East Asia Since 1600

East Asia Since 1600            Study Guide and Glossary and Identifications       

By Rhonda Tintle, Ph.D

History exams are similar to Geography exams with people and particulars added in as additional data. History, Geography, and Anthropology tests are different from English, Social Studies, and Philosophy tests. History exams test for a logical understanding of data, not for opinion. You will take a variety of other classes at the college level which will be geared toward your opinions. Therefore, when you approach your History Tests remember: if you do not understand all of the details about a topic do not choose that question.  Choose a question about which you have the most in-depth understanding of the data.

Imperialism May be some or all of the following:  Political, military, economic, religious, and cultural.  Imperialism means domination, the expansion of power, authority, and/or influence over other countries, peoples, cultures.  Domination is a good synonym for imperialism. Imperialism implies the rule or control of one nation over other countries and/or peoples outside the Imperialist country’s main geographic borders. 

Etymology of Imperialism: The Latin root is imperium meaning command or supreme power.

IDS

CHINA/TAIWAN

Three Principles of the People Sun Yat-sen established of the Chinese Republic in 1912 with him as president.Revolution based on three principles: 1) nationalism:  Chinese government should be in the hands of the Chinese not foreigners (Manchu or others).2)  Democracy: government divided into five separate branches: the executive, legislative, judicial, the censorate, and the civil service system. The latter two branches primarily functioned as a check on the first three.3) Equalization:  disparities in land ownership equalized among the people, wealth more evenly distributed, and the social effects of unbridled capitalism and government should mitigate commerce. The latter principle involved the nationalization of land; Sun believed that land ownership allows too much power to accrue to the hands of landlords. In his nationalization theory, people would be deprived of the right to own land, but they could retain other rights over the land by permission of the state.Also:  When: 1924 (Sun lived 1866-1925) Where: China Why: First Principle was important because it was directed at all the foreign imperial powers.

As did many at the time, Sun Yat-sen wanted to empower China and he thought it could only be accomplished by first getting rid of the foreigners and then providing self-determination for the minorities in China . Second Principle is important because it contained methods for China to empower itself. The methods would be through popular elections, initiative, recall, and referendum. However, full democracy wouldn't come until after a preparatory period of political teaching. Sun Yat-set emphasized the need for disciplined people and believed that Chinese had too much freedom, not too little. He also spelled out how the state would be broken up. It would divided into 5 branches of government: legislative, executive, judicial (just like the West), plus an examination branch to test applicants for government posts, and a censorial branch to monitor government officials and control corruption, as under the emperors. The Third Principle was important because it aimed to make people socially equal and develop China economically. It incorporated a proposal by the American Henry George (1839-1897) to tax the unearned increment on land values in order to equalize holdings. An additional refinement was a land tax based on each landowner's assessment of the value of his land. To prevent underassessment, the state was to have the right to purchase the land a the declared value.

General Li Yuanhong   (1864-1928) was a military officer in the late Qing Dynasty. He began his career as a naval officer and saw a little bit of service in the Sino-Japanese War. He changed fields and became an engineer officer. He was forced into joining the revolution in 1911 as leader, even though he was not a revolutionary. As the Revolution gained momentum he became a fan of republican government. He was vice-president under Shikai. Important because he served as president of the republic twice. First immediately after Shikai’s death and again from 1922-1923. He refused to agree with the National Assembly about going to war against Germany in WWI. He died in retirement in 1928.In 1911 Li was a divisional commander in the army and was stationed in the city of Wuhan ( Hubei province), where the anti-imperialist Chinese Revolution of 1911–12 erupted accidentally among army units. The uprising was planned for a later date. Li was forced by his troops to become the head of the new government. He was the only president of the Republic of China at Beijing who served for two terms.

Yuan Shikai (1859-1916) was a military strong man in the waning days of the Qing Dynasty. He was the last hope of the Qing Dynasty to stop the advance of the revolution of 1911, and after he extorted concessions from the Qing he realized he could not stop the revolution. He switched sides and brought about the abdication of the Qing in February 1912. After switching sides Sun Yatsen ceded the office of President of the new Chinese Republic to Shikai. Shikai is important because he was not a republican type of man and ruled the new republic in an autocratic way. He even tried to name himself emperor of a new Chinese Dynasty but failed. He ran the new republic into the ground and when he died in 1916 China dissolved into an era of Warlordism. Chinese army leader in late Qing dynasty (until 1911) and then first president of the Republic of China (1912–16).When his plan for a gigantic foreign loan was obstructed by the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) in the National Assembly, he murdered the chairman of the party and the

ended hopes for parliamentary democracy in China . Thereafter, he contrived to make himself president for life and then boldly announced a new imperial dynasty with himself as emperor in 1915–16. Widespread opposition, backed by Japan , rose to challenge his authority. Yuan Shikai was forced to abolish the newly announced monarchy in March 1916 and died three months later.

The Xuantong Emperor (Puyi)

   Puyi was the last Emperor of China and the Qing dynasty.   ruled 1908-1912, the Chinese revolution of 1911/2 led to the end of his reign.   As the uprisings of 1911 progressed 2 other figures emerged, Sun Yat-sen and Yuan Shikai,

both men acquired leading roles in               China and gradually absorbed Puyi’s power- leading to his abdication.   Puyi was a significant figure in Chinese history because he represented the end of dynastic

rule in China , he was “The Last Emperor”.  Xuantong Emperor (AKA Puyi) Lived 1906 – 1967) Last Emperor of China. Ruled two periods between 1908 and 1924. He was the 12th and final member of the Qing Dynasty. After being retained his imperial title, on March 1, 1932, Puyi was installed by the Japanese as the ruler of Manchukuo. Puyi died during Cultural Revolution in 1967.

  Duan Qirui

   Duan was a powerful military leader during the rule of the Republic of China,            initially gained power under Yuan Shikai, whom he eventually succeeded.   leader of the military Anhui clique   Republic of China’s minister of war and prime minister during WWI   Unsuccessful at his attempt to have China enter WWI on the side of the allies   Criticized for permitting the 21 Demands of Japan in 1915, which many Chinese people saw

as submission to Japan    Duan became premiere in 1916 following the death of Yuan and throughout the Warlord era

of China    His political power declined along with the grip of the Chinese republic, Duan resigned; and

China proceeded into civil war.      Also:  Duan Qirui:

Who: Chinese Warlord that studied in Germany , later became Primer of China.What: Declared war on Germany in WWI and received 145 million yen from Japan (the Nishihara loans), but only used the money to increase his own, personal, military.When: 1917Where: China Why: By declaring war on Germany , China , and Duan Qirui, hoped they could get some sort of favorable things, be they money, land, or whatever, out of World War I. They didn't end up getting much of anything.Duan Qirui: lived 1865 – 1936.  A Chinese warlord and politician, commander of the Beiyang Army, and the Provisional Chief Executive of Republic of China from November 24, 1924 to April 20, 1926. Declared war on Germany on August 14, 1917 and received financial and military aid from Japan. However, Japanese aid created popular anxiety and

led to protests and decline in popularity. He was forced to retire in 1920 but came back to run the government that was ruled by Zhang Zuolin and Feng Yuxiang. When Feng was defeated by Zhang, Duan finally ended his political career to focus on the study of Buddhism and philanthropic works.

Song Meiling (Madame Chiang Kai-shek) Born: 5 March 1897Birthplace: Shanghai , China (?)Died: 23 October 2003Artist and wife of Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shekName at birth: Soong Mei-lingEducated in the United States .Married Chiang Kai-shek in 1927.Advocate for Chinese Nationalist government.During World War II she went on an international tour and spoke before the United States congress (1943) to rally support for China 's fight against Japan .Exiled to Taiwan (1949-75), she later moved to New York City .Her sister, Soong Ch'ing-ling, was married to Sun Yat-sen.

First United Front, 1926 Who: Kuomintang leader Sun Yat-sen; Soviet Union ; Communist Party of ChinaWhat: related to the Chinese Civil War When: 1926 Where: North China Why:   United Nationalists and the Communists to defeat warlords who had control of Northern China after 1911 Qing overthrow. Soviet leadership initiated a dual policy of support for both Sun and the Communist Party of China.  The Kuomintang and Chinese Communist Party had allied in 1923 to form the First United Front, with the purpose of unifying China and ending regional warlordism. In March of 1927, the CCP enacted their plan to liberate Shanghai from local warlords by staging a worker uprising in the city. The uprising was successful, and the workers successfully took control of the city. Chiang Kai-shek was alarmed by this development, partly because he saw it as a sign of the growing power of the CCP, and partly because he had many allies within the wealthy business class of Shanghai. Kai-shek decided that his KMT's alliance with the CCP had served its purpose, and set about purging Communist elements from the city. He sent in the military to break up the strike and deliver the city to KMT hands. He was successful in this endeavor, and the members of the CCP were forced to retreat and regroup in the countryside of China.  During the First United Front (1926) Sun Yat-sen was unable to obtain assistance against the warlords from the Western powers, KMT leader Sun Yat-sen turned to the Soviet Union in 1921. The Soviets opted to support both the KMT and its smaller opponent, the CCP. In 1923, with the issuance of the Sun-Joffe manifesto, the Soviets instigated a political union between the two groups, thus forming the First United Front.

After the union, the Front undertook the Northern Expedition against the warlords, funded by the Soviets. They moved from province to province, subduing the enemy through negotiation and force. In 1926, the Front was faced with the decision of

proceeding further into Northern China, or into Shanghai . In Shanghai , the CCP had already organized the Shanghai strike, and they saw no need for KMT military interference. However, KMT leader Chiang Kai-shek had gained the support of many Shanghai industrialists, which freed him from dependence on the Soviets. Thus emboldened, he proceeded into the city, where he ordered his troops to fire on thousands of CCP members, which effectively ended the United Front, drove the Communists underground, and started the civil war.

Shanghai Strike, 1927   China 1927: Last gasp of the world revolution. In 1927 a general strike of workers, students, and merchants, and to boycott the foreign banks and withdraw sums deposited in them by Chinese. It began as a meeting of about 1500 and became a strike demanding improvement in cotton mills, and the use of foreigners to police Chinese workers. It grew to 74,000 strikers and then almost 160,000 strikers this impacted Japanese and British firms. Telephones stopped, newspapers stopped, and there were defections among the Sikhs of the Municipal Police. Martial Law declared, gunboats and marines landed and closed Shanghai University . Where: ShanghaiWhat: The May 4th movement (famous) and the May 30th movement. Insurrection that gave them control of the city.The strike was poorly financed. There was almost no response to the strike by peasants despite appeals made by Communist Party. Enthusiasm for the strike waned andSignificance: the strike dragged on so long and the General Unions offered so many different compromises that eventually things petered out. At this same time in Japan there were several strikes. The strike was originally related to the Nanking Road Incident. An anti-climactic end to the Chinese Civil War of 1925-27.

Long March, 1934-1935When: 1934Who: Mao, Lin Biao, Zhou Enlai, Zhu De and 100,000 men and their dependents.Where: China ’s mountainous areas.The marchers experienced terrible hardships.The marchers covered about fifty miles a day and reached Shensi on 20th October 1935. It is estimated that only around 30,000 survived.What: 8,000-mile Long March.During the first ten days the orders were to walk by night and rest by day; but there was no rest, as the open columns were mercilessly attacked by German-manned airplanes. The orders were changed to four hours of marching and four hours rest, day and night. No time to eat, to find shelter. Marchers fought every day, we were outnumbered. There song was "The Red Army fears not death/Who fears death is not a Red Army man." In late 1933, Chiang Kai-shek’s forces surrounded the CCP Jiangxi position. When their situation became hopeless, the Communists broke out of the blockade, abandoned their position, and embarked on their Long March. They ultimately decided to head for Shaanxi , where there was a Communist force. Over the course of a little over a year, they covered about 6000 miles of often rough terrain, in bad weather, suffering hunger,

thirst, and fatigue, and fighting armed opposition all the way. Of the 100 thousand who began the march, only about 10 % arrived in Shanxii. Though the loss of human life was substantial, the March was a huge moral and propaganda victory for the CCP.

Zhang Xueliang   (1901 – 2001)Where: China , Hawaii , United States Who: "Young Marshal" Instigator of the Xi'an incident he spent over 50 years under house arrest. Zhou Enlai; Japanese; Chiang Kai-shek;ruler of Manchuria When: 1928+ and in 1936What: Kuomintang (KMT). Manchurian warlord and republican general. Why: In 1936 planned to end the Chinese Civil War. Known as the Xi'an incident, he and others kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek and imprisoned the head of the Kuomintang government until he agreed to form a united front with the Communists against the Japanese invasion.

Second United Front Who: Mao Zedong; Chiang Kai-shekWhat: Second coalition between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang [KMT]). When: 1937-1945. After the communists went on the Long March (1934–35).Where: Northwestern China Why: Second coalition between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang [KMT]). After the communists went on the Long March (1934–36) they reached northwestern China , close to the area occupied by Japanese troops. Mao Zedong and the communists joined the KMT to expel the Japanese. The Second United Front continued officially until 1945and then turned into a civil war between the communists and the KMT.

Kuomintang (KMT) [old spelling Guomindang (GMD)]. The Nationalist Party of China . A highly centralized, hierarchical, and authoritarian party/government. Kuomintang: the political party founded in 1911 by Sun Yat-sen; it governed China under Chiang Kai-shek from 1928 until 1949 when the Communists took power.

Lin Biao 1908-1971 Lin Biao was Minister of Defense for Mao Zedong during the Cultural Revolution. However, by 1971 they were enemies and Lin Biao died in an airplane crash in Mongolia while fleeing to the Soviet Union .Whampoa Military Academy In 1926 Lin Biao took part in the Northern Expedition to stop the warlords who had ruled the countryside since the collapse of the Qing monarchy in 1911.Lin Biao became commander of the People's Liberation Army in 1945.Lin Biao isolated the Nationalist troops in their garrisons and gradually forced unit after unit to

surrender. By 1948 Lin Biao’s soldiers had conquered the whole of Manchuria .

Great Leap Forward, 1958-1959   After liberation, Mao initially followed a traditional Soviet program of land redistribution and heavy industrialization and was re-elected chair of the CCP by the first National People's Congress in 1954. However, from 1956, after the Soviet condemnation of Stalin, he launched a ‘let a hundred flowers bloom’ campaign (the Hundred Flowers campaign) in which criticisms were raised of the power of the new bureaucracy and he began to reject the emphasis on development through heavy industries. In 1958–62 Mao introduced a series of sweeping economic changes under his second five-year plan. The aim of this program, known as the Great Leap Forward, was to restructure the economy and polity along communist lines, and to this end Mao created large new agro-industrial communes, which were also designed to end the traditional divide between town and country and act as local political units. The Great Leap Forward eventually collapsed, chiefly because of poor planning, and effectively led to the deaths of over 20 million people from famine, as well as to Mao's own resignation as state president in 1959 and his replacement by the more moderate Liu Shaoqi.

The Chinese famine of 1959-1961 AKA: 'Three Terrible Years'.Facts and figures, if available at all, were so distorted during the Great Leap Forward (GLF).The famine has remained one of the least known episodes of modern history. This is due to the reluctance of Chinese to release information about it.Floods and droughts which China experienced between 1958 and 1960. Natural hazards occur in China every year, but in those particular years every province except Xinjiang and Tibet suffered, and drought, in particular, was unusually bad.A policy-led disaster (Mao).Food production was also affected by the rushed introduction of the People's Communes. Between August and November 1958, almost all the co-operatives were said to have merged into communes. These were large, incorporating an average of 30 co-operatives or 25,000 people, and their hasty creation led to poor organization and administration. Peasants distrusted the commune idea and killed off pigs & hid things. Mess halls.

Liu Shaoqi Chinese statesman 1898 - 1969Chairman of the People’s Republic of China (1959–68) and theoretician for the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), who was to follow Mao Zedong as leader of China . Liu Shaoqi was purged in the late 1960s. Died in plane crash trying to get to USSR .

Peng Dehuai (1898 - 1974)Guerrilla, led peasant uprisings.Chinese military leaderBeijing Chinese communist leader 1954 - 1959, later expelled from the party (he criticized the Great Leap

Forward).Served Chiang Kai-shek.He became a senior military commander under Mao Zedong and participated in the Long March (1934–35) and Sino-Japanese War in 1937 – 1954.Peng Dehuai led Chinese forces in the Korean War and signed the armistice at P’anmunjŏm on July 27, 1953.  Peng Dehuai was a prominent military figure in the Communist Party of China and served as China's Defense Minister from 1954- 1959. He was an important general during the second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War. He fell from Mao's favor in June of 1959 after criticizing Mao, and saying the Great Leap Forward was a terrible mistake. He was exiled and placed under house arrest for the next sixteen years. He was arrested by the Red Guards and brutally tortured during the Cultural Revolution. He died on November 26, 1974 of cancer, still loyal to his communist ideals.

Red Guards During China's Cultural Revolution (1966–1969)- (1976), teenage revolutionaries in China called Red Guards “struggled against” authority figures (teachers, property owners, monks and nuns, bosses, intellectuals, doctors, Party leaders). The Red Guards destroyed statues, signs, buildings, and books. Sometimes the Red Guards humiliated and/or killed authority figures. These were civilians, mostly young students, and responded to Mao Zedong's call to “Bombard the headquarters” during the 1966-1967 Cultural Revolution. This was to help the younger generation understand what the Communist Revolution was all about by allowing them to have their own revolution. Between August 18th and November 26th in 1966, there were eight rallies in Tiananmen Square, which brought twelve million Red Guard members to see Chairman Mao speak. This, however, quickly decayed into anarchy. The Red Guards attacked authorizes that were said to be “rightist”, starting with their teachers in school. They also raided homes, schools, and attacked the “Four Olds” which were old customs, cultures, habits, and ideals. By February 1967, the students were ordered back into schools, and the Red Guard was disbanded.  However, they continue to roam China.  In 1966 The Red Guard was created by a group of students and ultimately supported to the fullest extent by Mao Zedong. Their purpose was to travel throughout china to different universities and schools spreading the teachings of Mao Zedong. The role of Red Guard was mainly to attack "the four olds" of society, which is the old ideas, cultures, manners, and customs. The members ranged from 12-30 with most of them 12-17. Red Guards in Beijing and everywhere in China had taken to the streets from their schools. They made posters, speeches, and committed violent and indiscriminate acts in the name of the Cultural Revolution. In the beginning, in Beijing, (1966) these groups were told by Zedong to destroy any old, elitist, or foreign things and as a result many red guard groups destroyed homes, cultural relics, harassed teachers, and even attacked communist leaders. One of the first efforts of the Red Guards was to expose and tear down feudal and capitalist remnants. They took down the names of streets and store signs which derived from or evoked memory of Imperial China making the political point that feudal influences still persisted and had to be consciously combated. In the schools the youth set out to revolutionize the whole educational system. They strongly criticized the old curriculum and methods of teaching which stressed abstract lessons divorced from practice. After this took place Mao encouraged the students to take what they had done in Beijing to other parts of the country. This is when the “long marches” started taking place and the Red Guard could be seen and heard all throughout china. .Rivalries eventually started between conservative and more radical Red Guard factions over who was more loyal. By 1967 the Red Guard was so out

of hand that the Chinese army was called in by Mao himself to restore order and there was a violent clash between Red Guard and Chinese soldiers. By 1968 many of the Red Guard were disbanded and outlawed and those who resisted were sent to the countryside for a form of “re-education”, some to never return. 

Four Modernizations   The Four Modernizations were first announced by Zhou at the tenth party congress in 1973, when the country was just starting its slow recovery from the Cultural Revolution.  The new regime's goal was the development of China 's economy by means of the Four Modernizations:1)      of agriculture2)      industry3)      national defense4)      science and technology

Tiananmen Massacre, 1989Students and teachers, and then laborers from factories and writers gathered in Tiananmen Square to demonstrate peacefully for “democracy” in Beijing in 1989. Chinese troops were sent in by Deng Xiaoping. The question of where the shootings occurred has significance because of the Government's claim that no one was shot on Tiananmen Square .

February 28 th Incident, 1947               2-28 Incident               "28 February 1947" Taipei , Taiwan Protest rose after a woman selling cigarettes without a license was arrested.Slaughter of thousands of Taiwanese by Chiang Kai-shek's Chinese troops.After the end of World War II, the Allied Forces left the occupation of Taiwan to Chiang, and his Nationalist forces.Taiwanese had been under Japanese rule 1895 – 1945.Chiang Kai-shek's Chinese troops executed (estimate vary) ~18,000 and 28,000 people, particularly scholars, lawyers, doctors, students and local leaders of the protest movement.

Lee Tenghui first Taiwan-born president of the Republic of China (Taiwan; 1988–2000).  China-Late 1990s Teng-hui was elected Vice President by Chiang Ching-kuo in 1984. A fervent Taiwanese, Teng-hui's power in the KMT led him to become the successor to Ching-kuo after his death in 1998. Teng-hui pushed strongly for majority voting democracy in Taiwan and became the first popularly elected president of the ROC in 1996.

Chiang Ching-kuo China late 1900s: Son of President Chiang Kai-shek, and succeeded his father as Premier in the ROC. His father’s death in 1975 was followed by a caretaker presidency until March 21, 1978, when Chiang Ching-kuo was formally elected by the National Assembly to a six-year presidential term; he was

reelected to a second term in 1984. Chiang Ching-kuo denounced his father’s actions (originally then claimed he was forced to by the Russians). During Chiang's reign, ROC government became much more democratic and open to political disagreement. During his later years, Chiang loosened controls on speech and press. Also, put many Taiwanese natives in power, namely Teng-hui.

D.P.P. Democratic Progressive Party political party in Taiwan (the Republic of China [ROC]). It was formed in September 1986 by those who initially sought self-determination for people considered to be ethnically Taiwanese, democratic freedoms, the establishment of economic ties with the People’s Republic of China on the mainland, and a multiparty system. The DPP’s advocacy of political liberalization led to the arrest and imprisonment of many of the party’s leading figures. Despite a ban on new political parties (part of the martial law regulations that were in effect from 1949 to 1987), the DPP had been informally organized in 1983.

KOREA

Queen Min:(mid 1800s) d. 1895. She was the wife of the King Kojong. Whose family tried to petition the Russian for help in controlling Japan.  She was killed in her palace in the Seoul Korea. She had political views differed from Kojong. The Japanese retaliated by assassinating her has thus shattering politics and forcing King Kojong to flee to Russia for over a year. She wanted to modernize Korea and anti- Japanese. 3rd Queen of the Min clan and last queen of the Chosun dynasty. Sensing that Korea would become a part of Japan if her husband continued to kowtow to the Japanese, Min decided to ask Russia and China for help while she wrested control of Korea away from her husband King Kojong. In 1895 Japanese sent troops to the Kyongbok Palace, Queen Min's palace. They stabbed her to death in front of her son. She became a national icon and heroine even though she failed in her goals.   People's Committee:The Koreans wanted to take control of their own lives and govern themselves. They are local leadership groups that were gradually formed to make administrative decisions and run the markets and farms in the time after the Japanese occupation. Members typically included old-style village elders, young politically active students, and labor organizers, Village Elders, politically active students smell, localized governments that kept the infrastructure of Korea going. Korean s wanted to take change of their own lives. They had leftist polices and wanted social and economic reforms. These popped up all over Korea after world war2. February 1946=> Korea adopted Soviet Union policies. Founded by Kim il-sung.

Kim Jong-il born 16 February 1941. -the de facto leader of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea North Korea officially refers to him as the “Great Leader”

President Kim Il-sung   Born in 1912, he was the founding Prime Minister of The Peoples Democratic Republic of Korea,

posthumously named the 'Eternal President'. He was Prime Minister from 1948 to 1972, then President from 1972 until his death in 1994. He lead his country to civil war with the Republic of Korea in the south. He ruled through a 'cult of personality' as dictator. Succeeded by his son, Kim Jong-il died 8 July 1994, but he was not replaced as President. He officially took the titles of General Secretary of the Workers’ Party of Korea and chairman of the National Defense Commission in 1997. In 1998, his DC position was declared to be “the highest post of the state”, so Kim may be regarded as North Korea ’s head of state. Due to the loss of strategic trade arrangements, floods, and drought, there was an immense famine and economic shambles in North Korea . Kim adopted a “Military-First” policy to strengthen the country and reinforce the regime. Also, the government began formally approving some activity of small-scale bartering and trade during the 1990s. Because of the secret production of nuclear weapons, there were tensions with the U.S.

Armistice at P’anmunjom -July 27 1953 for the purpose of pause of Korean War, agreed between Mark Wayne Clark of UN forces and Kim Il-song of North Korea and Chinese officials. -Armistice written in English, Chinese, and Korean, establishing a 4 kilometer wide demilitarized zone along the 38th parallel, effectively dividing Korea into two separate countries.

Independence ClubWho: A group of western-educated intellectuals What: Published Korea’s first modern newspaper; advocated modern freedoms and used public rallies to generate support; by 1898, pushed out of business due to hired market “peddlers” using violence to break up one of the rallies which resulted in a steep decline in members. When: 1896-1898 Where: Korea Why: Felt that trying to play foreigners off each other with concessions was a poor way to assure a country’s independence; Felt that the leadership should resist foreign encroachment, build up its military defenses and reform its institutions; advocated modern freedoms; Western countries wanted to be allowed to profit off of mining, electric power, railroad construction, and other modern investments.

Yi TonghwiWho: (Yi Donghwi) Korean exile, prominent socialist of Korea , and the first Prime Minister of the Provisional Government of Republic of Korea. What: 1920, founded the Korean Communist Party based on an earlier socialist group; his communist organization fought against another Korean communist organization in a bloody confrontation in Alekseyevsk, Siberia When: 1872-1935 Where: Shanghai and Korea Why: Believed in the Socialist movement and felt that it would benefit Korea .

Syngman Rhee (Yi Sungman)   (1875-1965):   Syngman Rhee was the first president of the Republic of Korea (South Korea).  He ruled from 1948 to 1960.  He was American-educated, anti-communist, and ran an authoritarian

style government.  He led South Korea through the Korean War.  After the civil war, he told his people that they must support his regime because the communists and Japanese were poised to attack at any moment and he was their best hope of defending South Korea.  His election in 1960 was so blatantly corrupt that the people rose up in protest, and Rhee was forced to resign and exiled to Hawaii, where he spent the rest of his life.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur:     In response to the Korean War, the UN authorized a UN force to help South Korea.  On September 15, 1950, General MacArthur commanded a landing of U.N. forces west of Seoul, and recaptured Seoul within two weeks.   General MacArthur and the U.N. forces had succeeded in restoring South Korea and reestablishing the 38th parallel.  However, they proceeded to take the capital of Pyongyang and advanced to the Manchurian border.  This caused the Chinese to fear that MacArthur might try to roll back the Communist revolution in China.  The Chinese People’s Liberation Army entered North Korea and surrounded the UN troops, forcing them to retreat.  In response, MacArthur requested authorization to attack Chinese in Manchuria, but President Truman denied.  MacArthur ignored this order and issued an ultimatum to the Chinese Army.  Due to MacArthur’s continued disregard of military authority, Truman relieved him of command on April 11, 1951.

JAPAN  

General Douglas MacArthur & S.C.A.P.Who: general in the Korean WarWhat/Why: MacArthur presided over the surrendering of the Japanese on board of U.S.S. Missouri; this led to the end of WWII. He became the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers in Japan . The Korean War started in June 1950, and MacArthur commanded the American-led coalition of United Nations forces to fight behind the line of Port Inchon. He along with George Washington would plan poorly and trigger the Chinese, Mao’s Communist Chinese, to join in on the war. When: 1940s – 1950sWhere: Port of Inchon , Korea , Japan , China S.C.A.P. = What: “Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers”. SCAP was a title name given to Douglas MacArthur during the occupation of Japan after WWII. MacArthur succeeded as this supreme commander by General Ridgeway after he was relieved by President Truman for insubordination. SCAP no longer existed after a treaty between the Allies and Japan were made. MacArthur and S.C.A.P. staff tried to exonerate Emperor Showa and all members of the imperial family.When: late 1940s-early 1950sWhere: JapanHow: MacArthur succeeded as this supreme commander by General Ridgeway when ; although there are many other Supreme Allied Commanders, the title SCAP has only been given to MacArthur.

Popular Rights (Minken)Who: supported by Itagaki TaisukeWhat: The liberal party advocating the rights of the common peasants and were opposed to the current state of affairs in Japan. They sent representatives to rural towns on behalf of the rural

peasants. The liberal party were pro-emperor and interested in restoring the emperor to true power.When: Meiji Japan; mid to late 19th centuryWhere: JapanHistorical significance: The popular rights party represented the Japanese's overall discontent with the government and it's presence in all aspects of culture and classes. It also represented the Japanese people's increasing activism in attempting to mobilize the government. The popular rights party also won the majority of the seats in the New Diet elections influencing the new emerging government of Japan.

“Yoshida Doctrine”   Born in 1878, Shigeru Yoshida was a politician and diplomat that served as the Prime

Minister of Japan in the aftermath of WWII. It was he who signed the peace treaty in San Francisco that ended the war in 1951, and negotiated defense treaties with the US that ultimately resulted in American military bases on Japanese soil. He was most well known for the so called “Yoshida Doctrine” which was a political philosophy that emphasized economic development and a low international profile while Japan rebuilt. His aim was to put all available resources towards the economy while the US protected Japan militarily. This policy would stand throughout the Cold War

Genrō Japanese oligarchy (“principal elders”), extra constitutional oligarchy that dominated the Japanese government from the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution (1889) to the early 1930s. The genro were men who had played a leading role in the 1868 Meiji Restoration (the overthrow of feudal rule) and in the organization of the new government that followed this revolution. After the constitution was promulgated, these men became personal counselors to the throne, a position that allowed them virtually to run the bureaucracy, though they rarely assumed overt power for themselves. Important figures in the group were Itō Hirobumi, framer of the constitution; Yamagata Aritomo, who modernized the army; and Saionji Kimmochi, the last survivor and most liberal of the group.Who: Japanese statesmen (often retired) who served as advisors to the emperor. Elderly and experienced with leading, usually from low ranking samurai families.What: Advisors to the Emperor who could select and nominate a Prime Minister for the Emperor to approve.Why: To form a legislative body tasked with selecting Prime Minister nominees and advising for the Emperor.Where: In Meiji and Taisho Japan When: Meiji and Taisho era Japan , 1885- 1940, Chosen from Meiji Restoration

Women's Reform SocietyWho: Kishida Toshiko, Kusunose Kita, Fukuda HidekoWhere: JapanWhen: Meiji Restoration, end of the 19th centuryWhat: The Women's Reform Society was an officially non-political group that met to discuss political ideas on the state of affairs for women in Japan.Historical Significance: The emergence of organizations such as the Women's Reform Society

represents the growing concern of Japanese women with their position in Japanese society.  With the Meiji Restoration underway, many Japanese women saw opportunity for progress in gender equality and used organizations such as this to discuss and advocate women's rights. It is important to note, however, that the organization was officially non-political because under the supposedly progressive Meiji Reforms, women were prohibited from joining political organizations. Despite the promise of progress and modernization of Japanese society, under the Meiji Restoration, the Women's Reform Society saw retrogress rather than progress. Women could not be politically active; they could not speak publicly; only male descendents had a right to the throne.

Taisho Political Crisis, 1912   Imperial Japan (1905–45)After 1905 Japan faced a change in national leadership. The Meiji emperor died on July 30, 1912, and was succeeded by his son Yoshihito, who became known as the Taisho emperor.  The height of the Taisho Political Crisis  was n Japan during 1912 and 1913. This event occurred after the Army removed Saionji from office and Katsura Taro became Prime Minister. Very unpopular with the public because of his authoritarian style of ruling and his perceived lack of a commitment to the constitutional government, opposition to Katsura came in the form of politicians (from the Seiyukai), journalists, and businessmen forming an organized movement with mass demonstrations “to protect constitutional government.” The crisis ended with Katsura’s resignation, but there were many important effects of the crisis. For the first time, a party majority in the Diet, backed by public opinion and the press had overthrown a cabinet. Katsura was successful in holding together the collation that eventually became the Doshikai party that would emerge as a strong rival to the Seiyukai. The crisis confirmed the importance of the Diet and the parties, but showed that they were not the only power center, as it would not be until 1918 that a man who had made his career as a party politician would gain the top government post of Prime Minister.  The Toseiha group, looked towards Hitler's Germany as inspiration for a national-socialist state.

Taisho Emperor The Taisho Emperor was the 123rd emperor of Japan and reigned from 1912 to his death in 1926. He was the surviving son of Emperor Meiji. He was married in 1900 to Kujo Sadako (the future Empress Teimei). He is most remembered for his poor health and eccentric nature. He was kept almost entirely out of the public eye due to his poor neurological health, and thus had limited effect on government. He was in rule during the disastrous Kanto earthquake of 1923 which destroyed Tokyo and killed over 100,000 Japanese. He died of heart attack in 1926. Though not a particularly good ruler, he was known as the “First Emperor of Tokyo” because he was the first emperor to live his entire life in or near Tokyo .

Saionji KimochiSaionji was Ito Hirobumi’s protégé and served as Prime Minister of Japan in the early 20th century. Saionji was a court noble with liberal views, but with little inclination to political leadership. He was able to govern because he had the cooperation of the Japan ’s moderately liberal party, the Seiyukai. While Saionji gained the office of Prime Minister, the real power was with Hara Kei, the net-worker and deal-maker who perfected Japanese pork barrel politics. Saionji’s rule was unfortunately instrumental in leading to the Taisho Political crisis, when financial conditions forced a cutback in government spending that made it impossible to fund both the Seiyukai’s domestic

program and two new divisions of the army. The Army ordered Saionji out of office in December 1912, when the army ordered the Minister of the Army to resign.

Seiyūkai (Rikken Seiyūkai)Japanese political party 1900 – 1940.The Rikken Seiyūkai was founded by one of the leading government bureaucrats, Itō Hirobumi. Rikken Seiyūkai stood for increased parliamentary participation in the Japanese government. The party was supported by the landlord class and business interests. After 1945, many former members of the Rikken Seiyūkai organized the Liberal Party.  Seiyukai (friends of constitutional government)- A strong political party in Pre-war Japan. It was founded on September 15, 1900 by Ito Hirobumi. It was the most powerful political party in Japan from 1900 to about 1921. This "liberal" Party was all about big government and lots of public spending. It strongly supported bureaucratic control and militarism. In 1921 the 3rd party president Hara Takashi was assassinated and many of the members left to form Seiyu Honto, an alternate party. It gained little steam after this. They won they election again in 1931, but again the president was killed and in 1940 they decided to dissolve into "The Imperial Rule Assistance Association."

Katsura TaroTaro was a general in the Japanese Imperial Army and the 11th, 13th, and 15th Prime Minister of Japan, in office from 1901-1906, 1908-1911, and 1912-1913...The longest serving Prime Minister of Japan to date. As a general he played a key role for Japan in the first Sino-Japanese War. In his first term as Prime Minister, Taro helped Japan become a major Imperialist power in E. Asia. He helped Japan gain a victory of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. He followed this by working out the Taft-Katsura agreement with the United States which helped Japan have an effective protectorate over Korea. HE was a strictly conservative P.M. that mostly stayed away from the Diet and party politics. He resigned in 1906 due to the unpopularity of The Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905 which ended the war between Japan and Russia. In his second term he was most popular for enacting the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910, but he become increasingly unpopular because people believed he was using the office to further his personal fortune and putting the interests of the military over that of the people's welfare. His third term sparked riots in Japan and the situation was later named the Taisho Political Crisis. His appointment was viewed by many as a plot to overthrow rule by the constitution. He was forced to resign in Feb. 1913, when his own party, Doshikai, backed out on him. He died only eight months later. During his time in office, his first term was definitely viewed as the most effective. He helped Japan become a serious Imperialist force in E. Asia and played a key role in winning the Russo-Japanese War.

Yamagata Arimoto Regarded as the father of the Japanese army, his measures during the Meiji Restoration became law in 1872 when officials rejected the views of Saigo, who envisioned a samurai army that would ensure the warrior class as a useful and brilliant role in Japan 's future, to instead build their army on the basis of commoner conscription. He took on the leadership role as the head of the army after the restoration, and was described as the "hard headed, realistic architect of Japan 's modern army." He took part in the first Sino-Japanese war, and his despotic and aggressive policies helped pave the way for Japanese militarism and its involvement in the second world war.

Zaibatsu Mitsui (example) The Zaibatsu, a small group of well-connected firms, made up of all of Japan 's enterprises (save for munitions plants) sold at public auction in 1880. These enterprises, though not immediately profitable, eventual came to be a controlling institution in the modern sector of the economy, helping to engage in important factors in Japan 's foreign commerce. In 1881, Mitsui bought government coal mines, which ultimately contributed greatly to its wealth and power. Mitsui's example is important because this institution made possible the success of Zaibatsu's like Mitsubishi, who still hold massive economic power in Japan and in the global economy as well even to this day.

Russo-Japanese War   (1904-05) military conflict in which a victorious Japan forced Russia to abandon its expansionist policy in the Far East, becoming the first Asia power in modern times to defeat a Europe power.The Russo-Japanese War developed out of the rivalry between Russia and Japan for dominance in Korea and Manchuria .Russia had built the Trans-Siberian Railroad (1891-1904).  The Russo-Japanese war was fought between the Russians and Japanese in 1904 through 1905. As a response to the Boxer Uprising in China , Russia sent troops down into Manchuria to secure their position in East Asia which included Port Arthur on the Liaodong Peninsula . Japan was quickly becoming a strong nation after the Meiji Restoration and looked to expand their borders. These two nations inevitably clashed in 1904. The majority of the battles were fought mostly in Manchuria which resides between the two countries and was a Chinese province. The war concluded in 1905 with the victory going to the Japanese, although both sides in the conflict experienced much loss. This was one of the first victories gained by a non-western power over a western power and that impressed people in Asia as well as around the world.

Treaty of Portsmouth, 1905Peace settlement that ended the Russo-Japanese War.Roosevelt .  The Portsmouth treaty was the agreement reached between Japan and Russia at the conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War in 1905. With Japan ’s victory in this conflict, Russia was forced to concede their railways in Manchuria, their holdings in the southern half of Sakhalin Island , and they leased the Liaodong Peninsula to the Japanese. With their new holdings in China , Japan experienced massive growths in their economy. Japan gained recognition for their control of Korea , as well.

Yamamoto Gombei (AKA Gonnohyoe)(1852–1933)Japanese admiral and politician. As prime minister 1913–14, he began Japanese expansion into China and initiated political reforms. He became premier again 1923 but resigned the following year.

Kato Komei ( 1860 – 1926 )Japanese statesman who served as ambassador to Britain ( 1909 ).Presented the Twenty-One Demands to China .Led the conservative party.

Prime Minister ( 1924 – 25 ) pursued a moderate foreign policy while introducing universal manhood suffrage, cutting expenditure, and reducing the size of the army. He also introduced the stringent Peace Preservation Law to balance the possibly destabilizing effects of manhood suffrage. His cabinet was called the “Mitsubishi government.”Who, Where, and When: A Japanese politician and the 24th Prime Minister of Japan from 1924 to 1926 .What:   Kato's cabinet, despite its coalition nature, was able to enact significant   legislation:   In 1925, Katō had the General Election Law enacted, which extended the vote to all male citizens over the age of 25 also ratified the Peace Preservation Law which suppressed radical  political organizations, and concluded the Soviet  Japanese basic Convention.  Initiated universal military service Katō strove to reduce government spending, but also suffered  considerable personal criticism for his family links with Mitsubishi.  Katō died in office in 1926.

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity SphereHistorical implications: Shōwa era in Japan (Hirohito 1926 to 1989). Japan used the term “Greater China” in 1900s and it is therefore offensive because the Japanese claimed they were uniting everyone under Japan , ie., the five Asian “races”:1)      Han 2)      Manchus 3)      Mongols 4)     Hui 5)      TibetansThe Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere was an idea propagated by the Japanese Imperial Army, specifically a man named General Hachiro Arita. The goal of this concept was for East Asia to come under a united front, free from Western powers and influences. It was referring to the countries Northeast and Southeast Asia. The idea was announced in 1940 by the foreign prime minister for Japan, Matsuoka Yosuke, but had already been around for years prior. One of the major goals was to free Asia from imperialism, although ironically it was a way for Japan to be imperialistic throughout Asia. This idea of the “Greater East Asia” was used to excuse many violent and intrusive acts in Asia by Japan. The Greater East Asia Conference was held on November 5-6, 1943. The conference was propaganda, and had little substance. It was to show Japan’s commitment to “liberating” Asia from Western colonialism. The conference made a declaration to not cooperate with Allied forces economically and politically. Other than Japan, there was little cooperation from the other Asian countries, as Japan only cared about preserving its own culture and had its own interests first. The ideology eventually failed at the surrender of Japan.  Who and Where:   was a concept created and promulgated during the Showa era by the government and military of the Empire of Japan.  The Sphere was initiated by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe in an attempt to       create a Great East Asia, comprising Japan, Manchukuo, China and parts of   Southeast Asia, that would, according to imperial propaganda, establish a new  international order seeking ‘co prosperity’ for Asian countries which would share  prosperity and peace, free from Western colonialism and domination .What:    represented the desire to create a self-sufficient "bloc of Asian nations led by the Japanese and free of Western powers"   Military goals of this expansion included the isolation of Australia and naval operations in the Indian Ocean.  This was one of a number of slogans and concepts used in the justification of  Japanese aggression in East Asia in the 1930s through the end of World War II.   The term "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" is remembered today largely   as a front for the Japanese control of occupied countries during World War II, in which Puppet governments manipulated local populations and economies for the benefit of Imperial Japan.

  Atom bombs ( Hiroshima & Nagasaki ) The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were nuclear bombs dropped at the end of World War II.Japan ; United States Who: President Harry Truman; Shōwa regime;When: After six months of fire-bombing of other Japanese cities.When: August 6 1945 - Little Boy on Hiroshima When: August 9, 1945 - Fat Man on Nagasaki killed 140,000 people in Hiroshima killed 80,000 in Nagasaki What: civilians were immediately incinerated and others dies of injuries, radiation poisoning, leukemia, cancer, Japan surrendered; World War II. Nuclear attacks on the Hiroshima and Nagasaki against Japan by the United States. Hiroshima was bombed first on August 6, Nagasaki second on August 9, both 1945. Firebombing had been occurring in 67 cities of Japan the 6 months leading up to the bombing, but Japan would not surrender after the U.S. gave them an ultimatum, so the U.S. dropped the bombs. An estimated 140,000 were killed in Hiroshima and 80,000 in Nagasaki from impact, injury, and/or eventually cancer from radiation exposure. By far most killed were civilians. To date, this is the only use of nuclear weapons in the world. Only six days after the bombing in Nagasaki Japan surrendered. This was monumental in shaping Japan because until the surrender, it was the belief that the emperor was descended from the sun goddess. He had to denounce that on a nationwide radio broadcast, the first time that the emperor’s voice was heard by most people in Japan. This brought World War II to an end from the Western perspective. After the bombing, Japan was occupied by the Allied Forces, led by America, with General Douglas MacArthur in charge of overseeing the occupation.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur & S.C.A.P. Who: General of the Pacific Theatre during WWII who oversaw the occupation of Japan.  Led the United Nations forces against North KoreaWhat: Protected Emperor Hirohito, implemented democratic reforms in Japan. Led Allied Forces against N. Korea. Dismissed due to insubordination.Why: Protected emperor to make the transition go more smoothly from Imperialist state to Democratic nation.When: 1941- Attack on Pearl Harbor- US entered war. Post-war, MacArthur stayed in Japan. Min 1900's.Where: Japan and Korea. Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP) in Korea against N. Korea. Also commanded in the Philippines.

EAST ASIA

Treaty of Shimonoseki , 1895   Who: Japan and Qing China What: The treaty ended the first Sino-Japanese War and forced China to recognize Korea as an independent country. China also ceded the Liandong Peninsula and Taiwan to Japan and

required to pay an indemnity of 200 million taels of silver. China is also forced to grant Japan the most favored nation treatment and opened up various ports to Japanese trade. Losing the war and being forced to sign the treaty was a major blow to the Chinese people, who believed they had nothing to fear from a former tributary state and small island country, like Japan. When: 1895 Where: Shunpanro Hall in Japan Why: Japan wanted to emulate the western imperialistic nations because they were powerful and had a lot of technological advantages. Following examples of the west, Japan started to reform and become an imperialistic nation itself. It decided to take over China, which has more natural resources, and aspired to form an “Asian Country.”  Treaty of Versailles , 1919   Who: Germany vs. the Allied Powers (United States, Great Britain, France, Japan, Italy) What: The treaty that concluded World War I. Chiang kai-shek and the Kuomintang (KMT) was the party in control of China. They attended the signing of the peace treaty in hope of regaining the land under Germany’s sphere of influence When: June 28, 1919 Where: Versailles, Paris, France Why: It ended World War I. The KMT hoped to reunify China and get the Allied Powers to recognize the injustice done to China.  Taft Katsura Agreement, 1905   The Taft-Katsura Agreement was a secret memorandum between the United States and Japan, signed in Tokyo by William Howard Taft, the U.S. Secretary of War and Katsura Taro, the Prime Minister of Japan in July of 1905. The agreement was preceded by the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War which ended with Russia no longer being able to oppose a Japanese protectorate of Korea. The terms of the agreement stipulated that the United States would not interfere in Korea and in return Japan would accept the U.S. colonization of the Philippines. Korea was critical as a spring board for Japan’s actions during the Second-Japanese War and the Philippines was a highly contested area during WWII.

Manchurian Incident, 1931(AKA Mukden Incident)   The Manchurian Incident was most likely perpetuated by low-ranking officers serving with the Japanese Army on the Liaodong Peninsula on September 18th, 1931 without the knowledge of the civilian government of Japan. They dynamited a stretch of railway near Mukden in southern Manchuria and blamed Chinese rebels for the act. This occurred at a particularly opportune time and gave Japan the excuse they needed to invade Manchuria (became Manchukuo under Japanese occupation), which was an area of extreme strategic importance for Japan’s war against China which did not officially begin until 1937.

1933 Truce Japan - China   Tanggu Truce was a cease-fire signed between Republic of China and Empire of Japan in 1933, Chinese and Japanese representatives met at Tanggu.the truce was so favorable to Japan and unfavorable to China created a public backlash against the

Kuomintang.coast of northeastern China .port for Tianjin is the third largest city of the People's Republic of China ( population-wise) .1933 Truce Japan-ChinaJapan and China signed the Tanggu Truce in Tianjin in 1933, ending the Japanese invasion of Manchuria which had begun in 1931 with the Mukden Incident. Emperor Hirohito desired a quick end to the conflict, and the Chinese naturally wished for the Japanese invasion to end. The agreement provided for a demilitarized zone extending one hundred kilometers south of the Great Wall . The Tanggu Truce allowed Chiang Kai-Shek to concentrate his forces against the CCP; his fifth campaign against the Communists, which began late in 1933, resulted in the Long March ( a retreat that took on iconic proportions).Marco Polo Bridge Incident(1937)Conflict between Chinese and Japanese troops near the Marco Polo Bridge near Beijing .In 1931 Japan occupied Manchuria and established the puppet state of Manchukuo .1937 the Chinese communists and Nationalists agreed to end their civil war and form a United Front against further Japanese aggression.Japanese demanded entry to town of Wanping in order to search for one of their soldiers. The Chinese refused ; a shot was heard, and the two sides began firing.Fighting spread to central China . The result was the Sino-Japanese War (1937–45) and, in 1941, the Pacific theatre of World War II.  The Nanjing/Nanking Massacre, 1937   The Nanjing Massacre was occurred on December 9, 1937. Japanese imperialism invaded china and they had difficulty to occupy China because of guerillas. Japanese, especially Matsui Iwane thought that if they killed huge people, Chinese would be frightened so that Chinese hanged out the white flag. When Japanese were near Nanjing , Japanese killed hundreds of thousands of people no matter what the age and sex. But it provoked antipathy to not only China but also south East Asia and Korea .  Cairo Declaration, 1943   After Italy gave up the war, the summits of England , the United States and China met on November 22, 1943 in Cairo , Egypt . They, President Franklin Roosevelt from USA , Prime Minister Winston Churchill from UK and Chiang Kai-shek from Republic of China talked about how to fight against Japan and to divide Japanese territory if Japanese imperialism lost the war. The Cairo Declaration was announced on November 27, 1943. It was about that they try to fight together against Japan and take away Japanese territory that Japan took from China . This conference was the first conference that mentioned Korean’s freedom and independence.

Potsdam Declaration: Who – Leaders of USA , UK , ROC (Republic of China ): President Truman, Prime Minister Churchill, and President Chiang Kai –Shek. What/Why – It was a discussion of the outline terms of surrender for Japan that the 3 leaders decided on. If the Japanese refused than it would face unheard of destruction. But Japan refused

anyway to make sure at least they would keep their Emperor and not let the Soviets come into the war. When – It happen on July 26, 1945. Where – In Potsdam , Germany  

International Tribunal for the Far East (AKA Tokyo Trial): Who – Gen. MacArthur, Emperor Hirohito, Prince Asaka, Hideki Tojo, and many other Japanese government and military officials. What/Why – This was a war crime trial that was equivalent to the Nuremburg War Trials. There were 3 types of charges from Class A to C. Class A was crimes against peace; Class B was war crimes; Class C was crimes against Humanity. General MacArthur appointed 11 judges from 9 different nations, but the Imperial family was excluded from all 3 charges. Other Japanese officials were charged and some were sentenced to death like Hideki Tojo and many of his staff. The ones who were executed were buried in the Yasukuni Shrine. When – May 1946-November 1948 Where – Tokyo , Japan .

Zhang Xueliang-He became the warlord of Manchuria in 1928 when his father, Zhang Zuolin, the previous warlord, was assassinated. He was ordered to end resistance against the Japanese in Manchuria in 1931 and move south with his armies to Xian. Chiang Kai-shek flew to Xian in December 1936 to rally support for the anti-Communist campaign, but Zhang and some of his men kidnapped Chiang. They wanted Chiang to form a united front with the Communists against the Japanese. They held him prisoner for two weeks until he finally agreed to form an alliance with the Communists and put up a united front against Japan. Zhang was later arrested and put under house arrest. He was taken to Taiwan when the Nationalists were defeated and remained under house arrest there until the government finally lifted it in the 1960s. He remained in Taiwan until 1991 when he moved to the United States.

Song Meiling (Madame Chiang Kai-shek)-She was educated in the United States and spoke English extremely well. She married Chiang Kai-shek in 1927. She launched the New Life Movement in 1934 to try and halt the spread of Communism by teaching traditional Chinese values. In 1945 she became a member of the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang. Madame Chiang acted as her husband’s English translator, secretary, and advisor. In 1943 she addressed both houses of the United States Congress to garner support for China during their war against Japan. She went to Taiwan with her husband when the KMT was defeated in 1949. She continued to seek support for her husband’s government from the United States. Because of this, she helped sway United States relations with Taiwan and mainland China. She stayed in Taiwan until her husband’s death in 1975. She then moved to the United States and only went back to Taiwan a few times between then and her own death in 2003.

GENERAL IDEAS TO INCLUDE AS PART OF ESSAYS

Hundred Flowers Campaign a movement begun in May 1956 within the communist government of China to lift the restrictions imposed upon Chinese intellectuals and thus grant greater freedom of thought and speech.

Motivated by the relaxation of strict communist controls in the Soviet Union that accompanied Nikita Khrushchev’s denunciation of the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin in February 1956, the Chinese chief of state Mao Zedong invited criticism of the Chinese Communist Party’s policies, even by noncommunist intellectuals, with a famous slogan from Chinese classical history, “Let a hundred flowers bloom, and a hundred schools of thought contend.” Criticism was slow in developing, but other party leaders continued to echo Mao’s theme in speeches during the next year. Not until the spring of 1957 did articulate members of society begin to criticize communist policies openly; within a few weeks the party became subjected to an ever-increasing volume of criticism. Wall posters denounced every aspect of the government, and students and professors criticized party members. In June—with the publication of an amended version of a speech Mao had given in February, “On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People”—the party began to signal that the criticism had gone too far. By early July an anti-rightists’ campaign was under way in which the recent critics of the regime were subjected to severe retribution; most of them lost their jobs and were forced to do manual labor in the country, and some were sent to prison.

Japan's War with China and the beginnings of World War II Japan entered South Manchuria after the 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War. Japan took control of the Railroad Company. Japan brought in troops to protect company property -- an excuse the Japanese military eventually used to create a de facto occupation force, the Kwangtung Army. Japan invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria in 1931. In 1931 the Kwangtung Army seized the entire province on the pretense that Chinese had tried to explode the railroad. Following this so-called "Manchurian Incident," the Japanese established the puppet state of Manchukuo . In 1936, the Chinese Nationalists decided to resist. In July 1937, at the Marco Polo Bridge outside Beijing ( Peking ), fighting broke out between Chinese Nationalist forces and a local Japanese garrison. In August, the conflict spread to Shanghai , and an "incident" exploded into a full-scale war. In this combat, Japanese troops responded with unimaginable cruelty. Japanese soldiers killed (raped, tortured, shot, decapitated, and bayoneted) tens of thousands of Chinese civilians. This barbarism culminated with the fall of the capital city, Nanking , in December 1937, when Japanese soldiers embarked on a six-week orgy of murder, rape, mutilation, and torture. Tens of thousands of Chinese civilians died. Chinese resisters killed tens of thousands of Japanese troops between 1937 to 1941. Chinese civilian and military deaths numbered in the millions. The fighting lasted eight years until the defeat of Japan in 1945. In the interim, the Japanese set up a collaboration government in Nanking . Japan never established dominance over China . The Chinese Nationalist government never surrendered to or even negotiated with Japan .

Japan's Military 1930s:   Murdering Demons Policy A new conscript became a full-fledged soldier in three months in the battle area. Trainers planned exercises for these men. As the last stage of their training, they made them bayonet a living human. When a soldier  was a company commander, this was used as a finishing touch to training for the men and a trial of courage for the officers. Prisoners were blindfolded and tied to poles. The soldiers dashed forward to bayonet their target at the shout of "Charge!" Some stopped on their way. Trainers kicked them and made them do it. After that, a man could do anything easily. The army created men capable of combat. The thing of supreme importance was to make them fight. It didn't matter whether they were bright or sincere. Men useless in action were worthless. Good soldiers were those who were able to kill, however uncouth they were. Trainers made them like this. Good

sons, good fathers, good elder brothers at home were brought to the front to kill.  Human beings turned into murdering demons. Everyone became a demon within three months.

ESSAY NOTES on China

Chinese National People's Party formed in 1912 after the overthrow of the Manchu Empire, and led by Sun Yat-sen. The KMT was an amalgamation of small political groups, including Sun's New China Party founded in 1894.During the Chinese revolution (1927–49) the right wing, led by Jiang Jie Shi, was in conflict with the left, led by Mao Zedong (though the sides united during the Japanese invasion of 1937–45). Zedong emerged victorious in 1949.

Chiang Kai-shek, 1887–1975Chinese nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) general and politician, president of China 1928–31 and 1943–49, and of Taiwan from 1949, where he set up a US-supported right-wing government on his expulsion from the mainland by the communist forces.  Chiang Kai-shek took part in the revolution of 1911 that overthrew the Qing dynasty of the Manchus, and on the death of the Kuomintang leader Sun Yat-sen was made commander-in-chief of the nationalist armies in southern China in 1925. Collaboration with the communists, broken in 1927, was resumed after the Xi'an Incident in 1936 when China needed to pool military strength in the struggle against the Japanese invaders of World War II. After the Japanese surrender in 1945, civil war between the nationalists and communists erupted, and in December 1949 Jiang and his followers took refuge on the island of Taiwan , maintaining a large army in the hope of reclaiming the mainland. His authoritarian regime enjoyed US support until his death. His son Jiang Qing-guo then became president.

The Cultural Revolution (1966–1969 [-1976])In 1966 Mao dramatically launched the Cultural Revolution. With the assistance of the radical ‘Gang of Four’, led by Jiang Qing, he mobilized millions of students to smash the existing political organizations and parts of the state apparatus. Various warring factions of Red Guards appeared, and ‘liberal revisionist’ officials at high and middle levels, including Liu Shaoqi, were denounced as ‘capitalist roaders’ and removed from their posts. When sections of the Red Guards began to develop independently of the Maoist center, Mao collaborated with the Defense Minister, Lin Biao, to intervene with military force. Finally it was the People's Liberation Army (PLA) which suppressed the Red Guards and ended the Cultural Revolution, and the army's victory was crowned at the 9th Party Congress in April 1969, with the formal designation of Lin as Mao's successor.

Cultural Revolution:   During the 1960s, revolutionary fervor decreased, in part a response to the Great Leap Forward. To rekindle revolution and to reclaim power, Mao declared the start of the Cultural Revolution in 1966. The primary agents of the movement were the young Red Guards. China was flooded with copies of Quotations from Chairman Mao, also called the Little Red Book, as reverence for Mao became a major element of revolutionary virtue. Liu Shaoqi, head of the government, was removed from power, while Mao’s wife Jiang Qing and secretary Chen Boda became leaders of the movement. Premier Zhou Enlai, however, managed to maintain his position and keep the government operational. The economy was decentralized, and revolutionary fervor was more important than expertise. The Cultural Revolution was officially ended in 1969, and the country took a turn toward moderation, but Jiang Qing and the rest of the Gang of Four—Zhang

Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen—remained in control of the media and cultural affairs, and Maoists remained influential in the nation. Mao died in 1976, the date generally accepted as the end of the Cultural Revolution. His appointment to replace the recently deceased Zhou Enlai as premier was Hua Guofeng, but Hua was soon overshadowed by Deng Xiaoping, under whose leadership the Gang of Four was put on trial.