pg// zinc chloride. One of the control

tanks was analysed to determine zinc concentrations for a laboratory cultured medium. One of

the tanks contaminated with 250 pg// Zn was also analysed to determine metal accumulation by

D. pulex.

7-5

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7-6


&eochromis MOSSairIbialS

After the initial acclimation period, fish were transferred from the general holding system to the

flow-through exposure system (Figure 7.1).

During this study, three flow-through exposure systems (Figure 7.1) were used. The design of

the exposure system was a modified version of the original system used by Grobler-Van

Heerden et al. (1991), Gey van Pittius et al. (1992) and Du Preez et al. (1993). Each system

(I, H and III) consisted of four, 100 1 experimental glass tanks (IA - ID). Water was pumped

from the supply tank (la) to the system by means of a submersible electric pump (2).

During acclimation of the fish in the experimental tanks, the supply tank (la) was filled with

borehole water and concrete stones, which removed the solid and excretory products from the

recirculated water and therefore acted as a biological filter (3).

During exposures, the supply tank (la) was removed and a 1000 1 reservoir (lb) filled with

borehole water for tanks IA to ID and ILIA to HID, and zinc chloride solution for tanks IIA to

HD. Water was supplied to the experimental tanks (IA - ID) from the supply tank or 1000 1

reservoir (lb) through the supply pipe (5). The water supply and flow rate to the tanks was

controlled by the regulating tap (6). From the regulating tap, water flowed into the

experimental tanks supplying additional oxygen to the water. Water was drained from the

experimental tanks through the outlet pipe (7), which extended from the bottom of the tank to

the desired height. A wider screening pipe (8), the same height as the tank, was placed over the

outlet pipe. The screening pipe prevented fish (dead or alive) from getting stuck and clogging

the outlet pipe. The screening pipe had indentations at the bottom which caused a mild sucking

action that transported water, excretion and waste products via the outlet pipe to a collective

drainage pipe (9). This drainage pipe transported water back to the supply tank or, during

exposures transported water containing toxicant to a drain.

Controls

Controls are an integral part of toxicity testing. Control values are necessary to determine if

changes in tissue metal concentrations or the death of an organism is caused by the toxicant.

Controls during this study were conducted after the initial acclimation period of three months,

by transferring fish to the experimental 100 / glass tanks (ILIA - IIID)(Figure 7.1) for another

7-7


two weeks, before analysis. These organisms were kept in borehole water and fed commercial

trout pellets every day during the first week. Feeding was suspended 48 hours before the actual

test period commenced. During the test period these fish were fed unpolluted D. pulex.

Exposure of test organisms

D. pulex were exposed to 250 mg// zinc chloride (ZnCl 2, MW = 136.276) for 72 hours.

Concentrations were chosen to be higher than the guideline values of 30-100 Lig// ( Kempster et

al., 1982)(Chapter 5; Table 5.8). Zinc chloride was supplied by SAARCHEM in a powdered

form, and thus had to be dissolved in the borehole water of the experimental tanks to which the

fish and D. pulex were acclimatised.

0. mossambicus - the fish in the experimental tanks IA - ID were kept in borehole water and

fed zinc enriched D. pulex. Fish in the experimental tanks HA - HD were exposed to 250 ps//

ZnC12 in the water and fed unpolluted D. pulex. Both these systems were exposed to zinc

concentrations for 96 hours. Fish in the experimental tanks ILIA - IUD were kept in borehole

water and fed unpolluted D. pulex.

An ysis

After the exposure period, fish were removed individually from the experimental tanks. The

mass (g) of each fish was determined on an electronic balance and its length (cm) measured.

Fish of an average length of 15.1 ± 3.3 cm and average mass of 51.6 ± 4.4 g were used. The

fish were then analysed according to standard procedures as described in Chapter 2. Organs

and tissues used for analysis were liver, stomach, intestine, gills, muscle and skin.

7.3 RESULTS

Table 7.1 presents the mean water quality data during the experiment.

According to Table 7.1 the different constituents such as pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen

(%), oxygen (mg//) and temperature of the water for the experimental and reservoir tanks

remained relatively constant throughout the experimental period.

7-8


Chapter 7

'abile 71 Mean Water Quality during the ellperhment.

Constituents Experimental Tanks (100 /) Reservoir Tanks (9001)

IA - ID HA - HD MA - HID

PH (-log r/H) 6.8 ± 7.3 7.1 ± 0.2 7.1 + 0.1 7.3 ± 0.2

7.1 - 0.2 6.8 - 7.3 6.9 - 7.2 7.2 - 7.6

Conductivity (mS/m) 0.17 + 0.01 0.17 ± 0.003 0.18 + 0.003 0.17 ± 0.003

0.17 - 0.19 0.17 - 0.19 0.17 - 0.19 0.17 - 0.17

Dissolved Oxygen (%) 84.8 ± 8.3 84.2 ± 9.5 80.5 ± 2.9 87.0 ± 6.0

72.0 - 92.0 71.0 - 92.0 75.0 - 83.0 80.0 - 96.0

Oxygen (mg/i) 6.1 ± 0.8 6.2 ± 0.9 6.1 ± 0.7 6.3 ± 0.8

5.0 - 7.0 5.0 - 7.1 5.4 - 6.9 5.6 - 7.3

Temperature (°C) 23.2 ± 1.4 23.0 ± 1.4 22.5 ± 1.1 24.0 ± 1.4

21.1 - 24.2 21.0 - 24.1 20.7 - 23.3 22.4 - 25.7

Zinc (mg//) 0.12 ± 0.06 0.3 ± 0.06 0.104 ± 0.05

0.048 - 0.183 0.205 -0.374 0.036 -0.163

Zinc concentrations for the water of the experimental tanks were determined (Table 7.1). These

concentrations varied from a minimum of 0.104 ± 0.05 mg// Zn for the control tanks (ILIA -

HID), to a slightly higher value of 0.12 ± 0.06 mg// Zn in tanks IA to ID. The maximum zinc

concentrations of 0.3 ± 0.06 mg// Zn were determined for the water of tanks HA to HD (Table

7.1).

Results for the zinc analysis of the different tissues and organs of the fish used in the

experiments are shown in Figure 7.2. Throughout the experiment, zinc concentrations in the

organs and tissues of the fish exposed to zinc in the water (II) were high, except in the case of

zinc concentrations in the muscle. Fish exposed to zinc contaminated D. pulex (I) had lower

zinc organ concentrations and the control fish (III) presented the lowest zinc concentrations for

tissues and organs analysed.

The D. pulex culture analysed as a control presented a zinc concentration of 18.0 .g/g.

However, the D. pulex culture enriched with zinc chloride presented a zinc concentration of

145 tag/g, and thus indicated accumulation of zinc by the Daphnia.

A concentration of 888.4 ± 460.0iLig/g (stomach, II) was the largest concentration found during

this experiment. Zinc concentrations in the organs and tissues of 0. mossambicus were

statistically compared and significant differences (P < 0.05) between experiments I, H and I

for the organs and tissues analysed are indicated with an asterisk (Figure 7.2).

7-9

0

700

600

500

CD 400

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100

0

1640 1400

1200

1000

800

400

200

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400

350

300

250

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100

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700

600

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200

100

0

Skin

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300

250

213° 150

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50

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Muscle 100

60

40 — N

20 —


Chapter 7

Figure 7.2 Zinc Concentrations (pg/g dry weight) in organs and tissues of Oreochromis mossambicus (1=0.

mossambicus fed zinc contaminated D. pulex,11=0. mossambicus exposed to zinc concentrations in the water;

111=0. mossambicus used as control).

° Zinc concentrations in organs and tissues with gionificArtt differences P < 0.05).

Stcrnecii

7-10


7.4 EDISCUSSTION

Moore & Ramamoorthy (1984) described zinc as relatively rare in nature. It has, however, a

long history of use because of its occurrence in localised deposits and ease of extraction from

ores (Moore Ramamoorthy, 1984). Hard-Soft Acid Base (HSAB) classification classified

zinc as a borderline element. This borderline character of zinc is reflected in its ability to form

bonds with oxygen as well as nitrogen and sulfur donor atoms (Moore & Ramamoorthy, 1984).

However, the effects of metals on aquatic organisms depend on the duration of exposure as

well as factors both abiotic and biotic. Abiotic factors such as pH, hardness, alkalinity,

photolysis, salinity and sorption may alter the toxicity of some metals (Sprague, 1969; rown

et al., 1974; Hall et al., 1986; Sprague, 1985). Biotic factors influencing an organisms

response to a chemical include the organism's life stage, condition and sensitivity (Burrows

Whitton, 1983; Moore & Ramamoorthy, 1984; Hall et al., 1986).

Bioaccumulation of zinc by D. puler

Moore & Ramamoorthy (1984) explained that transfer of zinc to invertebrates in a polluted

system is mostly species dependent. The zinc body concentrations often reflect even higher

levels in the food and sediment of the macroinvertebrate environment. These body

concentration increase with the size and age of the organism (Moore & Ramamoorthy, 1984).

Moore It Ramamoorthy (1984) further stated that acute toxicity of zinc to macroinvertebrates

are relatively low and metals such as mercury, cadmium, copper, chromium, nickel and arsenic

are often more toxic than zinc. Zinc toxicity to aquatic organisms is decreased by factors such

as an increase in water hardness (Brkovic-Popovic & Popovic, 1977) and calcium ions which

give better protection against intoxication (Tabata, 1969).

According to Pennak (1978) the highly setose thoracic legs of the daphniid produce a constant

flow of water between the body valves, due to complex movements. These movements are

responsible for the filtration of food particles from the water and the subsequent collection of

the particles in a median ventral groove at the base of the legs. This stream of food is fed

forward to the mouth parts where the particles may be ground between the surface of the

mandibles before being taken into the mouth. The food is then passed from the mouth parts to

the oesophagus and it ends up in the digestive track where final digestion and absorption takes

7-11


place. This whole process takes place in the presence of water and thus suggests a possible

route for zinc accumulation.

Pennak (1978) further stated that small amounts of organic materials may be absorbed by the

general body surface. It could thus be assumed that zinc absorption might take place not only

through the general body surface but also via simultaneous intake of food and water.

Analysis of the D. pulex culture exposed to zinc chloride presented a much higher zinc

concentration than the culture analysed as a control, indicating possible accumulation of zinc

by the D. pulex.

Bioaccumulation of zinc by O. Pilossambiaa s

Methods for metal uptake as well as transport, regulation and excretion of metals by fish are

discussed in Chapter 4.

Moore ‘4*. Ramamoorlity (1984) stated zinc to be less toxic to fish than mercury and copper, but

more toxic than nickel and lead. Experiments conducted by Smith & Heath (1979) found that

some fish species have the ability to develop a tolerance to zinc. This mechanism for adaptation

is, however, not clearly understood. After conducting experiments, Smith Heath (1979) and

Moore Ramamoorthy (1984) discovered that fish exposed to water with high total hardness

were more tolerant of zinc than those exposed to low total hardness. Sinley et al. (1974) as well

as Chapman (1978) suggested that competitive inhibition may also constitute part of such a

adaptive mechanism.

Treatment of fish with zinc resulted in substantial gill damage as found by Moore &

Ramamoorthy (1984). This caused initial separation of epithelium, followed by occlusion of

the central blood spaces and enlargement of central and marginal channels (Moore

Ramamoorthy, 1984). Lamellar height is then progressively reduced and central blood spaces

are completely occluded (Moore Ramamoorthy, 1984). Moore & Ramamoorthy (1984)

stated that these changes then resulted in (1) a decrease in oxygen consumption, (2) a decrease

in the ability to transport ions across the gill surface, and (3) an increase in hypoxia, opercular

amplitude, buccal amplitude, ventilation frequency, and coughing frequency.

7-12


Other physical and biochemical changes taking place in fish exposed to zinc are :

A decrease in blood pH due to an increase in the production of lactic acid and pyruvic

acid,

Kidney tissue and enzyme disfunctioning,

Decrease in the growth, maximum size and fecundity, and

Reproductive behaviour change ( Chapman, 1978; Moore Ramamoorthy, 1984)

Figure 7.2 portrays the metal accumulation by various organs and tissues of 0. mossambicus

for the experimental period. it is firstly evident from this figure that the fish used in the controls

(III) presented the lowest zinc concentrations for the tissues and organs analysed.

Secondly, the fish exposed to zinc contaminated D. pulex (1) showed a definite increase in

organ and tissue zinc concentrations when compared to the control values. This can be

explained by the fact that the fish were fed zinc-contaminated food, which eventually ended up

in the stomach and intestine. Digestion of the food took place with simultaneous release and

absorption of not only the nutrients but also zinc. These zinc concentrations, now bound to

either proteins or amino acids, were transported by the blood. According to literature the metal-

binding protein metallothionein is of key importance in the accumulation of metals such as zinc

in the liver of the fish. However, the liver accumulated zinc from the blood and eventual

dumping it into the gall bladder. When metal concentrations in the gall bladder exceeds a

certain level, no more metals can be emptied into it and storage can only then occur in the liver

(Sorensen, 1991). This explains the slightly higher zinc concentration of the liver in comparison

to the control value.

The slightly higher zinc concentrations in the gills of these fish (138.9 ± 29.9 tg/g) in

comparison to the controls (113.0 ± 33.7 1.1g/g) was probably due to zinc transported in the

blood filtering through the gills. Storage of zinc in the muscle (77.2 ± 17.9 1.ig/g) was much

higher than that in the fish from groups II and Ill. The zinc concentration difference in the skin

between the fish exposed to enriched D. pulex and the control was small, indicating that the

zinc concentrations in the food had no effect on the concentrations in the skin.

Thirdly, the fish exposed to zinc concentrations in the water (H) had definite higher zinc levels

in the tissues and organs, except in the case of the muscle for fish of II and the control. For the

fish in tanks H the intake of unpolluted food involved the intake of zinc enriched water. This

eventually lead to the absorption of zinc by the lumen of the stomach and intestine. Then

7-13


followed transport of zinc through the blood to the liver and muscle where this metal was

accumulated. Both the gills and the skin, being in direct contact with the zinc contaminated

water, tend to accumulate/concentrate zinc rather than excrete it. According to literature the

loss of metals via the skin and gills probably involves mucus, which is a proteinaceous material

constantly secreted by these tissues (Sorensen, 1991).

Fourthly, from this experiment it was also evident that the lowest zinc concentrations observed

were for the muscle (I = 77.2 ± 17.9 lag/g; II = 67.7 ± 14.3 .tg/g and 1111 = 49.9 ± 13.3 .tg/g).

This fact is confirmed by Memmert (1987) and Flos et al. (1979) who stated that zinc was

mainly accumulated in internal organs, bones, skin and gills, but not or only to a small extent,

in muscle tissue. Larger zinc concentrations were prevalent in the gills (II = 178.6 ± 129.7

µg/g), liver (II = 260.2 ± 126.6 µg/g), intestine (II = 329.4 ± 299.9 .tg/g) and the skin (H =

422.7 ± 295.8 µg/g). Zinc concentrations in the organs and tissues of 0. mossambicus were

statistically compared and significant differences (P < 0.05) between experiments I, II and III

for the organs and tissues analyzed are indicated with an asterisk (Figure 7.2).

Finally, from this study it was evident that exposure of fish to metal loads, whether in the water

or food, resulted in the absorption thereof. Although zinc water concentrations resulted in

higher accumulation in the organs and tissues of the fish in tanks II, the importance of metal

uptake via food must not be disregarded. Several authors reported different contributions from

food and water in the accumulation of various metals by fish (Moore Ramamoorthy, 1984;

Memmert, 1987). These contributions may depend on (1) the feeding rate of the consumer, and

(2) the kind of food, because metal concentrations accumulated or available in food organisms

greatly differ between species (Memmert, 1987). Luoma (1983) also stated that from many

studies it was evident that the concentration of metals decreased in consumers of higher trophic

level, so that considerable accumulation from food rarely took place in aquatic food chains. In

the end it is clear that metal uptake through both water and food contribute towards high metal

concentrations in organs and tissues of fish.

7-14


7.5 REM NCES

BRKOVIC-POPOVIC, I POPOVIC, M (1977) Effects of heavy metals on survival and

respiration rate of tubificid worms : Part I. Effects on survival. Environ.

Faint., 13 0 65-72.

BROWN, VM; SHAW, TL & SHURBUN, DO (1974) Aspects of Water Quality and the

Toxicity of Copper to Rainbow Trout. Wat. es., 8 e 797-803.

BUIKEMA, AL; NIEDERLEHNER, BR 4'. CAIRNS, J (1982) Biological monitoring. Part

IV. Toxicity testing. W I. Res., 16 0 239 - 62.

BURROWS, IG & WHITTON, BA (1983) Heavy metals in water, sediment and invertebrates

from a metal-contaminated river free of organic pollution. Hydrobiologia, 106

263 - 273.

CARMICHAEL, GJ; TOMASSO, JR; SIMCO, BA & DAVIS, B (1984) Characterization and

alleviation of stress associated with hauling largemouth bass. Trans. Ann.

Fish. Soc., 113 0 778-185.

*CHAPMAN, GA (1978) Toxicities of cadmium, copper and zinc to four juvenile stages of

chinook salmon and steelhead. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 107 0 841-847.

DU PREEZ, HH; VAN RENSBURG, E & VAN VUREN, JHJ (1993) Preliminary laboratory

investigation of the bioconcentration of zinc and iron in selected tissues of the

banded tilapia, Tilapia sparmanii (Cichlidae). ull. Environ. Contemn.

Toxicol., 50 0 674-681.

*FLOS, R; CARITAT, A & BALASCH, J (1979) Zinc content in organs of dogfish

(Scyliorhinus canicula L.) subject to sublethal experimental aquatic zinc

pollution. Comp. Biochem. Physiolo, 64(C) > 77-81.

7-15


GEY VAN PITTIIJS, M; VAN VUREN, JHJ DU PREEZ, HH (1992) Effects of chromium

during pH changes on blood coagulation in Tilapia sparmanii (Cichlidae).

Comp. iochem. Physiol., 101C(2) e 371-374.

GROBLER, E; VAN VUREN, JHJ DU PREES, HI-I (1989) Routine oxygen consumption

of Tilapia sparrmanii (Cichlidae) following acute exposure to atrazine.

Comp. iochem. Physioll., 93C o 37-42.

GROBLER-VAN HEERDEN, E; VAN VUREN, JHJ DU PREEZ, 14H (1991)

Bioconcentration of atrazine, zinc and iron in the blood of Tilapia sparmanii

(Cichlidae) Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 1 1-1 1 C(3) 0 629-633.

HALE, JG (1977) Toxicity of Metals Mining Wastes. Bull. Environ. Contmn. Toxicolio, 17(1)

66-73.

HALL, WS; DICKSON, KL; SALEH, FY; RODGERS, .1H; WILCOX, D & ENTAZAMI, A

(1986) Effects of suspended solids on the acute toxicity of zinc to Daphnia

magna and Pimephales promelas. W at. Res. n11., 22(6) 0 913 - 569.

HASLAM, SM (1990) River Pollution o An ecological perspective. Belhaven Press, London.

253 p.

HELLAWELL, JM (1986) Biologic Indicators of freshwater pollution and environmental

management. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London. 546 p.

KEMPSTER, PL; HATTINGH, WAJ & VAN VLIET, HR (1982) Summarized water

quality criteria. Department of Water Affairs, South Africa. Technical

Report No. TR 108. 45 p.

KHANGAROT, BS & RAY, PK (1987) Correlation between heavy metal acute toxicity values

in Daphnia magna and fish. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol., 38 0 722-726.

LUOMA, SN (1983) Bioavailability of trace metals to aquatic organisms - a review. Sci. Tot

Envir., 28 a 1-22.

7-16


*MACRIORWASKI, CLARKE, R (1980) Advantages and disadvantages of using

invertebrates in toxicity testing : In : Aquatic

vertebrates noassays. eds. Ilk

AL uikema & J Cairns. pp 36-47. ASTM STP 715.

MEMMERT, U (1987) Bioaccumulation of zinc in two freshwater organisms (Daphnia

magna, Crustacea and Brachydanio rerio, Pisces). Wat, Res., 21(1) 0 99-106.

MOORE, JW RAMAMOORTHY, S (1984) envy Met sin Natio-ail Waters. Applied

Monitoring and Impact Assessme i to Springer-Verlag, New York, Berlin,

Heidelberg & Tokyo. 34'7 p.

NUSSEY, 0; VAN VUREN, JHJ & DU PREEZ, MI (1995) Effect of copper on blood

coagulation of Oreochromis mossambicus (Cichlidae). Comp. Biochem.

Physiol., 111C(3) e 359-367.

PENNAK, RW (1978) Fresh-water Invertebrates of the United States. A Wiley-Interscience

Publication, New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto. 803 p.

ROSENBERG, DR; LONG, E; BOGARDUS, R; FARBENBLOON, E; HITCH, R

HITCH, S (1978) Considerations in Conducting Bioassays. Technical Report

D-78-23. U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,

MS.

ROSENBERG, DM b RESH, VH (1993) Freshwater Biomonitoring and Bennie

Macroinvertebrates. Chapman b Hall Inc., New York, London. 488 p.

*SINLEY, JR; GOETTL, JP DAVIES, PH (1974) The effects of zinc on rainbow trout

(Salmo gairdneri) in hard and soft water. Bull, Environ, Contam. Toxicoll.,

12 s 193 - 201.

SMITH, MJ & HEATH, AG (1979) Acute toxicity of copper, chromate, zinc and cyanide to

freshwater fish : Effect of different temperatures. Bull. Environ: Conte.

Toxicol., 22 s 113-119.

7-17


SORENSEN, EM (1991) Met

Poisoning in Fish. CRC Press, Florida. 374 p. t

*SPRAGUE, JB (1969) Measurements of Pollutant Toxicity of Fish. I. Bioassay Methods for

Acute Toxicity. Watts Res., 3 797-821.

SPRAGUE, J. (1973) The ABC's of pollutant bioassays using fish biological m it,ods for

the assessment of water qua ity. American Society for Testing and Materials.

(SY. TM. SIPS 528). : 6-30.

*SPRAGUE, JB (1985) Factors that Modify Toxicity. In : Fundamentals of Aquatic

Toxicology. eds. GM Rand & SR Petrocelli. pp 124-163. Chemisphere

Publishing Co., Washington, D.C.

STAN ARD METHODS (1992) Standard Methods for the examination of water and

wastewater (1.8 th edition). American Public Health Association.

*TABATA, K (1969) Studies on the toxicity of heavy metals to aquatic animals and the factors

to decrease toxicity. H. The antagonistic action of hardness components in

water on the toxicity of heavy metal ions. Bull. Tokai Reg. Fish. es. Lab.,

58 a 215-232.

TAYLOR, MC; DEMAYO, A & TAYLOR, KW (1982) Effects of zinc on humans,

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7-18

Chapter

lj

Final Conclusions

d Rec lotions .14

TABLE OF C NTENTS

8J Case Study Mine One 8-1

8.1.1 Identification and distribution of Macroinvertebrate Fauna 8-1

8.1.2 Metal accumulation by Macroinvertebrate Fauna 8-2

80103 The general picture gleaned from this study 8-3

8.14 "ecommendations 8-3

8.2 Case Study Mine Two 8-4

8.2.1 Identification and distribution of Macroinvertebrate Fauna 8-4

8.2.2 Metal accumulation by Macroinvertebrate Fauna 8-5

8.23 Metal accumulation by C. gariepinus 8-6

8.2.4 The general picture from this study 8-7

8.2.5 Recommendations 8-8

8.3 Case Study Mine Three 8-8

83.1 Identification and distribution of Macroinvertebrate Fauna 8-8

8302 Metal accumulation by Macroinvertebrate Fauna 8-9

8.3.3 Metal accumulation by selected fish species 8-10

8.3,4 The overall trend of this study 8-12

8.3,5 Recommendations 8-12

8.4

Effects of Coal Mining Effluent on the Number and Species

Diversity of Macroinvertebrate Fauna in the Upper Olifants

River Catchment. 8-14

8.4.1 The most important effects of coal mine effluent 8-14

8.4.2 Recommendations 8-15

8.5 Bioaccumulation of zinc in two freshwater organisms (Daphnia

4) )

pulex, Crustacea and Oreochromis mossambicus, Pisces) 8-16


8.7 References 8-23


From the results obtained by these studies, it is evident that the mining activities through the

effluent, has a definite impact on the natural aquatic environment. The natural aquatic

environment and in this case the selected aquatic biota, were directly influenced by the effluent

from the gold and coal mines.

In this chapter, further discussion will concentrate :

Firstly on the effects of gold mine effluent on selected aquatic organisms, conclusions

drawn from the results and recommendations made to the gold mine industry.

Secondly, the discussion focuses on the influence of the coal industry on the

macroinvertebrate fauna.

Thirdly, the discussion concentrates on bioaccumulation aspects of certain metals in

the food chain.

Fourthly, some final conclusions and recommendations to not only the mining industry

but also to other industries for the evaluation of aquatic ecosystems by means of a

sensitivity index for the macroinvertebrate fauna.

8.1 CASE STUDY MINE ONE

Water quality plays an essential part in the occurrence of macroinvertebrate species in any

freshwater environment. Pollution of such a system affects the stream community structure by

reducing the species diversity, and thus eliminating the more sensitive macroinvertebrate

species.

8.1.1 Identification and Distribution of Macroinvertebrate Fauna

This study revealed noticeable seasonal differences in the number of species, with the

summer and autumn populations of the macroinvertebrates more abundant than the

populations during winter and spring (See Table 8.4 for a comparison).

This study also revealed that there is a marked improvement in the water quality at

Case Study Mine One, from the pollution control dam downstream towards the Flip

River. This observation is supported by the abundance of specific sensitive

macroinvertebrate indicator species further downstream such as some Collembola

(Isotomurus : locality 9 : summer), Odonata (Trithemes : locality K1 : winter),

8-1


Trichoptera (Athripsodes : locality 9 : winter) and Coleoptera (Berosus : locality K1 :

winter; and Aulonogyrus : locality 9 : summer) species.

The water quality showed that the source of contamination is not typical underground

water, but runoff from the surrounding rock dump, sand dump and a mine training

center is also present.

The pH of water varied between 3.38 and 5.86 suggesting acidic conditions (Venter,

1995). Due to these conditions only species such as Tubificidae (Tubifex), Copepoda

and Chironomidae (Chironomus - pupae and larvae) occurred throughout the sampling

period. Tubificidae and Chironomidae are organisms commonly found in water

polluted by acid mine drainage (metal pollution) and organic material (degradation of

plant materials : Koryak et al., 1972). Tubificidae as well as Chironomidae are

therefore clearly tolerant to acidity. Koryak et al. (1972) and Greenfield & Ireland

(1978) stated that large densities of these organisms were observed in areas of severe

pollution.

8.L2 Metal accumulation by Macroinvertebrate Fauna

Studies revealed high copper, manganese, nickel, lead and zinc concentrations in the

top layers of the sediment at the various sampling localities of Case Study Mine One

(Venter, 1995). Metals such as iron and cadmium however, did not accumulate in the

sediment, but was transported downstream via suspended sediments into the natural

wetland system (area 2 : Venter, 1995).

Information further revealed exceedingly high iron, manganese and zinc concentrations

in the water column (Venter, 1995). From this information it is therefore evident that

the surface water of Case Study Mine One was affected by very high metal

concentrations from the underground water and wetland sediments.

During all four sampling seasons the same tendency was present for the metal

concentrations accumulated by the macroinvertebrates : Cu < Pb < Mn < Ni < Zn <

Fe.

The metal concentrations in the macroinvertebrates at Case Study Mine One were

much higher than the values obtained from organisms sampled at the control site.

Metal analysis revealed organisms such as Tubificidae and Chironomidae with very

high metal concentrations, whilst a few Copepoda, Cladocera and water insect larvae

presented much lower metal concentrations.

8-2


The macroinvertebrates at Case Study Mine One, and especially the Tubificidae and

Chironomiolae are exposed to very high metal concentrations from polluted effluent.

Metal levels in organisms might be due to high metal concentrations from the water

column and sediment compartment where most of these organisms occur (Dixit

Witcomb, 1983). These metal concentrations may also differ between organisms due to

their different degrees of association with the substrate and water (Dixit & Witcomb,

1983).

Kelly (1988) stated that feeding habits may have an effect on organism metal

concentrations. Tubificidae and Chironomidae are both substrate particle feeders and

this process involves the uptake of not only food particles but also sediment particles

(Pennak, 1978). ioaccumulation can thus be attributed to feeding habits. The

utilization of particles by the organism during feeding as well as the capacity of these

particles to accumulate pollutants, may determine accumulation of pollutants by the

organisms (Amiard, 1992). Amiard (1992) further stressed the fact that it is not

possible to differentiate between sediment-derived metals (feeding habits) and metals

accumulated direct from the surrounding water column.

Metal concentrations in organisms may be affected by biological features of the

organism such as the life cycle stage (Getsova & Valkova, 1962; Wright, 1980).

Various toxic experiments have indicated that immature stages of invertebrate fauna

are more sensitive to metal concentrations than the mature stages (Spehar et al., 1978)

8013 The gener picture gleaned from this study is

If the present acidic conditions in the water continue, the benthic macroinvertebrates

will totally be eliminated from the system,

Under the acidic conditions biological processes and characteristics of the stream are

substantially altered,

The normal occurrence of aquatic organisms is affected by metal enrichment,

The water at Case Study Mine One is no longer an optimal habitat for aquatic biota.

&L4 Recommendations

In order to sustain a favourable aquatic environment for adequate macroinvertebrate

survival, the acidic conditions of the water should be altered. This will contribute

towards an increase in species diversity as well as an increase population numbers.

8-3


Improvement in water quality will create more favourable conditions for aquatic

macroinvertebrate survival.

If there is an increase in the macroinvertebrate species, fish species will also benefit

from the improved water quality and food availability.

The presence of fish will then attract waterfowl to Case Study Mine One utilising the

more favourable ecological niche.

The survival of all the above mentioned aquatic organisms clearly depends on the

maintenance of acceptable water quality.

8,2 CASE STUDY MINE TWO

8,2 1 Identification and Distribution of Macroinvertebrate Fauna.

This study revealed definite seasonal differences. In comparison to the other seasons,

summer presented an abundance of species diversity and population numbers (Table 8.4).

Area 1 : The variety of organisms during summer included large numbers of Tubificidae, Chironomidae, Copepoda and a few Coelenterata, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Coleoptera and Gastropoda. This variety during summer might have been due to the water being of a better quality (pH 7.42 - 7.82 : Venter, 1995), higher temperatures and greater food availability resulting in emergence and consequent survival of these aquatic macroinvertebrates. Blooming algae populations at locality N2 may have caused the smaller number and

species of macroinvertebrates occurring at this locality (Armitage, 1980). The abundance of Tubificidae and especially Chironomidae throughout the year suggest their possible tolerance to survive unfavourable conditions (low temperatures and a decrease in nutrient availability) as well as the absence of predators (Kajak, 1979).

Area 2 : Although the p in this area ranged from 7.38 to a high of 9.08 it was evident from factors such as TICS that surface effluent from the mining operations was a dominant

factor in the water quality (Venter, 1995). Venter (1995) further stated that the alkaline pH (9.08; locality S4) resulted from algal growth stimulated by high nutrient conditions. This phenomenon caused more alkaline

conditions to prevail.

An abundance of Tubificidae and Chironomidae with smaller numbers of other aquatic macroinvertebrate such as Coelenterata, Turbellaria, Copepoda, Ephemeroptera,

8-4


Odonata, Trichoptera and Gastropoda were evident of organisms occurring in this area. Tolerance to water quality conditions, variation in temperature and food availability as well as absence/presence of predators (Kajak, 1979; Vangenechten et

al., 1986) resulted in seasonal changes in occurrence of the aquatic macroinvertebrate fauna (Chutter, 1971; Koryak et al., 1972).

Area 3 : The neutral pH and average low conductivity and TDS of the water in this area confirms the theory that mining effluent has not been directly in contact with these localities (Venter, 1995). A diversity of organisms were present during the winter and summer sampling periods. Autumn and spring sampling revealed smaller species diversity and number of organisms. Throughout the sampling period Tubificidae and Chironomidae were present in

relatively large numbers in comparison to the other aquatic macroinvertebrates present. The thriving of both Tubificidae and Chironomidae in polluted conditions (area 1 and 2) as well as at the control localities (area 3) indicate these organisms' adaptability or tolerance to different environmental conditions (Gaufin & Tarzwell, 1952; Koryak et

al., 1972).

The smaller numbers or absence of species during specific sampling periods cannot always be due to pollution. Factors such as knowledge of the life history of organisms (Gaufin & Tarzwell, 1952), variation in temperatures and nutrient availability and the presence/absence of predators (Kajak, 1979) may also be taken into consideration when evaluating the presence and distribution of macroinvertebrate fauna over a period of time (Gaufin & Tarzwell, 1952).

8.22 Metal Accumul tion by Macroinvertebrate Fauna

All the samples obtained and analysed for metal accumulation showed the following sequence : Cu < Pb < Mn < Ni < Zn < Fe.

Area 1 :

High metal concentrations in the water column and sediment compartment resulted in high concentrations of copper, iron, manganese and zinc in the Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Gastropoda.

Area 2 :

Analysis of the sediment compartment revealed high iron and manganese

concentrations in the top layers of sediment with an alkaline pH (Venter, 1995).

The water column was a potential source for these high metal concentrations, since most metals will precipitate in an alkaline water column (Venter, 1995).

8-5

Effects of Mining Activities on Selected Aquatic Org,anisms Chapter 8

Metal analysis of the macroinvertebrate fauna revealed high copper, manganese, nickel, lead and zinc concentrations for organisms, such as the Tubificidae and

Chironomidae. Area 3 :

A neutral pH at localities C 1 and C2 and average low conductivity and TDS values confirms Venter 1995's suggestion that mining effluent is not directly in contact with this dam. High metal concentrations in the water column were iron, nickel, lead, zinc and aluminum (Venter, 1995). High concentrations of iron, manganese, nickel, lead and zinc were present in the top layer of sediment (Venter, 1995). Metal analysis of the aquatic macroinvertebrates presented the Tubificidae and Chironomidae with high copper, iron, lead and zinc concentrations

Conclusions :

The high body metal concentrations of the macroinvertebrates correlate with the high values in

the water column and the sediment compartment. These organisms' close relationship with the

sediment compartment (Dixit & Witcomb, 1983) and their overall water dependence for

survival explain their high body burden for certain metals. Factors such as feeding habits

(Kelly, 1988), biological availability of metals to the macroinvertebrates and the stage of

development when exposed to metal concentrations (Getsova Valkova, 1962; Spehar et al.,

1978; Wright, 1980) should not be disregarded.

8.,23 Met Accumulation by Clarias gariepinus

Metal analysis of the organs and tissues of the fish sampled at S4, Cl and C2 presented the following concentration sequence : Fe > Zn > Pb > Ni > Cu > Mn. Metal concentrations in the organs and tissues of the fish sampled at S4 were slightly higher

than the samples at Cl and C2, that are regarded as unaffected by mining activities. Accumulation of copper and iron were mainly in the liver of C. gariepinus, while

manganese, nickel and lead accumulated in the gills. Bioaccumulation of zinc were the highest in the liver and the gills.

There are many factors influencing the total pollutant content and concentrations of metals in organs and tissues such as age of the organism, sex, size, weight, time of year, sampling position and relative levels of other pollutants in tissues (Mason, 1991).

8-6


Studies revealed organs such as the gills, liver and kidney to have greater affinity for metals and would therefore appear to be more suited for evaluation of metal contamination in fish (Muller Prosi, 1978).

&2A The general picture from this study is

Water quality conditions at N2 and N3 are not desirable to sustain aquatic life.

Although benthic macroinvertebrates such as Hydra, water insect larvae (Baetis and

Haliplus) and snails (Bulinus and Biomphalaria) were present in this area, Tubificidae

and Chironomidae were the only organisms commonly found in large numbers in these

waters polluted by mining effluent.

At area 2 (Si, S2, S4), the water quality appears to be fairly good in comparison to

area 1. This fact is confirmed by the greater diversity and number of organisms present

in this area, such as Turbelaria, Coelenterata, Annelida (Tubificidae), Crustacea

(Cladocera and Copepoda), water insect larvae (Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Hemiptera,

Coleoptera and Diptera) and Gastropoda (Bulinus and Biomphalaria).

The control areas (Cl and C2) present a fairly good diversity and number of

organisms. The aquatic organisms include Coelenterata, Tubificidae, Crustacea, a

variety of water insect larvae and Gastropoda. Due to not only the variety of

macroinvertebrates present but also the number of organisms, it can be concluded that

the water quality implicates ideal conditions for the survival, growth and reproduction

success of these macroinvertebrates.

The metal concentrations in the macroinvertebrates at Case Study Mine Two are much

higher than the values obtained from organisms sampled at the control areas. The

macroinvertebrates were, therefore, exposed to high metal concentrations, due to a

polluted system.

Metal analysis of the fish at S4 and the control sites showed low metal concentrations

for nickel, manganese and lead, while high copper, zinc and iron concentrations were

observed.

The metal concentrations for the fish at S4 were slightly higher than those at the

control areas, which already indicates pollution of this water body. A further increase

in metal accumulation in the dam should be prevented. Furthermore, the water from S4

flows to the nearby farming area which could have detrimental effects on livestock

and/or crops.

8-7


0.2.5 econnnendations

The water quality at area 1 should be improved in order to create a desirable habitat

for aquatic life.

Although the water quality at areas 2 and 3 appears to be fairly good, it needs more

attention by increasing not only the species diversity of the benthic organisms, but also

the number of organisms.

Zinc and iron concentrations are high and measures should be taken to decrease these

metal concentrations in the surface water.

Annual sampling of biological material could be used to monitor the diversity and

numbers of macroinvertebrates present at localities such as N2, N3, S I, S2, S4, Cl

and C2. By doing so, the water quality can be assessed throughout the year by simply

monitoring invertebrate populations. If there is a decrease in number and diversity of

the macroinvertebrates, attention should then be given to factors affecting water and

sediments quality.

8.3 CASE STUDY MINE THREE

8.3.1 Identification and Distribution of Macroinvertebrate Fauna.

An overall abundance of Tubificidae and Crustacea (Cladocera, Copepoda and

Ostracoda) were present during winter with declining numbers towards summer. A

drop in water level of the streams during winter as well as a decrease in predators

(Chironomidae usually prey on Crustacea) resulted in an increase in the number of

organisms per unit volume water, despite other limiting factors such as low

temperature and low nutrient availability (Table 8.4).

Low numbers of water insect larvae (Collembola, Ephemeroptera, Odonata,

Hemiptera, Coleoptera and Diptera) and Hirudinea were present during winter, while

these organism's numbers increased towards summer and autumn. This was probably

caused by an increase in temperature and nutrient availability. The start of the rainy

season and consequent volume increase in stream water resulted in a decrease in

number of Tubificidae and Crustacea,' due to these organisms being flushed or washed

away (Table 8.4).

8-8


Throughout the sampling period Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Crustacea (Cladocera

and Copepoda) occurred in large numbers at the sampling localities. These large

numbers of Tubificidae and Chironomidae resulted from their survival of polluted

conditions such as mining activities (effluent from rock-dumps and slimes dams).

Gaufin Tarzwell (1952) as well as Eyres et al. (1978) confirmed the presence of

Tubificidae and Chironomidae to be important evidence of polluted conditions of the

aquatic environment (Table 8.4).

The presence of Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Cladocera, despite limiting factors,

indicate their physiological tolerance (Roback & Richardson, 1969; Koryak et al.,

1972, Vangenechten et al., 1986) and their consequent abundance were determined by

suitable conditions available to them (Godfrey, 1978).

In comparison to the abundance of Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Cladocera, only a

few water insect larvae (Collembola, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, Coleoptera

and Diptera) and Hirudinea were observed throughout the sampling period. Most

species of water insect larvae are severely affected by products of mine drainage

(Roback & Richardson, 1969). However, the sensitivity of water insect larvae to mine

effluent vary from one species to another within the same family (Raddum

Fjellheim, 1984). Water insect larvae such as Ephemeroptera, Odonata and

Trichoptera have been described as species which are more sensitive to mining

effluents (Roback & Richardson, 1969; Bell, 1971; Godfrey, 1978; Moon Lucostic,

1979; Haines, 1981; Raddum & Fjellheim, 1984), while some Coleoptera, Hemiptera

and Trichoptera were less sensitive (Roback Richardson, 1969; Bell, 1971, Moon &

Lucostic, 1979; Haines, 1981). Factors other than sensitivity to mining effluent may

also determine the abundance of these organisms. These factors include knowledge of

the life histories (Gaufin & Tarzwell, 1952), availability of food (Vangenechten et al.,

1986; Turnpenny, 1989) and the presence/absence of predators (Kajak, 1979;

Vangenechten et al., 1986; Tumpenny, 1989).

831 Met Amu

Illation by Macroinvertebrates 1.1

The overall sequence of metal accumulation by the macroinvertebrate fauna presented

the following : Fe > Ni > Mn > Zn > Pb > Cu.

During the sampling periods, analysis of metals accumulated by the

macroinvertebrates presented extremely high iron concentrations. These high

8-9


concentrations were due to the release of iron into the system because of mining

activities (Venter, 1995).

The mean nickel concentrations in the surface water and top sediment layer of the

localities in the mining area were high (Venter, 1995) with similar concentrations in the

macroinvertebrates analysed.

High surface water manganese concentrations were determined at the localities in the

mining area, with lower concentrations in the sediment and macroinvertebrates.

Zinc concentrations determined for the surface water and sediment revealed elevated

levels in the mining area. However, zinc concentrations presented for the

macroinvertebrate analysis were lower than iron, nickel and manganese concentrations

and zinc is also less toxic than the above mentioned metals to aquatic organisms

(Moore & Ramamoorthy, 1984).

Both lead and copper revealed higher levels in the water and sediment at localities in

the mining area than in the Vaal River (Venter, 1995), whilst these metal

concentrations were the lowest in the macroinvertebrates analysed. Accumulation of

lead and copper is species dependent and toxicity of these metals are determined by

pH, water hardness and salinity (Moore & Ramamoorthy, 1984; Dixit & Witcomb,

1983).

80303 Metal Accumulation by selected fish species

Metal analysis of the organs and tissues of the fish sampled during November 1993

and March 1994, presented the following sequence : Fe > Zn > Ni > Cu > Mn > Pb.

Each fish species presented the following high concentrations

Labeo capensis : Accumulation of copper and iron were mainly in the liver, manganese

and zinc in the gills, with nickel and lead in the skin.

Labeo umbratus : Bioaccumulation of copper, iron, lead and zinc were in the liver,

while manganese accumulated in the gills and nickel in the skin.

Clarias gariepinus : Iron, nickel, lead and zinc accumulated in the skin of C.

gariepinus, while copper accumulation was mainly in the liver and manganese in the

gills.

Cyprinus carpio : Copper, nickel and lead accumulated in the skin of C carpi°.

Accumulation of iron and zinc were in the liver, while manganese accumulated in the

gills.

8-10


The surplus of metal contaminants introduced into the aquatic system by activities

such as industries, power plants, agricultural and mining activities, usually exists in

relatively unstable chemical forms in the water column and are, therefore,

predominantly accessible for biological uptake (Forstner, 1982).

Some of the metals in the water column tend to accumulate in sediments. Forstner

(1982) also stated that sediment bound metals may be bioavailable to some extent.

Experiments conducted by Luoma & Jenne (1977) indicated that the bioavailability of

metals is inversely related to the strength of metal-particulate associations in the

sediments.

Tables 8.3.1 to 8.3.4 give an indication of the distribution of metals in the organs and tissues

that should be sampled when monitoring the different fish species.

TA LE 8.3.1 Organs and tissues of L. capensis with the highest met concentrations.

bTgan/Metal

Cu Fe Mn Ni

Pb

Zn

Liver Gills Muscle Skin

TABLE 8.3.2 Organs and tissues of L. umbratus with the highest metal concentrations.

Organ/Metal

Cu Fe Mn Ni

Pb

Zn


TABLE 8.3.3 Organs d tissues of C. carpio with the highest metal concentr :.tions.

Organ/Metal

Mn

Ni


8-11


TA LE 83,4

rgans and tissues of C gariepinus with the hi est et..s conceraltr tions. tl

Organ/Metal


&3.4 The over

trend in this study n

When comparing the macroinvertebrate species diversity from Case Study Mine Three

with locality X, which receives organic and industrial effluent, it is evident that the

macroinvertebrate fauna from Case Study Mine Three is relatively sparse, considering

the total number and diversity of species found.

The macroinvertebrates such as Tubificidae, Chironomidae and Crustacea were

present in large numbers with high body metal concentrations. It is evident that these

organisms show tolerance to pollution by being present in large numbers, while the

numbers of other benthic organisms were declining.

Other benthic organisms such as water insects, occurred in declining numbers with

high body metal concentrations. When the body metal concentrations become to high,

these organisms will eventually disappear.

Metal analysis of organs and tissues of the fish sampled, indicated that lead occurred

as the metal with the lowest overall concentration in the gills, muscle and skin, while

iron and zinc were present in high concentrations in the liver, gills and skin.

&3.5 Recommendations :

When considering the sampling, identification and analysis of the macroinvertebrate fauna, and

the selected fish species, the data proved very high metal loads tolerable by the aquatic

organisms in the aquatic system of Case Study Mine Three.

High concentrations of metals such as iron, zinc, nickel and manganese in mine effluent caused

the elimination of sensitive macroinvertebrates. A few tolerant opportunistic species can

survive. These benthic organisms, and also the fish sampled, have developed some tolerance to

mine effluent by perhaps regulating metals. However, over a long period of time even the

8-12


tolerant benthic organisms and fish species will be affected and eliminated due to high metal

concentrations.

In order to sustain a favorable aquatic environment for macroinvertebrate and fish

survival, there should be no increase in the metal concentrations released into the Vaal

River. A decrease in the levels reaching the natural aquatic environment is

recommended. If this can be achieved, the metal concentrations in macroinvertebrates

and fish species might decrease, which will eventually lead to increased numbers and

species diversity of the macroinvertebrates. A more desirable habitat for aquatic life

will then be available.

Annual sampling of biological material could be used to monitor the aquatic system of

Case Study Mine Three. Macroinvertebrates are a group often recommended for use in

assessing water quality. In practice, macroinvertebrates are by far the most commonly

used group. Benthic macroinvertebrates offer many advantages in biomonitoring.

Firstly, they are ubiquitous, and can thus be affected by environmental perturbations in

many different types of aquatic systems and in habitats within those waters. Secondly,

the large numbers of species involved offers a spectrum of responses to environmental

stress. Thirdly, their basically sedentary nature allows effective spatial analyses of

pollutant effects. Fourthly, they have long life cycles compared to other groups (such

as water insects), which allows elucidation of temporal changes caused by

perturbations. Thus, benthic macroinvertebrates act as continuous monitors of the

water they inhabit, enabling long-term analysis of both regular and intermittent

discharges, variable concentrations of pollutants, single or multiple pollutants, and

even synergistic or antagonistic effects.

The various metals are distributed differently in the organs and tissues of the fish

(Tables 8.3.1 to 8.3.4), indicating that it is not necessarily the same organs that should

be sampled for the analysis of different metals. It is therefore possible that, in using the

wrong organs an incorrect conclusion can be drawn in the assessment of the extent of

metal pollution in an area (Seymore, 1994). The suggested organs and tissues that

should be sampled for metal analysis are indicated in Table 8.3.5.

Muscle tissue should always be sampled to test if it is fit for human consumption.

Apart from this, gills, gut, liver and bony structures seem to be good representative

organs and tissues in general metal pollution surveys (Seymore, 1994). If, however,

surveys are being done on specific metals, organs and tissues, as illustrated in Table

8.3.5, should be sampled. Seasonal sampling will also reveal differences related to the

8-13



available metal concentrations absorbed during a specific season. It is suggested that in

future, monitoring of fish should be used for bioaccumulation studies instead of

macroinvertebrates. Although the sampling of macroinvertebrates is easy to perform,

the identification and metal analysis is much more tedious for these organisms than for

fish. The angling society can be helpful in the sampling of fish, especially during

competitions. Monitoring should be conducted biannually, once during low flow and

once during high flow.

TAPc LE 8.3,5 rgans and tissues that should be sampled for metal analysis.

8.4 Els Is ECTS OF COAL MINE EFFLUENT ON THE NUM c E AN r SPECIES

DIVERSITY OF THE MACROINVERTEBRATE FAUNA (UPPER OLIFANTS

RIVER CATCHMENT).

8.4.1 The most important effects of coal mine e anent

The Coelenterata (Hydra) occurred in small numbers during autumn and spring, and

presented low metal concentrations. These benthic macroinvertebrates are thus

sensitive to the various forms of pollution occurring in the Upper Olifants River

Catchment (Table 8.4).

In comparison to the Coelenterata, Nematoda occurred in relatively large numbers.

These benthic organisms have high metal concentrations and their obvious presence

indicates possible adaptation to the metal loads in the water and sediment (Table 8.4).

Large numbers of aquatic earthworms (Tubificidae) occurred during the sampling

period which presented metals varying from high to low concentrations. Tubificids

have obviously adapted to polluted circumstances by regulating these metals.

The Crustacea had high metal concentrations, and were present in large numbers

throughout the sampling period. These organisms, subjected to metal concentrations in

the water, seemed to be quite tolerant (insensitive) of these metal concentrations.

8-14


Water insect larvae were generally present in small numbers in the Upper Olifants

River Catchment. Although these macroinvertebrates generally presented low metal

concentrations, Corixidae, Hydroptilidae and Psychodidae were exceptions to this rule.

Water insect larvae are, according to literature, sensitive to any form of pollution and

would thus disappear if for instance the metal concentrations in the water were to

increase (Table 8.4).

Only a few molluscs were sampled at the Olifants River. These benthic organisms

presented low metal concentrations. The number as well as the metal concentrations,

indicated the molluscs sensitivity of these organisms to metal concentrations to which

they were exposed to, in the sediment (Table 8.4).

8.4.2 Recommendations

The sampling, identification and analysis of the macroinvertebrate fauna indicate high

metal loads in the aquatic system of the Upper Olifants River Catchment.

High iron, aluminum, nickel, zinc and chromium concentrations caused sensitive

benthic macroinvertebrates, to be almost totally eliminated.

A few tolerant opportunistic species survived. These species included aquatic

organisms such as Tubificidae, Crustacea (Cladocera, Copepoda and Ostracoda),

some water insect larvae (Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera, Trichoptera, Coleoptera and

Diptera - Chironomidae) and only a few Gastropoda (Physidae) and Pelecypoda

(Sphaeriidae).

Therefore, in order to sustain a favorable aquatic environment for the survival of aquatic

organisms, the following should be considered :

More strict control regarding effluent, whether from mines, power stations or other

industries, should be dictated to the different users within the Upper Olifants River

Catchment in order to assure better water quality (effluents) entering the Catchment

area.

If the above mentioned can be achieved, there will be a definite decrease in metal

concentrations in not only the water but eventually in the sediment too.

This will eventually lead to the establishment of a greater variety and number of

macroinvertebrates, creating a much more desirable habitat for other aquatic and semi-

aquatic organisms such as fish and waterfowl.

8-15

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system, but downstream users will also benefit.

Biomonitoring should be performed regularly where metal accumulation in

macroinvertebrates and fish is assessed. By doing this the water quality in the Upper

Catchment could be controlled regularly.

0.5 IOACCUMULATION OF ZINC IN TWO FRESHWATER ORGANISMS (Daphnia paler, C USTACEA AND Oreochromis mossarrabicas, PISCES).

Because it is unknown whether aquatic organisms accumulate metals from water and/or food

(transfer of metals via the foodchain), it is necessary to determine which rate predominates

during the bioaccumulation of zinc. During the Case Studies discussed, in the previous

chapters (chapters 3, 4, 5 and 6), very high zinc concentrations were observed in the surface

waters at the various localities. Analysis of the organs and tissues of the different fish species

sampled also presented high zinc concentrations. Data concerning the high zinc concentrations

were utilised during this experimental project in proving the possible uptake of zinc by natural

food such as Daphnia. Daphnia pulex and Oreochromis mossambicus, important test

organisms in toxicity tests, were used in this study to try and establish the role of metal

accumulation from water and food.

Analysis of the Daphnia culture exposed to zinc chloride presented a much higher zinc concentration than the culture analysed as a control, indicating possible accumulation of zinc by Daphnia.

The fish exposed to zinc contaminated Daphnia showed a definite increase in organ and tissue zinc concentrations when compared to the control values. However, the liver accumulated zinc from the blood and eventually dumping it into the gall bladder. When metal concentrations in the gall bladder exceeds a certain level, no more metals can be emptied into it and accumulation

can only then occur in the liver. This explains the slightly higher zinc concentration of the liver in comparison to the control value.

The slightly higher zinc concentrations in the gills of these fish in comparison to the controls

were probably due to zinc transported in the blood filtering through the gills.

8-19


The fish exposed to zinc concentrations in the water had definite higher zinc levels in the

tissues and organs, except in the case of the muscle for fish of exposure experiment H and the

control. For the fish in tanks H the intake of unpolluted food involved the intake of zinc

enriched water.

From this experiment it was also evident that the lowest zinc concentrations observed were for

the muscle. This fact is confirmed by Memmert (1987) and Flos et al. (1979) who stated that

zinc was mainly accumulated in internal organs, bones, skin and gills, but not actually in

muscle tissue.

From this study it was evident that exposure of fish to metal loads, whether in the water or

food, resulted in the absorption thereof. Although zinc water concentrations resulted in higher

accumulation in the organs and tissues of the fish in experiment II, the importance of metal

uptake via food should not be ignored. Several authors reported different contributions from

food and water in the accumulation of various metals by fish (Moore & Ramamoorthy, 1984;

Memmert, 1987). These contributions may depend on (1) the feeding rate of the consumer, and

(2) the kind of food, because metal concentrations accumulated or available in food organisms

greatly differ between species (Memmert, 1987). Luoma (1983) also stated that it was evident

from this study that the concentration of metals decreased in consumers of higher trophic

levels, so that considerable accumulation from food rarely took place in aquatic food chains. It

is, however, clear that metal uptake through both water and food contribute towards high metal

concentrations in organs and tissues of fish.

83.1 Effects of zinc exposure to fish

During the different Case Studies analysis of the organs and tissues of fish sampled,

indicated that these fish were exposed to very high zinc concentrations from both the

water column and the sediment compartment. From this study it was also evident that

zinc accumulated mainly from the water resulted in the highest accumulation in the

organs and tissues of the different fish species.

Some fish species have the ability to develop a tolerance to zinc. This mechanism for

adaptation is, however, not clearly understood (Smith Heath, 1979). Competitive

inhibition may constitute part of such a adaptive mechanism (Sinley et al., 1974;

Chapman, 1978).

8-20


Fish exposed to water with high total hardness are more tolerant of zinc than those

exposed to low total hardness (Smith Heath, 1979).

Treatment of fish with zinc resulted in substantial gill damage which caused initial

separation of epithelium, followed by occlusion of the central blood spaces and

enlargement of central and marginal channels (Moore & Ramamoorthy, 1984).

Lamellar height is then progressively reduced and central blood spaces are completely

occluded (Moore b Ramamoorthy, 1984). These changes then resulted in (1) a

decrease in oxygen consumption, (2) a decrease in the ability to transport ions across

the gill surface, and (3) an increase in hypoxia, opercular amplitude, buccal amplitude,

ventilation frequency, and coughing frequency (Moore Ramamoorthy, 1984).

Other physical and biochemical changes are (1) a decrease in blood pH due to an

increase in the production of lactic acid and pyruvic acid, (2) kidney tissue and enzyme

disfunctioning, (3) decrease in the growth, maximum size and fecundity, and (4)

reproductive behaviour change ( Chapman, 1978; Moore .b Ramamoorthy, 1984)

8.5.2 Improvement of the experiment procedures

Larger D. pulex cultures could be used, More experiments could be executed at different concentrations to supplement the existing data, The results could be expanded by using algae, Daphnia and fish.

8.6 OCCURRENCE EVALUATION INDEX

The occurrence evaluation index was compiled for mine management to evaluate the quality of surface water on mine properties. This index is based on the presence and composition of aquatic macroinvertebrates in the surface waters and cannot be utilised in determining population dynamics. A decrease in population numbers and composition serves as indicators

of contamination by pollutants that negatively affect the survival of macroinvertebrates. However, external factors such as the availability of food and the presence/absence of predators may also contribute to the survival and abundance of macroinvertebrates. This index is a tool to identify deterioration in water quality, by a quick assessment, which can lead to the

existence of unfavourable conditions for aquatic biota. Sensitivity of the different macroinvertebrate species is a feature that can be usefully employed to assess the effect of contaminants on aquatic biota.

8-21


807 FERENCES

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8-22


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Effects of mining activities on selected aquatic organisms - UJ IR

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