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• Splash Erosion : Dispersal of fine particles due to impact of rain drops
• Unconcentrated (Sheet) Wash : Thin layer of water moving over slopes during rainfall.
• Concentrated Wash : Flow of water on slope during rainfall in small & narrow channels (Rills) or broad & deep channels (Gullys).
• Overland flow can detach & transport fine grained sediments (silt & clay sizes) on slopes.
• Most overland flow reaches the foots of slopes in valleys where streams are found.
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Note: On the oceans evaporation exceeds precipitation, whereas on the lands precipitation exceeds evaporation. Thus, Surface Runoff is an excess (36K km³) from land. It is added to the ocean, then the cycles are blanced.
Saline
groundwater
Groundwater
flow
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A summary of the principal surface environments
Today, Streams and rivers, etc.
STREAMS & RIVERS
1. Bodies of water that flow from highland to lowland areas along well defined channels located in valleys;
2. only difference being that streams carry small volumes of water.
3. Most flow to the sea or oceans, except for those in inter-montane basins that often flow into lakes.
4. Found in all areas of the world, though having more active roles as agents of erosion & deposition in areas with humid climates, particularly in the humid tropics.
Drainage basin: An area influenced by a river & its tributary streams. Limited by drainage divide.
1st order streams from
headwaters
Drainage basin analysis
Drainage basin: An area influenced by a river & its tributary streams. Limited by drainage divide.
“Two drainage basins” separated by the divide
How to define/delimit/outline a drainage basin?
Identify dividing points of opposite 1st order streams and trace them – It is the dividing range of two basins.
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Geological map of Peninsular Malaysia
Q.
Where are
drainage dividing
ranges for major
river basins in the
peninsula.
•
Pahang River Drainage Basin
The longest river in Peninsular Malaysia?
Two river systems (Sg. Jelaiand Sg. Tembeling sub-basins) join at Kuala Tembeling to become Sg. Pahang (Pahang River).
Kuala – river junction in Malay
The Main Range granite massif forms the divide between the Pahang R Basin (East) and the Perak R Basin (West).
Sg. Pahang (flowing down from Kuala Tembeling
towards Jerantut then Temerloh)
Sg. Jelai
Sg. Tembeling
Kuala Tembeling Jetty (entrance to Taman Negara)
South
Kuala Tembeling
LONGITUDINAL PROFILE
• A longitudinal profile is a
cross-section along the
length of a stream (red line
in the figure).
• Note the concave-
upward curve of the profile
• A steeper gradient
upstream from the
headwaters and a gentler
gradient downstream.
Changes from Upstream to Downstream
STREAM CHANNEL
• WIDTH (W) : Width of channel between river banks –measured along the surface.
• DEPTH (D) : Difference in height between surface of water and channel floor or bed. Depth usually variable along cross-section between river banks.
• CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA (A) : Area of cross-section between river banks - measured perpendicular to the banks.
• WETTED PERIMETER (P) : That part of the cross-section that is in direct contact with the water.
Stream Discharge
Discharge (m³ / sec) = channel width (meters) x channel depth (meters) x velocity (m/sec)
The discharge of a stream is the volume of water flowing past a certain point in a given unit of time.Determined by multiplying a stream’s cross-sectional area by its velocity.
1. Amazon River 212,400 m³/sec2. Congo River 39,650 3. Yangtze 21,800? Sg. Pahang max 4~5,000 m³/sec
# The Amazon R is responsible for about 20% of all the water reaching the ocean via rivers.
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River types
• Four types of river channel recognised
• Braided and meandering are most common in geological record
Nichols (1999)
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Braided river
Pre-Cambrian to the recent
Meandering riveronly from Silurian to the recent
Because of vegetation
Common in rain-forest tropics
Note: Vegetation cover & flat relief
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The Baram River – a Meandering River System
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The Baram River
A photo taken from the airplane of Miri - Kota Kinabalu line.
A typical meandering river form
Numerous oxbow lakes
Mt. Mulu near top left corner
Aerial Photo by Masa
Gunung MuluIndonesia
Miri
Brunei
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Formation of a meandering river
Oxbow
lake
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Wikipedia
The Bramahputra
A long river system changing from braided to meandering types, flowing from the Himalayas through Assam and Bangladesh to the Bengal Bay.
LONGITUDINAL PROFILE- Variations in gradient & velocity- Changing from Straight to braided to meandering- Graded profile – Equilibrium between erosion & deposition
Erosion predominant
Deposition predominant
Time
River Evolution – Valley Widening to form a floodplain
INCREASED DISCHARGE ⥤ FLOODSCoarse sediments deposited close to channel (levees),
while finer sediment deposited further away (Back-swamp deposits)
Flood Plain = Fertile Soil
Now flooded. Will repeat this later.
Development of natural levees over flooding episodes
Development of natural levees
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The Baram Delta
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Stages of development in an ideal delta system development
A. Radially decreasing current velocities from jet mouth, deposit concentric arcs of sand, silt and clay.
B. Delta protrudes, forcing a channel through marginal levees.
C. Channel mouth chokes, levee ruptures and a new delta builds out from the crevasse.
May eventually “overlap” one after another (see Mississippi R.)
Selley, 2000
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Marshak
The overlap distribution of the post-Pleistocene lobes forming the modern Mississippi delta
Since some 7,500 years ago.
Many lobes over time
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Different types of deltas
The Nile – Triangle shaped delta
The Niger in W Africa – Arc-shaped delta
The Mississippi – A bird’s foot delta
SUMMARY
• Streams drain land areas & transport sediment from highland to lowland areas.
• In highland areas, down-cutting of channels (linear erosion) is dominant, whilst in lowland areas, lateral movement of river channels is dominant.
• Variations in velocity due to environmental factors (especially rainfall), give rise to different sites of erosion or deposition (i.e. different sizes of particles, etc).
• At river mouths, deposition predominates, giving rise to deltas.