38 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 5/2010 Slavko Gaber Slavko Gaber Dewey, work, school, and democracy Abstract: With his support for manual work (including sewing, spinning, metalwork, and woodwork) in schools, John Dewey appears at first glance to favor the subordination of education to the production process. Contrary to expectations, however, he developed his reflections on school, activity, work, and society in the direction of a broadly conceived education. Both at the time of the lectures published as The School and Society (1899) and his best-known work on the theme of education, Democracy and Education (1916), he remained faithful to the commitment of an education that will allow students to be citizens that live in a democratic society with the capacity to shape their culture. Keywords: Dewey, work/labor, school, active learning, teaching, democracy, child-centredness UDC: 37.01 Original scientific paper Slavko Gaber, Ph.D., associate professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; e-mail: [email protected]JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 5/2010, 38–59
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Slavko Gaber, Ph.D., associate professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; e-mail: [email protected]
Dewey,oneofthemostinfluentialeducationexpertswhoinvestigatedtherelationshipbetweenschoolandsocietyfromthenineteenthintothetwentiethcenturies,1wasexplicitinhisviewsoftheconnectionbetweenschool,work,anddemocracy,statinghispositionwithregardtothisrelationshiponseveralocca-sions.Inthepresentpaperweshalldealindetailwithhisconceptualizationsoflabor,school,anddemocracyattwomomentsintime(1899and1916)throughtwoofhisworks:The School and SocietyandDemocracy and Education.
Theseworksareseparatedbymorethanadecadeandahalfofripeningmoderndemocracy,theBelle Époque,theintroductionofcompulsoryschoolingintheUnitedStates,theboomofTaylorismandFordism,andthemovementtowardsandoutbreakofWorldWarI.Between1899,whenhegavethreelecturesunderthetitleThe School and Societyinanefforttointegratethelaboratoryschoolconceptintopublicperception,and1916,theyearthatDemocracy and Educa-tionwaspublished,Deweyarrivedathisownrelativelydefinitiveviewsoftherelationshipbetweentheschoolandsociety.
School, family, and society: the role and importance of labor at the turn of the twentieth century
3Byleavingtoonesidethedevelopmentofhis“pragmatism,”Jackson’scriticismbecomesclear,pointingoutthatthelinesalongwhichDeweyestablishedhimselfasaworld-famousname“addresstwoentirelydifferentpublics”(Jackson2006,p.57).Eachofthemleavesasidethethemesoftheother,somethingwhichistakentoindicatethepersistenceoftheoldgulfbetweentheoryandpractice.Totheextentthatitispossible,thispaperattemptstotranscendthisdivide.FormoreonthedevelopmentofDewey'slineofpragmatism,andinparticularinstrumentalism,seeMargolis(2006,pp.1–10)andJackson(2006,pp.54–66).ThecomplexityoftheoriginsofpragmatismandthecontributionsofPeirce,whoisacknowledgedbybothJames,whocoinedtheterm“pragmatism”in1898(theyearbeforethelectureswithwhichwebeginourdiscussion)andDeweyasthefounderof“Americanphilosophy,”isalsohigh-lightedinthefirstchapterofhis1925workExperience and Nature.Deweywritesthat“thephilosophyherepresentedmaybetermedeitherempiricalnaturalismornaturalisticempiricsm,or(…)naturalistichumanism”(ibidem,p.59).ItisevidentthatDeweytookgreatpainstoavoidthetermpragmatism.
Itappears,then,thattheschoolwasgiventhetaskofbothsubstitutingandbuildingontheearlierfamilyeducationwithsocialeducation.Nowonder,then,thatDeweyimposesontheschooltherole of a training ground for life (work) in society:theroleofa“miniaturecommunity,”or,perhaps,aminiaturefactory.
Ourexpectations,however,areconfounded.Onthecontrary,though,Deweyisunhappythatmanualworkinschools,thislearning through workisviewedasearlypreparation of young people for an occupation.Naturally,hesays,itiswrongtounderestimatetheworthofgeneralpreparationforafuturevocation,buttheworkinschoolthatisdescribedhereinvolvesmuchmorethansimplytheoccupationsofyoungpeoplewhoaresupposedtobepreparingthemselvesformanualwork.Educationisnotsolelyaboutgaining“bettertechnicalskillascooks,seamstresses,orcarpenters”(Dewey1959,p.42).Wherechambersofcom-merce,crafts,andtradesinSloveniaandtheEuropeanUnionasawholewouldseesalvation,Deweyseesaproblem.
“Wemustconceiveofworkinwoodandmetal,ofweaving,sewing,andcooking,asmethodsoflifenotasdistinctstudies.”(Ibidem,p.39)Significantly more important than the mastery of concrete skillsinthistypeofinstructionis“their social significance, as types of the processes by which society keeps itself going”(ibidem,emphasisadded).ForDewey,theprocessesofworkreplacethedisappearingprocessofsocializationofthechild,whointhefamily,throughworkandthroughlife,almostincidentallyformedthehabits,behaviors,knowledge,andconnectionsthatthecommunityneededforitssurvival.Consequently,schoolmustfillthisrole.Activitieslikesewing,spinning,andwoodworkingare,saysDewey,amechanism,awaytoacquaintchildrenwiththeselected“necessitiesofcommunitylife”(ibidem).TheAmericaofhisdayneedsnotonlyindividualism,butthefeelingcreatedby“abusykitcheninwhichagroupofchildrenareactivelyengagedinthepreparationoffood.”(Ibidem,p.39)Ifthemereabsorptionoffactsandtruthsis“soexclusivelyindividualanaffairthatittendsverynaturallytopassintoselfishness”(ibidem,p.40),“whereactiveworkisgoingonallthisischanged”(ibidem).Theschoolgainsthechancetoaffiliateitselfwithlife,to“becomethechild'shabitat,”(ibidem,p.41)anenvironmentinwhichthechild“learnsthroughdirectedliving;insteadofbeingonlyaplacetolearnlessonshavinganabstractandremotereferencetosomepossiblelivingtobedoneinthefuture.”(Ibidem)
InthiswayDeweypositstheschoolas“aminiaturecommunity,anembryonicsociety”through“activeoccupation”(ibidem).In1899Deweythusplacesworkasthefoundationofthe“NewEducation.”Not,asinDurkheimforexample,aboveallaspreparationoftheindividualforanoccupation(althougheveninDurkheimitisnevermerelyamatterofvocationaleducationinitspresentsense),forDeweyschooloperatesas a medium, as a process of socialization,astheenvironmentinwhichyoungpeoplebecomesocialized.Heretheylearnthatwhichcannolongerbeexpectedfromthefamily,towhichtheprocessofaccustomingchildrentocom-
Thisworkisnot,however,justanyactivity.Wecanactuallyonly talk indirectly about work as an activity which obtains resources for life.Inthecaseoftheoccupa-tionsfollowedintheschool,“theaimisnottheeconomicvalueoftheproducts,butthedevelopmentofsocialpowerandinsight.”(Ibidem,p.42)“Itisthisliberationfromnarrowutilities,”saysDewey,thatallowstheschooltomakethesepracticalactivities“alliesofartandcentersofscienceandhistory”(ibidem).
Whenweseeboysandgirlsaged10to13engagedinsewingandweavingandlookatthisactivityfromthestandpointofpreparationforavocationwhichthemajorityofthemwillneveractuallyhold,itmakeslittlesense,butifwelookatitfromanothersidewefindthattheseactivitiesgivechildrenthechanceto“followtheprogressofmankindinhistory”(ibidem,p.43).Forexample,weavingoffersstudentsawealthofopportunitiestolearnaboutmaterials(chemistryandbiology),possiblewaystoworkthemandsubsequentmeansofprocessing(physics,mechanics,andtechnology),andactualprocessingmethods;theyexperiencethelogicandlogisticsoftheprocessandtherelationswithintheproductiongroupthroughhistoryandindifferentpartsoftheworld.Withthisshift of intent,Deweydevelops–ashehaddoneearlierinMy Pedagogic Creed–theprincipleofpassingfromwhatisfamiliartothechild(suchasactivitiesthatarepartofhisorherenvironment)tothelevelof“moreformalsubjects”(Dewey1897,ArticleThree).Ingeneral,activitiesinthechild'sschoolareaspringboardforentryintoconceptualreflectionsconnectedtoexperience.Cookingisrelatedtochemistry,allthewaydowntomoleculesandatoms,whileontheotherhandbotanydoesnottreatplants“simplyasfood,but[reveals]alltheiradaptationstothesociallifeofman.”(Dewey1959,p.83)Inshort,inanenvironmentwherethefieldofactivitiesisnotrequiredtoachievenormsintheproductionofusefulvalueandalsobringprofit,worktransforms into a subject of insight,study,andcommonlearningorsocialization.
WemaythusprovisionallyconcludethatDewey’s resting of the school on work is oriented more towards pedagogy than to production.Moreover,heexplicitlysidelinesproductionwithinthephysicalstructureoftheschool.Heisinterestedintheintegrativeroleoftheschool–itsincorporationintoalifethatmodernchildrenwouldnototherwisereceive–arelosingsightbecauseoftheshiftofproductionfromthehometothefactory–andashiftawayfromthetraditionalroleofschoolasapassiveinstitution.
6Forthedifferencebetweenapolemicandadebateordiscussion,seePolemics, Politics and Prob-lematizations–theinterviewgivenbyFoucaulttoRabinowin1984.“It'struethatIdon'tliketogetinvolvedinpolemics.IfIopenabookandseethattheauthorisaccusinganadversaryof“infantileleftism”Ishutitagainrightaway.That’snotmywayofdoingthings;Idon’tbelongtotheworldofpeoplewhodothingsthatway.Iinsistonthisdifferenceassomethingessential:awholemoralityisatstake,theonethatconcernsthesearchfortruthandtherelationtotheother.[...]Intheseriousplayofquestionsandanswers,intheworkofreciprocalelucidation,therightsofeachpersonareinsomesenseimmanentinthediscussion.[...]Thepolemicist,ontheotherhand,[...]reliesonalegitimacythathisadversaryisbydefinitiondenied.”(FoucaultinRabinow1984)
tarianism.Althoughheisconvincedthatachild’sinability“toutilizetheexperi-enceshegetsoutsidetheschool”withintheschoolitselfand“toapplyindailylifewhatheislearningatschool”(Dewey1959,p.78)revealsthegreatweaknessoftheschool,hepointsoutthatthoughthereshouldbe“an organic connection between the school and business life, it is not meant that the school is to prepare the child for any particular business.”(Ibidem,emphasisadded)Thus,justashisfirstlecturepointedouttheessentiallydifferentnaturesoftypicalactivitiesofsewing,weaving,metalworking,woodworking,etc.,intheprocessesofproductionandeducation,inthethirdlecturehesurprisinglydefendsaparticulartypeofconnectionbetweenschoolandbusinesslife.ToDewey,theschoolshouldenablea“naturalconnectionoftheeverydaylifeofthechildwiththebusinessenviron-mentabouthim”(ibidem).Understanding“thebankasafactorinmodernlife...whatitdoes,andhowitdoesit”(ibidem,p.79)islogicalandnecessary.Itisonlyinthiscontext,inhisopinion,that“relevantarithmeticalprocesseswouldhavesomemeaning–quiteincontradistinctiontothetime-absorbingandmind-killingexamplesinpercentage,partialpayments,etc.”(Ibidem)Theschoolmustthereforebecapableofincorporatingintoitscurriculumcontentswhich,whiletheyarenotthesubjectofadirectproductionprocess,neverthelessenableunderstanding,thelogicofthecourseofindividuallives,andthestructuringofthesocialasawhole.Theyenableustounderstandandtoliveinthepresentandreducetheneedtoremainwithparticularremnantsofthepast.Perseveringwiththem,whichex-pertsinindividualsubjectsfavorasanelementof“preservingmentaldiscipline”intheyoungpopulation,evidentlytroubleshim.7
Deweyadmitsthatinthecourseofhispresentationoftheoldtypeofschoolhemayhave“exaggeratedsomewhatinordertomakeplainthetypicalpointsoftheoldeducation.”(Dewey1959,p.52)Describinghismethodas“exaggeration”isstillanunderstatement.Evenintermsofarchitectureandorganization,hepresentstheoldschoolasaplaceinwhich“thereshallbeaslittlemovingroomaspossible”intheclassrooms;classroomsarefullof“desksalmostallofthesamesize,withjustspaceenoughtoholdbooks,pencilsandpaper.”(Ibidem,pp.50–51)Assuch,classroomsdonotallowanythingotherthan“listening”and,throughtheirverylayout,theypreventchildrenfrom“working,”ormoreaccurately,beingactive(cf.ibidem).Whenwearedealingwithaconceptoftheschoolinwhich“theworkshop,thelaboratory,thematerials,thetoolswithwhichthechildmayconstruct,createandactivelyinquire(...)havebeenforthemostpartlacking”(ibidem,p.51),the school is transformed into an institution for controlling the masses.Thenewschoolwouldhavetodoquitetheopposite.Whenchildrenareallowedtobeactive,“theyindividualisethemselves;theyceasetobeamass,andbecometheintenselydistinctivebeingsthatweareacquaintedwithoutofschool.”(Ibidem,p.50)
ForDewey,thenewschoolmustbeorganizedsolearning is not merely ab-stract andunconnectedtotheeverydayrealityofthechild.The“idealschool”shouldgeneralisewhatwouldordinarilyhappeninafamilyinwhich“theparentisintelligentenough”(ibidem,p.53).Thechildshouldlearnthrough“thesocialconverseandconstitutionofthefamily”(ibidem).Inthecourseofconversation“statementsaremade,inquiriesarise,topicsarediscussed,andthechildcon-tinuallylearns”(ibidem).Thechildparticipatesinfamilyactivitiesand“getshabitsofindustry,orderandregardfortherightsandideasofothersandthefundamentalhabitofsubordinatinghisactivitiestothegeneralinterestofthehousehold.”(Ibidem)Alongsidetheseengagements,“thelifeofthechildwouldextendoutofdoorstothegarden,surroundingfieldsandforests.Hewouldhavehisexcursions,hiswalksandtalks,inwhichthelargerworldoutofdoorswillopentohim”(ibidem).Educationthroughworkandwithwork,withlife,wasinDewey'sviewthebestschool.
Theneedforthefundamentalelementsofsocialization(familiarizationwiththebasicelementsoftheworld)goeshandinhandwiththegrowingdemandforpreparationthatwillenableindividualstounderstandthecomplexityandabstractnessoftheworldofindustryandproduction,anincreasinglyaccessibleoutwardenvironmentthankstoincreasedmobility,and,aboveall,thedifferentsocialstructuresthatappearedagainstabackgroundofmovementsfromthevillagetothetownandemergedfromtheconcentrationoflabourinindustrialcentres.The child-centered focus of Dewey’spedagogical approach should,aboveall,beunderstoodasan attempt to enter the process of mass instruction at a point that offers a greater possibility of success.
Deweyhasnoillusionsaboutthis.Headdressedtheadage“ifyoubeginwiththechild'sideas,impulsesandinterests,allsocrude,sorandomandscattering,solittlerefinedorspiritualized,howishegoingtogetthenecessarydiscipline,cultureandinformation”(ibidem)byencouragingdirectionforstudents.LikeDurkheim,whorejectsTolstoy'sbeliefthatchildrencansimplybelefttotheirim-pulses,interests,andideas,Deweysuggeststhatitispossibleto“directthechild'sactivities,givingthemexercisealongcertainlines,andcanthusleadup to the goal which logically stands at the end of the path followed.”(Ibidem,emphasisadded)“Education(…)mustinfacttakeplaceassupervisedsocialisation,animatedbytheintellectualvitalityofthechild,whoisplacedatthecentreofthecurriculumandchannelledtowardsthespecificgoalsofsociety.”(Bulle2000,p.192)
We can no longer manage without school in complex societies
DeweyalsodealswiththequestionsofworkandtheschooloverfifteenyearslaterinDemocracy and Education,“whichrepresentsDewey’smostimportantworkinthefieldofthephilosophyofeducation”(Bulle2000,p.193).AccordingtoHansen,thisworkis“manybooksinone”(Hansen2006,p.184).Itisneitheraseriesoflecturesnorapolemicovertheaffirmationoftheconceptof“neweduca-tion”inhisexperimentalschool,thereforemakingitlesscontroversial.LimitinginquirytoHansen'snotionofmanybooksinone,weshalllimitourselveshere,despitethefactthatthequestionofactivity,experienceandeducationappearsinthemoreorlessallthe'booksofthisbook',tofourchaptersinparticular.9Eveninthese,weshallmerelyverifywhethertheauthor'sviewswithregardtothework/schoolrelationshiphavechangedsince1899.Weareparticularlyinterestedinthefollowingchapters:“EducationAsaSocialFunction”(2),“PlayandWorkintheCurriculum”(15),“LaborandLeisure”(19),and“VocationalAspectsofEducation”(23).
TheunambiguoussocialnatureofthehumanbeingasahumanbeingisreadilyreflectedinDemocracy and Education’sopening.Forthehumanizationofgenerationaftergeneration,however,educationisofextraordinaryimportance.Withoutit,thehumanbeingwouldnotexist,andeventhespecieswoulddisappearinthequicksandofnature.Educationistherefore,inthefirstplace,thetransferofthe“achievements”ofpreviousgenerationstonewgenerations.Butinwhatway;throughwhatmediaandwithwhatpurpose?
Deweyassertsthat“anysocialarrangementthatremainsvitallysocial,orvitallyshared,iseducative.”(Ibidem,p.6)Thusnotonlyisasocietydependentoneducation,alllifethatissocialalsoformspeople;iteducatesthem.For the child, where he is born and in what kind of community he grows up is of extraordi-nary importance.“Thewayourgrouporclassdoesthingstendstodeterminetheproperobjectsofattention.”(Ibidem,p.17)Afamilyofmusicianswillawakenandencourageentirelyspecificimpulsesinachild–because“somekindsofpartici-pationinthelifeofthosewithwhomtheindividualisconnectedareinevitable.”(Ibidem,p.16)
Andyet,it is evident that in complex societies there is a need for schools, “amoreformalkindofeducation–thatofdirecttuitionorschooling”(ibidem,p.7).Only“undevelopedsocialgroups”havelittleformalteachingandtraining.Therefore,schoolhasmanycrucialtasks:
Indeterminingwhatfeaturestheschoolwilltransmit,notonlyistherea2.processofselectionaccordingtothecriterionofwhatisfundamental,butitisthebusinessoftheschoolenvironmentto“eliminate,sofaraspossible,the unworthy features of the existing environmentfrominfluenceuponmentalhabitudes.”(Ibidem,emphasisadded)Inthisway,itistheschool'sjob“toseetoitthateachindividualgetsthe3.opportunitytoescapefromthelimitationsofthesocialgroupinwhichhewasborn,andtocomeinto livingcontactwithabroaderenvironment.”(Ibidem)
Arapidglanceatthefunctionsoftheschoolisenoughtoshowthat,just as at the turn of the century, even during World War I, its function is normalization.Dewey,likeDurkheim,believesthattheschoolwillbecapableofdistinguishing,neutrally – positively,theimportantfromtheunimportant,andthegoodfromthebad,andwillthusofferallwhocomefromgroupswithlimitedculturalcapitalthechancetoentertheworldofabetterfuture.Or,ashehimselfputsit,“[a]nyeducationgivenbyagrouptendstosocializeitsmembers,butthequalityandvalueofthesocializationdependsuponthehabitsandaimsofthegroup.”(Ibidem,p.83)HereDewey,unlikeDurkheim,seesschoolasaninstitutionthatformsabroadspectrumofvaluesthatarecommontocitizens.Fortheformationofvaluesthatareactuallycommon,itisveryimportantthat“allthemembersofthegroup(…)haveanequableopportunitytoreceiveandtotakefromothers.Theremustbealargevarietyofsharedundertakingsandexperiences.Otherwise,theinflu-ences which educates some into masters, educate others into slaves.”(Ibidem,p.84,emphasisadded)Evenwithout“formal”slavery,thedivisionoflaborthatisdemandedbyefficiencyreducesworktoa“mechanicalroutine.”Itdoesthisbecauseitdoesnotensurethatworkersseethe“technical,intellectualandsocialrelationshipsinvolvedinwhattheydo.”(Ibidem,p.85)
Democracy and Educationasitwasover15yearsearlier,evenwithreferencetothesameauthor.Onthisoccasion,too,thereareofcoursesomecaveats.Wheneducationbecomesmasseducation,thereisalsoariskthatformalinstructioncanbecome“remoteanddead–abstractandbookish”(Dewey1968,p.8).ToDewey,democracydoesnotinfactneededucationsimplyasaninstrumenttoprovide,particularlyatatimewhentheprincipleof“externalauthority”hasbeensub-stitutedby“voluntarydispositionandinterest”(ibidem,p.87),orthenecessaryinsightsintoandunderstandingofeventsinsocietyasapoliticalentity.Rather,a“deeperexplanation”existsfortheconnectionandtheconcernforthequalityandreachofeducation.“Ademocracyismorethanaformofgovernment;itisprimarilyamodeofassociatedliving,ofconjointcommunicatedexperience.”(Ibidem)Accordingly,educationisatypeofagift,fromsocietytotheindividual,andwillfree“individualcapacityinaprogressivegrowthdirectedtosocialaims”(ibidem,p.98).Inthisway,educationenablesagiftfromtheindividualtosociety,consistentwithDewey’s1916formulationoftherelationshipbetweeneducationandschoolas“areciprocalgift,analliancebetweentheindividualandsociety.”(Chanial2006,p.208)
What about preparation for employment and work?Judgingfromtheconclusiontothechapterthatdealswithaimsinthefield
ofeducation,Dewey'spositionshavenotchangedsignificantlyonthispointeither.Ifanything,Deweymerelysharpenedhisorientation.Forexample,hefeltthat,ineducation,externallyimposedaimsare“responsiblefortheemphasisputuponthenotionofpreparationforaremotefutureandforrenderingtheworkofbothteacherandpupilmechanicalandslavish.”(Dewey1968,p.110)Tothisend,thehighestaimofeducationiseducationitself;Deweywrotethat“education is literally and all the time its own reward”(ibidem,emphasisadded),meaningthat“noallegedstudyordisciplineiseducativeunlessitisworthwhileinitsownimmediatehaving.”(Ibidem,p.109)WemayconcludefromtheabovethatDeweyremainedfaithfultohiscommitmenttoamorethanmerelyinstrumentalorientationofeducation.Headvocatedabroadeducation–eveninthecaseofanoccupationsuchasthatofafarmer.Forexample,whenhediscussesthedifferentopportunitiesofpeopleindifferentoccupations,heusesthefarmertoshowthatanindividualwithamoregeneraleducation“willseeagreaternumberofpossiblestartingplaces,andagreaternumberofwaysofgettingatwhathewantstodo.”(Ibidem)
Thisofcoursedoesnotmeanthathehasrenouncedhisviewsontheim-portanceofactivityandstartingwithexperienceintheprocessofeducation.ItwouldbewrongtoconcludefromtheabovestatementsthatDeweynowfavoursteachingwhichisseparatefromlifeandthepresenceofthechild.In Democracy and Educationheevaluatesthesuccessofthedemandfor“child-centerdness,”findingthatexperiencehasshownthat“whenchildrenhaveachanceatphysicalactivitieswhichbringtheirnaturalimpulsesintoplay,goingtoschoolisajoy,managementislessofaburden,andlearningiseasier.”(Ibidem,p.194)Schoolisaplaceinwhich“playandworkcorrespond,pointforpoint,”(ibidem,p.195)
anditshould“setupanenvironmentinwhichplayandworkshallbeconductedwithreferencetofacilitatingdesirablementalandmoralgrowth.”(Ibidem,p.196)Accordingly,Deweychampionsboththeinnerpurposeofeducationand active learning,talkingexplicitlyabouttheimportanceofplayineducatinggenerationsofstudentstomaintainasystemofdemocraticeducation.Ifitwasoncepossibletodirecteducationtobooks,inatimeofmasseducation(thesocializationofre-production),itisnecessarytounderstandthat“theoldertypeofbookworkisfarfromhavingtheforceitusedtopossess”(ibidem,p.196).Thepurposeofplayandworkintheschoolisagainunderlined,withanultimateaimtowards“desirablementalandmoralgrowth”(ibidem).Deweytakesthisinterconnectionandthecom-mitmenttoitasadevicewithapreciselydefinedaim.Forhim,theintroductionofgamesandmanualworkis“notenough”;“[e]verythingdependsuponthewayinwhichtheyareemployed.”(Ibidem)Thetaskoftheteacherisnot,then,touseplaytoensurethatthechildisnotoverburdenedtooearly.Theartfulnessoftheteachingprofessionis,bybeginningwiththeknownandthedesirable,toleadasmanychildrenaspossibleto“intellectualresultsandtheformingofasocializeddisposition”(ibidem,p.197).Justashehaddonefifteenyearspreviously,Deweyannouncedthatinthecaseoflearningthroughplayandwork,factorssuchasmanualskill,technicalefficiency,andimmediatesatisfaction,“togetherwithpreparationforfutureusefulness(…)shallbesubordinatedtoeducation”(ibidem)formoredemandingintellectualresultsandsocializeddispositions.Atfirstglancethisclaimseemsalmostincredible.Atatimeoffrenziedindustrialization,theintroductionofTaylorism,andthesuccessesofbigindustry,Deweyostensiblystatesthateducationissupposedtodisregardusefulness?
Acommitmenttoeducationwhichmustoffersatisfactioninitself,findsenseinitself, isonlyunderstandablewhenweunderstandDewey'sconceptofthevocation.Avocationisnotreducedtotheactivitiesthatpeopleperforminordertoearnaliving,norisitlimitedtotheperformanceofphysicalworkwithalowlevelofprestige.Avocationmeans“nothingbutsuchadirectionoflifeactivitiesasrendersthemperceptiblysignificanttoaperson,becauseoftheconsequencestheyaccomplish,andalsousefultohisassociates.”(Ibidem,p.307,emphasisadded)Avocationisconnectedneithertoacareernortoleisure,butdenotesamode of active life.Vocationshouldnotbelimitedto“theoccupationswhereim-mediatelytangiblecommoditiesareproduced,butalso[include]thenotionthatvocationsaredistributedinanexclusiveway,oneandonlyonetoeachperson.”(Ibidem)Individualoccupationsarethusnotlimitedtothesphereoftheproduc-tionofgoodsorthings.Humanvocationsextendintothefieldofconcernforhisfellow-manandconcernforthepublicgood.Plato,saysDewey,isrightwhenheassertsthatitisthebusinessofeducationtodiscover“what each person is good for, and to train him to mastery of that mode of excellence.”(Ibidem,p.309,em-phasisadded)He(Plato)ishoweverwrongthat”thescopeofvocations[is]sociallyneeded”(ibidem).Bylimitingtheneedsofsocietyandtherangeofoccupationsavailabletotheindividual,heoverlooks“theinfinitevarietyofcapacitiesfoundindifferentindividuals”(ibidem).
BothatthetimeofthelecturespublishedasThe School and Society(1899)andatthetimeofthepublicationofhisbest-knownworkonthethemeofeduca-tion,Democracy and Education(1916),heremainsfaithfultohiscommitmenttoabroadconceptionofeducationthatwilldevelopinallwhoreceiveitthecapacitytoliveinandtoshapeademocraticsociety.Dewey’sschoolbeginswiththedirectexperienceofthechildandincorporatesintothelearningprocesstheexperienceofrelativelysimpleoperations(sewing,weaving,metalwork,woodwork,etc.).Here–veryexplicitlyin1916–headvocatestheinclusion of play and workinthelearningprocess.Hisgoalisclear;it is the task of schoolto preparethegreatestnumberofpupils,irrespectiveoftheirsocialorigins,for understanding the working processontheonehandandforactive inclusion in the democratic life of societyontheother.Botharenecessaryforalifeinwhich“thought[is]aguideoffreepractice”andleisureis“arewardofacceptingresponsibilityforservice,ratherthanastateofexemptionfromit.”(Dewey1968,p.261)
In1913,inthemidstofdebatesonpublicsupportforvocationaleducationandtheintroductionofspecialvocational colleges,Deweystrongly opposed their foundation.“Andsomeemployersoflaborwoulddoubtlessrejoicetohaveschoolssupportedbypublictaxationsupplythemwithadditionalfoodfortheirmills.”(Dewey1979,p.102)Everyoneshouldopposetheseparationof“trainingofem-