Cornputer Communication Technologies - TSpace - University ...

College Managers' Strategies for Leamhg and Using Cornputer Communication Technologies

Eileen Mary Bragg

A thesis submitted in confomity with the requiremenis for the Degree of Doctor of Education

Graduate Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the

University of Toronto

@ Eileen Mary Bragg 1999

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College Managers' S trategies for Leaming and Using Computer Communication Technologies

by

Eileen Gear Bragg

A thesis submined in amformity with the requirements for the Degree of Docior of Education

Graduate Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Ontario Insiitute for Studies in Education of the

University of Toronto Q Eileen Mary Bragg 1999

The study investigated college managers' leaming and usage experiences with

computer communication technologies that had already been adopted by their college and

that managers had been using for a number of years. insights into their experiences were

obtained through a qualitative case study, in which data were gathered fiom: interviews

with managers in a public college system; a profile questionnaire; and selected college

documents.

Analysis of the data revealed a series of six interrelated phases and associated

strategies that college managers experienced in their technology learning and use process.

The phases included: ( 1) being introduced to technology (developing attitudes); (2)

learning the basics (developing technical skills); (3) practicing by doing (developing

learning strategies); (4) continuously using the technology (developing information

management and utilkation strategies); (5) assessing the value of the technology

(developing conceptual and evaluative knowledge); and (6) leanllng to cope with the

impact of technology (developing containment strategies).

1 found that the twenty managers participating in the study: (a) leamed to use

computer communication technologies in a self4irected manner; (b) utilized computer

cornmunication technologies primuily for eficiency reasons - to cany out

administrative tasks and to convey routine information related to college policies and

procedures; and (c) perceived computer communication technologies as augmenting not

decreasing managerial work. The bureaucratic cultural environment at the college played

an important role in how managers perceived and xssd computer communication

technologies. Managers were influenced by their peers' technology use behaviour and

perceptions of their role at the college.

In order for college managers to be effective users of advanced cornputer

communication technologies, they need to focus on not only the technical skills related to

technology leamhg and use but also on the deeper conceptual and social knowledge

associated with adopting and using advanced computer communication technologies.

Acknowledgments

There were many people who contributed to this doctoral degree. The process

started with my parents, Marion and Tom Gear, who always believed in my ability to

succeed. A special thank you to my mother who instilled in me a great respect for

knowledge and the value of a good education. Mom, "You're my inspiration".

My appreciation to my husband, Phil, for his continued support and

encouragement. He endured many nights and weekends away fiom our family and

fkiends while 1 researched, wrote, and rewrote my thesis - hidden away in the upstairs

office. Phil, "Thanks!".

I acknowledge fiiends and colleagues who were there for me throughout the whole

process. I especially thank Hema Abeygunawardena for her fnendship, assistance, and

support nght fiom the b e g i ~ i n g of the joumey up to the celebratsons at the end of the

Final Senate Oral Examination. Hema is a wonderfil fnend and a mentor to many.

Special mention to the "Lunch Hour Group", in pxticular, Carmel Smith who shared the

hstrations and successes related to thesis writing. 1 kept the "Believe" sign close by for

those trying times !

To the twenty college managers who agreed to be involved in the study, 1 am most

grateful for your allowing me to focus on your work and lives. 1 learned a geat deal fiom

au of you.

iv

To the OISE professors who sewed on my Thesis Cornmittee: Lynn Davie; Rina

Cohen; and Barbara Bumaby. 1 am indebted to the three of you. 1 extend my sincere

gratitude to: Lynn, my thesis supervisor, who created a warm, supportive environment

throughout the whole leaming process; Rina, who ofTered valuable feedback at critical

points; and Barbara, who set a high standard for thesis witing but who was always there

to "scaffold" my learning and irnprovement.

To the extemai reader at the Departmental Oral, Doug McDougall, who was a

mode1 and beacon light for complehng the thesis, I express my thanks for your generous

and timely feedback. To Gien Jones, chair of the Final Senate Oral Examination and to

Mary-Anne Andmsyszyn, m y external examiner, 1 appreciate your expertise and tirne

spent at the Oral. Mary-Anne's thought-provoking questions and thoroughness in

reviewing m y thesis were motivational and reassurùig.

Findly, there are many people who directly or indirectly give inspiration and

support at critical points dong any jomey. To you who supported me when I needed it

most, 1 express my appreciation for your understanding my need to be alone at key points

in m y study. 1 thank you all!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tableofcontents vi

ListofTables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Chapter One

1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 . I Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Definitions of Terms 6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Plan of the Thesis - 8

Chapter Two

2.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1 Background and Context of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Description of the College in the Study 16

Chapter Three

3.0 Review of the Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 2 1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction 21

3.2 The Concept o f Self-Directed Leaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.2.1 Social Context of Self-Directed Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.2.2 Authentic Aciivity and Self-Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.3 Self-Directed Learning Research Concems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.3.1 Form and Process of Self-Directed Leaniing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.3.2 Management Development and Self-Directed Leaniing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3 .3.3 Cultural and Environmentai Influences of Self-Directed Learning . . . . . . 39

3.4 Organizational Culture and the Role of College Managers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.4.1 Need for Change in Managing Colleges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3 .4.2 Section Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.5 Cornputer Communication Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3 .5 . 1 The Ongin and Charactenstics of Electronic Mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3 S.2 Theones of Cornputer Communication Technology Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 . 3 Section Sumrnary 67

3.6 Sociocultural Impact Studies of Computer Communication Technologies . . . . . 67

. . . . . 3.7 Canadian College Managers' Computer Communication Technology Use 72

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 -8 Research Concems: Cornputer Communication Use 77

. . . . . . 3.8.1 Linking Research on Self-Directed Leaming and Technology Use 80

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.2 Managerial Perceptions 82

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.3 Conclusions 83

Chapter Four

4.0 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Research Approach and Design 85

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Pilot Study 87

4.2.1Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Sample 88

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Ethical Considerations 89

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Pilot Study Data Collection Procedure 89

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.5 Pilot Study Data Analysis and Results 90

4.3 MainStudy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Sample and Setting of Main Study 93

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Ethical Considerations 93

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Data Collection 95

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Data Analysis and lnterpretation 96

Chapter Five

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0 Findings of the Study - 9 8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Introduction 98

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Profile of College Managers - 9 8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Perceived Roles of College Managers 100

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2Summary 109

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Keeping Up Professionally 109

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Benefts of Keeping Up Professionally 114

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 -2 Bamers to Keeping Up Professionally 115

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Summa ry 116

5.4 College Adoption and Difision of Computer Communication Technologies . . 1 16

5.4.1Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

5.5 Leaniing to Use Cornputer Communication Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

5.5.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 E-mail Usage Behaviour 128

5.6.1 Perceived Advant yes of E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

5.6.2 Summary of Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

5.6.3 Perceived Disadvantages of E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.4 Utilization Strategies 143

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.5 Section Summary 152

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Description of Calendar Manager 152

5.7.1 Calendar Manager Usage Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 .7.2 Advantages of Calendar Manager 155

5.7.3 Disadvantages of Calendar Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

5.7.4 Calendar Manager Coping and Containment Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

5.7.5 Reflections on the Symbolic Use of Calendar Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7.6 Section Sumrnary 165

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Suggestions for Irnprovement 165

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 Chapter Surnmary 166

Chapter Six

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 Discussion and Interpretations of Findings 168

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Introduction 168

6.2 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

6.2.1 Discussion of Each Research Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

6.3 Major Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

C hapter Seven

7.0 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

7.1 Statement of Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

7.2 Recommendations for Further Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Appendices

List of Tables and Figures

College Manager Sample Profile (in years) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Continuum of StrategieslResponses for Keeping Up Professionally . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 11

Chapter One

1 .O Introduction

Advanced communication technologies which include various forms of

telecommunications and computer technology are having a significant impact in and on

Canadian community colleges. For purposes of this study, community colleges are

defmed as public non-degree granting, post-secondary institutions in Newfoundland that

offer adult, technology, business and vocational education and training programs.

According to two recent national studies, the full impact of advanced communication

technologies on Canadian community colleges has not been established (Association of

Canadian Community Colleges, 1997; Roberts, 1998). In both studies, it was indicated

that members of college communities need to becorne cognizant of and skilled in the use

of these technologies. in the studies, it was recornrnended that college managers mode1

and champion the leaniing and utilization processes of these technologies for their college

communities. College managers are defmed as persons who hold senior, middle or junior

administrative positions in a public community college.

Researchers advocated that college managers take senously their leanllng needs

with respect to computer communication technologies (Apps, 199 1; Association of

Canadian Cornmunity Colleges, 1997; Brockett, 199 1 ; Marshall, 1993; Roberts, 19%).

Marshall (1993) suggested that the convenience and speed of new computer

communication technologies c m be deceptive and "give the impression that al1 the user

has to do is 'plug and play', when, in facf considerable understanding and ski11 are

required to use the technologies effectively" @. 75). Marshall argued that getting

acquainted with advanced computer communication systems is much more than just

gaining computer literacy - this "new leanhg must go rnuch deeper" (p. 75).

In a similar vein, Zuboff (1988) pointed out that performing cornputer-mediated

work is more abstract than traditional work and demands new concephial mental models

of information and information systems. Learning that includes a combination of

knowledge of these communication technologies and of the content and stnicture of the

information contained therein will enable managers to use these tools effectively

(Marshall, 1993). Given the need to acquire and develop these deep mental models of

computer communication systems, how will college managers go about leaming technical

and conceptual skills in order to use these technologies effectively in their work?

'This study investigated how a group of college managers Say they leam and use

computer communication technologies in a Newfoundland college that had been using

advanced computer communication systems for more than ten years. To gain an

understanding of managers' process of technology learning and use, four elements were

explored: managers' leamhg processes, perceptions of their role, their technology usage

practices, and their assessments of the technologies.

1.1 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to examine the process of leaming and using

computer communication technologies by twenty college managers in a public

community college and their perceptions of the impact these technologies had on their

work environment. It was an exploratory study that examined self-directed computer

communication technology leaming and usage activities of college managers in a

workplace context. There was an ilterest in detcxmining the nature of the relationship

between managent perceptions of their role and the infiuence these perceptions have on

how they utilize these technologies. Managers' strategies for leaming, using and coping

with these technologies and managers' assessments of these technologies were also

explored.

I attempted to link research on self-directed technology learning with research on

computer communication technology use. In this study, aspects of research fiom the

fields of adult leaming, self-directed learning, management development, and computer

communication technologies were incorporated. As well, managers' self-directed

technology leamhg and use from managers' perspectives were investigated.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

In the literature, it was indicated that questions of how to best train and prepare

educational administrators to deal successfdly with the complex issues related to using

advanced communication technologies are foremost on the minds of government policy

makers, educational planners and concemed citizens (Association of Canadian

Community Colleges, 1997; Moggia, 1998; Roberts, 1998). In several recent studies of

Canadian commwty colleges' use of the newer information and communication

technologies, it was indicated that research into the leaming needs of college managers

with regard to these technologies is just beginning (Association of Canadian Community

Colleges, 1993, 1997; Roberts, 1998). An Association of Canadian Community Colleges'

(1 997) report noted that further research is required before assistance and direction can be

given to managers in their learning efforts to use the newer technologies appropriately

and optimize benefits of technology.

The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of managers' learning

needs by examinhg the leaniing and usage processes of a group of college managers who

were using these technologies. I have addressed this goal by describing and analyzing

experiences of twenty college managers who leamed and utilized two specific

applications of computer communication technologies: electronic mail and an electronic

meeting scheduler (called Calendar Manager). Managers were interviewed to examine

their perceptions of leamhg and using computer communications and the value and

4

impact these technologies had on their work environment. The similarities and

differences among the managers' perceptions were anaiyzed and recommendations for the

leamhg and use of advanced communication systems were made.

Investigaihg college managers' perceptions of their adoption., leamhg usage, and

impact of these technologies were the significant areas of shidy. In exploring these

elements, 1 focused on the following research question: How do college managers leam

and use computer communication technologies?

Researching this question required investigation into the following ancillary

questions:

1. How do college managers say they keep up professionally in their job?

2. How do college managers Say they leam to use computer communication

technologies?

3. How do college managers Say they utilize computer communications technologies?

4. Do college managers' perceptions of their role influence their use of computer

communication technologies? And if so, how?

5 . What, if any, are the perceptions of the impact of cornputer communication

technologies on college managers' work environment?

%y asking these questions, 1 assume that if we know more about how managers Say

they leam to use computer communication technologies, college leaders can develop and

support appropriate leaming activities and practical guidelines for helping them l e m . In

5

several recent shidies, some information about self-directed technology leaniing has been

provided (Cahoon, 1995; Harp, 1996; Pranger, 1998), but the context has generally been

in private sector workplace settings. What we do not yet know are the actual self-

directed strategies used by college managers in computer-assisted college

communications and managers' rationales for developing those strategies. When we have

a better idea of how college managers go about leaming and using computer

communications, we may be able to better prepare them to deai more effectively with

newer advanced communication technologies.

1.3 Defuiitions of Terms

For the purpose of this study, the following definitions were used:

Calendar Manager (or RCM)

A specific purpose software application that allows scheduling and agenda-setting

of meetings among members in an organization.

College Managers

Academic, administrative, and operational members of the college community that

have responsibiiity for guiding, designing and implementing decisions and policies

related to programs, personnel, a d o r operations of the college community. Three

levels of management exist in the college under study: senior-level college

managers that include the president and directors of programs ancüor

6

administration; rniddle-level managers that include heads of specialized schools

within the college; and junior-kvel managers that include supervisors of

operations and managers of special services.

College

A post-secondary non-degree granting institution in Newfoundland which has

mandated responsibility for adult, technical, and vocational education and training.

Computer Communication Technologies

Communication systems and applications that are installed on cornputers which

allow communication to take place over phone lines or networks.

Electronic mail (or e-mail)

A general purpose sofhvare application that allows messages to be sent to

electronic letter-boxes for named individuais, which can be accessed when the

named user logs on.

Perceptions

The act or process of coming to understand or understanding something through

the senses: see, hem, feel, taste, or smell (Funk & Wagnells Canadian College

Dictionary, 1989).

Self-Directed Learning

"A process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, fomulating learning goals, identifying hurnan and materid resources for leamhg choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating leaming outcomes. Other labels found in the literature to descnbe the process are

serf-planned leurning, inquiry methorl, independent leaming, self- education, seljlznstrirction, self-teaching, self-tu&, and autonomous leaming" (howles, 1975, p. 18).

1.4 Plan of the Thesis

This thesis is organized as follows:

In Chapter One, the introduction, putpose of the study, statement of the problem,

research questions, defuiition of terms, and the plan of the thesis are presented.

in Chapter Two, an oveMew of the stahis of Newfoundland colleges in the

nùieties is given and the impact that restnicturing initiatives have had on managers and

college cornmunities are addressed.

In Chapter Three, literature related to the study is reviewed. Self-directed leaming

theones and their relationships to managerial leax-ning and usage of communication

technologies are examined. Several theones of communicztion technology use are

presented, and impact studies of usïng cornputer communication technology are outlined.

In Chapter Four, the research design and method used in the study are presented.

Descriptions of participants, data g a t h e ~ g , setting, and procedures are given. The

results of a pilot study provide practical and theoretical support for use of the case study

method.

In Chapter Five, the fmdings of the study are presented. The managers,

backgrounds, perceived role, learning practices, and usage sbategies are described.

Issues related to coping with new technologies are also presented.

in Chapter Six, findings and their relationships to the lirerature are discussed.

Lmplications of the hdings are examined and a number of recommendations related to

managerial technology learning and use are provided.

In Chapter Seven, 1 conclude the study and offer suggestions for M e r research

in the area of technology learning and use.

Chapter Two

2.0 htroduction

This chapter is presented in two parts. In the fust part, an o v e ~ e w of national,

provincial, and regional issues related to the community colleges and advanced

communication technologies is presented as background and contextual information for

the study. In the second part, the college in the study is described. The college's

computer communication technologies concems ai the time of the study are outlined.

2.1 Background and Context of the Study

ln this study, the computer communication technology learning and usage

processes of a group of managers in one community college system in the Canadian

province of Newfoundland were examined. h Canada, a community college typically

offers al1 or a combination of the following: vocational, technical and paraprofessionai

programs of long or short duration in preparation for employment in the technical, trades,

indusûy, agriculture and business professions. To respond effectively to constantly

changing workplace and comrnunity needs, community colleges have been characterized

by their flexible approaches and attitudes. Increased enrollment statistics in Canada

demonstrate the success of community colleges in meeting the needs of m e r education

by provision of unique, comprehensive, technical and vocational programs.

10

At the time of the study, there were five regional community colleges in

Newfoundland. The study took place in one of these five regional colleges. Hence, it

seems appropriate to present some background information on Newfoundand colleges

and their managers. An analysis of community college systems in Newfoundand

revealed a strong link between the social and economic development of the province and

g r o h of college and vocational centers (Government of Newfoundland and Labrador,

1992). The development of these "new" education systems in the early 1960s was

precipitated to meet the increasing need for literacy training and skilled, technical

workers in the province (Rowe, 1964). Out of much debate and exploration of viable

vocational education models, regional comrnunity colleges emerged. These colleges

distinguished themselves fiom other post-secondary institutions by offering programs that

were ciosely aligned to Newfoundland's occupational needs but which were designed as

distinct alternatives to traditional university programs (Dennison, 1995).

In 1996, Newfoundland's five regional college systems amalgamated into one

provincial entity. This study was conducted in one of these five systems just prior to the

amalgamation. At the tirne of the study, twenty-three managers were employed in this

college system. Who were these individuals and what were their backgrounds and

expenences? College managers in the study had worked in this college an average of ten

years. They were expected to support and implement government decisions and

initiatives. In the past ten years, they witnessed a number of changes in the college

system. The majority of managers had participated in four govemment-led

11

reorganizations of the college system. It is this group of Newfoundland college managers

on which this study is focused.

In recent years, community colleges in Newfoundland are being urged to

streamline operations by making more effective use of theu human, physical, and

technical resources (Association of Canadian Community Colleges, 1997; Dennison,

1995; Warren, 1990). This streamlùllng of educational resources is encouraged by al1

IeveIs of government: federal, provincial, and regional levels. Over the past six years,

two national surveys were conducted by the Association of Canadian Community

Colleges (ACCC) to assess the human resource challenges facing colleges in Canada. In

1992, a portion of the first study concentrated on how information and communication

technologies were being used in colleges. The report identified a need to investigate the

impact of newer emerging technologies on college communities and recommended

institution-wide leadership in strategic planning for the incorporation of these

technologies into college practices.

Again, in 1997, ACCC became concemed with the increasingly rapid changes in

information and communications technology and indicated that these changes were

having a "significant impact on ail colleges across Canada" (ACCC, 1997, p. i). Little

information existed on what the impacts were and the significance of these impacts. in an

effort to assess the significance of the impacts and the implications for colleges, a second

study was commissimed and conducted by Pnce Waterhouse. Out of a total of 141

Canadian colleges that were contacted, 92 colleges participated in the swey . One

12

significant fmding which confirmed the fnst study's analysis revealed that college

administrators needed to acquire leadership skills for technology planning in order to

optimW opportunities and use of the newer information and communication

technologies. The study noted that the challenge for college administrators was one of

managing technological change and usage in a coherent and integrated fashion.

The college in the present study was one of the f o r e m e r s in Canada to

implement an advanced cornputer communication system for its managers. How did

these managers l e m and adopt advanced computer communication systems? What

problerns did they encounter? What assistance did they receive in thek adoption and

leamhg processes? To explore answers to these questions, it seemed appropriate to

investigate this group of managers.

At the provincial level, over the past several years, post-secondary education in

Newfoundland had been assessed by the provincial governent in an effort to identiQ

areas that needed improvement. In the early nineties, it was determined that dl members

of the post-secondary system needed to leam and cope with technological change and

improvement activities (Warren, 1990). h the college sector, educational delivery,

operations, and technological implementation were targeted areas for irnprovernents

(Warren, 1990). Administrators in Newfoundland colleges were urged to lead these

change and improvement initiatives.

Since 1986, the Newfoundland post-secondary system has undergone three major

reorganizations. Pnor to 1986, five institutions, including Memonal University; two

13

kstitutes of technology in St. John's (the College of Fishenes and the College of Trades);

Bay St. George Comrnunity College in Stephenville; and a system of vocational schools

comprised the full spectrum of post-secondary education for Newfoundland (Dennison,

1995). In 1986, the govemment proposed an expanded and diversified post-secondary

system. Aware of "the need to invest in human capital, and recognizing that future

econornic vitality was heavily dependent upon a well-trained and well-educated

workforce" (Dennison, 1995, p. 82), the government established a new college systern

rhat consistcd of five multi caapus colleges (Labrador, Western Newfoundland, Eastern

Newfoundland, Central Newfoundland, and the Avalon Cornrnunity College). These

systems were created from former vocational schools.

The govemment also expanded the campus of Mernorial University in Corner

Brook and set up another technical institute (Fisher Institute of Trades and Technology)

on the west Coast of Newfoundland. The College of Fishedes and the Newfoundland

College of Trades and Technology in Si. John's were renamed the Institutes of Fisheries

and Marine Technology and the Cabot Jnstitute. In 1990, under a new Minister of

Education, a special report was prepared. the White Paper, which assessed the

performance of the provincial college system and presented an agenda for the future. In

the White Paper, the growth in both numbers of students and participation was

acknowledged but reference to challenges which continued to confiont the post-

secondary system was also made:

A critical aspect of future educational strategies will be to respond to the under education and illiteracy problems so that the labour force becomes retrainable and can adapt to the ever changing cycles of the economy. (Warren, 1990, p. 8)

The agenda for the future emphasized three major principles: (1) equality;

(2) excellence; and (3) eficiency. The govemment outlined specific strategies to address

each of these principles. To achieve "equality", institutions and their mandates were once

again changed. Another campus of Memotid University was built in Newfoundland and

the university campus in Corner Brook upgraded to a four year institution. Specific

college carnpuses in Labrador, centrai, and eastem Newfoundland were granted

permission to continue offering f ~ s t year university credits. Distinctions between

institutes of applied arts and technologies and colleges were eliminated allowing colleges

to develop diploma programs where appropriate. Greater emphasis was also placed on

part-the and Adult Basic Educahon programs.

To achieve "excellence", increased collaboration was encouraged between

community development agencies and small businesses in order to provide optimum

development of the province's human resources. To achieve "eficiency", the govemment

cailed for a "reduction in duplication of seMces and a maximal utilization of available

resources" (Dennison, 1995, p. 84). Initiatives included the establishment of a two tier

system of post-secondary education: (1) Memorial University; and (2) five colleges of

applied arts, technology, and contiming education. Cabot Institute amalgarnated

three nearby campuses of the Avalon Community College to produce a single,

with

comprehensive, non-univers@ institution for St. John's. A formal filiation was

established between the Marine Instiîute and Mernorial University, and a single

institution was fonned on the West coast of the province.

Then, in June 1995, in a W e r effort to optimize eficiency of resources, the

govemment amalgamated five regional colleges into one provincial entity, the College of

the North Atlantic. Al1 three restmchiring efforts were designed to make colleges "equal,

excellent, and efficient" organizations. The present study took place in one of the five

regional colleges when they were just preparing for a provincial amalgrnation of al1 five

systems.

2.2 Description of the College in this Study

In 1996, the college in this study served an area of approximately 7,000 square

kilometres and a population close to 250,000. The college offered more than fifty

prograrns that consisted of a variety of technical, medical, business, vocational, applied

arts, and adult basic education prograrns. In 1996, there were over 5,000 full time and

over 4,000 pari time students enrolled in the college.

The college operated as a centralized institution with seven campuses and severai

smaller community-based leaming centres strategically located throughout the region it

served. One central campus housed offices of the president, four senior directors, four

mid-level managers, and six managers of operations. Fourteen of the twenty managers

16

who participated in the study were located at the central campus. This campus was

geographically located in a large city of the college region, with the furthest campus

being 60 kilomeires away fiom the central campus. AU administrative, fmancial, human

resources and prograrn services were delivered fiom this central campus with the

exception of computer services which was divided between two locations: the centrai

campus and a newly built campus one kilometre fiom the central campus.

The college is a publicly funded institution, established by a provincial legislative

act under the authority of a Minister of Educahon and govemed by a govemment-

appointed board of govemors. It prepared annual operating budgets to be approved by

the Minister and submitted to the Legislahire for fmal assent. The college could not hcur

expenditures or profit beyond this budget without Ministerial approval. The Minister of

Education controlled the acquisition and disposa1 of al1 property, while the board was

held responsible for the operation of the campus facilities. Two of the seven campuses

were oficially closed by the Minister's office during the initial phase of data collection of

the study.

Concomitant with provincial govemment change initiatives, this college began

conducting its own improvement audits. Besides challenges and changes from extemal

stakeholders, college managers also faced challenges from their intemal communities. In

1993, in an effort to improve senrices, this college designed and implemented a Total

Quality Management (TQM) prograrn. In 1995, as part of the TQM initiative, a Climate

and Quality Survey was adrninistered to obtain feedback from the intemal college

17

comrnunity. The survey was circulated among managers, faculty and support staff. Out

of a total population of approximately 550 employees, 297 completed the survey. In

October of 1995, an independent consultancy agency conducted an analysis of the survey

data. Section Four of the report, the overail index ratings of intemal communications at

the coiiege, revealed interesting data. Intemal stakeholders identified communications,

working relations, and technology infkastructure as problem areas that needed to be

addressed by managers (MacDonald & Associates. 1995). Results identified bot . strong

and weak areas of communications within the college. One significant fmding was that

improvements were needed in intemal communications in general and with the computer

communications in parhcular. The problem with intemal communications was identified

in the following comments:

A number of respondents indicated that, if management was more alert to the need to communkate decisions they have made in a more timely fashion, the rumow mil1 would be less of a concem. Employees commented on a tendency on the part of management to allow an "unnecessary" tirne lag between taking and communicating their decisions. (MacDonald & Associates, 1995, p. 9)

The report also noted a number of problems with the computer communications

system at the college. These problems included: ineffective promotion and use of the

technology; access problems; and limited training oppomuiities.

E-mail is recognized as being an important and effective mechanism for facilitating intemal communication. However, staff feel its use can and should be promoted more effectively, that more of an effort should go into training staff for its use; that technical problems/ineficiencies associated with the VAX-based e-mail system should be addressed; and that access has to be improved where certain groups of staff'(e.g., groups of faculty) do

not have easy access. (MacDonald & Associates, 1995, p. 8)

A m e r finding with regard to communications was that college employees "most

commonly" found out about decisions and development at the college through one of

three ways: staff meetings; CO-workers; and grapevine. Managers at this college indicated

that they had been using e-mail communications since the late eighties and considered e-

mail "their prime mode of communications" at the college (Facey, 1996). So begs the

question - if managers were primarily using computers for communications, and staff

receive information through face to face encounters, with whom were managers

commu.nicating via computers? If faculty were informed mainly through face-to-face or

the grapevine about decisions, did that mean that managers were not using computer

communication technology to inform employees about their decisions and other college

developments? Did managers view computer communications as a viable means of

talking to the interna1 comrnunity?

Cornputer communications technoiogies have been heralded for their speed and

eficiency in exchanging messages and uiformation. These technologies have been

reported to: lessen administrative papenivork and routine tasks (Updegrove, Muffo, &

Dunn, 199 1); broaden communication links and access to intemal and external colleagues

(Steinfield & Fuk, 1990); increase organizational effectiveness (Lewis, 199 1); and

provide a means to gather and exchange information quickly and eficiently (Kiesler &

Sproull, 1987). What were these college managers' perceptions and usage intentions with

regard to e-mail communications? Did usage of these technologies lessen administrative

19

and routine tasks? Couid managers in this study utilize e-mail to communicate decisions

to staff for "more timely" exchanges? What impact was theû technology use having on

the college community? Codd the technology be more optimally utilized for

communications at the college?

The current mandate of many Canadian community colleges is to help

organizational members l e m the knowledge and skills for today's technological era

(ACCC, 1993). Colleges themselves need to be knowledge-based, cornputer literate, and

self-reliant communities which are cornposed of highly educated information processors

who adjust quickly to the challenge and oppominity of change (Dennison, 1995). With

declining resources and budget cutting, college managers in Newfoundland fmd it

dificult to cope with govemment directives and reorganizational initiatives (Facey,

1996). How do college managers in Newfoundland attend to their own leaming and

development needs with ongoing social, economic, and technological change? How, in

the midst of constant change and improvement initiatives in the provincial public

education system, can college managers be assisted to l e m and cope with technological

change challenges? These were some of the questions that were addressed in the study.

Chapter Three

3 .O Review of Literature

3.1 Introduction

The purpose of this review is to examine literature relevant to the central theme of

the smdy: college managers' learning and use of computer comm~cat ions technologies.

Content analyses of the interview transcripts began early in the data collection process of

the study. The analyses centered hitially on managers' general adult leamhg strategies.

However, as the analyses continueci, it becarne evident that managers leanied on their

own initiative and took responsibility for leaming and using cornputer communication

applications. From this analyses, 1 subsequently redirected my attention to the literature

on self-directed leaming. The term that is used most consistently in the literature to

describe learning on one's own is self-directed leaming. 1 discovered that the literature

presented two contradictory Mews of the process of self-directed learning. One view

portrayed self-directed leaming as a linear, weil-planned process (Knowles, 1975; Tough,

1979). The other view held that self-directed leaming was a cornplex, nonlinear,

unstruchired process (Berger, 1990; Danis & Tremblay, 1987; Memam and Caffarella ,

199 1 ; Spear, 1988; Spear & Mocker, 1984). Memam and Caffarella ( 199 1) concluded

that although recent studies revealed self-directed leaming to be a dynamic process,

evidence was still inconclusive. The inconclusive evidence fiom previous research

s u e s on self-directed leaming led to the need to examine more closely the self-directed

21

leaming process of college managers in the current study. Answers to the question raised

in this study of how college managers leam to use computer communication technology

could clan@ and contribute to the ongoing controversial debate on how adults go about

canying out theû seKdirected leaming processes.

Caffarella & O'Donnell(1987) also noted that "some serious work" has been done

in conceptualizing the nature of self-directed leaming but researchers have not gone far

enou& - "we need to do more work in gaining an understanding of the choosing,

planning, and guiding steps that leamers perform fiom the early stages throughout the

entire learning project" @. 202). They pointed out that, once these steps have been

researched, an adult educator would be in a better position to help adults increase theû

competency as a leamer (p. 202). Candy (1991) suggested that research studies fiom the

leamers' perspectives could fil1 in "elusive" aspects of adults' self-directed leaming

process that positivistic research approaches may have missed.

Caffarella & OtDonnell (1987) formulated several questions related to the issue of

competencies in selfdirected leaming that they say require further exploration: How do

adults acquire skills and competencies in self-directed leaming? Do learners become

proficient as a result of such social-environmental factors as work expenence, formal

schooling, peer influence. and trail and error? niese questions, they suggested, "offer a

rich area for m e r study" (p. 203). The current study is concemed with the two

opposing views of self-directed learning and explores the "rich" descriptions of how

aduîts go about their technology leaniing fiom their own perspective in the hope that the

22

study will lead to a better understanding of the leamhg that occurs when adults take

responsibility for their own technology leaniing.

Researchea in the area of self-directed leaming pointed out that a number of

factors and variables determine how people learn on their own: the resources used by the

leamer; the quality of both the process and the end product of that leaming, and the

cornpetencies that enable a person to carry out this form of leamhg (Candy, 199 1;

Memam and Caffarella, 199 1). Exploring these factors is especially important for future

research agendas (Memarn and Caffarella , 1991) but should be conducted fiom the

leamers' perspectives (Candy, 1991). Candy (199 1) noted that recent research on self-

directed learning has become "stalemated". He pointed out that a number of studies on

selfdirection have emphasized the positivistic approach to research. He promoted

another approach to self-direction research - "to avoid the bias that results fiom emphasis

on just one main strategy" (p. 427). He argued in favor of descriptive studies that use an

interpretive fiamework which he proclaimed provides richer findings into the process of

leaniing. He suggested that to neglect qualitative research into some of the elusive "nch"

aspects of how adult leamers organize and do their self-directed leamhg is "potentially to

miss out on some of this nchness" (p. 427). He argued that leamers' subjective

construing of situations significantly influences the strategies they employ. He

recommended that researchers "inquire into the changing nature of the learning tasks as

learners engage more fully and enter more deeply into the material ... and the strategies the

learners employ, especially with respect to the selection and use of resources and

23

assistance" @. 445). The cment study by the nature of the research question used a

qualitative case study approach. By using this approach, the "rich" descriptions of how

managers say they organize and carry out their learning would uncover elusive aspects of

the self-directed leamhg process. It was anbcipated that the qualitative approach of this

study would get at the "elusive" issues that positivistic studies had not yet uncovered.

Elusive aspects discussed in the literature primarily referred to social and environmental

factors of self-directed learning (Candy, 199 1). Studies and literature related to social

and envuonmental influences are oudined in later sections of this review.

Tied to the need for M e r research on self-directed learning is an even more

recent phenornenon - the study of computer communication technology adoption and use.

There is concem in the current literature about the lack of research on users' adoption and

usage processes related to advanced communication technology (Fulk & Steinfield,

1990). A number of new theories have been formulated regarding computer

communication technology use but more verification shidies are needed (Daft, Lengel, &

TreWio, 1987; Fulk & Steinfield, 1990; Rogers, 1995). Examples of communication

technology theones of how usen adopt and use technology include: social influence

(Fulk & Steinfield, 1990); environmental factors (Rogers, 1995); and perceptions of

managerial roles (Golden, Beauclair, & Sussman, 1992). The underpi~ings of social

influence theory is based on cconstructivism and appear to dovetail with qualitative

research studies related to self-directed leamhg (Candy, 199 1). Hence, in the current

study, the social influence theory related to computer communication technology use was

24

examined in closer detail.

The majority of studies on computer communication technology adoption and use

have been carried out using quantitative methods (Rogers, 1995). Little quaiitaîive

research has been conducted on users' adoption and usage processes (Cahoon, 1995).

Like educational researchers, comrnunication researchers argued that, to understand users'

behaviour in adophg and using technology, research must be conducted fkom the

individual's perceptions of the technology adoption and difision process (Eveland, 1979;

Rogers, 1995). There is a need for interdisciplinary research that examines the entire

process of technology adoption, leaming, and utilization praesses (Eveland, 1989;

Lewis, 199 1 ; Rogers, 1995).

With advanced comrnunication technologies a p p e a ~ g in the marketplace "almost

on a daily bais" (Karahanna, 1995)- it is imperative that researchers take into account

theories and fmdings fiom other fields of research. This study addressed this need by

linking literature and studies f h m the field of adult leaming and the field of computer

communication technologies. More specifically, in the current study, research needs

from two separate fields of research were addressed: self-directed learning and

communication technology use. By focusing attention on the technology leaming efforts

of college managers, this study would contribute to research fuidings fiom both fields.

The literature relevant to this shidy cornes fiom several bases: theories of self-

directed leamhg ; managerial leaming and organizational development literature as it

relates to college management; and theories of computer communication technology use.

25

The review provides a fiamework for analyzing and understanding the technology

leamhg and usage processes of college managers as they incorporate computer

communication technologies into their work environment.

With respect to managers' self-directed leaming efforts, the concept of self-

directed leaming in this thesis is grounded in the theoretical underpinnings of the works

of Tou& (197 1, 1979), Knowles (1975), and Spear and Mocker (1984). in this study, the

concept of self-directed leanhg and its relationship to managerial leaming and

development are explored. How enviroments and contexts affect the seEdirected

leaming process are aiso examined. Recent research findings by Lave and Wenger

(1991) and Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) on situated learning contexts are of

relevance to this study and examined in the context of the study.

With respect to managers' use of computer communication technologies, the

concept of communication technology use is grounded in the theoretical underpinnings of

a social information processing perspective originally derived from sociology and social

psychoiogy. Recent works of communication theonsts have extended social information

processing theones of media use into a social influence mode1 of technology use. The

works of communication researchers, F u 4 Schmitz, and Steinfield (1990) and Rogers

(1995) are pertinent to the study and are highlighted in this chapter.

3.2 The Concept of Self-Directed Learning

Researchers point out that adult educaton often overlook the study of the "natural"

context of leaniing or consider it less important than studying learning that takes place in

formal settings (Candy, 199 1 ; Memam & Caff'ella, 199 1). Aithough Tough's (197 1)

and Knowles' (1975) research became the bais of a number of research studies on self-

directed leaming, serious study of self-directed leaming is stili a fairly recent

phenomenon (Candy, 199 1 ; Cross, 198 1 ; Memam & Caffarella, 199 1). The concept of

self-directed leaming was fnst proposed by Houle in 196 1 who exarnined a group of

twenty-two adults who were actively engaged in leaming activities without seeking

support or assistance. Influenced by Houle, Tough (1967) expanded the concept of self-

directed leaming projects in which the "initiative, responsibility, and control reside in the

leamer, not in someone else" (p. 4). Tough (1979) defined a leaming project as:

A highly deliberate effort to gain and retain certain knowledge and skill, or to change in some way ... Any method can be included - reading, listening, obsenring, attending class, reflecting, practicing, geening answers to question -- if the person's primary intention during the episode was to gain and retain certain definite knowledge and skill (includes such matters as changed awareness, cornpetence, habits, attitudes, sensitivity, and confidence). (p. 1)

The definition encompasses a full range of leaming which includes classroom leaming,

leamhg organized by agencies or another person in a one-to-one or group basis,

programmed instruction, and self-planned leaming. Tough ( 1979) used the label planner

of leaming to refer to the person (or group or object) that does most of the detailed day-

to-day planning in the learning activity. To be more precise, the plamer is the person or

thing responsible for the majority of the detailed day-to-day planning and deciding in a

leaming effort. Specifically, the planner makes decisions about what to leam, how to

leam, when to begin, and the Pace at which to proceed. Managers in this study were the

initiators and plannen of their own leaming.

Knowles (1975) also explored the concept of self-directed leaming and conceived

of it as:

A process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their leamhg needs, formulating learning goals, identifjmg human and matenal resources for leaming, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating leaming outcornes. Other labels found in the literature to describe the process are sel/-planned learning, inquiry merhod. independent learning, seljl education, self-instruction, self-teaching, self-sluày, and autonomous learning. The trouble with most of most of these labels is that they seem to imply learning in isolation, whereas self-directed leaming usually takes place in association with various kinds of helpers, such as teachers, tutors, mentors, resource people, and peers. There is a lot of mutuality among a group of self-directed leamers. (p. 18)

Knowles' concems regarding the use of various kinds of helpers are important to this

study as it is this d e f ~ t i o n and outlined steps that will be used in the data analysis to

identiQ the self-directed leamhg process of college managers.

The current study is concerned with the technology learning efforts of college

managers that are self-initiated. In self-initiated leaming, the planners are the lemers

themselves. For example, in this snidy, managers needed to l e m cornputer

communication technology. To fmd out who the planner was in such a leaming projecf

Tough (1979) suggested we would need to seek answers to the following question: Who

was responsible for the day-to-day planning of the leaming, for deciding the knowledge

and ski11 to be leamed, and for choosing materials, resources, and methods (obtaining

training, obseMng others' using the technology, seeking help ~ o m others) to use each

tirne in leaming the different technological applications. The leamer may seek help and

advice fiom a variety of individuals and utilize a variety of hurnan and non-human

resources, but the learner retains responsibility for and control of the leamhg decisions.

Given that the purpose of the current study was to examine the technology leaming of

college managers that was not initiated by the college, the issue of initiative is key to the

concept of self-directed leaming and to the fmdings of this study.

Four types of leamhg in the workplace have been identified in the literatwe:

formal, nonformal, informal, and self-directed (Cahoon, 1997; Mocker & Spear, 1984;

Watkins & Marsick, 1990). Mocker and Spear (1984) classified their four types based

upon the degree of initiative and control the leamer had with respect to two variables: (1)

the objectives of the leaming; and (2) the process of the leaming. in the current study,

managers' own initiative in their technology leaming process helped define the concept of

self-directed leaming. However, in the study, whether managers feel they have control

over their leamhg and decision-making processes to adopt computer communication

technology is also explored. As senior college managers had already decided (without

consultation among peers) to adopt computer technology as its primary fonn of

communications, the implication of this is explored in the study.

29

3.2.1 Social Context of Self-Directed Leaniing

Self4irected leamers frequentiy conduct their leaming in a social context and reiy

on others, in a variety of ways, as important learning resources. The issue of social

influence and environmentai context is raised in this study. The concept of self-directed

leaming adopted fiorn Knowles (1975) and Tough (1979), while outlining the difference

between types of planners, do not deal directly with the notion of social influence or the

environmental context. Jarvis (1987), however, does. He argued that

ieaming is not just a psychological process that happens in splendid isolation from the world in which the leamer lives, but that it is intirnately related to the world and afliected by it. (p. I 1)

JaMs attempted to provide a sociological perspective for the study of adult leaming. His

argument is

to highlight the fact that leamhg always occws within a social context and that the learner is to some extent a social constmct, so that learning should be regarded as a social phenornenon as well as an individudistic one, (p. 15)

JaMs referred to the social construction of the penon and elaborated on the relations

between individuals and the culture in which context impacts leaming. The leaming

processes examined in the current study is essentially concemed with the social aspects

of self-directed learning, even though this social influence was not distinguished at the

outset of the study. In an attempt to understand the social and cultural context of the

college, college managers' perceptions of their management role and work environment

were explored.

Wilson (1993) suggested that JaMst work highlighted "objectified" factors, such as

language, tools, social settings and these factors act as "secondary social influences"

(Rogoff, 1984, p. 5). Jarvis' (1987) mode1 of adult leamhg "commences and concludes

with the penon of the learner" (p. 37). There is no sense of a recunive stnicturing as

proposed by a situated view of leanllng. At fusf the social conditions in the college

under study suggested that artifacts (such as culture) were secondary intluencers of the

leamhg process. Upon M e r analysis, a more constmcted situated view oîleaming

emerged. Managers learned in the situations notfiorn the situations.

Cognitive theorists, such as Rogoff (1 984), Lave and Wenger ( 199 l), and Brown,

Collins and Duguid (1989) argued that leaming is not situated "in the lemer" but rather

leanillig is "spread across the person acting with others in culturally organized senings"

(Wilson, p. 75). Adults do not learn fiom the direct expenence of using computen, but

"learn in [the activity], as they act in situations and are acted upon by situations" (Wilson,

1993, p. 75). It is interesting to note the parallel between the characteristics of these

leamhg situations and the sociocultural context in the current study. Teçhnology users

learn in the activity. What is leamed is not separate fiom how it is leamed (Brown,

Collins, & Duguid, 1989).

3.2.2 Authentic ActiMty and Self-Direction

The dominant view of cognition is that leaming is independent of context (?Wilson,

1993). A challenge to this view is that learning is located in the real world of human

activity (Wilson, 1993). The current study examines managers' technology leaming in

the context of everyday tasks and work responsibilities. The view of leamhg as situated

in the context of authentic activity is significant to the study.

Broui, Collins, and Duguid (1989) demonstrated that knowledge is always under

construction because it is "Uitricately a product of the activity in which [knowledge is]

produced" @. 33). In their Mew, leaming is a process of enculturation: if people are to

leam, they must become embedded in the culture in which the leaming has meaning;

conceptuai Erameworks cannot be meaningfûlly removed ftom their settings. Leaming in

this respect is a cultural phenornenon because people do not leam abstract, self-contained

units of knowledge that they then apply to new situations. Rather, "throughout their

lives, people, consciously and unconsciously, adopt the behaviour and belief systems of

new social groups. Given the chance to observe and practice in silu the behaviour of

members of culture, people pick up relevant jargon, imitate behaviour, and gradually start

to act in accordance with noms" (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989, p. 34). Authentic

activity, then, as portrayed in this discussion and s h o w in this study, is understood as

ordinary daily practices that are situationaily defmed, tool dependent, and socially

interactive. This study is concemed with managers' process of computer communication

32

technology learning and use. Would their process of learning be a product of the culture

of the college, a dependence on cornputers, and a result of social interactions with peers

and colleagues?

3.3 Self-directed Leamhg Research Concerns

A major criticism of self-directed leamhg studies is that the rnajotity of these

studies have either been "venfication studies" using Tough's methodology processes or

studies on the nature of the self-directed leamhg method related to "how" questions

(Caffarella & O'Donnell, 1987). Caffarella and O'Domell pointed out that research on

the oature of self-directed leaming methods answers such questions as:

How do adults go about engaging in learning projects? How do they identiQ and use resources? How can we improve or increase the skills needed for self-directed leaming? (p. 20 1)

Caff~el la and O'Donnell divided the "nature of self-directed learning method" into four

categories: (1) the planning process and conceptualization of planning; (2) types of

planners; (3) types of leaming resources used; and (4) cornpetencies related to method.

They also noted that serious work has been done thus far in this area, but that

we have not gone far enough in our empincal work..we need to do more work in gaining an understanding of the choosing, planning, and guiding steps that planners perform fiom the early stages throughout the entire learning ptoject ...[ this] categov would appear to lend itself to qualitative studies to d e t e d e planning and organizing issues. (pp. 202-204)

Cdarella and O'Donnell pointed out that Spear and Mocker's (1984) work is an example

of an alternative conceptuabation of preplanning among adults in their study. Spear and

Mocker (1984) f o n d that preplanning did not occur except in rare cases. They suggested

that, based on a concept of organizing circumstance (where adults tend to select a course

from limited alternatives which occur within their environment), M e r research on the

effect of circumstance on the leamhg efforts' structures need to be conducted.

The current study takes into consideration a nurnber of the issues raised by

Caffarella and O'Donnell(1987) and research suggestions fiom Spear and Mocker's

(1984) work. With respect to Caffarella and O'Domell's (1587) concerns about

researching the nature of self-directed leaniing method, this study is an extension of their

approach as it attempts to M e r understand how adults identiS, and organize resources

for their technology leaming. Addressing Spear and Mocker's (1984) concem, in the

study, a group of managers are studied using a qualitative approach to detemine social,

technological and environmental impacts on their technology leaniing and use.

Caffarella (1 993) noted that adult educators and researchers "continue to haggle

over the terminolog- to describe this phenornenon" (p. 25). She pointed out that there are

currently three principal ideas incorporated in the concept of selfkiirected learning:

a self-initiated process of leaming that stresses the ability of individuals to plan and manage their own leaming, an attribute or characteristic of leamers with persona1 autonomy as its hallmark, and a way of organizing instruction in formai settings that allows for greater leamer control. @p. 25-26)

In this study, the leaming process and utilization strategies of managers as they

went about leaming computer communication technologies were investigated. Therefore,

Caffarella's first principal idea regmding the self-initiated process of leaming that stresses

the ability of individuals to plan and manage their own leamhg is of importance to this

study .

uiqujr into the nature and processes of self-directed leaming has its roots in

Houle (1961) and Tough (1979). The inquiry continues to grow as evidenced by the

increased number of publications in the 1 s t few years (Caffarella, 1993). Caffarella and

OtDomell (1988) noted that there is a lack of conceptual clarity with regard to the

concept of self-directed leaming. Cafkella and O ' D O M ~ concluded that to fully

understand the concept:

researchers should reference their philosophical fiarnework and assumptions. This will allow the profession to analyze the fmdings based on the particular ideological orientation. @. 44)

The concept of selfidirected leaming in this paper is grounded in the humanistic

philosophies of Houle (196 l), Tou& (1 979), and Knowles (1975). While aspects of a

humanistic philosophy dominate the study, a constmctivist perspective, that of social

influence theories, M e s a portion of the fmdings and interpretation.

3.3.1 Form and Process of Self-Directed Leming

Researchers, primarily replicating Tough's (1979) original shidy on leaming

projects, verified that a sigiificant number of adults leam a great deal outside the

confines of fomal educational institutions (Brookfield, 1984). Even though earlier

35

studies described self-directed leamhg as an individual function that was independent of

institutional structures and resources, other researchers have found that self-directed

leamhg is not a "solitary context or environment" (Kaswonn, 1988, p. 66).

Tough's (1979) and Knowles' (1975) work irnplied that adults use a Linear,

stepwise process. Cafkella (1993) noted that research studies are challenging this

fuiding and a newer mode1 of self-directed leaming has emerged. The newer "scenario of

the leaming process is not so well planned or linear in nature; instead, there is emphasis

on opportunities that people fmd within their own environment or on chance occurrences"

(p. 28). Spear and Mocker ( 1984) derived the concept of the organizing circumstance

which postulated that self-directed leamers, "rather than preplanning their leaming

projects, tend to select a course fiom limited alternatives which occur fortuitously within

their environment" (p. 4). They noted that circumstance is defmed as a subjective

concept which gives meaning to the individual's environment. Spear and Mocker's

research is important as this will be used in the data analysis of the study to explain

college manager's identification of resources and circumstances in their learning to use

technology .

3.3.2 Management Development and Self-Directed Learning

The self-directed leaming of professional and organizational groups of managers

has been the attention of considerable study. A recent data-base library search uncovered

36

a number of studies on self-directed learning that focus specifically on the leanhg of

administrators and managers fiom both public and private organizationai settings.

Examples of these studies include: university academic managers (Ahmad, 1994);

educational administrators (Webb, 1996); human resource managers (Johnston, 1993);

managershlue collar workers (Jude-York, 199 1); executives (Margotta, 1990); corporate

managers (Dechant, 1989); college and university administrators (Benson, 1974); middle

managers (Kops. 1993; Young, 1986); organizationai managers (Rad , 1986); and

military managers (Murphy, 1984).

Studies of management learning in public institutions and private organizations

serve to inform and support the present study. The fmdings of three studies that utilized

Tough's (1979) methodology to study the learning of managers produced results that are

of relevance to this study. Johnston (1993) investigated the extent self-directed leaming

assisted six Employee Assistance Program managers in leaming and adapting to their new

role in the organization. He found that self-directed learning was Mrtually the sole

leaming modality used by these managers in learning their new role. He also found that

the way in which these managers organized their self-directed leaming experience was

inflüenced by two factors: fmt was the complexity of the organizational environments in

which these managers worked (the more complex the environment, the more complex the

learning experience, the less complex the environment, the less complex the learning

experience); and second was the perspective that each manager brought to the role.

These perspectives set boundaries around the kind of learning that occurred. The

37

managers placed the learning that occurred in the context of personal goals, professional

life, or organhtional role.

Benson (1974) h t e ~ e w e d administraton in Tennessee colleges and universities

to discover the extent of managers' leaming. Benson discovered that administrators

placed a high priority on job-related learning. He recommended that administrators

would increase their leaniing efforts if employers provided assistance and increased

resources, such as tirne and rnoney for their leaniing activities.

Over the past two decades, there has been increasing interest in the way managers

l e m fiom nomal work experiences (Davies & Easterby-Smith, 1984; Marsick &

Watkins, 1990; Zemke; 1985). Davies and Easterby-Smith (1984) interviewed sixty

managers who were employed in five different companies to address the problem of

"ensuring that managers do in fact leam and develop as much as they might fkom normal

work expenences" (p. 169). They concluded that: experience is the key to development

of managers and that some kinds of experiences provide more effective development than

others; and managers develop primarily through confrontations with novel situations and

problems. Managers leam best when they initiate changes and job reassignments

themselves and do not wait to be propelled through whatever systems that exist in the

Company.

In studies at Honeywell Corporation (Zemke, 1986), it was found that most

management development occuned outside formal training programs. In snidies which

ran fiom 1979 to 1980, they concluded

38

that successful Honeyweil managers leam to manage fmt and foremost fiom the kind of job experiences and assignments they receive ... second and third were good relationships with others in the organization (particulariy one's supervisor) and formal training and education - if trainhg occurred at the nght t h e . (p. 46)

In the study, the conclusion was that managers l e m to manage in a 509&30%20% ratio

fiom job experiences, relationships, and training. Key hindrances to competence-

building were dso identified: a lack of time for persona1 development; lack of

opportunity for advancement; and a boss who places heavy emphasis on short-tenn

results. These two studes demonstrated that managers leam best in authentic job

expenence and that organizations need ic encourage managers to become actively

involved in their own development.

These studies focused on general self-directed leaming projects. No studies were

located on combining research on "self-directed leaming" and "advmced cornputer

communication technology use".

3.3.3 Cultural and Environmental Influences on Self-Directed Leamii-g

The argument that a knowledge of culture is usefùl when attempting to understand

colleges and what happens in colleges was supported by Ahmad (1994) and Owen

(1995). Owen (1995) suggested that an awareness of a college's culture offers a way to

understand what is happening in that particular college. The influence of culhue and

context on managers' self-directed leaming is a central issue for the current study.

39

Context refen to the relevant environment that gives meaning to an event. Cultural

context refers to the way things are done in an organization.

Studies have shown that the cultural contexts of leaming impact the kind, quantity,

and quality of leaming for organizational members. Cultural conditions cm facilitate or

impede self-directed leamhg within organizations. Kops (1993) examined the leamhg

of fifieen middle managers in a single govemment department and found that

organizational context and conditions influenced the self-planned leaming of managers.

Certain organizational conditions can enhance or impede the self-planned efforts of

managers.

Ahmad (1 994) investigated the leaming pattems of nine faculty members frorn

lllinois universities as they prepared themselves for acadernic management roles. To

achieve this purpose, he examined the cultural contexts and the pattems of forma1 and

informai learning of faculty members when they fust became academic managers.

Individual analysis revealed four different cultural contexts. The study revealed a

mixture of cultures beside the dominant culture of the institution in which they worked.

Academic administrators tended to participate in leamhg activities that fostered self-

directed leamhg and three pattems of leaming emerged: (1) increased reliance on

extemal resources; (2) increased efficiency in learning; and (3) increased use of

participative decision making. The conclusion of Ahmad's study was that learning

pattems of academic administrators transcended forma1 and infonnal classifications and

patterns of leaming needed to be understood within the cultural contexts of the individuai

40

and institutional factors. A m e r conciusion of the study was that leaniing for academic

administrators was more selfsirected than other-directed and learning was c h e d out

through on-the-job experience than through forma1 preparation.

Dechant (1989) examined the nature and process of leaming as experienced by

twenty-one senior-level corporate managers who undertook change assip_mmts within

their organizaîions. One of her conclusions was that the most significant impediments to

the effectiveness of managers in leamhg are the constraints by theu organizational

cultures and the lack of regular feedback from their management for the purposes of

guidance and support.

Al1 three studies referred to the impact and significance of context and culture on

managers' self-planned leaniing. The term "culture" is presented in broad ternis in these

studies. Neither of these studies provided detailed descriptions of different cultures or a

typology of different organizational cultures that might have provided more descriptive

data foi deciding if one particular organizational culture supported or constrained self-

directed leaming than another culture. Because of the impact of culture on leaming,

naming and identifying dominant organizational cultures is relevant to this study.

Spear (1988) stressed the importance of examining the impact of environment on

self-directed leamers:

Certainly environment has significant impact on human behaviour and to seek to understand self4irected leaning without reference to environment ignores both research and comrnon sense. (p. 206)

Findings of the influence of environment on self-directed leaming have resulted fiom the

41

research of Spear and Mocker (1984) and Spear (1988). These two studies supported the

conclusion that the environment (both social and physical) has a strong impact on self-

directed learning. In a study of seventy-eight seKdirected leamers, Spear and Mocker

(1984) used Lewin's field theoiy and the concept of life space to devise a way of

expl-g how environmental variables affect the learner. Their andysis focused on

how and why learners chose particular resources or made decisions. Their earlier

analysis failed to detect evidence of learners' conscious preplanning. They determined

that self-directed l e h g was significantly influenced by the environment or what they

called the "organizing circumstance". The concept of organizing circumstance postulated

that

self-directed leamers, rather than preplanning their leamhg projects, tend to select a course fiom limited alternatives which occur fomiitously within their environment, and which structures their leaming projects ... circumstance is defmed as a subjective concept which gives meaning to the individuai's environment. Environment is the reality which exists apart fkom or dependent of concept or perception. (p. 4)

Spear and Mocker noted that individual circumstances limited and organized leamers'

learning process. They contended that choice of resources

takes place within an area of circumstances which, at the same the, provides for, and limits alternatives and actions. The circumstances can be said to have an organizing function, and any behavior must be understood w i t h the existing context. (p. 9)

These fmdings are of particular importance to the present study. There is a parallel

between leamers' use of resources found in the immediate p r o h i t y in Spear and

Mocker's (1984) study and the selection of resources and help obtained by managers in

the current study. Additionaliy, Spear and Mockerfs fmdings regarding how

circumstances can limit actions and behaviours of leamers and their suggestion for

research into this area provides M e r support for the current study's investigation into

college managers1 leamhg and coping strategies in technology learning and use. In the

following section, four college cultures are described to fiame the environmental contexts

under which colleges operate.

3.4 Orguùzational Culture and the Role of College Managers

This study attempted to identify the organizational culture of the college by asking

managers (a) to descnbe their roles and responsibilities and (b) to explain how they use

communication technology. Bensimon (1994) outlined a typology of organizational

culture models that help explain cultural contexts in college settings. She suggested that

how managers defme their role reveals how they perceive the culture of institutions and

can help explain managerial behaviours. Describing the role of managers in colleges is a

complex task (Bimbaum, 1988). In theory, college management roles often appear ciear

cut and easily understandable. However, Piland (1994) pointed out that "[iln practice,

ths is not always the case. Overlap and gaps in the performance of these roles show up

frequentlyl' (p. 92).

Up to the last decade, community colleges had been experiencing swelling

emollrnents, quick retums, stable sources of fùnding, 2nd supportive extemal

43

constituencies ( B e d & Carter, 1993; Dennison, 1995; Dennison & Gallagher, 1986).

Aified and Carter (1993) stated that despite community colleges' apparent advantages,

"the forces for change in institutional management have gained strength in the 1990s" (p.

8). Stakeholders are coming to realize that traditional approaches to management will not

work in a market characterized by quality-conscious customers, aggressive cornpetitors,

and tightening resources. Concems are mounting with regard to inconsistency in program

and seMce quality, slowed response to program markets, lack of innovative services,

inadequate staff development, and inefficient resource allocation (Alfied & Carter, 1993;

Dennison, 1995). Some researchers believed that many of these concems are the result of

actions of managers (Alfred and Carter , 1993; Dennison & Gallagher, 1986). Alfred and

Carter (1993) suggested that "[wlhat is striking about these concems is that they are al1

basicdy management-induced and management-directed" (p. 8).

What are the more traditional forms of college management and in what direction

are they heading? Where do definitions of management corne from? How do we defme

good management practice? How do college management practices impact technology

selection and use? Bensimon (1994) suggested that the answers to these questions

depend on how we Mew the nature of social organizations. Birnbaurn (1988) showed that

the manager who views the college primady as an organizational chart will have a very

diflerent conception of management than the manager who views the college as a

politicai entity. Since conceptions of management seemed to be derived fiom the

assumphons managers make about the nature of social organizations, Bensirnon (1 994)

44

suggested that "it is important to examine organizationai fiames through which

administrators make sense of the organizations they atternpt to lead" (p. 24).

An orgauizational fiame represents the lens that influences what managers see and

do. Organizational îrarnes determine what questions might get asked, what information is

collected and shared, how problems are defuied, what communications processes will be

utilized, and ultimately how communication technologies will be deployed (Bensimon,

1994; Hoy & Miskel, 1996). According to Bolman and Deal (1984),

Frames are windows on the world. Frames filter out some things while allowing others to pass through easily. Frarnes help us to order the world and decide what action to take. Every manager uses a personai fiame, or image, of organizations to gather information, make judgments, and get things done. (p. 4)

Bimbaum (1988) suggested that, for college managers to be effective in their

work, they must recognize the interactions between four different organizational hunes:

the bureaucratic, collegial; political; and symbolic. The bureaucratic frame is based upon

the following characteristics: a hierarchical division of labour; a centre of power and

control that resides at the top; established lines of authority for communication; rational

processes for development and implementation of policies; and d e s and policies that are

recorded in Ating. Wnters (Bhbaum, 1988; Demison & Gallagher, 1986; Hoy &

Miskel, 1996; Quinian, 1995) noted that bureaucratic models foster the notion of

organizations as closed and tightly-coupled systerns that typically depend on inside

resources for hctioning and do not seek information fiom the extemal environment.

Dance (199 1) suggested that a hierarchical, one-dimensional approach to leadership and

45

management will no longer keep college leaders afloat as they lead institutions in

"constant flux" (p. 29). Instead of using a top-down approach, today's colleges could

better serve client needs by using bottom-up designs that include memben and

stakeholders as partners in the organization (Quidan, 1995; Spanbauer, 1992). Tapscott

(1996) advocated the use of newer technologies in encouraging and ensuring effective

communications arnong these "new partners" in organizations.

Bensimon (1994) noted that, within the collegial model, the emphasis is on human

needs and how organizations can be tailorcd to meet these needs. Under this model,

desired characteristics of colleges include: having a sense of community ; s h e d purpose.

values, and interests; loyalty and shared understandings; continuing interactions; and

cohesiveness of powerful noms (Bimbaurn, 1988). Contrasted with the bureaucratie

model, the collegial model views the organization as h a h g several centres of power and

authority but with management as the major centre of communications. Managers

become cornmunicators, negotiators, mediators, and arbitrators. Dennison and Gallagher

(1986) suggested that, as a style of management, collegiality was first adopted to "slow

down the rate of change" ( p. 200) and to maintain existing working conditions. Collegial

models view authority relationships as flat and managers' roles as being advisory rather

than authoritative. Cornputer communication technologies have been marketed as tools

that could assist managers in encouraging a sense of community and flatter organizationai

structures. Claims made about these technologies include their ability of providing

managers with a more effective mechanism for reaching staff who are located at different

46

campuses, seeking consensus on organizational decision making issues, and building

leamhg communities (Tapscott, 1996).

A number of writers promote the political model as an aitemate model for today's

colleges (Baldridge, Curtis, Ecker, & Riley, 1986; Kerr & Gade, 1986). The mode1 is

based upon a number of factors: competition for scarce resources in which al1 members

have an equal right to compete; a notion that change strategies are frequently the results

of coalitions; and groups have the right to make their own decisions (Kerr & Gade, 1986;

Quinlan, 1995). Bimbaurn (1988) described coalitions as groups that are likely to fom

and challenge formal authority in decentralized organizations. He also noted that

coalitions are not likely to f o m where centralized managerial power is considered strong

enough to overwhelrn coalitions. Bimbaurn (1988) agreed that political models required

managers to have a good sense of timing, focus on common bonds that link coalitions,

and be open comrnunicators. He concluded that in comparison to other types of

organiiations the centralized power of college leaders is often threatened or diminished in

a political setup. However, by keeping ownership of forma1 authority and control over

scarce resources, technology, infornation, knowledge, and decision making processes,

power could be retained. Because the college is a part of the educational pie, Dance

(1991) noted that competition for scarce resources and conflicts are a part of today's

college environment. Because of this competition, the political fiame will continue to be

entertained as a viable organizational model (Dance, 199 1).

Managers who view their work through a political lens espouse open

communications but sa want control over communication networks within the college.

By keeping communications cenîralized, their power will less likely be challenged.

Managers from this fiame would likely encourage both formal and informal uses of

communication technologies. As long as managers can exercise influence over how the

technologies are to be utilized and do not lose their control over stakeholders and the

technology, then they would likely not censure usage and experimentation with these

technologies.

Within the symboiic fiame, organizations are cultural systems of shared meanings

and beliefs in which organizational structures and processes are socially constructed

(Bensimon, 1994). Managers construct and maintain systems of shared meanings, shared

languages, culture and paradigms by sustaining symbols, rituais, and myths thût create a

unifying system of belief for the institution. Managers who support this frame are

primatily catalysts and facilitators who brhg about a "sense of organizational purpose

and orderliness through interpretation, elaboration, and reinforcement of institutional

culture" (Bensimon, 1994. p. 27). Managers become good leaders and communicators

who "do a lot of listening and soiicit the dreams and hopes from the people; tell the

people about the good things [they] are finding and in three to six months take these

t b g s and report them as the things [they] would like to see happen" (Bensirnon, 1989, p.

114). In this fiame, managers wouid likely use computer communication technologies to

collect feedback and participate in collaborative efforts with intemal and extemal college

stakeholders.

Seldin and Associates (1990) noted that organizational environments shape

managerial perceptions, attitudes, and performance for better or for worse and that

positive organizational climate and support systems make a significant difference to

managerial growth and performance. Support from college boards, departments of

education, and colieagues in the form of encouragement and rewards to elevate the

importance of managing and leading need to be increased.

As people work with each other over a long term, they often develop similar

"fiames", beliefs, and values (Scheh, 1985). Managers may need to "step outside" the

college physically or electronically to gain broader experiences and develop newer

"fiames" in which to view college environments. With the "outside" world so easily

accessible electronically, managers may need support and encouragement to increase

rather than decrease their participation in distribution lists and interact with colleagues

fiom û ~ ~ u n d the world to gain new perspectives and new answers. Networking will

become the most important activity for educational leaders of the future (Davie, 1987;

Makela, 1997). Oppomuiities should be made available to managers to practice, network,

and share information with colleagues fiom around the world and not just in their

"immediate" vicinities (Makela, 1997).

Fullan (1982, 1991) stated that, in tirnes of change and reorganization, perceptions

of rola affect educational managers' behaviour and choices in that some managers may

actively lead the change process while others merely cope with change. Managers who

are a part of widespread organizational change need to learn the significance, impact, and

49

limitations of the change process in order to lead the process as opposed to "just coping"

with change.

Fullan (1982) pointed out that even within the same system, educational managers

wili either work with change or avoid change depending on their perceptions of their role.

Different educational systems can limit or facilitate change in different ways but the

starting point fiom an individual manager's point of Mew is to reflect on how his or her

own perception of the role of manager has built in limitations regarding change. Sarason

(197 1) noted that "[tloo fiequently the individual's conception of the system serves as a

basis for inaction and rigidity, or as a target ont0 which one can direct blame for almost

anything" @. 134). Leadership skills such as "lifelong learning" and "leaming to learn"

are becoming more important skills to have than rapidly deteriorating facts and content

(Doucette, 1998). To survive in the changing world of colleges, educational leaders must

take more responsibility for their own and their employees' learning and encourage

collaboration and renewal.

Harris (1995) stated that a manager's life is like a hologram. Pick out one piece of

a hologram, hold it to a light, and the piece reveals the whole hologram. He went on to

Say that any act or action carried out by a manager reveais the character of the whole

manager. Managers must be encouraged to assess how they utilize the technology to

reaiize that theu usage behaviour is a mirror of how they view and carry out their role and

responsibilities. Managers need to understand that if they see their role primady as

administrator and monitor of campus operations, then they will tend to use technology for

50

the same purpose. Strategies developed for coping with technology are ofien

representative of generic coping strategies that are used by managers in handling hectic

work lives (Harris, 1995).

Professional development has become a basic responsibility for college managers

(ACCC, 1993). However, managers easily overlook their own leamhg needs and tend to

forget to take care of thernselves as professionals (Brockett, 1 99 1). Peters ( 199 1) pointed

out that it is not enough to merely learn techniques and incorporate them uncritically into

practice; managers need to reflect on what it means to be a manager and how best to carry

out the role. However, as the current study reveals, t h e and work pressures often work

agaînst managers who are attempting to l e m new methods of technology use and new

collaborative models of management. Managers must become more active and

responsible in addressing their professional needs. Ways of becoming more active and

responsible include strategies such as: sethg aside time and resources for their own

development; participating in action research projects; and acquinng critical reflection

skills (Brockett, 1 99 1 ; Covey, 1990).

3.4.1 Need for Change in Managing Colleges

Change is full of paradoxes (Fullan, 1982, 199 1). Fullan (1 982) noted that change

involves psychological as well as organizational processes that are complex in nature and

which do not advance by accident. Coping strategies are closely linked to personal

5 1

management strategies (Bridges, 1993). An environment of rapid communication and

search for information will add pressure to managerial work and drive "colleges of the

future" (Doucette, 1998). Communication technologies will cause some of these rapid

changes (hahanna, 1995).

DeMison and Gallagher (1986) traced the evolution of management in Canadian

college systems. They pointed out that, in the early days of college formation, extremes

of classic management models were in use. At one extreme was the hierarchical model

that supported directions fiom the top down where oficial rnemos were the favoured

means of communications while at the other extreme was the collegial model where equal

participation was encouraged in the ninning of the college. College managers and leaders

"could use whatever management style they preferred or could get away with, because

style of management was rarely seen as the source of problerns" (Dennison & Gallagher,

1986, p. 197).

in the early years of formation, colleges were unaffected by new developments

that were rapidly occurring in the corporate world with regard to the study of

management. However, things changed in the eighties when educational institutions had

to learn to cope more effectively with the new conditions that were developing in the

extemal environment. There is now broad concern that institutional management needs

reappraisal (ACCC, 1997). Dennison and Gallagher ( 1986) contended that this need for

reappraisal and improvement is no different than the needs of other organizations and

businesses.

52

Srnalier Canadian colleges that operated largely independently now have

amalgamated with larger entities and have become complex webs and large scaie

operations (Dennison, 1995). Colleges now must f ict ion as a part of a larger network of

local and regionai agencies fiom both the public sector as well as the private sector.

Dennison and Gallagher (1986) pointed out that

No longer will a collegial management model or a hierarchicai management model be appropriate for Canada's colleges ... The only realistic future that colleges in Canada can anticipate is one very dîfferent fiom the casual environment ... it is not the fact of technological change that has characterized modem societies in recent years ... what is diverent is far more rapid Pace of technological change ..A would be sheer folly for any institution. ..to retain a management model which is inconsistent with its need to bring about or cope with change. @p. 200-20 1)

Dennison and Gallagher suggested that a more appropriate mode1 of management

is required for today's colleges. The requirements for effective college management must

include the following three elements: openness of communication; clarification of roles;

and a clear sense of direction. This model requires full and open access to information

and wide access to decision-making information. They proposed that only an active

stance on information distribution can ensure that college people understand the decision-

making processes. And in order to do this, definition of roles within colleges must be

understood by al1 mernbers of the organization.

College managers generally acquire their philosophy and style of management

fîom their peers, professional education, and above dl, their own career experiences

( M e d & Carter, 1 993). Alfred and Carter stated that, over the years, repeated exposure

to the risk-avenive, bureaucratic work environments that flourished in the years of easy

growth has produced a generation of college managers accustomed to making decisions

themselves and directing people. While this approach may have worked in the past, it

does not elicit the kind of energy and enthusiastic participation needed for the hture

suMvai of public coileges. College managers need to shifi their emphasis from structure

to strategies to respond to the contemporary challenges of planning and institutional

effectiveness. Covey (1990) suggests that managers need to pnoritize their goals and

develop mission statements to guide them into clear directions.

3 A.2 Section Surnmary

Organizational h e s are invented theoreticai constnicts (Quinlan, 1995) that

provide managers with insights into the processes of management and organizational

functioning. Four organizational frames were presented in the litereture: bureaucratic;

collegial; political; and symbolic. The fiames help managers understand what they do

and how they do it. Organizations can have multiple frames and managers who can use

multiple fiames will likely be more effective than those who deal with problems fiom a

single perspective. New directions need to be taken if colleges continue to espouse

traditional bureaucratic foms of govemance. These forms of govemance need to be

replaced with more participatory forms of govemance.

3.5 Computer Communication Technologies

The purpose of this section is to review literature on computer communication use

in higher education and identiQ theories and studies on computer communication

technologies that may inform the study.

In the broadest sense, computer communication technologies are systems that use a

computer to create, store, process, and distribute communications arnong users.

Examples of these technologies include: electronic mail messaging; electronic meeting

calendars; electronic bulletin boards; and computer conferencing. Of relevance to this

study are electronic mail messaging (e-mail) and electronic meeting calendars.

Hiltz ( 1984) outlines four characteristics of cornputer communication

technologies: (1) communication takes place through a computer terminal by typing and

reading; (2) communication is asynchronous and sending and receiving may occur

seconds, days, or years apart; (3) computers store communications and information,

ailowing retrieval by attributes such as topic; and (4) computers can be programmed to

provide a variety of communication structures and services.

Computer communication technologies are now in extensive use in educational

and non-educational contexts and have gained much momentum in the past ten years

(Burge, 1993; Sproull & Kiesler, 199 1 ; Tapscott, 1996). Computer communication

technologies are available in the vast majority of colleges in Canada (ACCC, 1997).

Approximately 90% of responding colleges in a recent Canadian survey reported that

5s

they had e-mail and Intemet access (ACCC, 1997). These technologies are being used in

colleges "as the medium of instruction, the object of instruction, and a facilitator or

quaiity tool" (ACCC, 1997, p. 13). How managers perceive and use computer

communication technology is central to this study. Therefore, perceptions of cornputer

communication technologies as facilitator or quality tool are relevant to this research.

Cornputer communication technologies are of relevance to college administrators

in a number of ways. Numerous uses and advantages that computer communication

technologies offer educational administrators are suggested in the lirerature. Advantages

and disadvantages of e-mail communications for educational admullstrators include:

addressing geographical and psychological isolation; facilitating instant cornmunjcation

and the sharing of ideas; and ease of processing and distribuhg information on a one-to-

one or one-to-many basis (Hiltz, 1984; Logan ,1999; Sproull & Kiesler, 199 1). They also

cautioned administraton of the problems associated with computer communication

technologies: information overload; technostress; and energy abuser. Logan ( 1999)

pointed out that

knowledge of effective and efficient use of E-mail can make a difference ...[ altemately a] iack of knowledge about how to use E-mail effectively and efficiently can be a bamer that administrators face with faculty and staff, as well as their own E-mail habits. @p. 84-87)

In the adoption stages of computer communications into organizations such as

colleges, miters noted that change is usually required in three areas: resources;

behaviour; and attitudes (Kiesler & Sproull, 1987). Changing behaviour means leamhg

to use the new technology, supporting and fostering the new technology and acting to

introduce the technology in specific areas and for specific purposes. This also means

holding symbolic beliefs in the legitimacy and value of cornputing. Kiesler and Sproull

(1987) stated that changes do not take place in isolation but are part of the ongoing social

interactions of ordinary organUational life which show definite patterns that help predict

or anticipate the social process of technological change.

Evidence fiom severai studies showed electronic messaging use is directly Iinked

to experience with the medium and knowledge mastery (Kerr & Hiltz, 1982; Fulk,

Schmitz, & Stehfield, 1990). The earliest e-mail systems allowed managers to instantly

send messages across vast distances without playing telephone tag. E-mail systems were,

and remain, to be focused on speedy communication between people (Carter, 1997). E-

mail was one of two communication technologies that managers used in this study. 1

review the ongin and characteristics of e-mail communications as conceptual knowledge

for the study.

3.5.1 The Origin and Characteristics of EIectronic Mail

in the late 196Os, the fist large scale computer network, ARPANET was

developed to link computer scientists at universities and other research institutions to

distant computen. Electronic mail, which enabled researchers to communicate with one

another, was considered a minor additional feature of the network. However, this feature

57

became one of the most popula. features of ARPANET. A network community quickly

evolved and demand for e-mail grew sharply for more and more connections (Kiesler &

Sprod, 1987).

In a study of a Fortune 500 office equipment company, Sproull and Kiesler (1 987)

investigated the effects of e-mail to discover who had what Iliformation in the

organization. The impact of social context cues was assessed upon geographic location

of others (distance, place, time), organizational position of others berarchy, department,

and job category), and situation(age, gender, relationships, and noms). Results indicated

that the use of e-mail dimuiished intra-organizational stahis differentials and had the

potential to undennine organization authority relationships. They found that patterns of

information sharing had also changed. In traditional organizations, formal methods exist

for distributhg information. However, Uiformal communication networks in the

company disseminated a large arnount of information. They concluded that informai

information was a function of the proximity and social acquaintances of the information

provider. E-mail and other electronic communications had changed the dynarnics of

communication. Electronically, any member in the organizations could request a "Does

anybody know?" message and receive donnation from anyone who uses it (Carter,

1997).

In a study of information enquiries on the network at Tandem Cornputer, Inc., in

California, it was reveded that an average of six "Does anybody know?" messages were

sent daily over the company-wide distribution list. An average of eight Tandem

58

employees responded to a question. Fewer than 155 who answered personally knew the

questioner or were located in the same city (Sproull & Kiesler, 1991). Geographic

isolation of workers was reduced.

Cornputer communication technology in rnost networked organizations today

appear to be fairly similar, but there exist large Merences in people's acnial

communication behaviour. In some networked organizations, electronic mail access is

easy and open (Hiltz & Turoff? 1993). In other networked organizations, managers have

chasen to b i t access or charge costs to users, leading to much lower usage rates.

Electronic messaging systems have four general properties. They include: (a)

interactivity; (b) asynchronicity; (c) de-massification; and (d) social presence (Fulk &

Steinfield, 1990). Sproull and Kiesler (1991) listed four characteristics of electronic mail

that make it usefûl for organizational communications. They contended that these four

characteristics relate directly to the success of e-mail as a communication tool. These

characteristics are relevant to communication tasks within educational institutions,

including cornmunity colleges. They are: (1) speed in that messages can be transmitted in

seconds to any location throughout the college system and indeed the world, depending

on the scope of the network; (2) asynchronous communication in which messages can be

sent, read, and replied to at the convenience of the user; (3) no intemediaries so that e-

mail messages are only read by the receiver; and (4) ephemerality in that e-mail messages

appear on the screen and can be deleted

Communication technologies are

with no trace of a hard copy.

generally considered " tools" technologies, that is,

59

they can be put to a variety of uses. Rice and Rogers (1980) noted that not only do these

technologies have multiple features as intended by the designers, but these technologies

can also be reinvented by the users to yield more uses. Rogers (1986) pointed out that

although significant changes in organizations and the general population can be atûibuted

to the introduction of these new technologies, it is the "way in which individuals use the

technologies that is dnving the Information Revolution" (p. 8). Many of the theories

developed or being developed with regard to computer communication technologies

parallel developments in the communication and organizational fields. These theories are

examined in the next section.

3 S.2 Theones of Computer Communication Technology Use

How managers adopt and use computer communication technologies is the central

issue in this study. Theories related to use can provide clear understanding of conceptual,

theoretical and methodological underphings in studies of how managers adopt cornputer

communications (Fuk & Stehfield, 1990). There are basically three categories of

theoretical approaches to the study of technology use: object-centered; actor-centered; or

a combination of the two.

Cornputer communication technology use research provides one of the bases fiom

which to conduct this study. Computer technology leaming and use are not new areas of

investigation (Cahoon, 1995, 1996, 1998); however, computer communication

60

technology learning and use are. Computer communications technologies have redefmed

individual and organhtionai communication practice (Steinfield & Fulk, 1990). These

technologies are Uifluencing not only organizational procedures, personnel skills, and

production and storage of information but also the quality and fiequency of the human

communication that results fiom the use of technologies (Lewis, 199 1).

As communication technologies develop, the underlying theoretical base needs to

be comprehended. The premise of the theory base for individual communication

technology use lies in several theories. The two basic approaches are a traditional

technology charactenstics perspective and a social information processing perspective.

Both approaches have been compared under three dimensions: (a) properties of the

technology - objective versus subjective properties; (b) saliency -- difference in Uiherent

characteristics of the technology; and (c) technology choice processes (Fuik, Steinfield,

Schmitz, & Power, 1987). Properties of technology in the technology characteristic

perspective are objective whle the social information perspectives are subjective. From

the objective Mew, inherent, physical characteristics that al1 users could recognize, exist.

The subjective view identifies influences by behaviours and attitudes of others. Saliency

for the technology characteristic is a function of individuals' perceptions of the

technology characteristics and task attributes, but for the social information processing

perspective it is a function of CO-workers' and superiors' assessments. Technology choice

for users in the technology characteristic perspective is rationally based upon a

congruence of technology characteristics with task requirements, whereas the rationale of

6 1

the social information processing perspective is influenced by past behaviours, comments,

and social noms of others.

Research studies on computer communication technology in organizations also

have established theoretical bases simila. to the above descriptions. Organizational

communication technology theones are divided into two basic categones: object-oriented

and actor-oriented studies. Object-oriented studies on communication technology use

focus on the technology as a matenal thing that has some particularly interesthg feature

or features (Nass & Mason, 1990). These studies tend to assume that (1) the technology

is a detenninant of organizational change, (2) the nature of r given technology dictates its

use, and (3) users are relatively passive acton (Steinfield & Fulk, 1990). In contrast to

the object-oriented view of communication technology use are studies that focus on a

social actor or actors. These studies focus on characteristics of the individual, team, or

organization with regard to behaviours, attitudes, or cognition. Individuals, tearns, or

organizations decide on how and when a technology will be adopted and utilized. The

social-oriented approach draws on sociology and psychology and provides insights into

the relationships between communication technologies and organizations.

Three theories of communication technology use that are useful and relevant to

this study are discussed in the literature: . Rogers' diffusion of innovations; Trevho,

Daft, and Lengel's theory of technology selection and use; and F u 4 Schmitz, and

Steuifield's social infiuence theory. These theories provide a conceptual fiamework fiom

which to conduct the study .

Rogers' dlmion of innovations fheory. In explaining how and when a newiy introduced

interactive technology spreads to al1 members of a comrnunity, a diIffusion of innovations

theory was proposed by Rogers (1983, 1995). Rogers' general theory of diffision of

innovations addressed the communication and adoption of innovations through certain

channels, over tirne, and across members of an organization. The perceptions

organizational members have of an innovation will affect rate of adoption. The five

characteristics of an innovation upon which perceptions are based are relative advantage,

compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability (Rogers, 1995). Earlies!

adopters are those who receive great benefit fiom the technology and difision succeeds

or fails on the basis on how usage is communicated and whether or not other people

follow suit. Rogers (1995) went on to address individual issues in a case study that

indicated e-mail use is a function of terminal access, a need to communicate across

organizational botindaries, and a need to broadcast information to a large number of

people. He found that e-mail was not useful in conflict resolution and was not useN for

getbng to h o w people. This latter conclusion was also supported by a study canied out

by Rice and Case (1983) who studied university professors in theu use of electronic

messaging systems.

Rogers' (1967, 1995) diffision theory suggests an interdependence exists between

people in their decisions to adopt technology. Thompson (1967) supported this theory

but pointed out that interdependence in individuals' decisions is sequential in that later

adopters are influenced by early adopters. Thompson later replaced this theory with a

63

"reciprocal interdependence" theory in that early adopters can be iduenced by later

adopters and vice versa.

Trevino, Dofr and Lengel's theory of technology selection and use. Ln contrat to more

object-oriented approaches to technology use, Trevino, Dafl and Lengel(1990) integrated

a social consûuctivist approach (actor-oriented) within a media charactenstics approach

(object-oriented). They proposed a theory of technology selection that explained how

managers choose technologies. They focused on message amhiguity, spbol ic cues, and

situational determinants in managerial choice of communication technologies. They

suggested that if shared meaning already existed between users or contexhial ambiguity

was low, the system could be used to convey the correct "symbolic" cues or

metamessages. If situational charactenstics, such as tirne pressure or distance, support

the technology's use, managers would be more likely to adopt the system.

Fulk, Schmitz, and Steinfield's (1990) social influence theory. Like Trevino, Da& and

Lengel's (1990) theoretical approach, Fulk, Schrnitz, and Steinfield (1990) integrated

social influences with traditional technology use. They suggested that existing theories of

social relations were an appropriate starting point for those exarnining social processes

and technology use in the workplace. They proposed a social information processing or a

social influence mode1 of technology use as a predictor of user attitudes towards

electronic messaging and motivation for use. Their theory was derived fiom a

64

sociologicai and social psychology perspective and based on sociai interactionist roots.

Their theory addressed the impact of usen' subjective views of their extemal environment

on technology use. Elements of usen' environment and their perceptions of that

environment affected how users elected to use the technology. This perspective attended

to the organizational context and to past behaviours in explaining seemingly irrational

technology selection and usage behaviour. This approach poshilated that behaviours of

coworkers, behavioural noms, and social def~tions of rational behaviour are key

influences on communication technology usage. They posited that technology

perceptions are subjective, socially constmcted, and detexmined to a substantial degree by

the attitudes, statements, and behaviours of CO-workers. They suggested that social

information regarding a particular medium will be more influentid for individuals who

have less experience and knowledge of that medium. Experienced users will have longer

histories of their own behaviour upon which to base and affect adoption and use.

AIthough their theory appears similar to TreMno, Dafi, and Lengel's (1990)

symbolic interactionist perspective, Fulk, Schmitz, and Steinfield (1 990). Mewed

properties of the technology as subjective, not objective and believed coworkers'

perceptions of the environment and technology work on the socialization process as well

as users' perceptions. Technology choice and usage were seen as socially rather than

rationally detemiined.

Based on structure and organizational theory, Contractor and Eisenberg (1990)

also linked media use models to sociai structures. They examined the interplay between

65

social relationships and media usage. They posited that media usage patterns affect social

network participation and network structure. The y stated that :

There is no such thing as pure technology. To understand technology, one must first understand social relationships. Understanding social relationships requires a grasp of communication. Everything about the adoption and uses of media is social ... The pragmatics of technological communication must always be understood in the context of motives, paradoxes, and contradictions. (p. 143)

Writers pointed out that whereas social presence, information richness, and critical

mass theories adopt a "rationai" perspective, social influence and symbolic interactionist

theones adopt a "non-rational" or social perspective (Fuk, Schmitz, & Steinfield, 1990;

Karahanna, 1995). But whatever the perspective, according to Karahanna ( 1999, current

theories of communication technologies present a diverse, explanatory mode1 of

technology choice and usage. She devised a set of generic factors that determine

technology use fkom several of these theories: task; communications technology; social

environment; and the communicator or individual.

She reported that the nature of the communication task is the first major factor

influencing a manager's choice of technology and that there are characteristics inherent in

the technology that affect a manager's perception about the appropriateness of a

technology for a certain task. She then explained that a manager's choice is also afTected

by "constraints, influences, and opportunities afYorded by the social environment in

which the communication takes place" (p. 6). Lastly, she contended that characteristics

of the communicator affect choice and use of a technology. Perceived usefùiness or

appropnateness of the technology in accomplishing a certain task is also aa important

deteminant of use. Parailels exist in Karahanna's conclusions and fmdings of this study.

3.5.3 Section Summary

This section reviewed a number of computer communication technology use

theories that provided a conceptual fiarnework for the shidy of college managers and theù

use of computer communication technology. The two categories of approaches to the

study of technology use, object-centered and actor-centered, provided a better

understanding for the data analysis and interpretation of fmdings in the study.

Investigating the process of managers' technology use in this study is essentially in the

actor-centered category. Open-ended i n t e ~ e w questions about managers' perceptions of

technology were included in the study to gain a better understanding of the subjective

nature of using the technology as opposed to the objective nature of technology itself.

3.6 Socioculhiral Impact Studies of Cornputer Communication Technologies

An area of investigation in this study was managers' perceptions of the impact of

computer communications on their work environment. In much of the literature, impact

is articulated in tenns of "consequence" and "effect". h this study, "impact"

"consequence" and "effect" are used interchangeably. impacts are the changes that occur

67

to an individual or to a social system as a result of adopting or rejecting an innovation

(Rogers, 1983). A technological innovation has little effect until it is distributed to

members and put to use by them. Thus, difision is a means to an end, the consequences

fiom a d o p ~ g an innovation (Rogers, 1983, 1995). Rogers used a three dimensional

mode1 when outlining impacts or consequences to technology adoption : (1) desirable

versus undesirable; (2) direct versus indirect; and (3) anticipated versus unanticipated.

in spite of the importance of impacts, Rogers (1983) pointed out that impacts

"bave received very little study by difision researchers" @. 37 1). He stated that change

agents have also paid little attention to impacts. He pointed out that change agents

assume that adoption of an technological innovation will produce only beneficial results

for its adopters. He contended that this assumption is a pro-innovation bias. Change

agents should recognize their responsibility for the consequences that they introduce and

should be able to predict the advantages and disadvantages of an innovation before

introducing the innovation to users. However, this is seldom done. In an effort to

detemine the consequences of the college's adoption of technology in the current study,

the study examines managers' perceptions of the positive and negative impacts that

computer communication technology has had on the work environment.

Much of the past research on technology innovations has concenbated on the

variables related to innovativeness. Since the subject of this study is the utilization

process of computer communications in an organizational context, the study drew on both

technological and organizational literature fiom a nurnber of different disciplines,

68

including communication, college management, sociology, social psychology, and

economics. One of the most comprehensive reviews of this literature has been conducted

by Rogers (1995). In his assessment of over fi@ years of diffusion research, Rogers

showed diat 58% of diffusion studies sought to explain the success of technologicd

innovations based on attributes of either the technology or the adopter. Rogers contended

that communication technology has unique characteristics which need to be considered

when studying the innovation process in larger communities. He noted that organizations

are rapidly adopting and implementing modem communication technologies at such a

Pace that knowledge of their consequences are dificuit to predict and even more dificult

to assess. He argued that while these studies played a usehl role in the past, friture

investigations need to investigate the effects of adopting innovations.

impact research of new communication technologies permeates journals and

reviews of cornputer-based communications research (Markus, 1990; Hiltz & Turoff,

1993; Rice, 1980). Muffo and Corner (1988) noted that, in educational circles,

"computenzation of the campus has had a profound effect upon the way in which

students, faculty, and administrators work and interact with each other" (p. 6). Impacts

discussed in the literature relate to: (a) organizational adoption and implernentation of the

innovation (Fulk, Schmitz, & Steinfïeld, 1990); (b) managerial concems (Kiesler &

Sproull, 1991); and (c) uses of the technology for group work and decision making

(Shields, 1995).

Eveland ( 1987) stated that the "degree of frustration and uncertainty surroundhg

69

the effects of technology on Society generally has reached S ~ ~ O U S proportions for both

technology developers and users" (p. 303). The problem of making productive use of

technology is "one of understanding how people think about technology in relation to

their lives and interests, and how thoughts lead to human action" (p. 304). Eveiand

sketched a vision of some of the macro elements involved in orgariizational systems. He

stated that "understanding how different parts of the system are interdependent can help a

lot in accounting for unplanned and unanticipated effects, which can be both positive and

negative" (p. 3 10). He further pointed out that persona1 cornputers have a wide variety of

potential meanings to those who use them and these meanings are part of culture. The

rneanings are shaped by the culture and shape it in tm as they evolve through

experience. Sometirnes elaborate systems lead to paraiysis or lead to a new culture. He

pointed out that what organizations need is "to encourage continuous leaming about

technology and sociotechnical interactions on the part of mernbers, and to maintain and

use that leaming without being paralyzed by it. Remembering too much, d e r dl, can

create so many metaphors that the system cari never work through to an understanding of

the change itself" (p. 3 17). How culture shapes use is of interest in this study. The

meanings that college managers attach to technology is explored through managers'

descriptions of uses of cornputer communication technology.

SprouIl and Kiesler (1992) discovered in their research that electronic

communication can Muence people's work status. Social or job position nonnally is a

powemil regulator of group interaction. Group members typicdly defer to those who

70

have higher status and tend to foilow their direction. Members' speech and demeanour

become more fomal in the presence of people who have hi& status. Sproull and Kiesler

(1992) confhned that the proportion of talk and influence of higher-status people

decreased when group members cornrnunicated by electronic mail. The current study

examines managers' introduction to the technology to determine what, if any, impacts

technology has on the coilege in the study.

Zuboff (1988) documented reduced effects of status on a computer conference

system in one fm. People who regarded themselves as physically wiatîractive reported

feeling more lively and confident when they expressed thernselves over the network.

Others who had sofl voices or small stature reported that they no longer had to struggle to

be taken S ~ ~ O U S ~ Y in a meeting (Sproull & Kiesler, 199 1, p. 1 10). According to Sproull

and Kiesler, the most promising expianation for the behaviour of networked individuals is

that, when cues about social context are absent or weak, people ignore their social

situation and cease to wony about how others evaluate them. As a result, they devote

less time and effort to posturing and social niceties, and they may be more honest

(Kiesler, Siegel, & McGuire, 1984; Hiltz & Turoff, 1993). These studies showed that

people are less shy and more playful in electronic discussions; they also express more

opinions and ideas and vent more emotion.

One of the primary goals of the current study was to examine college managers'

computer communication behaviour. Issues of affective behaviour were anticipated as

the MacDonald Report on the status of college communications had just been published

71

prior to the managers' interviews in 1996. As outlined in the previous chapter of this

thesis, the report revealed a number of behavioural, technical, and communicative

problems associated with e-mail communications.

Technologicd adoption literature has largely ignored phenomenological issues

related to technology use (Eveland, 1987). Eveland contended that the problem of

understanding how people think about technology in relation to their lives and interests

needs to be examined. He proposed that understanding how the uses of technology are

seen fiom diverse personal perspectives is one of the major advantages of a

phenomenological approach to technology adoption.

Writers noted that M e r research is needed in the area of individuals'

understanding of communication and the multiple interpretations of using computer-

mediated communications (Begiey, 1988; Trevino, Daft, & Lengel, 1990). The problem

that needs to be addressed is how computer communication technologies socially and

psychologicaily impact workers h m their perspectives. Thus this study applied a

phenomenological approach to managerial technology adoption to extrapolate social

psychological impacts of utilizing a computerized mode of communication.

3.7 Canadian College Managers' Computer Communication Technology Use

An extensive library research resulted in ody two studies of computer

communication technology adoption and use in Canadian community colleges (ACCC,

1997; Roberts & Associates, 1998). In the ACCC (1997) study, the sigiilficance of the

impact and the implications of information technology on community colieges for the

future were assessed. While data in the study indicated that use of technology across the

whole campus was to be assessed, fmdings and analysis were mainly targeted on the role

faculty, their use and their development. Indirect statements about the need for

management development were gieaned fiom the report. Current levels of college use,

the impact of the Pace of technological change on campuses, barriers expenenced by

colleges in taking greater advantage of existing and emerging technologies, plans

currently used for designing institution-wide strategy for information technology use, and

human resource development strategies for assisting faculty and staff in the use of

information technologies were assessed. The results of the survey were to be used in

examining the implications for professional development of the faculty and those

involved in the planning of information technology, for example administrators and

faculty tearn leaders. They found that information technologies were available in the vast

majority of colleges and 89.1% had college-wide e-mail, and 93.5% had internet access.

Results of the survey indicated that the most significant challenges facing colleges were

1) funding, and 2) human resources. With regard to the funding issue, it was concluded

that

the reduction of public fùnding to cover operating budgets and the dwindling of special projects fhding by private and public means has meant that some colleges and technical institutes have not been able to keep paçe with the tremendous cost of establishing a technology infrastructure and the necessary upgrading of hardware and software. (p. 3 1)

The study m e r indicated a concern over the impact of technology with regard to

personnel reduction and the need to develop attendant skills:

although îhere was a 200/0 reduction of adminisirative personnel expected as a result of technology, an increase in technical support staff [was] aiso anticipated. However, these concems and the associated costs [were] considered only a temporary "blip" until faculty and other staff learn the needed skills to become self-sufficient ... Staff development is not only costly but was seen by our focus group participants as the major challenge to the adoption of education technologies in colleges. @p. 33-35).

With regard to hurnan resource challenges, one of five distinct initiatives that were

identified and rated as important to very important included "77% of respondents see

information technology skills as part of core cornpetencies for management" (p. 35). The

fact that some provinces are encouraging college administraton, faculty, and staff " to

gain knowledge and skills through self-teaching and on-the-job leamhg fiom other staff "

(p. 38) was aiso highlighted.

in the study, it was found that colleges in Canada are encouraging professional

development through peer development. For example, some colleges have introduced

learning technology round tables, best practice sessions, and demonstration sessions. The

report ended with a suggestion that colleges

cm encourage college management to become champions of [technology] projects.. . this support will not only provide motivation to the initiatives but it will also provide direction in setting standards and rationalizing the [technology] effort. (p. 45)

In a second national study, Roberts and Associates (1998) conducted a litrrature

review and telephone survey for a pan-Canadian body, the Education and Training

Provider Network to detemine professional developrnent needs of practitioners and

planners in the field of education and training with regard to information technologies.

She found that while the needs of practitioners are comparatively well analyzed, the

professional development needs of college plannen and policy makers are "hardly

touched upon" (p. 40). She found the literature was heavily weighted to sorne sectors,

while others were comparatively under represented.

The needs of the university and school sectors are heavily represented in the literature, while the needs of the college, private and community sectors are less will descnbed. (p. 40)

She found that across most sectors, issues of t h e , access, and money needed to take

advantage of professional development opportunities were identified as the main barrien.

Questions of how best to train and prepare college leaders to deal successfully

with the multiple and complex issues related to computer communication technologies

are being posed by industry leaders, policy-rnakers and planners (ACCC, 1997; Roberts,

1998). in a recent Arnencan study, Moggia (1998) i n t e ~ e w e d twelve educational

leaders fiom various positions and institutions including admini strators, college faculty,

elementary teachers, and senior level college administrators. He examined how and why

these leaders use computer technology, how they perceive its usefulness, and how they

develop their proficiency in technology. He found that the most cornmon applications

leaders used were word processing, intemet research, and e-mail. He found that most

proficient educational leaders are self-taught (Moggia, 1998). He suggested M e r

research in this area is needed to prepare educational leaders for the fùture. The current

75

study is similar to Moggia's research but concentrates on a group of educational managers

fiom one system and centers on one type of technology: computer communications.

A recent study by Cahoon (1995) found that a combination of self-directed

l e h g and informa1 leaming within work groups are appropriate leaming strategies for

novice users of computer communication technologies. Cahoon argued that adult

educators cm prepare leamers for this technological experience by helping them

constmct mental models that support experimentation and problem solving. He proposed

that the most durable mode1 of technology leaming emphasizes understanding these

technologies as social environments rather than knowledge about cornputers and cables.

He pointed out that research about how people learn to use the newer computer

communication technologies, in particular the intemet, is still rare. He suggested that as

the technological resources of businesses and educational institutions become more similar and as educational institutions face increasing pressure to adapt to these technologies, it may be useful to examine how work groups l e m with and about technology. (p. 63)

Ln the early stages of data collection, it became clear that managers at the college

p r i m d y employed a self-directed learning approach both for their keeping up

professionaily and for their technology leaming. While 1 am aware that there are other

leamhg strategies used for leaming in the workplace, this study concentrates on the self-

directed leamhg approach.

In an extensive library research, no studies were located that investigated self-

directed computer communication technology leaming. Cahoon (1998) cofirmed this

fïnding and stated that research is extensive into computer leaming in general but that

research is rare into adult leaniing efforts in the newer advanced forms of computer

communication technology .

3.8 Research Concems: Computer Communication Use

Computer communication technology adoption and diffusion research studies have

been well documented in the literature (Rogers, 1995). Lewis and Seibold (1996) pointed

out a number of concems related to computer communication adoption and diffusion

studies: (1) the focus on organizational processes related to technology adoption; (2) the

emphasis on certain points in the adoption and diffision processes rather than a holistic

account of technology use; and (3) the concentration on the attributes of technology

rather than on responses of individual users to explain impact. These studies "have not

deait with specific interactional responses of individual usen as a key mechanism in

explaining innovation process outcornes" (Lewis & Seibold, 1996, p. 132). Researchen

are calling for more holistic research that takes into account long term use of computer

communications and the impacts of computer communication technologies on work

envkonments (Evelanâ, 1987; Lewis & Seibold, 1996).

In order for organizationai rnembers to deal effectively with newer technologies,

Lewis (1991) contended that an understanding of the role these technologies play "in

shaping human communication and in influencing organizational practices is necessary"

77

(p. 203). Lewis noted that, in her research, some organizations appeared to have more

success with technology implementation and use than othen. Stewart (1992) pointed out

that many of the communication technologies are presently being used ineffectively by

theK intended audiences. She asserted that, as a resuit of this ineffectiveness, recent

research on communication technology has begun to focus more on the "entire" process

of technological innovation rather than just on adoption. It is an attempt at fuiding

answers for the success or lack of success in the adoption and implementation of newer

technologies. She explained that this newer research focus means "examining the

implementation of the innovation as well as the effects of that process on subsequent use

- not just a single point of adoption" (p. 153).

A process perspective cm provide a more effective means for looking at adoption,

post-adoption use, maintenance, and modification of the technology innovation (Rogers,

1995; Stewart, 1992). This process perspective is "especially suitable for studying

innovations of communication technology" (Stewart, 1992, p. 155). In addition, Rogers

(1995) noted that if "diffision scholars could more adequately see an innovation through

the eyes of their respondents, including a better understanding of why the i~ovat ion was

adopted or rejected, diffision research would be in a better position to shed the pro-

innovation bias of the past" @. 1 11). Even in the case of an advantageous technology

innovation, potentiai users may perceive the technology through many possible values.

In the current study, organizational context is secondary to examining individual

processes to adoption technology. In the current study, 1 examine one group of managers1

78

responses to the technology fiom a holistic perspective. Rather than seek understanhg

of their fint experiences with the technology, managers were encouraged to reflect on

their experience fiom their adoption experiences to present day use. The majority of

managers in this study had been using cornputer communication technology for more than

ten years. Thus, reflections of their first inîroduction to the technology, how they learned

and continue to l e m technology, the impacts these technologies have had and continue to

have on their work environment were encouraged through open-ended questions.

Eveland (1979) also had a number of concems with regard to technology leaming

and use. He pointed out that if researchers are to understand users' behaviour in adopting

and utilizing technological innovations, researchers must be capable of understanding

users' various points of view. He suggested that individuals' technology decisions are

idiosyncratic and that decisions are based on the individuals' perceptions of the

technology. Rogers (1995) also confirmed this stance on perceptions of technologies. He

argued ihat if users perceive a situation to be real, that situation is real in al1 of its

consequences. He stated "In other words, perceptions count" (p. 1 11). The current study

purposely seeks to determine managers' perceptions of technology by asking participants

to assess the value, benefit, and impact of these technologies. Documenting managers'

perceptions is an attempt to address this concem of researchers.

Rogers (1995) contended that, in the past, diffision researchers placed an over

reliance upon models of diffusion that are too rationalistic. He suggested that the

unforhinate consequence of relying on rational models is that researchers assumed that dl

79

users perceive a technology in a positive light, just as researchers may perceive it

themselves. Rogers (1995) advised researchers to question this assumption of the

technology's advantage for users and gather data about individuals who perceive

technology negatively. Following the advice of these research scholars, 1 asked managers

not only about their perceived advantages of communication technologies but also about

related disadvantages.

The concems of technology innovation research has raised a number of issues that

the current study addresses. in the current study, I examine the perceptions and

behaviour of individual users as opposed to organizational uses, places emphasis on the

responses of managers as opposed to attributes that the technology has to offer, and

attempts to give a holistic description of the entire learning and usage process fiom the

managers' perspectives.

3.8.1 Linking Research on Self-Directed Learning and Technology Use

Steinfield and Fulk (1987) suggested that one approach to the study of

communication technologies is "to apply an existing theory to the new context" (p. 48 1).

They observed that researchers fiequently seek to understand new phenomena thirough the

use of analogies, that is, conceptually equating a less-understood phenomenon with a

well-understood phenomenon:

An analogy produces a conceptuai interaction between two objects of cornparison.. . when ushg an existing theory to study information technology, not ody do we Mew information technologies fkom the perspective of theory, but we begin to view the theory from the perspective of the attributes of information technologies. (p. 482)

Linking communication technology theories to theories of self-directed leaming may

provide a fiesh approach to explainhg the leaming processes of users and explain the

effects of communication technology use.

Krone, Jablh, and Putnarn (1987) advocated that researchers need to recognize

and understand different theoretical perspectives when conducting research into

individual and organizational comrnunicahon. As cornputer communication technologies

develop, the underlying theoretical base must also be understood. Steinfield and Fulk

(1990) pointed out that theory cm provide road maps and help resolve inconsistencies

across studies. Theory can help us see the forest fiom the trees by providing perspectives

on larger issues and duecting "research attention to central issues of oganizational

functioning rather than misguided technological imperatives" (Steinfield & Fulk, 1990,

p. 14). The challenge posed by researchers, such as Krone, Jablin, and Putnam (1987) and

Fuk and SteSeld (1990), to understand the theoretical base for technology learning and

use parallels the focus of this study.

3.8.2 Manageriai Perceptions

The perceptions of managers infiuence the adoption of technology. In the

literature there are severai definitions of "perceptions". Rogers (1983) stated

[It] is the receivers' perceptions of the attributes of innovations, not the attributes as classified by experts or change agents, that affect their rate of adoption. Like beauty, innovations exist only in the eye of the beholder. And it is the beholder's perceptions that inauence the beholder's behaviour. (p. 212)

According to Cohen (1969), "[plerception is defined as the meaningful

interpretation of sensations as representahves of extemal objects: perception is apparent

howledge of what is out there" (p. 86). As the word 'apparent' indicates, perception is

our interpretation of reality.

Harris (1 993) wrote that although "we do not always have the option of

determining what it is we will perceive, our efforts to make sense out of the information

and multiple inputs we receive is a prerequisite to knowing how to respond" (p. 22).

Perception is the process by which you filter and interpret what your senses tell you so

you can create a meaningful picture of the world. Hams ( 1993) suggested that there are

benefits to understanding the role of perceptions: (1) we can adjust our own percephal

capacities to enhance our performance; and (2) we can better understand other people's

actions and responses. Perceptions of individuals will be the pnmary focus that will

provide the basis of interpretation and fmdings in this study.

3.8.3 Conclusion

It is clear fiom examining the literature that it is useful for researchers to explore

information fiom several disciplines in order to understand how managers leam and use

computer communication technology in college environrnents. Theoretical and research

shidies fiom the field of self-directed leaming and the field of communication

technologies were reviewed to establish a link between the process of "leaming" and the

process of "using" computer communication technologies.

In the current study, 1 will examine a group of college managers from one college

system using a qualitative approach to gain an understanding of their technology leaming

and usage processes. Several researchers want to see research that will improve our

understanding of self-directed technology leaming and use and our understanding of how

technology learnllig relates to theories of communication technology use. Candy (199 1),

Memam and Caffarella (l991), and Spear and Mocker (1984) have al1 referred to the

need to further investigate self-directed adult learning processes using qualitative methods

in order to uncover "rich, elusive elements" that have not been identified in quantitative

research studies. In a separate field of study, the field of communication theories,

researchers have encouraged an interdisciplinary approach to the study of communication

technology adoption and use. Communications theonsts also refer to the need to examine

technology adoption and use fiom an interpretive paradigm (Eveland, 1979; Rogers,

1995). In the current study, both needs identified in the two literatures will be addressed

83

by attempthg to link findings fiom the field of self-directed leaming and the field of

computer communication technology use. As well, 1 will examine the impact that

computer communications have had on college managers' learning processes and work

environment. In the following chapter, 1 describe the research design and method for

carryuig out this study.

Chapter Four

4.0 Method

Several research questions were proposed for investigation in Chapter One. The

primary questions are how college managers utilize computer communication

technologies and what impact these technologies have on their work environment. in this

chapter, 1 describe the research approach and design of the study. The method and results

of a pilot study, the procedures, data collection, and analysis of the main smdy are also

documented.

4.1 Research Approach and Design

The rationale for selecting one research design over another shouid flow fkom the

basic research questions. In the study of people, it is a research challenge to find out just

how people defme the situation in which they find themselves. Qualitative research is

one method that attempts to defme a situation from the aciors' own frame of reference.

Rist (1983) noted that unanticipated events occur in studies of social change and these are

best investigated through qualitative research methods. As this study involved the

investigation of individuals' perceptions of their learning and utilizing computer

communication technologies and of their impacts, a qualitative research method was used

as the primary research approach in this study.

85

Qualitative researchers are encouraged to design their own methodologies based

on general guidelines rather than fixed d e s in order to suit the nature of the study.

Taylor and Bogdan (1984) asserted that the "methods should serve the researcher; never

is the researcher a slave to procedure or techniquew (p.8). Guba and Lincoln (1989) also

encouraged researchers to remember that emergent design is a key concept in qualitative

research.

As noted in Chapter One, Eveland (1989) pointed out the need for

phenomenologicai shidies wi th regard to adoption and trmsfer of technology .

Phenomenology attempts to understand social phenornena fiom the actors' own

perspectives. This study was conducted with an emergent design as the expectation and

within the broad theoretical perspective of phenomenology (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992).

This research is a case study. Case study is the "study of the particularity and

cornplexity of a single case, coming to undentand its activity within important

circumstances" (Stake, 1995, p. xi). Case study draws fiom naturalistic, holistic,

ethnographie, phenomenological, and biographie research methods. The qualitative

researcher uses inductive reasoning and "emphasizes episodes of nuance, the

sequentiality of happenings in context, the wholeness of the individual" (Stake, 1995, p.

xii). Yin (1984) described a case study as the investigation of a present day phenomenon

w i t h its context and that it is useful where the relationship between the phenomenon

and the context is not clear or fully explored. The case study seeks holistic description

and interpretation (Merriam, 1988; S take, 1995).

86

4.2 Pilot Study

A pilot study was conducted in Febmary 1996 to test interviewhg procedures and

interview questions and to determine if appropriate data were being collected using the

designed instruments. The pilot study was designed to determine the feasibility of

carrying out research on perceptions of computer communication usage and their impact

in the workplace. It was important to check if the participants' reflection of their leamhg

could produce substantial data for examining issues related to adopting cornputers for

communication. The pilot study served to validate designed instruments, data collection,

and procedures.

The pilot study took place in an education and training department of a large

fmancial institution where computer communications technology had been installed and

operational for several years. It was decided that a financial institution was a suitable

pilot site for this study for a number of reasons. Fust, the objective of the pilot was to

test the viability of such a study and to d e t e d e if appropriate data could be collected

fiom a sample of training managers, using the designed instruments. It was determined

that this testing procedure could have been accomplished in a variety of settings. The

second reason was one of convenience. My faculty advisor along with the advice of a

87

former graduate fiom the university suggested that the bank's training department would

be a suitable site to conduct my research.

n i e education and training centre at the bank occupied three floors of the building

and encompassed a technical development area, training rooms, and office and meeting

areas. A meeting was arranged with the department head at the hancial institution. At

this meeting, 1 learned that the department head could provide easy access to other

managers in her department. The department manager and 1 met on two occasions,

established boundaries and limitations of the study before beginning the study. We

agreed on procedures as outlined in the study. She assisted in setting up interviews and

carrying out the research.

Following these initial discussions, 1 faxed a letter to her outlining the conditions

and parameters of the study, dong with consent forms for participants and a copy of the

interview questions. Several i n t e ~ e w questions were modified based on our prelimlliary

discussions.

4.2.2 Sample

The sample for the study was a convenience sample drawn fkom the population of

managers in the department of education and training at the institution. Three managers,

two male and one female, who had been using computer communication technology

volunteered to be participants in the pilot study. Al1 participants had been working in a

88

banking environment for more than four yean and worked in the department for more

than one year. Al1 three were project managers responsible for coordinating training

projects, fiom development to implementation stages of programrning.

4.2.3 Ethical Considerations

An ethical review for the pilot study was conducteâ, using the Ontario Institute for

Studies in Education ethical review guidelines. A letter outlining the pilot study's

purpose was sent to the contact person at the bank. Participants were sent consent forms

prior to the interview. Details of the study were provided to the participants and

participants were apprized of the opportuniîy to withdraw fiom the project at any tirne

without reason.

'4.2.4 Pilot Study Data Collection Procedure

Prior to developing i n t e ~ e w questions for the bank managers, two doctoral

colleagues fiom the university assisted in the formulation of interview questions.

Knowledgelfact information questions (background information, descriptions of past

experiences, participation in cornputer training, etc.) and open-ended questions (relating

how they utilized e-mail and how their work environment was afiected by the

introduction of computen) were developed for the interviews.

89

To collect data on managerial usage of computer communications, 1 visited the

bank and conducted individual interviews with each manager. 1 gathered data on each

manager's working experience, computer experience, role and responsibiiities, and a

typical day related to computer usage. AU i n t e ~ e w s were audio taped. Further

questions focused on specific uses of computer communications related to the utility,

impact and assessrnent of using cornputers for communication purposes. The in te~ews

occurred over a two day period. Interview transcription and field notes taken during the

interviews made up documentation and data for further analysis.

4.2.5 Pilot Study Data Analysis and Results

General questions were developed as a guide for each interview so that each

manager was asked the same initial questions. As a result of these i n t e ~ e w s and having

analyzed the conversation, I have rnodified some of the questions for the main study

(Appendix A). Data analysis of the pilot study revealed three major categories of

impacts: personal; technical; and social. These categories are explored in this section.

Personal Impucts

Each manager assessed the impact of computer communications fiom a diffierent

personal viewpoint. One saw "the computer as a tool for communication", another as "an

90

information provider", and a third as "a system". In particdar, discussions of how

electronic mail was "an extension of yourself", "represents you" and how "people

interpret and assess" your usage of electronic mail were interesthg findings from a

phenomenological perspective. Cornputer communications appeared to have symbolic

meaning for ail three respondents.

The managers' own personal style of communication seemed to be translated into

the style or pattern of electronic mail usage. One manager considered electronic mail as a

more formal mode of communication that deserved "better grammar, editing, and

presentation" than his colleagues used. Another manager considered . as "an excellent

networking tool" and the third manager thought it was very usehl for "social contact".

Technical Impacrs

1 found that managers had varying levels of computer experience and they utilized

computer communications for different durations of time. On an average day, managers

varied fkom fifteen minutes to two hours using cornputers for communications. Al1 three

made cornparisons between computer communications media and other types of media

for communications, such as the phone and fax. While the technical features of

asynchronicity and convenience were considered advantageous, al1 employees at the bank

did not yet have full access. This limited managerial usage and potential for

communicating Uiroughout the branch.

Social and Work Impacts

One manager went into great detail on how work relationships were afTected by

technology adoption and indicated that workplaces would need to address the "hurnan

resource gap" of not having secretaries' assistance. The bank "bas done away with

secretaries" in favour of "technical support persons". His perception of how managers

have to do their memo-writing, contacting, and arranging meetings appeared to be both

positive and negative. For some tasks, such as composing and editing short memos, he

felt he could do more efficiently while for other menial tasks, such as collecting

stationery, a junior employee would be more efficient.

It was intereshg to note that al1 three managers spoke of the eficiency and

effectiveness of comrnunicating via computers. 1 observed that the department manager

had an influential effect on project managers' decision to utilize computers. This fmding

appeared to support elements of the social influence theory as advanced by Fulk, Schmitz

and Stemfield (1990).

The U w e major categories of impacts gleaned fiom the pilot study were useful

constmcts in the main study. The categories provided a fiamework to organize data in

the initial coding process of the main study.

4.3 Main Shidy

4.3.1 Sample and Setting of Main Study

The target population was college managers working at a public post-secondary

institution, located in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The college had a

total of twenty-three managers who worked at one or several of seven campuses in a

geographic area of a twenty-five kilometre radius. Twenty out of twenty-three managers

volunteered their participation in the study. They managed either academic or

admùiistrative sections or a combination of both. They were fiom three strata of

management levels: the senior level (includes president and directors); the rniddle level

(includes assistant directors and department heads); and the operational level (includes

campus and department managers).

4.3.2 Ethical Considerations

The coilege under study was approved through consultation with my doctoral

supervisor. Access and permission to i n t e ~ e w these managers were obtained fiom the

following appropriate charnels: chair of the college's board of govemors, the president of

the college, and participants. A letter was written to the chair of the college's board of

govemors and the president of the college to obtain formal consent to pursue the study.

93

Following face to face meetings with the chair of the board and the president of the

coliege, approval was given to conduct the research. The chair of the board was most

supportive of the project. Immediately following our meeting, he telephoned senior

college officials and encouraged them to participate ancilor support the project.

I contacted each manager individually, outlined the scope of the study, and

requested their participation. For those who agreed to participate, 1 set up an i n t e ~ e w

time schedule that was convenient for them. The majority of managers asked if they

codd preview the list of questions that were being posed. A iist of general questions

(Appendix B) was sent to those who requested the information.

1 spoke to participants either by phone or e-mail just prior to the interview. We

discussed the purpose of the study and the expectations of the participants. Permission

was sought to tape record the interview. Nineteen out of twenty managers agreed to be

tape recorded. One newly recmited manager declined. I made extensive notes during

this interview. The remaining nineteen i n t e ~ e w s were tape recorded and transcribed

within two weeks of the interview. Transcripts of the i n t e ~ e w s were checked against

the recordings to ensure accuracy of the data.

The names of college managers were changed and the narne of the college

withheld to ensure anonymity. Managers were assigned two letters of the alphabet as

their names and the college is referred to sirnply as "the college". When statements made

in the i n t e ~ e w appeared unclear to the researcher, I asked for clarification fiom

managers.

94

4.3.3 Data Collection

Data were collected through severd sources: semi-structured interviews; a

questionnaire; college documents; and observational techniques. More specifically, the

data were gleaned fiom transcripts of i n t e ~ e w s with managers, a questionnaire that

sought biographical and experiential information, selected coilege literature, and eight

years' of personai experience working at this college. 1 had workrd as a researcher ancilor

human resource developer for the majority of my working experience at the college.

A semi-sûuctured interview was used with each manager. That is, some general

questions were prepared prior to the interviews and were posed to each manager.

Additional questions that flowed fhrn conversations were posed during the interview

process. 1 wote notes in the margins of the inteniew questionnaire that helped with

remaining interviews.

1 collected data over a four month period. Each i n t e ~ e w lasted approximately an

hou. 1 had easy access to the majority of these managers who appeared genuinely

interested in the research topic. Throughout the research penod, 1 approached individual

managers at varying tirnes to ask for clarification of unclear statements made in the

interviews.

To explore their responses to utilizing cornputer communication technologies, 1

investigated their current everyday practices with the technology as well as how they fkst

95

started and continued to use the technology. 1 have attempted to provide a "rich

description" (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992) of their experiences in leaming and utilizing

computer communications.

4.3.4 Data Analysis and Lnterpretation

1 created categories from the list of questions and put them into a coding system.

A computer software program, NUDWT, helped in the initial stages of indexing and

coding of interview transcripts. n i e data were sorted into the following categories:

expenence; professional development; learning, usage; and impacts. Each of these

categories was subdivided into more specific subcategories. The new categones were:

experience (college, rnanaging, cornputers, and computer communication technologies);

professional development (formal and informal); leaming (self, other, and nonhuman);

usage (fiequency, duration, habits, and strategies); and impacts (positive and negative).

Having used the software for semng up initial codes, 1 found the software program

visually codining for manipulating the data. 1 made copies of al1 transcripts and began

color coding sentences and writing up categones in the left rnargin of each response. 1

then divided the i n t e ~ e w s up into separate sections for each question that 1 had posed. 1

used "yellow post-it stickies" on index cards which facilitated the movement of data

between categories.

Throughout the whole process, I followed Strauss and Corbin's (1990) procedures

96

of basic processes of qualitative anaiysis. I developed a number of questions to help set

up relationships between categories and to re-code the subcategories under core

categories. These core categories looked very different f?om the categories devised using

the software package. I had fkst used the strategy of concept mapping to capture linkages

between categories but found that there was not enough "room" for al1 the ideas on a

large piece of paper. 1 then proceeded to devise a "more traditional" card index system.

The card index suited rny working style as 1 could now "physically" manipulate paper

indexes and categories. i started to write up theoretical niernos to track ideas and links

between categories. The categories were grouped into core categories.

1 also utilized Strauss and Corbin's (1990) five element coding fiarnework which

helped give a global perspective to the study . The five elements include: causal

conditions; phenomena; contextual conditions; intervening conditions; and consequences.

1 used these elements to h e my "story line" before writing up fmdings. Explicating the

story line helped in conceptualizing the interpretation phase of the study.

Chapter Five

5.0 Findings of the Study

S. 1 Introduction

In Chapter Five, biographical information about the twenty college managers and a

description of the college as contextual information for the study are provided. Later

sections report college managers' perceptions of their role, their professional development

strategies, how they went about leaming and utilizing computer communication

technology, perceived advantages and disadvantages of using two separate computer

communication technology applications, perceived impacts, and a swnmary of results.

5.2 Profile of College Managers

The study was conducted from Apnl to July, 1996. At the hme of the study,

twenty-three managers fiom three management levels (senior, mid-level, and operations)

were empioyed at the college. Members of the management group included: five senior

managers (the president and four directors); eight mid-level managers (academic

heads/associates); and ten managers of operations (supervisors and unit managers).

Twenty out of twenty-three managers volunteered their participation in the study. Table

1 presents a profile of the twenty college managers at

Table 1 College Manager Sample Profde (in years)

Post-Secondary Working Educatiori at College

Present Job Computer Experience Experience

Computer Comm. Exp.

10 06 1 1 12 I l 11 10 05 12 05 09 11 OS 10 06 12 1 1 I l 03 07

the thne of the study. Three managers opted out of the study and provided the following

explanations. One manager, feeling the strain of the reorganization, took a short medical

leave of absence. A second manager had just been reassigned to a provincial college role

and was generally unavailable for an interview. n ie third manager left the college in the

middle of the study for employrnent in the private sector.

99

The twenty college managers consisted of eleven males and nine fernales. Their

ages ranged fiom 3 1 to 54 years of age, with a mean age of 42.75 years. Managers had

firom three to eight years of post-secondary education. Sixteen (eighty percent) of the

managers had been working at the college more than five years; eleven (hfty-five percent)

more than ten years; and eight (forty percent) more than 19 years. Thirteen (sixty-tive

percent) had been working in their cment managerial positions for more than five years.

Nineteen (ninety-five per cent) of the managers had more than nine years cornputer

experience. AU managers haci expenence utilizing some f o m of cornputer

communications with twelve (sixty percent) having more than ten years experience at

using these technologies.

5.2.1 Perceived Roles of College Managers

As indicated in Chapter Fou., a short questionnaire was admmistered at the

beginning of each i n t e ~ e w to obtain biographical data on managers. The managers were

then invited to describe their role and responsibilities at the college. The rnajority of

managers appeared to view their primaiy role consistent with their job titles and job

descriptions. One manager summed it up when he said

1 could cheat and go to the job description ... It would be interesting actually to have a look at it to see how close 1 am.

Managers began their responses with statements of their specific job titles. Job titles

contained terms such as: "1 am director of', "1 am classified as academic head of' , "1 am

campus manager", and "1 am supeMsor of". Following the identification of their job

title, they continued with a description of theu main responsibilities. They pointed out

that they managed carnpuses/departrnents/units, and/or services, andor programs.

Several managers described their role fiom a functional perspective. Firsf they

elaborated their practical duties related to their department, unit, campus, prograrns, and

second, they pointed out administrative responsibility for faculty and staff. A few noted

having responsibility to the broader college cornrnunity. One manager spoke about

having three specific hc t ions to his job: policy articulation; planning; and research. A

second spoke about her job as functioning in two environments: extemal and intemal.

Bringing together these two environments sometimes caused conflicts and problems for

ihis manager:

in doing business for and with organizations, it is sometimes challenging when you are bringing together public and pnvate sector individuals and 'people. Sometimes they have different mandates and different ways of operating.. .employer needs and faculty needs.. .sometimes those two things are not the same.

Responsibilities were often stated in bureaucratic terms, using expressions such as

"chah of command", "fiom the president on dom", "people at the top", "below my level

and above my level", "stratification levels" "al1 levels in the hierarchy". Managers talked

about h a h g responsibility for policies, regulations, and procedures. Differences existed

in their perceived roles with regard to policies and procedures. Senior managers

primarily described their role as designers and developers of policies and procedures

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while middle and operational managen often described dieir role as implementers of

policies and procedures. A manager of operations emphasized this point as he noted

there was sometimes codict with senior managers in this regard:

I'm responsible to implement policies and procedures as laid domi by the coliege, so I don't perceive my role as detemllning what the policies and procedures should be.. .I'm more on the implementation and ensuring that policies are implemented.. .and the achial procedures side of things.

Another role Erequently cited by managers was a day to day management role.

Acadernic and operational managers taked about: day to d y operations of their unit,

department or campus; daily management of services, programs and staff; and anempts to

maintain a level of support and service. E n s u ~ g smooth, day to day operations seemed

to consume a lot of their tirne.

One thing which is the most consuming is the day to day management of instructors and student issues.

It's the day to day operations of the campus.. .cleaning, sec wity... maintenance of the campus. .it is the daily management of programs and faculty.

Making sure the day to day activîty of the college goes on smoothly.

It appeared that the majority of managen attended to practical, activity-based tasks

and issues: scheduling; advising; problem-solving; interacting with staff; ordering

materials and supplies; revising curriculum; stafing; marketing; coordinathg activities;

preparing reports; and supe~s ing . They stated that there were not enough hours in a day

to perform theû work.

Three quarters of the managers mentioned that their jobs were diverse and broad-

102

ranging. Several managers had responsibilities for diverse programs spread around

through difTerent campus sites. Because of the diversity of their roles and

responsibilities, these managers said they found theû jobs both fiustrating and

chailenging. This often makes problem solving within the same department difficult

because of a lack of commonality within programs. This was particularly challenging for

one manager because. as she stated, she always had to "think on her feet".

While [some programs] have some philosophical commonality content-wise and even operaîionally, others have very little in common.. so the challenge is getting a good grasp of the content and working through ptoblems that have no preset solutions and no previous patterns.

The majority of managers spoke about financial responsibilities: a combination of

fomulating, monitoring, managing andlor rnaintaining budgets. Managers of seMce

mits talked about the "pressure" of either breaking even financially on projects or

showing a profit in their sales. They indicated that a shifi in the fûnding base was putting

more pressure on them in recent years.

The financial challenge of sustaining progams and program quality was creating a

number of changes and challenges for many of the managers. One manager reflected at

length on his experiences at the college over the past thirty years. He summed up the

changes in the "financial state of college affairs" and his perceptions of the impact of

changes in the funding base on the college:

1 was just refiecting on the fact ... I1ve been here 3 1 years ... Now for the fust twenty-five years of our history were relatively stable ... The fimding was stable, the programming was relatively stable, the personnel was relatively stable and the organization clicked dong and did an excellent job of what it

was doing ... 1 think the last five or six yean of our history has been the hme of maximum accelerated change and with that cornes challenges. There are hancial challenges. The amount of money that the college is receiving fiom government sources is declining and that's happening right across the counhy. ..in a blink of time we've gone fiom ninety percent of our fûnding fkom grant in aid (solid, dependable gant in aid) to much less dependable fluid resources fiom contract training, continuhg education revenue. That has had a fundamental change on the culture of the institution where it has gone fiom a fairly solid, staid, reliable, academic institution to one that has to hustle ... we have to become more business-oriented..we have to work harder, we have to find funding to sustain the level of progranunhg that we have.

Five managers spoke about a new leamhg need that was evolving: the area of

human resource management and development. While these managers noted that this

area was not their direct responsibility, they were expenencing a need to improve their

skills in this area. One manager noted that in a previous job he spent a great deal of time

on scheduling and on day-to-day issues. In the reorganization of college management, he

found himself more involved in human resources and personnel issues and needed to

increase his howledge base in this area. A senior manager stated that he should "have a

better feel for and a better appreciation of human resources". He stated that while it was

"not his direct responsibility", it was becoming "an area I'm peripherally involved in al1

the time".

Four managers referred directiy to the significance and problems of the instmctors'

collective agreement and the interpretation of the agreement. One problem managers

recounted was getting faculty to upgrade their technical skills during the summer months.

One manager complained of facul ty misinterpreting the use of 54 annual leave days

granted to facdty each year. Faculty viewed it as vacation time but this manager looked

upon the 54 days as time for faculty to upgrade their technicd and instructional skills.

Because you have the union to deal with and you have an antique collective agreement written in the 1960s.A is dificult to get faculty to spend time on cuniculurn development and upgrading themselves.

He believed that the system was being abused by faculty and the only way to remedy the

situation was "to fk the collective agreement fust, then fix the college". He went on to

Say that "not many managers are willing to take on the issue. Many times they pick up

the issue, then put it aside and let the status quo [prevail]".

Three managers spoke explicitly about their role as leader. Their leadership role

was intemally focused. Examples of canying out leadership roles included: giving advice

to senior executive and modeling behaviour for different levels of the intemal

community.

1 am responsible for providing leadership to training consultants and others in the department so that they are more prepared to meet the demands of the community.

1 see an educational leadership role in this job ... it is important for [college] leaders, people at the top, to be current and have an idea of where we are going.

1 also act as a lead penon for the executive level when they have any kind of Information Technology issue or questions that they need addressed.

Three others talked about how the college needed to provide leadership in the area

of technology, marketing, and program quality. These managers perceived their role as

supporthg college leadership efforts related to these areas. A fourth manager indirectly

referred to the need for leadership in the form of having a vision for the college. He

emphasized the fact that "in today's times, the role of a college manager involves having a

vision". This same manager appeared to be disappointed in his peers' lack of Msion for

the role of management, in particular in the area of becoming more "technologically

sound". He pointed out that many of his colleagues did not agree with him on this matter.

Most of the people in the system are managers ... the old d e f ~ t i o n of manager ... They don't have to have a vision, they don't have to lead, they are just a manager. But for today's environment, what you need are Msionary people ...Ify ou don't know what the trends are, then how can you talk about leadership to change.

A few managers mentioned some responsibility to the college comrnunity. This

responsibility was accomplished by serving on college and department cornmittees,

advisory boards, and liaising with extemal professional groups. A liaison role was

mentioned by approximately half of the managers. For some, the role of liaison was both

intemally and extemally focused. An intemal focus meant acting as departmental Liaison,

a "go between anybody who has problems with my depalment ... they corne to me and

discuss problems". An extemal liaison role meant developing relationships with outside

groups: liaising with hi@ schools, industry partners, and advisory cornmittee members.

For others, the liaison role meant digning the intemal and extemal cornmunities in their

expectations and roles.

1 think that's r e d y important in these programs-strong linkages with the community and potential employers.

1 am responsible for making contacts in the community and hopefully training partnerships with business and indus W... I also act as liaison between [ s a and the other college departments and managers.

My role..involves liaison with our outside partners in the clinical sites, liaison with our advisory cornmittee members.

Two managers spoke about the importance of being a risk taker in one's job. One

manager noted that he often stepped outside his mandated role when needed to support

initiatives not directly mandateci as his responsibility:

1 go outside my role if 1 think something particularly important needs to be pushed.

I am not &aid to experiment ... others are not experimenters when sornething goes wrong ...[ For me] it is a personality thing.

Three managers cited having a role as watch-dog or guard. This role involved ensuring

that work and work policies were being followed:

I assume the role of watching what procedures are in various areas and questioning what people are doing.

1 arn...responsible for m a h g sure other people are doing their work.

1 defend and protect my staff..and guard the public purse.

One manager mentioned having a training and development role for her staff.

1 have some management responsibilities with regards to orientating [instructors], conducting performance reviews with them, providing professional development activities where possible.

Underpinning a number of these roles cited by managers was a further role of

communicator. Several spoke directly about their role as communicator or

responsibilities communicating the college's role to others while other managers referred

indirectly to the communicative role.

My principal strength in this job that 1 have defined ... is that of communications. In essence 1 have become a communicator, a moderator, a conciliator, in bringing together diverse opinions and views or at least an attempt to do so.

The college's major role is commu~cating to faculty that the college needs to address developrnent fiom the employer needs and not fkom faculty member needs.

Managers appeared to experience conflicts in their roles and within the college

community. This involved conflict in superior-subordinate expectations and

misalignment of faculty-industry expectations.

1'11 give you my perception of what my role is as opposed to what my senior people would think my role is.

Private and public institutions [have] different mandates and different ways of operating.. . 1 feel.. . that dl product development within an educational institution should be market-driven and market-oriented starting fiom the employers' needs and not necessarily what faculty members would like to teach.

You have to force faculty to keep current ... so the only means is to do it extemally, ... to do it intemally is biased. So you form advisory cornmittees and bring people fkom outside and force change.

In conhast to the majonty of the managers who appeared to clearly understand

their mandates, two managers had been put into new positions and saw their role as

"evolving". One manager was unsure if the job itself was evolvhg or if it had "more to

do with change for me so I'm the one evolvhg, probably not the job. It never existed

before so both of us are evolving". With the restnicturing and reorganization of the

coiiege system, he viewed his role as changing fiom an operational perspective to one

h a h g more of a human resource perspective.

Mid-level and operations managers viewed their roles as operating within an

bureaucracy. Their attention was primady focused inside the college, on daily

management and operationai issues but there was a sense that their role was changing.

Senior managers spoke about spending time either in the intemal and/or extemal

environment. Several managers felt a need to learn more about hurnan resource

management and become open to exploring a new style of management. Some others

identified the need for more extemal contact and for increased collaboration with outside

agencies and industq partners. All managers appeared to be concemed about their roles

and spent much of their tirne coping with the diversity and breadth of thei.

responsibilities.

5.3 Keeping up Professionally

When managers responded to the question of how they keep up professionally in

their job, 11 out of 20 said they experienced problems in attending to their professional

1 O9

development needs. The main reasons cited for not aîîending to their own leaming needs

included: the nature of their jobs which involved extensive working houn, often into

evening and weekend hours; wide and varying mandates; t h e poverty; and poor persona1

management skills. Expressions such as "not easy ", " with difficulty ", "little sleep the",

"a great failing", "1 don't", etc. dorninated their initial reactions to the question of keeping

up. These comments reflected a general sense of frustration over the time and pressures

of their present positions within the college.

One manager blamed himself for his "great failing" and the frustration that his lack

of energy and motivation to tend to his professional development evoked. A second

manager, who had previously undertaken a number of professional development

activities, attributed his present lack of professional development action to the job

requirements:

You become so focused on your job that you dont really think about your professional development.

Despite the hstration and time limitations for professional development, the

majority of managers attempted some level of professional involvement through a variety

of means. To describe the wide range of activities reported by managers, 1 have devised a

continuum that categorizes different strategies and responses reported on their

professional development activities. The continuum moves from fonnal to infonnal

activities in three areas: dependent on organized activity; interdependent with people; and

dependent on oneself.

F i w e 1. Continuum of StrateeiedResponses for Kee~ing UP Professionallv

1. Depndent: Organized Degrtes/Diplomas; Courses; ConferencelSeminarSIWofkshops, Professional Memberships Activity

2. interdependent: People Advisory Com/Boards, College ProjectsMeetings, Professional DiscourseNVire-Ne t/F-F Net

3. Dependent: Self Reading, Developing PD Plan, Checklists, Observation, Talkinflistening to Colleagues

Dependent on Organized Activiïy

Five managers reported activities such as undertaking degrees and diploma

programs in the previous five years. Prograrns undertaken prhariiy related to theù area

of work speciality: MBA for a fuiancial supervisor; Mastem Degree in Engineering for a

manager in the information technology field; Professional Purchaser Diploma for an

operations supervisor; and undergraduate education degree programs for two academic

managers. This group of managers seemed to equate professional development with full-

time university based study. Professional development appeared to be a formal,

intentional activity, and separate fiom one's job.

Ten managers reported attending conferences and seminars in their area of work,

in the previous two years, where time and financial resources were available. It was

reported by several managers that in the past, prior to cment college budgetary and travel

restraints, conferences attended by them were mainly at a national level. With more

restrictions being placed on travel by provincial governments, managers were now

"encouraged" to attend local and provincial workshops. One manager stated:

From tirne to time 1 do attend conferences [but] the latter yean has been maidy in the province but pior to that 1 did ûavel to other provinces.

Membenhip activity in professional associations in their area of specialty, for

example, Chartered Accountanîs of Canada, Canadian Society of Numtional

Managernenf Purchasing Management Association of Canada, Canadian Public

Personnel Management Association, and engineering associations were reported by six

managers.

Interdependent wirh People

Dialoguing and sharing ideas with colleagues and peers, both face to face and wire

networking, were reported by ten managers. Five managers specifically named cornputer

dismbution lists as a form of learning and communication with peers. Cornputer

distribution lists were provincial, national and international in nature. Seven managers

served on extemal advisory boards or professional association cornmittees. Participation

on college committees while mentioned as part of their role and responsibilities also

served as a form of professional developrnent for five managers. Collaboration on

projects and regular meetings were cited as a form of leaming for four managers.

Dependeni on Self

Reading and print resources appeared to be the primary professional development

actinty for managers. Six managers emphasized that they read "a lot". Fifteen out of

twenty cited trade joumals and magazines as their main and ideal source of reading to

acquire current information. Access to magazines was rnainly obtained through persona1

subscriptions to magazines in their area of speciality. For exarnple, computing seMces

and technology managers subscribed to information technology, technical,

telecommunications and cornputer related jounials. Six of the fifieen managers noted that

they also use the intemet for the most current and up to date information in their field.

Three noted that reading and rereading the faculty collective agreement was

becorning a necessity. Two managers mentioned books as sources of reading. Two

managers reported reading general management literature dong with more specific

information related io their area of management. Reading was p î i m d y done at work.

However, several managers made a point of bringing home literature to read. One

manager noted that when he gets too busy and the pile of magazines on his ofice shelf

gets "so high", then he takes them home to catch up.

One manager noted that his "level of reading is almost ni1 in a professional sense

these days". Other self-initiated strategies mentioned by individual managers included:

(1) listening to people; (2) generating small talk with people inside and outside the

college; (3) traveling; (4) developing their own professional development plan; (5)

writing up daily checklists; and (6) observing others at work.

113

5.3.1 Benefits of Keeping Up Professionally

While managers indicated that they had limited t h e for professional development,

they did discuss the need and benefits of keeping up professionally. Benefits included:

becoming familiar with courses offered at other colleges; keeping informed of new

oppominities; getting different points of view of college life; staying on top of the college

system; becoming aware of new technological developments; getting updated and current

information on trends in theù field; keeping up on program and c ~ c u l u m content in

their area; and leaming new ideas, visions, and management tips.

Two managers talked about how the development role of college managers was

changing. One manager elaborated on how managers leamed in the past but stressed that

there was now a need to develop other skills. This manager discussed the need to change

nom an authoritative frame of managing to a flatter style of management where everyone

has a responsibility for the college. He pointed out:

We leam mostly by experience. As young children, we put Our hands on the hot plate and we bum owselves and we don't like to put it back there agah and we probably won't .... managers leam in a similar way as some t h g s work and some things don? ... the things that in the past brought reward ... now bring despair ... so what we are doing is asking our managers to put their hands back on the hot plate and with the fear of getting burned again. That takes courage. So we need people who are willing to take risks, who can bring people on side to change views and attitudes and that's the toughest thing to do is to change attitudes. In these tough times, you cannot be an autocrat. You have to be patient, flexible, open, and willing to change. You have to be willing to change yourself, your views, and that's tou gh... It has to be a spreading out of responsibility and a greater acceptance of responsibility by d l ... That's tough for managers who are now

in the system because it can be perceived as a dernolition of authority and they worked hard to obtain the authority and respect that they have in the organization.

5.3.2 Barriers to Keeping Up Professionally

Besides personal bamiers to change and development, six managers spoke about

how the college needed to provide leadership and support for manageriai developrnent.

Four of these six managers stated that the college had not in the past provided or

supported any direct professional development for managers. One manager pointed out

that the current board of govemon was aware of this need and hoped, afler the

reorganization settled dom. this need would be attended to. The remaining five

managers stated that in the past there were more financial resources available for

professional development for the whole college community but, with recent budgetary

problerns, there was much competihon for the few remaining dollars.

Individual managers menhoned other barriers to achieving professional growth.

These included: improper scheduling and of time; scope of work and work hours; no

encouragement or support fiom others in the college unless one was proactive; so much

adminishivia in their job; no self-discipline; no inclination or motivation.

Managers view professional development as ranging fiom "sornething" that can be

obtained through forma1 training to "anywhere" you can l e m something. For some

managers, professional development occurred over a severai year penod in the form of

degrees and courses fiom universities and other educational institutions. Managers' main

ways of keeping up are through reading and dialoguing with peers. These strategies were

not deliberate professional development strategies, but seemed to be a by-product of their

regular work activities. But for the majonty of managers, given their work pressures and

cornmitments, attention to professional development is a rarity, to be camied out when

tirne permitted.

5.4 College Adoption and Diffision of Cornputer Communication Technologies

Six managers reported on how computer communications first got started at the

college. Reports fiom these managers confirmed that the college became networked for

communications in the mid-eighties and administrators began using computer

communication technology as a tool for communications in 1986. Managers presented

their versions of how computer communication technologies got started at the college.

While there was some concwrence on dates and other factual idonnation of college

adoption, managers had varying experiences with its introduction. Several managers

116

reported the "technical" details of adoption while others reported their personal reactions

to being introduced to the system. "Technical" details involved a description of past

telecornmunications facilities at the college and technical experimentation by instructors

in one department. Six spoke about the iduence of one senior manager who led the

difision process throughout the college.

Several managers stated that, prior to the college becoming neîworked, the college

had computer communications hook-up fiom "dumb texminals" but that the college did

not install individual personal cornputers on administrators' desks until the mid eighties.

The coilege started working with telecommunications and computer networking in 1986. Pnor to that, there were communications at the college but it was a dumb terminal on the desk, a piece of cabie going into the back of a large computer, so technically it was communications but it was not computer networking ...In 1986, the college started to get involved in computer networking.. .Personal compu ters weren't typically f o n d on desks [or] in the organization and they certainly weren't part of the computer network.

In the eighties, a new department, the Centre for Advanced Technology, was set

up that focused on the newer ernerging information and communication technologies.

The demand for programs in this area grew significantly during this period. hcreased

student enrollment and growth heiped bring about the establishment of a new technology

department. A manager described the centre and his role at the centre:

There was a department that was set up like other academic departments but focused on information technology so [my role] included management of the computer centre, and it included management of the computer studies program, microcornputer applications in business and the cornputer operations course. So there were in those days probably close to three or four hundred students in that area so as a department even though the

number of programs was small, it had students cornmensurate with other departments in the organization at that tirne.

Three managers related the story of how they had been instmctors in the Computer

Studies Program at the college and began experimenting with electronic mail software

that had been purchased for the program. They practiced using the software by

communicating with each other in the department and later encouraged its use among

their computer students.

in the early 80s. we started using electronic mail oniy arnong ourselves. among faculty in Computer Studies..I was a faculty member i-i the Computer Studies Program at that tirne. So people like myself [and persons X, Y, and Z] would use electronic mail software arnong ourselves and that's how I came to know about it.

Mer experimenting with the software for several months, the director responsible for that

department and several other departments within the college started "encouraging" other

admullstrators to utilize the software. Persona1 computers were placed in managerial

offices for administrative communications with this director.

When technology was fmally available on desktop is when people at the college started to use and explore electronic mail. About the mid-eighties, the college started buying computer terminais and putting them on administrators' desks. It really began with administrators. One administrator in particular [Person X] was the father of computing at the college. He really did stari it at the col1ege.A was he who was the driving force behind computing at the college and certainly electronic mail at the college. In fact, he was an influentid administrator at the college..he was the director of everythuig in 84-85-86 ... He was responsible for Hurnan Resources, Computing Resources, Computer Studies Program, Acadernic Programs, d l academic services. He communicated with everybody ... He liked electronic mail so he used electronic mail almost exclusively thereby forcing other people who communicated with him to dso use that tool. I would say that "hem perhaps alrnost single-handedly was the driving force behind the use of

electronic mail at the colîege.

One manager described his initial expenences and the role he played in

introducing the system to the college:

The first [cornputer communication] application that we had was when we instded a link-a statistically mdti-plex link-with this campus and [XXX] campus. In facc 1 instailed it myself. 1 uncrated the two Stab-mwes they were caiied and confïgured them but what that gave us was the capability of logging on to the VAX on campus [XI fiom campus [YJ but it was passive communications. It was e-mail but that was the extent of it at that tirne ... At that tirne it was just e-mail. A little bit later we had some meetings with the university planning to do the same thing to set up the sarne type of link with the University and then we could at least hûve e-mail sornrnunication between the two.

These managers appeared proud of the early adoption of technology at the college and

believed that the college was one of the f o r e m e r s of colleges' adoption of advanced

technology in Canada. One manager described his early expenences at an Association of

Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC) conference:

We became probably the first college in Canada to have an lntemet node ' and as far as 1 know because it was very Ionely when you went out looking for colleges..they just weren't any there..they were al1 universities so I'm confident in saying that we were if not the first we were among the first to have become part of BITNET and then later the Intemet.

Another manager pointed out that while attending national conferences and talking to

colleagues in other colleges, he became aware of the college's state of the art equipment.

He had not realized that his college was on the "leading edge" of technology compared to

other public college systems.

1 remember going to an ACCC conference with [XI, a person who was more or less insûucting in cornputers and decided to go into administration

and would be heading up our computer resource area. We went to the Association of Canadian Cornmunity CoIleges about seven or eight years ago and there were some sessions on calendar manager, e-mail, and al1 that kind of stuff and we went up and found that we were way ahead most of them. Our VAX system, our system of communication and schedulhg and mail were set up years before them.

The college later became a computer service provider for other organkations.

Severai national and provincial mailing lists are housed on the college's home server.

Some examples were given of these mailing lists:

h facc we run some national mailing lists fiom this site. We run the Atlantic CAFCI mailing list fiom this site and severai provincial mailing lists are supported fkom here [such as] the Directors of Prograrns, Directors of Finance mailing list, Deans of technology, Departments Heads of technology who are on mailing lists and are forwarded through this site.

While the initial adoption efforts were positive for those working in the Computer

Studies Department, several managers in other departments related a different story. One

manager described how the management group was al1 brought together and told that the

VAX system was being tumed on and they would be required to learn and utilize the

system. They were informed that secretaries would no longer be setting up their meetings

and they would need training on how to use the e-mail system. This manager also

recounted a debate that went for a hme between business instnictors in the college who

stated that an individual had to be proficient in typing and have typing skills before one

could use the computer while another camp in the college who did not support this idea

and proposed that proficiency in thinking and typing in "one's own fashion" was more

relevant to usage. Reference to typing ability was made by two newly recruited

managers. One manager stated that she found her "high school" typing course to corne in

handy when using e-mail while another manager said that slow typing ability gave him

the ability to think and reflect as he wrote.

Aaother manager employed in yet another department described his experiences

and introduction as a "use it or else" strategy of the senior manager mentioned previously.

This manager felt pressured into utilizing the technology as a tool for communication and

had this reaction:

The fact that it was introduced to the college and it was "use it or else" so 1 found that the two we are using, e-mail and cdendar manager, were individual and you struggled to leam the very initial concepts ... ~ h e r e were some people at that time who decided that they were going to make faûly regular use of both of those systems in order to fulfil administrative functions and those of us who didn't start on the same day were reminded over and over again "1 scheduled you for a meeting and you didn't respond. Aren't you using calendar manager?" or they sent you an e-mail three days ago [and then they'd say] "Have you read it?" So those sorts of verbal comments almost to the point of those who were last to begin using it were objects of derision by those who were [using it]. . .it was the system of choice for several senior managers.

Other managers who were employed at the time the college adopted the communication

technology appeared to take the introduction uncritically as a naturd progression of their

technological responsibilities to students and college community.

Managers appeared to have had Merent leaming expenences being htroduced to

computer communication technology. Managers who were involved in setting up and

diffusing the technology seemed to have more favourable assessments of the technology

than managers who were "coerced" into usage. Managers descnbe the collegets adoption

as on the "leading edge" in Canada when it was first introduced in the eighties. It appears

that the leadership of one department and in particulaï one senior director infiuenced the

adoption and difision process.

5.5 Learning to Use Computer Communication Technoiogies

All twenty managers confmed that they utilized two computer communication

program applications at the college: Electronic mail (e-mail) and Electronic Calendar

Manager (RCM). Al1 pointed out that they used them on a daily basis and several stated

upfiont that they used e-mail "a lot". Twelve of the managers had more than ten years

experience with these two applications. Managers leamed how to use them through a

variety of means. Their learning strategies were grouped into three categones: self

teaching; people assistance; and non-human resource assistance.

When the question of how they leamed the technology was first posed, several

managers joked that they had not really started to use the technology yet. On M e r

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exploring these comments, several managers felt they were only making limited use of the

technology because they had not participated in "formal" training sessions:

1 havent taken any training in anythmg which probably tells you that 1 haven't learned it.

1 haven't started yet @au&] ... My training has been rather limited in my own personal perspective because 1 haven't taken the initiative myself. The opportunity was certainly there.. .to upgrade our skills and become proficient ... 1 didn't take that route ... 1 keep up with what 1 need to know to survive.

The majority of managers becarne familiar with the technology primarily on their

own by practicing with the applications. When they described how they fvst got started,

fifteen of them used phrases such as "leamed by doing", "by using it", "experimenting",

"by installing the system", "by playing" "by trial and error" and "fooling around" with the

technoiogy. Five of the fifteen said that they mainly learned features as they went dong

or on a need-to-know basis. Five other managers explained that leaming the feahires was

a gradua1 process. These five had extensive previous experience with computer

technologies at the college and they stated that leming computer communications was a

"natural extension" of their prior knowledge and experience. Five of the more recent

managers to the college had experience on e-mail systems at their former workplaces just

prior to coming to the college and found the coilege's systems relatively easy to l e m .

Nine managers talked about their preferred styles of technology leaming. Three

stated that they used trial and emor tactics, making mistakes which seemed to maximize

their leamhg outcomes. One manager stated that "1 used to do everything wrong first so

at least I could l e m fiom my mistakes". Another said "Mostly on my own. Mostly by

just playing with cornputers ... and making mistakes". Another stated that "Basically just

learning as 1 go along and when 1 nin into a problem then 1 leam sornething new". Four

others said they leamed "by using" or "just fooling around with" the software and

observing what the software could do.

Several of the newer managers felt that the college's system was "simple, logical,

and straight-forward", and using it was like learning "twelve words of a foreign

language", once you learned twelve words, "then you h o w it". Three managers noted

that the technology was so easy that it basically taught you. One manager said that "the

features are there to be leamed"; another stated "once you start using it, basicaily the

technology teaches you"; and a t h d noted:

It takes al1 of five minutes to be able to log on and do something with it and ftom there on it's a matter of approaching individuals to share with each other and sornebody says, "Oh, this is how you do such and such" and there you go.

Besides leaniing on their own and letting the technology teach hem, managers

used two other strategies as complementary strategies to helping thern l em. The fust

involved two techniques: getting help from people in the college, either formally through

training sessions or informally by asking CO-workers' help. The latter technique was the

most preferred and most fiequently used technique of the two.

As their first "formal" introduction to the technology, eight reported participating

in a morning orientation session offered by the college's Computing Resources "in the

early yean". Two managers stated that they could not remember attending any training

sessions because it was so long ago and stated that, in any event, they were "not really

course-people". The rernaining ten managers did not mention receiving any training.

nie infomal strategy of asking people who worked in the Mcinity for assistance

was a popular cboice of leaming. Support staff were the most fiequently asked people to

give assistance. Fifieen managers reported asking support staff in their nearby offices,

mainly their secretaries. If secretaries were unsure of the answers, managers then called

upon computing resources support staf f . Several managers believed that support staff

knew more about the technology than anyone else at the college.

Most of my knowledge about those systems comes fkom secretarial staff. They know how to use it andyou know who knows how to use it ... on an informal basis in the college and through the grapevine who is a good user and if you want to do something, cal1 them.

It is usually calling out to a secretary and saying, "Help, what do 1 do, how do 1 get out?".

'Once support staff were contacted, managers employed m e r techniques to

reinforce leaming, such as, asking "a lot of' questions, writing out directioiis or

instructions on "yellow stickies", and "practicing later on [their] own" once helpers left

the area. Some managers qualified their use of people resources, saying that sometimes it

was dependent on the task and the software application. One manager stated that she

could easily l e m e-mail on her own but would require "hand-holding" for more

complicated technology like the Intemet.

Two problems with the strategy of utilizing people were cited: (1) helpers

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sometimes only pretended to have the knowledge that managers were seeking; and (2)

helpers were unaware of the fact that they sometimes spoke "above" the knowledge level

of the inquirer.

Many times, a lot of people pretend they know, when they do not know, they drive people crazy ...[ and] sometimes people just give you a lecture and you don't have any background [in what they are saying]. Nothing retains in your brain.

The third strategy was utilizing non-human resources. Two non-human resources

strategies fiequently cited were rending directions from manuals and using the on line

HELP features. Eleven managers made use of manuals and electronic feanires when they

needed to understand the technology. Three managers stated that they ofken consulted the

HELP feahire while seven stated that they used manuals when they got into trouble. One

manager stated he used both the HELP feature and the manual. Six managers said they

used manuais or p ~ t e d instructions more in the beginning stages of learning new

applications. Four of the six were former technology instructors who were cornfortable

with "manuals" and were accustomed to working with manuals in the former jobs. "I've

always used reference manuals. It was nothing to take home a thick book for a night. 1

was always canying around manuals". Three of these four instmctors (now managers)

helped install the system and spent "a lot of time" reading manuals to get a basic

understanding of the system and software. When one manager recently set up a new

electronic mail system for his own use, he said he just "picked up the book and read

it. ..and then started using the system".

However, while these managers commented favourably about using manuds, four

other managers stated that they "hated" using manuals. Several stated that the college's

reference mmuals were often too wordy, il1 prepared, and difficult to foilow. One

manager complained tbat she might have used manuals as a leamhg strategy but that

"some of the manuals are a bit off-putting that you get intemally [prepared]" because of

their length. She explained that she "kept putting off going through the forty pages" to

l em the new system and in the end asked a person in her office for help. She pointed

out that "ifs okay for those technical people but users don't need forty pages".

Others made a point of saying that they preferred some strategies over others.

Several managers mentioned a preference for asking people's help as opposed to using

printed materials. One stated that "you can l e m more fiom people than manuals" and

another said "I'm not especially prone to going back and reading directions so my naîural

style will be to Say "Hey, anybody out there know how to do this?".

Responses about how they learn computer communication systems and

applications indicate a variety of leming preferences, ptior experience and knowledge.

The majority of managen had extensive expenence in the use of computers and did not

perceive any problem in learning new computer applications. Leanhg new applications

was seen as an extension of their previous knowledge and experience. Although

127

managers indicated preferences for Leaming technology through formai or informa1

modes, the majority of them learned informally, on their own by "experimenting" and

"making mistakes". When managers nui "into trouble", they generally seek help fiom

support staff in their nearby offices.

5.6 E-mail Usage Behaviour

Managers reported how many e-mails they generally received in a day. The

number of e-mails ranged from 15 to 150 per day. Over half said they get 30+ each day.

Several managers mentioned that when they were away from work for a week, they came

back to 150 e-mails. The amount of time spent reading and responding to e-mails varied

with each manager: fiom twenty minutes a day to two hours a day. Variation in the

amount of time spent on e-mail seemed to depend on a number of factors: the size and

goals of the department; the location of their direct reports, if they were located at

different campuses fiom the managers; the number of people they managed; their attitude

and liking for computer communications; and whether they were emolled in distribution

list servs or not. Supervisors of smaller units (4- 10 employees) seemed to spend the least

amount of time on e-mail with the exception of managers of Computing SeMces and

Contract Training. Computing Services managers said that the reason they get so much

mail is because they are e~ol led in "quite a few" distribution lists. Two Contract

Training managers said they utilized e-mail communications for collaborative projects

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inside and outside the college.

With whom managers communkate appeared to depend on at which level of

management they worked. Senior managers communicated via e-mail primarily with

same level managers aad had some communication with those whom they s u p e ~ s e .

Middle managers seemed to have the "sandwich effect", cornmunicating primarily with

their "bosses", second, with other middle managers, and third, with staff for whom they

were responsible. Operations managers appeared to have limited communications with

thek "immediate bosses" and some communications with peers and staff, depending on

their unit and theù job responsibilities.

in response to how much time managers spent on reading and responding to e-

mail, the majority of managers stated that it depended on how many messages sent, who

they were £tom and the message itself. Responses fiom those that quantified theu usage

tune ranged fiom 15-20 minutes per day to two hours each day. Contract Training

managers spent more time on intemal mail while managers fiom Computing Resources

spent more tirne on externaVdistribution list mail.

Managers cited a number of uses or purposes for utilizing e-mail communication.

Several managers also voiced opinions on what e-mail should not be used for. Two main

reasons for using e-mail mentioned by managers were related to administrative work:

(1) to fulfil administrative functions of the college, such as make infonnation more easily

available and accessible, especially routine infonnation; set up a paper haiî of work

completed or requested; replace letter writing and memos; decrease intemal paper mail;

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ensure everybody gets theY own copy of information sent; approve requests and

requisitions; supply backup, documentation, and record-keeping; assist with day to day

operations of departments; keep track of what staff is doing; and (2) to increase eficiency

in communicative and administrative tasks, such as responding to staff questions and

requests; consulting with regard to support, services, supplies and materials; providing a

Channel for giving advice; fuiding people at different physical locations; easing intemal

communications; tracking people to perform routine tasks; facilitating private

correspondence between two people: contacting people in emergency situations; and

replacing secretaries.

Two other purposes were mentioned by a few managers. These were related to

professional development needs and intemal communications at the college: (1) to keep

up to date on technology issues, such as participahng in cornmittee work and curriculum

design; and (2) to obtain feedback fkom the intemal college members, such as swveying

staff to gauge climate and get input fiom staff with regards to improving the fuiancial

base at the college.

Managers noted that there were several purposes that e-mail was not useful for:

collaborative thought; social chit chat; replacing face to face meetings and discussion

groups; sending documents, not just messages; file transfer; or expressing humour.

These uses were M e r elaborated and discussed under two headings: advantages and

disadvantages.

5.6.1 Perceived Advantages of E-mail

The advantages of e-mail most often cited were categorized under six headings:

three technical advantages and three utilitarian. Technical advantages were classified

under these headhgs: tasWinformation-processing accommodator; media substitute; and

location obliger. Utilitarian advantages included: time/money/space saver; human

resource eliminator; and organizational enabler.

The technical advantage of accommodating task and information-processing

functions was the most ofien cited advantage of e-mail. Under this category. eficiency

and speed in producing, sending, and handling information were most often noted.

Managers refemed to: (a) the eficiency of accessing, tracking, filhg, docurnenting,

recording, and retrieving work-related information; and (b) the speed of organizing,

conveying, and facilitating the flow of information. Reference to recording collrge

policies and procedures and keeping memos as backup records were noted by several:

Basically a lot of information that is sent by e-mail is similar to what would have been sent by memo ten years ago. It's a record of communication about issues, new policies or procedures ... 1 keep it as a record also to remind myself "Did 1 send somebody this information?'' ... E-mail is extremely quick both fiom the production point of Mew and also certainly fiom a distribution point [of view]. For example, it doesn't have to weave its way through intemal mail.

It documents times, dates, eveming so that you know when you dealt with it and ifyou know how to use e-mail you can attach your memo to their memo and keep an ongoing record of al1 the e-mails that are going on ... So you can keep track of who's doing whaî, when, etc. It's no longer a debate about who sent what. So 1 think it's f&ly escient.

As a substitute or replacement for other media, managers perceived e-mail as

superior to the phone, voicemail, and print. They assessed e-mail as being superior to

other media witb regards to speed, access, and convenience. Severai noted the

elimination of playing telephone tag.

Before we had e-mail, it was completely fiustrating because you coddn't make contact with anybody. You'd phone and phone and phone and the answer is "They're in a meeting, they're not available". ...y ou considered yourself lucky if' you got anyone on the management level and they are on the other end at the same tirne you're ûymg to phone them.

You don't have to play telephone tag. A lot of people use e-mail instead of telephoning. ültimately it is less costly when you are sending messages to a lot of people. It causes a lot of paper of sending 200 slips of paper with a memo on it.

You can get a lot said in a letter more so than can get said over the phone and the same with electronic mail.

E-mail does allow elaboration and detail that voicemail for instance does not allow.

The advantage of location obliger was that it aliowed people to connect to their e-

mail messages fiom a number of locations: their own offices; other offices throughout the

seven campuses; home; or locations outside the college that provided telnet services.

This was perceived as a plus for both sending and receiving messages. Managers did not

have to worry if receiven were at the other end. They could log on fiom anywhere,

office or at home, and at their leisure respond to the daily "trafic" of messages.

Positives are that you are able to get hold of someone as and when required. 1 mean that person doesn't have to be physically present for you to talk to that person. You can send an e-mail and at that person's leisure he or she can decide to either respond or not respond but the option is there.

1 can send messages fiom my home if 1 feel like it. 1 don't have to be in the office to do it.

Typical comments on the fint utilitarian advantage - saving t h e and money - were these two:

nie biggest advantage is that it saves tirne. It saves a tremendous amount of time. ..it saves time in that you can reply faster [and] it's cheaper, especially in long distance The time zone situation, it's easier for international contacts.

The major advantage is tirne. You can send it out and get a reply very quickly, especially overseas.

in terms of money and space, five managers perceived electronic commun.ications to be

environmentaily fkiendly, saving on trees, office space and filing cabinets, and storage

capacity .

It saves money on paper to a certain extent because not everybody necessarily prints everything off like 1 do. 1 don? print everything off but previously you would have probably been sending twenty memos about a certain issue so obviously you would have twenty pieces of paper. Hence, al1 those individuals may or may not have thought that wûs tembly important so may have conserved energy.

E-mail c m go with no paper and that's more environmentally fnendly and it's faster too.

It saves space. 1 think my files would easily be fives times the filing cabinet space if everything was on paper that is now electronic.

The second utilitarian advantage - eliminating human resources - was noted by

nhe managers. They stated that e-mail eliminated the need for secretarial intervention.

Managers could now compose and send messages themselves which lent itself to saving

on several people working on one document. With one person working on a message, the

task could be completed in less time and with fewer people.

Compared to either telephone or paper, the message coming to me in paper [fonn] wodd involve several people to put it on paper and some people to cany it to my desk and then 1 would have to create another piece of paper to reply. So it would take time and more people.

If you look back at the former process, many of us writing out a message, the secretary having to take if type if and then read, veri@ it, sign and copies made and sent off to various people. Now it ail happens in one shot.

The organizational enhancernent advantage was seen as having the potential of

democratizing the college, taking away the hierarchical structure of the college, and

making the college a closer community.

E-mail is so effective, so efficient. It brings a large organization together in such an effective way, 1 believe, that it shouldn't be underrnined or underestimated the value of it...I feel that it's a different organization because of the VAX system, the capability of communicating with each other ... We have seven campuses. When 1 e-mail the manager of the campus thuty miles West of here I know that person has my message right away. It's excellent. It binds an organization, allows the people to know what we're al1 into, gives us more of an oppomuiity to have a centralized focus, know where we're going. Probably one can analyze it to the point - an organization's mission, goals, and objectives.

One thuig 1 Iike philosophically about e-mail is that it has a tendency to democratize. It takes away the hierarchical structure. It makes me accessible to anybody in the college who wants to talk to me about anythuig. I think it's interesting that even though that access is there, most people choose not to do that and perhaps held back by the hierarchical structure that we've al1 grown up in, still feel that it is irnproper to [contact me] ... if you happen to be a secretas, or an Uistnictor to use the e-mail access to go directly to your president with comments. Usualiy people still follow the chah of command. Now whether that is something that will evolve out of or whether that is probably the correct way to continue remains to be seen. But now there is direct access to everybody fiom the president down by anybody within the organization. And 1 think there is something good about that.

5.6.2 Summary of Advantages

Managers perceived e-mail as offering bo t , efficiency and effectiveness

advantages. They generally pointed out the technical characteristics of the technology:

first, characteristics such as speed, access, and processing capabilities helped them

perform their administrative tasks more efficientiy and second, practical utilitarian

features which assisted them or the college in being a more effective organization.

5.6.3 Perceived Disadvantages of E-mail

The most ofien cited problems of e-mail were grouped into two categories:

technical and social aspects. Technical problems included: difficulty with access; slow

speed of communication link; unavailability of hardware; software application

limitations; and systems incompatibility.

Dificulty with access and speed presented problerns for a variety of reasons.

Managers mentioned the following: (1) three of the seven campuses had technical hook-

up problems - only two larger campuses had high-speed, fibre optic hook-up; (2)

instnictors at several campuses had to use dia1 up modems for connectivity and had

difficulty with the dia1 up process; and (3) while d l managers had some fonn of e-mail

access fiom any campus, many instnictors did not have hardware or terminal access to

view e-mail communications. Three managers talked about having problems when

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cornputer systems were shut dom. The inability to access their e-mail or calendars was a

hindrance to their daily planning.

Managers talked about a number of problems related to software limitations and

systems incompatibility. These were: (a) several of the software packages linking the e-

mail to the server were incapable of sending graphical representations, files, and

attachments; (b) lack of spell checker in software; (c) the inability to retrieve or delete

messages once sent, especially messages sent in anger or fi-ustration; (d) lack of cornputer

security affected codidentiality in communications; and (e) excessive use polluted

Managers, support staff, and instnictors were often using different systems. While

the majority of managers utilized e-mail fiom the VAX system which only had text

capability, others used 2-mail, Eudora, Pegasus, and Windows-based mail systems which

had text and graphical capabilities. Sending and receiving messages, downloading and

uploading files could be easy or dificult depending on the system being used.

Several managers noted that it was a challenge for an organization of 600 people

to get everyone to utilize the same equipment and the same software.

One of the main problems with ow system is that it's very much hybrid in the sense that people are using a number of different systems right now for sending e-mail.

1 think it would be very important but a big challenge within an organization of five or six hundred people to try and get some kind of standardization that everybody's software is able to deal with the same documents.

The second most citeed problem with e-mail was related to the social aspects of

communications. Over half of the managers taiked about socio-cultural side effects of e-

mail. They suggested that the e-mail system caused the following problems:

depersonalization; the beginning of a new stratification system of work; amplification of

office politics; lack of etiquette; elimination of humour and emotion in messages;

decrease of body language and Msual cues; forwarding down the Chain; jumping over

managerial la yen.

The most often mentioned social problem was that it depersonalized

communication. Ten managers comrnented on how personal interaction and camaraderie

suffered as a result of so much communication via technology. They believed that e-mail

communication "depersonalizes" contact and the personal social communicative side to

the organization would suffer:

That personal feel, that camaraderie that exists between people is sometimes sacrificed because people are inclined to sit in front of the box 'dl day and do their communication that way. That will be m e r compounded as tools like video-conferencing, collaborative cornputing, work group computing, Intemet, and mechanisms like that corne into play. People just won't get together physically as much anymore. So the persona1 side of the organization is inclined to suffer a little bit.

Less person ai... It's dificult to put in emotion and humour in writing and I think that those are extremely important in communicating with people and in productivity in organizations - to have a good laugh. You cannot have a good laugh on e-mail. It's dificult to wriie a joke or draw a joke.

Three noted that people becarne more aggressive and angry when using e-mails.

One manager stated however that this problem of agression had been discussed and

resolved at the management level. Using e-mail in anger and htration was noted by

managers h m the receiving end as well as the sending perspective:

Aiso one of the things that is a negative side to e-mail is that it is instant, you cannot reûieve it and people use it in tirnes of frustration and anger and it causes a lot of problems.

Some managers felt that a level of trust and confidentiality was lost with the

utilization of e-mail communication.

1 sometimes wonder about confidentiality because 1 have given my access words to my secretary who rnight give them to somebody else to look up a message for me if she's not available. So 1 don't think my system is very secret.

It changes marginally the level of confidentiality ...y ou should never put anything on an e-mail that you wouldn't put on a postcard because there's always so many people who know how to read it.

Political effects were also noted by five managers. The particular software that

people possessed and how they utilized this software were viewed negatively fiom a

political perspective. One manager noted that state of the art equipment and software

gave people an advantage over others in the organization and created a "kind of

stratification" and the set up of elitist groups. One manager noted that those who acquire

and utilize state of the art technology have one up on those who do not. She suggested

that it created a new stratification in the organization.

It creates a new kind of stratification within the organization in that you c m be more productive and better at your job depending on how good your equipment is ... so there are elitist cliques within the system, those who are in the know of telecommunications or of the system, and 1 think that is really bad.

Four managers talked about the negative effects of people using e-mail inappropriately

and for personal gain. One manager found political uses annoying while another found it

amusing as people got themselves into trouble:

People use e-mail politically and it is very interesting to watch who they copy messages to and depending on their motives or what their purpose is at that pamcular time ... would copy my director or the president. People rally support around themselves by copying ... 1 have seen people get themselves in reai trouble.

Managers Mewed e-mail as being either less social or more social than other

media. Several managers noted that e-mail messages were less chatty than face to face,

while others noted that e-mails were more chatty than memos. One manager noted that

people often wrote what they would not Say face to face. But while e-mails were more

chatty, he criticized the system for its spontaneity and "over the fence" manner. Several

managers noted that others in the college often broke social niles, such as: having their

backs to the door and tumed towards their computers; not sending you enough

uifonnation to do your work; lacking protocols; displaying aggressive behaviour; and

lowering the standard of etiquette.

One manager was womed about the negative image that college employees created

when they worked at their computer terminais "with their back to the door". He thought

employees should make more "persona1 contact" with the public:

If you go into the average office now, you will see their backs to the door and I sometimes try to make them think about that ...p eople are turned into their computer away fiom anyone coming in and there is sort of image that will translate into how they work and what they do ... A lot of time spent on the computer readirtg..and not being out there as much as perhaps they

should be ... will never take the place of persona1 contact when it cornes to the kind of work we do.

Five managers complained about the lack of etiquette and lowered writing

standards in sending messages via computers. They suggested that was a need to set

some standards or ground niles at the college.

1 think that an organization has to agree with some ground d e s on how to use e-mail. And 1 think that this is where we are deficient. That has never been done.

You can't communkate with the sarne body language, intonation..and that can produce problems. Sometimes people are upset with a!l capital letters, spelling is atrocious.

Several managers talked about their own inability to keep up a standard of writing

when formulating e-mail responses. Two managers spoke about having problems with e-

mail because of reduced cues. One manager in particular spoke several times throughout

the interview about the deterioration of language skills, lack of etiquette and language

standards that users exhibited in their e-mail use. He poinied out that people at the

college were "not educated" to how e-mail should used. He had specific ideas of how

one copied, forwarded, and utilized e-mail. "Forwarding downward the chah" appeared

to upset him as he thought it caused problems in the organization.

You see a deterioration of people's language skills. You know the way people formulate an e-mail note is more chatty than they would if they were writing a hard copy note. There are certain protocols that people are not educated to in terms of how you copy and how you forward e-mail. You have to really adhere to the same protocol as you were if you were using paper mail. I could send a note to someone.. and a person could Say that's of interest to al1 management and now it goes with the flick of forwarding key. When you consider maybe it shouldn't do that. It's a pnvate correspondence

between person X and person Y and maybe prrson X's explicit permission at least to send it or forward sometimes. Forwarding SM downward the chain can be discourteous 1 uiink depending on the way it's done. You can't really cornmunicate in e-mail with the same body language, intonation as you can on the phone and that can produce problems.

Three managers noted that e-mail communication was not amenable for group

discussion. One manager suggested that, in face to face, you could build on each others'

ideas by being challenged and going through a thinking process. He did not feel that this

happened in electronic communication.

1 also fmd people communicating through e-mail - there is something lost because you get one side of the picture and one person's ideas on something. Then they send it out and there is some response but when you have a good discussion in a group you are challenged by some of the ideas that other people have and you go through certain thinking processes that dont happen in my opinion when you are sitting isolated at a cornputer.

We've lost a fair amount of persona1 dialoguing, 1 think that's a sharne. Face to face communication is always the best because it's a different ski11 communicaîing electronically than face to face and it's a learned ski11 and we're al1 leaming how to do that.

Over half of the managers commented on problems with cornpositional style,

fomat, and content of e-mails. Several managers had problems in clearing up old mail,

filing, reûieving, and deleting messages. Problems existed fiom hawig to type their own

messages to viewing "pages and pages of information" from others. Several mentioned

wasting time typing. Hawig no guidelines or standards seemed to irritate managers.

They complained of too many social messages mixed in with organizational messages.

Comments on misspellings, coiloquialism, al1 capital letters were made by several

managers:

I think it is discourteous to somebody to send a piece of correspondence that's chatty and misspelled and colioquial ... when you send correspondence like that or when it gets forwarded to the outside world, it paints a poor picture of the organization.

Long, wordy messages, incomplete information in messages, and messages which

required extensive research or tasks presented dilemmas for many of the managers.

These lengthy messages seemed to give managers a negative image of technology use.

Three managers viewed e-mail as a method of immediate reaction and interaction and

said that e-mail did not allow for the fact that their day was already heavily scheduled.

E-mail also interfered with their planning prionties. Three of them emphasized that

reading and responding to e-mail messages increased rather than decreased their

workload.

You still have requirements to meet face to face ... so that still consumes a substantial part of your day but e-mail goes on twenty four hours a day and you stiU have an obligation to respond to it as well. So one hasn't substituted the other, one has added or augmented the other. So somehow we have to figure out how to handle that because 1 find that e-mail despite its tremendous potential and obvious benefits are extending my workday rather than shortening my workday.

One manager said that her sense of time and tirne frames had been altered by e-mail

usage. Problems appeared when something was requested in a h m y . She stated that

requests for information ofien meant "now" and this caused her a lot of pressure in the

workplace. She felt that technology was driving the time fiame. There was added

pressure to produce immediately, deadlines became more immediate deadlines, and

people expected a quick tumaround.

1 think our time frame has changed an awful lot. I think things that could have taken a week or half a week now we're told "have it over in ten minutes" - because technologically we can do it. In work in general and my job in particular, when 1 had to mail something and someone was looking for it in a hurry..in a hurry was defined as about a week..that meant that the minute you got it off your desk and in the box and let it go. Now, with the technology, either fax or the computer, in a hurry means "now" and sometimes that's pressure-causing too because if I have some information that the president wants and she calls for it she's not saying like in the old days, first thing tomorrow on my desk, which meant you wrote it by hand and passed it to somebody in those days to type it and then we bring it up to her. Now 1 think technology haî driven the tirne fiame change more so than the reverse really. She knows she can have it in fifteen minutes because al1 1 have to do is to sit there and compose it for her. So now rneans "within the hour". Itts more pressure redly on the production aspect. The deadlines are now much more immediate deadlines and I cm send or receive instantaneously, therefore, the penon 1 am communicating with, either the sending or receiving for instance, expects an instantaneous tumaround.

While, in a previous section, several managers noted the advantage computers have of

saving money and paper, three managers stated that computers have not really decreased

cost or paper. One manager said she followed up e-mails with a hard copy for some

faculty members because of access problems. As one manager noted --people still want a

paper copy. "Computers have not decreased paper. Everybody still wants paper".

5.6.4 Utilkation Strategies

Three groups of strategies were uncovered when managers talked about how they

used e-mail: processing; coping and containment; and advising strategies. Processing and

file management strategies included information management strategies related to

checking, responding, deleting, filing, and printing messages. Coping and containment

strategies included strategies related to controlling and managing the technology.

Advising strategies included tips that managers follow or suggestions they presented for

other users to follow.

Processing and File Management Straregies

It appeared that processing strategies were developed by managers to help them

handle the quantity of e-mail messages. Managers had developed a variety of tactics for

processing messages and used these tactics to "technically" handle the breadth and depth

of messages.

Checking E-mail messages

Al1 managers logged on and checked their e-mail fust thing each moming if they

were not already attending a meeting. In addition to the early moming check, al1 except

two checked their e-mail at specific times throughout the day, usually before and d e r

lunch and once more before going home for the day. Two managers intentionally

checked their mail only once a day. They did this for different reasons. For one

manager, it was a deliberate coping strategy:

1 deliberately plan my day so that 1 corne in, read my e-mail, and if there's stuff that 1 need to respond to right away and 1 can, 1 will [but] I figure a day tumaround [is OK]. If something is urgent, people would use a phone.

The second manager checked his mail only once a day for technical reasons; access by

modem was such a fhstrating, unreliable and time-consuming task that he only bothered

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to check in once a day. Four managers had their cornputers set up to broadcast messages

across the computer screen to noti@ them when they had incoming mail. They then read

and responded to the mail as it h e d .

You can tum on noscation for messages that are corning in. That's what 1 normally do. So the notification you are receiving c m be broadcasted on the screen even though the program is not up. But not many people know that.

1 have my e-mail running al1 day long basically. This is why my work station is multi-task. Whenever new messages corne up, I can see what they are and then respond to them as 1 go dong.

Responding to E-mal1

The majority of managers read their e-mail messages both at work and at home.

However, several managers menhoned that they were not hooked up to e-mail fiom their

homes, so they only checked their mail from their office computer. There was variation

in usage and in the quantity of messages received.

Several strategies were used to handle answenng messages. One manager set up a

"To-Do" list in e-mail, and moved unanswered e-mails to this file for later attention.

Another manager stated that if he was unable to respond nght away, he lefi the message

on the screen until later. A third manager pointed out that he did not read messages if he

thought he could not react right away fiom "his own knowledge" and waited for a more

convenient time to read and respond. Two managers found it tedious and t h e consuming

to answer many of the e-mails as they were often "very weighty issues" or "required

researcher action" before responding. A fourth manager "held off" responding to

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messages because he said issues raised in messages were fkequently resolved by the t h e

he got to them. However, he reviewed his messages occasionally and if he came across

an e-mail that was still relevant, he pulled it out and responded.

Printing versus Non-printing Strategres

Managers indicated their printing or non-printing habits. The majority of

managers stated that if they could respond immediately and messages were short and

routine questions, they did not print off messages. However, under certvin conditions,

managers printed off messages. The following are some of the conditions stated by

managers:

the message was too long to read from screen they felt the message was important and of substance questions/requests were too complicated to address the message was interesting more information or tasks were required before responding the message was to be passed on to other staff for attention the manager could not act on the messages irnmediately the manager wanted to read and reflect on the content of the message the manager felt a hard copy was needed for back up the manager had to do follow up work the manager needed to write out a response before inputting it electronically

Deleting Messages

The majority of managers went back into their e-mail files every few months or

once a year to "clean them up" by deleting them. A policy at the college was that al1 e-

mails were deleted from the main server every two years, so the onus was on managers to

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decide what to do with their messages before the system administrator wiped hem off the

main semer. Managers used different strategies in deleting their mail. Some deleted

messages at the point of reading them, reading and discarding messages "on the spot".

Some deleted the more generd ones right away, the ones of "no substance", but saved

more substantial ones for a later decision as to delete or not. One manager deleted ail his

files once a year. Another went in "every so ofien" when he got a chance and deleted

them. Another deleted them one at a time on "an individual basis: view, reatî, discard"

but never seerned to be able to keep with up with the number of messages needing filing.

One manager complained that he would like to keep his messages even longer than two

years because the "life cycle" of rnany of the students was three or four years and this

would be more convenient in retrieving "conversations" regarding these students.

Filing e-mail messages

A number of different strategies were stated with regard to keeping messages.

Several managers had set up quite elaborate filing systems with directories and folden for

specific topics, tasks, faculty issues, etc. Others just kept al1 messages in one pile without

folders or reûieval strategies.

Messages were kept and filed for varied reasons. Some filed messages as

reminders of communications, to whom it was sent, or as records of communication

"especially issues, policies, or procedures". Others filed "important" messages because

"you dont know what is going to happen". One manager filed selected messages, such as

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"requests for service" and converted them into invoices.

Three managers mentioned composing messages regarding policy issues to self

and puttkg them Lito a "mail basket" for funue mail out purposes. One manager pointed

out that he often saved pertinent messages and mailed these messages out fiom year to

year. This saved on ~onstmcting new messages and helped in implementing policies at

certain times of the year. Others brought fonvard e-mails as reminders for action at a

later t h e .

Typ ing Strutegies

Few managers composed messages outside the e-mail system. They generally

"key right in". One exception is when a formal e-mail is required. One example of a

formai e-mail was the ceed to wrïte to the Minister of Education. This manager would

not compose the message herself but got her sccretary to do so. For less formal

communications, the majority of managers did their own word-processing. Only two

mentioned composing in WordPerfect and then having their secretaries transfer the file to

e-mail. There were varying Mews on the need for good typing skills. Three female

managers noted that because of their speed and facility in typing they felt more efficient

in utilizing the system. Two male managers had different views. They thought "two

finger" typing was appropriate because speed was second to the thinking process hvolved

in responding to e-mails. One of these two managers felt that the e-mail system gave hirn

t h e to compose his thoughts leisurely while typing in responses. He did not feel the

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pressure of speed in typing.

When you are thuiking and typing, you do not need to be very quick. It is oniy when people read something to you that you need to be quick ... when you sit down and write, you think. You really only need a few fmgers to type and there is enough time in there for you to do that. [On the other hand] when you ûy to get things done quickly, you cannot think.

Coptng and Containment Strutegies

Managers noted a variety of strategies that they had developed to help cope with

and contain the work demands on them made by e-mail communications. Severai

managers tried to balance e-mail communications with face to face communications. One

manager deliberately lefi the "confuies of his office" and went outside to chat with staff.

Several mentioned that they htentionally did not join distribution lis? servs as they found

this to be very tirne consuming and took them away from their real work. One senior

manager

E-mail communication is supposed to effect eficiencies in our organization. E-mail has the potentiai to do that but it can also get away fiom you and some have let it get away by enrolling in various distribution lists and srnothering themselves with information. You can't do thai. 1 can't do that. 1 don't have the ability to do that.

Another manager posted two messages on her computer to ensure that she does not

send e-mails in anger. One message said that "if this is not something that you would like

to receive yourself, then don? send it". The other message said " ihink it, write it and file

it away for twenty-four hours". She said that this gave her an oppomuiity to calm down

before sending such messages. One manager made a point of checking his e-mail oniy

once a day "because when you're busy you have to plan your day and 1 dont like

responding to everythuig immediately simply because somebody has [e-mailed me] at

that time".

Managers had identified and discussed problems associated with "people blowing

off their hom or somebody is mad at somebody and they distribute it al1 across the

system". Management discussed it as a group to discourage this kind of behaviour.

Managers also realized that "they are leaming" to deal with these kinds of computer

cornmunication problems. One senior manager found that, with e-mail communications

so readily accessible to the college community, he was more fiequently challenged by

members of the college community with regard to many of his decisions. He had to learn

to receive feedback and use it constructively to review his former decisions. He was

"hearing different perspectives on the same issues which tend to infîuence and moderate

some of my own Mews".

Keeping on top of the volume of messages on a daily basis was a goal for many of

them. While not always possible, they did make efforts not to let them "build up".

Managers made a point of dealing with e-mail messages on a daily basis. This often

required them to either stay at work after houn or read e-mails in the evenings fiom their

homes. Generally, e-mail communications was a "double-edged sword".

Advising Strategies

Interspersed throughout the i n t e ~ e w s were a number of suggestions and

recommendations that managers thought might irnprove usage of the college's e-mail

system. Examples include:

1. One manager suggested that, just like she had done herself (posted "advice" stickies

to herself), other managers should do the same to remind themselves not to send

messages in anger.

2. One manager advised managers and staff to take control of their mail by switching to a

more effective system than the VAX-mail system, for example, the mail option available

on windows-based systems. He also suggested that the college adopt a common e-mail

system for al1 users to hprove communications.

3. Three managers believed that the system should not be used for "personal" messages,

such as "for sale items", births, weddings, etc. and suggested that policies be put in place

to discowage members fiom using the systern for these purposes.

4. A senior manager said he discouraged other managers fiom signing up to distribution

list sens as it took up too much of their time. He also discouraged extensive use of e-

mail by managers and by the college cornmunity as managers could become swamped

and "lose a level of accountability".

5. One manager advised users "not to jump over various layers in the organization to

discuss issues that might be sensitive to imrnediate supervisors". He suggested that "some

accommodation and recognition have to made ... so that there is no perception of going

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behind sorneone's back or subvertuig the authonty of somebody in the organization".

6. One manager wanted staff to l e m how to use the software they aiready have on their

systems instead of continuously requesting newer venions of the same software. He

believed that people "only use 10% of what they currently have". He would also like to

see managers utilize e-mail more frequently.

5.6.5 Section Summary

College managers primarily utilized computer commrviication technologies for

administrative tasks, such as processing, distributing, and documenting college

information. They perceived e-mail commwiications as a double-edged sword. E-mail

presented a number of advantages and disadvantages. Benefits and costs related to e-mail

use were classified into two categories: technicd characteristics and social aspects.

Managers developed a variety of strategies for using and coping with e-mail messages.

5.7 Description of Calendar Manager

The second rnost fiequently used computer communications program cited by

managers was Calendar Manager (RCM). Calendar Manager is a specific purpose tool

that ananges group meetings. The openhg screen is a table-like visual and is divided into

three sections. The top portion displays the tirne, date, location, and duration of

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meetings, the middle section contains a space to type in narnes of group members, and an

area at the bottom is available for agenda items or notes. Time dots for meetings are

automatically set up in hdf hour intervals 24 hours a day. An option to add more detailed

messages to individuals is also available. When activateci, the program fmds out if people

are available and notifies them of the meeting request. It informs users if timeddates

selected are suitable for particular members. Flashing members' names indicates that

there is a confiict in scheduling. If a conflict exists, the user can request the program to

fmd a more suitable t h e for al1 members to attend the meeting.

Calendar Manager is installed on the file semer that has the e-mail system, entitled

ADMM. ADMIN is primarily used by administrative staff that includes managers, their

support staff, and training coordinators. Employees who have ADMM accounts

automatically have access to the Calendar Manager software. Other college employees,

for example, faculty, do not automatically have accounts on the ADMM system. To have

access to ADMIN e-mail and thus the RCM software, other employees need to make a

separate request for an account from Compuhng S e ~ c e s . Faculty members are set up on

a separate system for e-mail, called "FAC", that does not have RCM capability.

5 -7.1 Calendar Manager Usage Behaviour

According to one Computing Services manager, usage of Calendar Manager

surpassed other computer communication applications at the college. "The electronic

f 53

meeting scheduler (RCM) ... is the most widely used piece of software anywhere in this

place". The most fiequent users of RCM appeared to be rniddie/senior managers and

employees who participate on college cornmittees. "Usually it's just the management

group like myself and some cornmittees [who utilize RCM]".

Managers logged on and checked theù Calendar Manager fust thing every

morning and several times throughout the day. They considered it to be the most

Unportant piece of software to check each morning.

Even if 1 don't check my e-mail every moming? 1 would ceriainly check Calendar Manager every morning.

Managers seemed to be dependent on the scheduling system for information to organize

their day and to find out what their daily events are going to be.

I'11 check in the morning or aftemoon and see what [activities] 1 got on [for the day].

When I corne to work, the first thmg 1 would do is bring up Calendar Manager and find out what's happening. Without Calendar Manager, I wouldn't know.

The majonty of managers gave positive assessments of this software and its

capabilities. It was considered by most to be an excellent and effective tool.

It is the best scheduling in the world ... 1 can schedule you. 1 can check to see where there is a conflict ...[ and the] conflict shows up instantly.

1 think it's excellent. It's really good ... l think it's the best meeting scheduling system that there is. Very effective.

Managers noted several uses of this software. The primary use of Calendar

Manager, by far the most often cited, was "to schedule meetings". Other uses include:

"planning my own tirne on a daily and weekly basis."; "hav[ing] you organized and

keep[ing] you on track"; "pending notes to myself in advance"; and "bring[ing] order".

For many, Calendar Manager replaced the more traditional forms of appointment

books and wall charts.

It replaces the scheduled book on your desk to write in dl your appointments and procedures for the day.

1 used to have a piece of plastic with the dates stuck on the back of my door.

Very few people now maintain book-type scheduling systems either. Itk d l Calendar Manager.

5.7.2 Advantages of Calendar Manager

Managers were quick to respond to the question of advantages of the RCM

software. Various advantages were given, with the three most often mentioned being:

thne saver; effective meeting plannedwork organizer; and work reflector. Seven

managers claimed that time was saved particularly for secretaries. Time was reduced

because of the elimination of phone calls, typing memos and delivering memos. Time

was also saved in making "one-shot" cornputer contact versus contacting multiple people

individually. This allowed for more efficient mass scheduling.

It's not time consuming like e-mail. Actually in the long run, unlike other technology, Calendar Manager does Save time

Other managers agreed:

To schedule people to a meeting, it cm take tremendous amount of time to try to find an available two hour slot for five important ... busy people. So 1 can imagine 1 could spend two or three hours (or my secretary could spend several hours) on the phone ûying to f h d a t h e that this system finds the tirne.

Time-saver in tems of setting [meetings] up particularly where there are so many people with so rnany different schedules that basically it's a saving - usually a secretary phoning around however many people and trying to get a schedule that's suitable for al1 of them.

Everybody gets to know there is a meeting and if you were doing it by memo by the time someone types the memo and it gets around and then you have two days lost in intemal mail and then there may be a person [on another campus] who never knew there was a meeting.

Caiendar Manager is useN for mass scheduling. ..scheduling for multiple people ... being able to fmd the time that people are fiee.

Calendar Manager helped managers to organize and plan meetings more

effectively. Several managers suggested that the computer "commands" them to be more

efficient, to consider the purpose of the meeting, who should attend, and to contribute

agenda items.

It almost tells you - put down the agenda, give some thought to what people should be at the meeting. It keeps you organized. Otherwise, we would have meetings without agendas or without giving thought to who should be there without early notice. This makes you think and plan your meetings ahead of tirne. Often when people see this on their Calendar Manager, they would add things to the agenda or they would cal1 you and ask why do you have this person there..if you had her there, you should have him there. 1 think it actually improves on your meeting planning.

It shows you the location, duration [of meetings] and you are almost forced to schedule. It forces you to plan..to put in the agenda so people can think about [items] before they come..It is perfect.

The advantages are that it brings order and it c m access everybody on the system, that you cm schedule knowing when people are available, when they are not available, that you can do that quickly or your secretary could do that quickly without h a h g to make 16 phone calls hying to set up a meeting.

It's a planning tool so it has lots of advantages. Very good for keeping you on track.

The advantage of being able to view or review a week's meetings gave some

managers the opportunity of seeing how much time they spent in meetings and of

reflecting on how they spent their week. It was viewed by one manager as a kind of diary

for keeping track of what work she accomplished over the week.

It serves as a kind of diary to see what 1 did dl week.

Behg able to plan your h e and be able to look at it and become more conscious of your time ... and you cm look at a week and see how much time you are spending in meetings.

5.7.3 Disadvantages of Calendar Manager

Overall, managers appeared positive and enthusiastic about the software and many

stated that they did not see any major "negaiives" with regard to the software itself,

because "it serves the purpose". In particular, s u p e ~ s o r s and first line managers had

littie to say about the system. Two types of disadvantages did, however, present minor

problems to Mddle and senior managers: features of the software and usage behaviour of

other managers. With regard to features, three managers commented on the disadvantage

of h a h g a computenzed version of a scheduler and its location in their offices. This was

a hindrance for managers when they were away fiom their offices or when their systems

were down.

I like Calendar Manager but 1 always have my little book which is in my bnefcase. From tirne to tirne 1 have problems with rny computer. I get booted out of the system and can't get back in for a penod of tirne so 1 still have to keep my little black book plus I find when you go to a meeting there is no computer in the room and someone may Say, "When can you meet me for the next time?" and if 1 dont have my book, 1 can't Say when 1 can meet that person.

It's al1 Calendar Manager. To our great grief sometimes because when you're out meeting with others sometimes you need to find out if you're available.

One manager indicated that using the "proxy" feature on RCM permitted other

managers to view meeting contents in certain conference rooms such as the boardroom

and one had to be careful about disclosing "confidential information about meetings".

The other thing is when people use [the feature] - locally accessible [to view] the boardroom meetings ... everybody can see who's meeting by using proxy and you can't put down any details of meetings. Those people [who use the proxy feature] will know potentially confidential information about meetings ... So there are some problems with Calendar Manager.

Two managers noted that the program had no way of knowing or accommodating

group members who were attending functions/meetings at other campuses and needed

tirne to travel between meetings.

It's a little bit inclined to giving problems because it doesn't allow aavel time between meetings.

The second type of disadvantages centered around certain managers' behaviours.

Severd managers were concemed that the software was inappropnately utilized by other

managers and complained that others in the college abused the system. Behaviours

mentioned include: managers blocking out their own t h e ; managers' controllhg other

managers' the ; pressuring others to attend; being scheduled for an excess number of

meetings; showing lack of etiquette; and not respecting unscheduled tirne. Managers

blocked out theu time for personal and professional reasons to indicate theù

unavaiiability for meetings. This annoyed theù peers.

The only negative would be that people sometirnes block their t h e so that they are not availabte although they would be in theu oflice and available ... but it's not a criticism of Calendar Manager..itls a criticism of that individual who blocks their the . 1 can't see anything that 1 would criticize about Calendar Manager.

What you will fmd is some people attempt to block time so that other people can't schedule them.

A lot of people are scheduiing tirne when they are going to be in their office and therefore attempbng to avoid being scheduled.

While the laîter manager complained about others using this strategy, he himself blocked

out the first half how of each day to get prepared for the day.

By being scheduled for so much of theu time in meetings, four managers were

dcu la t e in their cornplaints of being scheduled excessively in meetings. These

managers felt that they were being disrespected and other managers were acting

discourteously towards them.

The disadvantage is ... people tend to not respect unscheduled tirne on Calendar Manager.

The abuse is that it is pre-empted in the sense that it is like something invading your tirne ... People ignore the fact that you have cornmitments. It

is a discourtesy.

Several managers commented on the dilemma they experienced with regard to

feeling obliged to attend meetings, the easy access large numbers of people had in

scheduling hem, and the dificult decisions of attendance or non-attendance . Managers

felt a sense of responsibility for attending yet felt they had lit& control over their t h e .

As a result, rnanaging their t h e and not having their tirne invaded becarne a problem.

The problem is iîs users in terms of if some people or groups cal1 too many meetings or they are too long or invite too many people and to a certain extent you feel that you are obliged to attend if you can at al1 ... Probably fi@ percent of my time is used up in meetings. People have easy access. ..ltls extremely easy to schedule.

The disadvantages are ba t your life, unless you control it, is not your own and ... the fact that the same folks, who can comrnunicate with you, can also somewhat indiscriminately at least request your attendance at meetings. There's some obligation on your part then to either accept or reject but reject perhaps with a reason rather than simply press "no, you're not going to attend". So there's a certain responsibility, a little extra work, placed on you. 600 people now can play a part or at least attempt to play a part in scheduling your working day.

We cornplain the Calendar Manager is not quite the same curse as e-mail but cornes close in that there's others' ability to schedule you with a group for al1 your free time without any consultation. This plays havoc with any attempt to schedule or priontize your own time ...In fact the problems are quite severe.

Certain social behaviours of other managers affected some managers. More than

half of seniorhiddle managers identified etiquette issues or rather a "lack of etiquette"

displayed by other managers. For example, one senior manager thought it "discourteous"

to schedule a meeting "out of the blue" without being briefed about the meeting.

Therets also a lack of courtesy in how, out of the blue, [people] request a meeting with somebody without havhg briefed them with what itts about ... a person saying, "1 need to see you at three o'clock this aftemoon" and that person has some anxiety depending on the relationship between the two people.

A middle manager recounted how, when she asked other managers for more details

regarding the intent of meetings, some managers became "suspicious" and "questioned"

her on why she was asking.

One of the disadvantages or problems is just more of a question of etiquette. People set up meetings and they do not prepare you. They will set up a meeting with no agenda or purpose and one of the things that 1 t ' is important to do in setting up a meeting is to let the person know why you want them to attend so then you can make a decision if you are the nght person, what the agenda is ... So when people set up meetings like that with me 1 tend to go back to them and Say what is the agenda, why, how cm 1 prepare ... But 1 fmd that people are a little bit suspicious and Say "Why are you asking?" ... but 1 think it helps you corne to a meeting prepared. 1 like to come to a meeting prepared and then maybe what would have been a two hour meeting is handled in an hour because you got some of the questions asked.

Two other managers talked about how they felt their hme and privacy are invaded

because other people have the ability to schedule them with a group for their free time

without any consultation.

1 fmd my average week is somewhere between seventy-five and ninety percent scheduled. So there are not too many days where there is fiee time in the day twenty-four hours ahead that free time disappears by the time the day mives. So your time is dictated by the system rather than in the days of a personal secretary who makes appointment for people are long gone as well. 1 don't think we have quite anaiyzed it. Most people seem to accept the advantages [outweigh] the disadvantages but the disadvantages are pretty hard on your individual planning priorities.

5.7.4 Calendar Manager Coping and Containment Sfrategies

A number of strategies for cophg with the dernands of being constantly scheduled

for meetings were gleaned fiom managers' discussions. Six managers reporied

containment strategies that they used themselves as well as strategies used by other

managers. 1 use the term "containment" to describe seategies that put limits and

boundaries around their technology use. Self-reported coping and containment strategies

ùicluded: blocking out time slots for themselves; deciding how many and who could have

access to their scheduling accounts; and printing off their schedules. Managers used a

number of different ways in blocking out time slots. One manager blocked out the fwst

half hour of each morning while another manager blocked out several days each week. A

third manager blocked out her time if she wanted to "hide" for short periods for personal

or work-related reasons.

1 block out my lunch hours just so 1 could get out of the building on lunch hours [but] not on emergency meetings during lunch hours. 1 by to avoid [meetings] because of the pace. 1 to get outside.

If 1 want to hide, 1 make up a lie on Calendar Manager.

So one of the things 1 do is for about a three month period 1 block off two [specific] days a week. Then, after three months, 1 alternate those days to other workdays so that, unless there is an emergency, 1 won? be available for meetings. So it will be Tuesday and Thursday for three months or Monday and Weânesday for the next while ... because other people are scheduling meetings around you every day ... and you have no t h e to do the follow up work. You leave it wide open. And meetings are sometimes off campus in various places so when you go to a meeting that is two hours you may lose three hours so half a day is gone. And then you can have

potentially someone schedule a meeting in the moming and aftemoon so hou have] aii day meetings and it could be that way for five days a week. Then you get into [the problem ofl when you do follow up work. So 1 fmd that [strategy] has worked fairly well.

1 usually schedule the fxst half hour of the rnomhg to get oriented to the day .

The strategy of limiting access to others was used by several managers. Using the

cornputer feahire of allowing either M. partial or view ody access to other designated

users was perceived as a plus. One manager granted p d a l access to her peers and her

boss's secretary. However, she gave full access to her own secretary for scheduling.

Another strategy used involved h a h g secretaries to do al1 the scheduling for managers.

Secretaries acted as a gatekeepers. College managers encouraged others in the college to

go "through" their secretary to set up meetings. This strategy provided a sense of order

and control over his time and work.

1 would prefer if they went through my secretary so that there would be some semblance of order and decorum about this. I'd rather not reply to a meeting request myself.

To combat the "portability" problem of cornputers. several managers used a

nurnber of strategies. They carry theu "linle black day books" with them when oui of the

office, get their secretaries to transcribe them into day books for managers, or get printed

copies of their agendas.

What a lot of people do is get secretaries to transcribe their CM appointments ont0 their day timer books anyway. A lot of people print off their days for their week's meetings on Mondays.

5.7.5 Reflections on the Syrnbolic Use of the Calendar Manager

Managers cited the t e m "tool" frequently to describe Caiendar Manager. One

manager, however, was v e v philosophic about the meeting scheduler. He reflected on

his intentions when fxst becoming a manager and how the demand of meetings gave h m

grave concems. He felt that the Calendar Manager could provide a structure for him to

do walkabouts and get to know employees but realized that it was unrealistic to schedule

himself with 600 employees:

Because 1 complained in my inexperience when 1 took on an administrative role that everybody just wants five minutes of my life and 1 want to give everybody at least that five minutes. But five minutes times 600 is more than 1 can give so you have to discipline yourself as well in those meetings and see dl the meetings are important. Every meeting that someone asks you to attend is veiy important. You don't just arbitrarily Say no but you cannot Say yes to everybody. 1 misunderstood that when 1 was not in administration. 1 had a feeling that 1 could do a lot better in administration than those who administered me. 1 rhought their accessibility was low, îhat they should be talking to me more, and I thought that if 1 were in their job, 1 would spend a little tirne in rny office and 1 would manage much more by walking about, communicating and establishing a personal relationship with those 1 depend on ... Aithough 1 wanted to do it, 1 haven't been able to do it. Now 1 dont know if it is because 1 haven't had the persona1 discipline to do that or whether it was sirnply an unrealistic expectation. 1 initially scheduled myself on the Calendar Manager that we are taking about for walkabouts every day and I found even though I wanted to do it and 1 scheduled myself to do it that the demands and the priorities were such that 1 rarely got a chance to do it and in recent years haven't done it at d l . It's my regret.

5.7.6 Section Summary

in summary, the majority of managers gave positive comments about Calendar

Manager and advantages far outnurnbered disadvantages. The positives included saWig

t h e and human resources, help in planning theû work, and being provided a track of

their daily activities. Problems experienced by some managers primarily involve how the

system was used by managers as opposed to the system itself.

5.8 Suggestions for Improvement

Managers were asked if they had any suggestions for improving the college's

computer communication systems. Al1 but four managers gave suggestions. These four

stated that they had no problems with any part of the systems, that the systems worked

just fine and served the purpose. A total of seventeen suggestions were offered by the

remaining sixteen managers. The suggestions are classified into two categories:

technical-related and social-related. The asterisk indicates that two or more managers

made the same or similar suggestion.

Technical-reiated Suggestions

a Install a built-in spell checker for e-mail* a Develop some kind of standardization that everybody's software could

handle the same documents with more compatibility*

Provide a more advanced version of e-mail so that other than text documents couid be attached to files* Develop an easier way to file transfer* Purchase additional capability of software to handle "forums for discussion" or collaborative computing software* Have a system that "grabs back a message" if receiver has not already read it Have college move away fiom the "madiame [idea] of cornputers so everyone had PCs to fetch their mail" Install common e-mail system to be used by everybody but fears that managers would be swamped with work and messages Improve connectivity and access

Social- related Sugges taonr

Examine things handled by e-mail to see if they could be dealt much better in person* Redefme or resû-ict use of the public broadcast system for only "pertinent" college-reiated announcements and utilize a different system for social announcements* Give training in e-mail etiquette* Have employees tum off their computers for a day to see what happens and to show them their dependency on system Have college community "figure out how to handle e-mail" because of concems of overload Provide leamhg oppomuiities for managers to improve their technology usage and optimization Fix faculty collective agreement so people understand change and how technology is speeding up change Leave e-mail messages for a day before you address message because eventually e-mails will solve themselves

5.9 Chapter Summary

College managers conducted their technology leaming and usage activities in a

seKinitiated way through experimenting and practicing with the technology. They were

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generdly self-dependent, but when they confionted problems they couid not solve

themselves, they approached CO-workers in nearby offices or used technical rnanuals and

online help. To cope with the added demands of cornputer communications, they

developed a variety of information management, utilization, and containment strategies.

Chapter Six

6.0 Discussion and hterpretation of Findings

6.1 Introduction

The discussion and hterpretation of the findings are organized into three sections.

The fust section provides answers to the original research questions posed in Chapter 1 .

The second section identifies major fmdings and links findings with the literatwe. The

third section is a discussion of the implications that derive fiom the fmdings.

6.2 Research Questions

The study focused on one primary research question and five ancillary questions

as posed in Chapter 1 . Those questions are:

Primary Question:

How do college managers learn and use computer communication technologies?

Ancillary Questions:

1. How do college managers Say they keep up professionally in their job?

2. How do coilege managers Say they leam to use computer communication

technologies?

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3. How do college managers Say they utilize computer communication technologies?

4. Do college managers' perceptions of their role innuence their use of computer

communication technologies? If' so, how?

5 . What, if any, is the perceived impact of computer communication technologies on

coîlege managers' work environment?

Each of these questions is considered in light of the findings that were outlined in the

previous chapter.

6.2.1 Discussion of Each Research Question

1. How do college managers Say they keep up professionally?

A nurnber of managers' initial reactions to this question were that they did not and

could not keep up professionally. They used expressions such as "dificult", "not easy"

and "a great failing". They responded that they did not carry out much professional

development. One manager simply said, "1 don't". Evidence shows that college managers

in the study recognized the need for management development yet rarely sought out or

preplanned professional development oppomuiities for themselves. Only one manager

cited deliberate, intentionai professional development planning. She designed and

irnplemented her own professional development pian with the help of a colleague.

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Managers identified barriers tu professional development more readily than

development opportunities. Barriers such as t h e and work pressures were the main ones

given by most managers for not participating more actively and fiequently in

development activities. One manager expressed it well when he said that he becomes so

focused on and involved in his job that he really does not even think about his own

professional development. Even though managers stated that tirne and oppomuiities were

limite& many managers were reflective and discussed some attempts they made over the

years at keeping up professionally. They talked about a variety of formal and lnformal

ways in which they gained their education and knowledge. They reported formal

activities such as undertakuig degree and diploma programs at the nearby university.

Degrees were related to their area of teaching or work specialty, such as business,

engineering, and commerce degrees.

For many of the managers, professional development was equated with formai

education. For other managers, informal experiences constituted learning and keeping up

professionaliy. They identified activities such as on the job experience and journal

reading related to their area of specialty as primary methods of keeping current in their

work. The majority of professional development activities were self-initiated and self-

planned. For example, they stated that they personally subscribed to trade jomals and

attempted to read them during the workday. When this was not possible, they took them

home to read. Several managers said they read a lot at work and at home. Another

informal strategy for leamhg was utilizing resources that were easily available and that

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could be obtained in nearby offices. For example, dialoguing with peers and participahg

in coflege committees were viewed as accessible and legitunate foms of development.

Managers in the study stated that they are becoming more aware of the need for

change and growth in management practices in light of the changing role of managers in

current coiiege systems. However, dthough there was an increase in awareness of this

need within the college ranks and even at the board level, for the past five years there

appeared to be a decrease in the amount of support for professional development

activities for managers. One senior manager suggested that when the current

reorganization "settles down", managers' development needs may be more adequately

addressed by college officiais. He said that he was looking forward to a forma1

evaluation system to identiQ the strengths and weaknesses of managers.

While managers regretted not having more t h e for professional development, they

noted the benefits that professional development offered. They stated that by keeping up

professionally, they would be better informed about new developments, programs and

services in their area of specialty.

Responses to this question indicated that managers generally do not preplan and

consciously implement their own learning achvities. They are aware of the need for

development and utilize reading and peers as their main source of development when the

need arises.

2. How do college managers Say they Leam to use computer communication

technologies?

In contrast to the former question, managers responded quickly to the question on

how they learned to use computer communication technologies. Managers cited a variety

of ways Ui which they leamed these technologies. Managers generally learned to use the

technologies on their own: by doing; through experimentation; and by trial and error.

They leamed and continue to leam new features on a need-to-know basis. Managers said

they frst "played" with the programs on their own and when they ran into trouble, they

called upon people in the nearby vicinity. They said that support staff, particularly

secretaries, played a significant role in helping them leam features of the technology.

They pointed out that support staff knew the technical aspects of the computer programs

better than managers. Some managers said that most of their knowledge about the

systems came fiom sectetarial staff. They stated that they learned "through the

grapevine" which particular support staff knew the systems better than other staf f

members. These 'identified' support staff were the people managers called upon for help

and assistance.

Many of the managers were employed at the college for more than ten years.

These long t e m managers noted that in the beginning of their work liistory, colleague

influence (either through fiee will or coercion) was the primary reason for learning and

adopting computer communication technologies. For example, they spoke about one

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senior manager who through overt statements and assertive behaviour encouraged (or

coerced) other managers to leam and use the technology. Managers who were recniited

in later years did not express any concem about leamhg and adopting computerized

communication systems and Mewed computer communications as a requirement of the

job.

While the majority of managers preferred to leam on their own and by g e h g

human assistance, some availed themselves of the college's non human resources, such as

online help and technicai manuals. There appeared to be two camps within the college

regarding the use of manuals; one group of managers highly favored the use of reference

manuals while another group complained of the difficulty of reading "wordy, technical"

manuals. One manager stated that he often took home thick computer reference manuals

to study while another manager said that computer reference manuals were "off-putting"

because of theu length and she did not have enough time to wade through the volume of

pages. She suggested that technical people would probably utilize lengthy manuals but

she wanted somethuig îhat was faster and more expedient such as a one-page summary of

instructions.

Arguments over the need to be competent in typing also developed in the college

cornmunity; one group suggested that typuig was a requisite in using technology and

another group stated that two fmger typing was suficient. One manager stated îhat she

found her "high school" typing course "came in handy" while another manager said that

his slow typing ability gave him the opportunity to think and reflect as he typed. It

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appeared that managers' individuai preferences and past experiences and ski11 with the

technology helped determine in which camp their opinions lay.

In this study, it was concluded that learning cornputer communication technologies

at this coilege was an individual experience but socially influenced by colleagues in

general and superiors in paxticular. Some managers warmly adopted and lemed the

technology while others postponed and resisted until they felt coerced into using it.

There appeared to be a variety of affective experiences in leamhg the technology and

little consensus amongst managers about what technical skills were needed to make

effective use of the technology. It seemed that managers leamed "as they go" and on a

"need-to-know" basis. There was little preplanning or awareness of their learning process

on the part of managers in their technology leming efforts.

In comparing responses to the question of keeping up professionally and the

question of leaming to use technologies, there were a number of similarities and

differences in responses. For both questions, managers appeared to conduct little

"conscious" planning to address their professional development and technology learning

needs. However, when the questions were further explored, it was discovered that they

did participate in both professional development and technology leamhg activities. For

both leaming activities, they used a self-directed approach to conduct their leaming. In

both cases, they depended pnmanly upon their own initiative to conduct their learning

and, secondly, utilized peers and colleagues. They diaiogued with peers to keep abreast

of new developments in the college and called upon colleagues in nearby offices to help

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in theù technology leaming.

While there were similarities, differences also existed. Generally, professional

development was viewed as a forna1 activity and technology leaniing an Uifomal one.

Technology leamhg was considered a "natural" and required leamhg activity that

seemed to evolve fiom their pnor computer or work experiences. However, no

connection was made between their current professional development activities and past

involvement in professional development activities. I am not sure what this says about

professional development activities. Maybe professional development is not a "natural"

extension or expected activity for the majonty of managers?

A number of barriers to professional developrnent were readily acknowledged but

few banien to technology ieanllng were mentioned. Keeping up professionally seemed

to be a voluntary activity. When one had the time and inclination, one took part in

professional development. However, leaming technology was a requirement of the job,

so one learned to use technology al1 the time.

3. How do college managers Say they utilize computer communication

technologies?

In this study, it was revealed that managers utilized two computer communication

applications (e-mail and Calendar Manager) in a variety of ways. There were similarities

and differences in their (a) uses of computer communication technology; (b) technology

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usage behaviour; (c) technology utilization strategies; and (d) technology-related coping

mechanisms.

Uses of the Two Applications

Similarities in the purposes of the two applications were discussed in "technical

efficiency" terms. Both applications were perceived to (a) Save money, tirne and

resources; and (b) provide "technical" assistance to their workday. For example,

Calendar Manager was perceived as (1) an efficient meeting scheduler; (2) a tirne-saver

rather than a the-consumer; and (3) a "commander" to organize your work priorities. As

an efficient meeting scheduler, they taiked about how Calendar Manager checked on time

and availability of people to attend meetings, thereby eliminating the need for managers

and secretaries to contact people individually. As a time-saver, it reduced the time spent

on the phone trying to contact people for suitable meeting times, recontacting people to

confum meeting times, and doing up memos for meetings. As a "commanderw of

organization, Calendar Manager "told hem" to give thought and seriousness to the

proposed meeting, to plan and think more critically about meetings, and to stay on track.

E-mail was (1) an efficient processor and distributer of information; (2) an

efficient substitute for other media; and (3) location obliger in that managers could

connect fiom different physical locations to check their communications. As an efficient

processor and disûibuter of information, managers used e-mail for accessing, tracking,

filing, documentin& and retneving information. As an efficient replacement for other

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media, managers perceived its use as supenor to the phone, voice mail, and printed

materids. The term, location obliger, meant that managers could log on ftom anywhere

and, at their leisure, respond to messages. Managers did not have to worry if others were

at the other end of the commun.ication system. One conclusion that rnay be drawn for the

"eficiency" factor is that values of efficiency and speed are important to managers.

Differences existed in how managers perceived problems related to using the two

applications. The e-mail application itself was perceived as causing socio-cultural

problems in the college while "usen" of Calendar Manager were perceived as causing

socio-cultural problems with this application. Cornrnents about the e-mail system were

often directed at the system itself', not at users' behavior in the e-mail system. However,

managers spoke differently when refemng to sirnilar "socio-cultural" problems with

Calenda. Manager. With the e-mail system, managers pointed out that the e-mail system

itself encouraged and caused socio-cultural problems such as depersonalized

communications, hierarchy violations and a stratified system of work. When managers

recounted Calendar Manager's socio-cultural problems such as kick of etiquette and

pressure to attend meetings, they pointed out that it was the users of Calendar Manager

that caused meeting-related problems. With Calendar Manager, they spoke about people

scheduling too much of their time and acting discourteously. They seemed to domplay

the negative side to Calendar Manager by stating that it was the behavior of users that

caused problerns, not the application. The reverse happened when refeming to e-mail.

One conclusion that rnay be drawn from their use of the two applications is that,

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when managers perceive an application as having more positive effects than negative,

they tend to defend the application and find other excuses for the negative impacts. In

this case, users of Calendar Manager were targeted rather than the system itself

Technology Usage Behaviour

Cornputer communication technology use was perceived to be a significant part of

their workday. Its usefulness was significant enough that al1 managers made it a priority

to check both e-mail and Calendar Manager applications first thing each m o r ~ n g and a

number of times throughout the day. With regard to e-mail communications at the tirne

of the study, over fifty percent of managers handled thirty or more messages on a daily

basis. in a recent check with several managers since the beginning of this study, the

number of daily e-mail messages doubled. 1 am unsure whether the same people fiom the

current study increased their communications with the current managers or if new people

are ushg the system and are the reason for the increase in e-mail messages. Whoever

they are communicating with, managers are increasing the arnount of tirne spent on

reading and responding to e-mail. One manager noted that where several years ago she

handled twenty-five messages on a daily basis, this number had since increased to fifty

messages a day.

At the tirne of the study, managers cited a variety of utilization strategies they had

developed to handle the two applications. E-mail strategies included self-developed

strategies for: (1) processing and managing the "content" of messages; (2) coping with the

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t h e and work demands associated with messages; and (3) handling the impact of other

managers' and other users' behaviour. Calendar Manager strategies were primarily self-

planned strategies for coping with the demands made by other users of the Calendar

Manager system.

E-mail strategies were aimed at containing the "quantity" of information.

Examples of these strategies include: limiting the printing of messages; deleting messages

as quickly as possible; and setting up filing systems for easy retrieval. Strategies also

included deliberately not joining distribution list servs and lirniting the number of times

they checked messages each day.

Calendar Manager strategies were aimed at controllhg and limiting other people's

ability to schedule their day. Examples of strategies include: limiting access to their

meeting calendars; blocking out time dots when they would not be available for

meetings; and having secretaries act as gatekeepers to their t h e schedules. 1 labeled both

sets of strategies as containment strategies. Containment strategies were mimager~'

efforts to control, limit, and/or prioritize their workday.

Managers seemed to prefer electronic-requested information that was routine and

unambiguous rather than having to address weighty, ambiguous requests which required

additional work. When messages required a "quick" response, they were happy to

respond and get "rid of the message" as soon as possible. When messages required more

substantive work, they "dreaded" tuniing on their cornputers.

It appeared that most used the technology in a more reactive manner than in a

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proactive way. For example, managers spoke more often about responding to incoming

messages than iaitiating communications. Managers noted that they used e-mail

technology more fiequently for "routine exchange of information" and "responding to

requests" than for collaborative tasks and feedback purposes. However, four managers

spoke about using computer communication technology in a proactive manner. For

example, one manager used e-mail on one occasion to ask for suggestions in how the

college could make "new" money given the "budget woes" that the college was currently

facing. Thee other managers made general comrnents on using e-mail to collaborate

with provincial counterparts on special cornmittee projects.

4. Do college managers' perceptions of their role influence their use of

computer communication technologies? If so, how?

The college managers' perceptions of their role significantly influenced their use

and assessrnent of cornputer communication technologies. How managers utilized

computer communication technology appeared to be a reflection of how they perceived

their managerial role and how they camied out their managerial responsibilities. Evidence

in the present study suggests that managers at this college viewed their role prirnady

through a bureaucratic organizational frame. For exarnple, the majority of managers

stated their role and responsibilities in bureaucratic terminology, such as: fuiancial

decision rnaking responsibility for "al1 levels in the hierarchy"; assessing technological

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needs "for the president on down"; and ensuring policies, regulations and procedures are

followed "below their level and above their level". Managers noted that they worked in a

hierarchicd system with a top-down line of authority and a chain of command. One

manager explained how managers had to be carefid in using e-mail because managers

bave "fiagile egos" and "jumping over layers in the organization" could be dehimental to

the "hierarchical structure" of the college. He wanted to ensure that "there's no

perception of going behind someone's back or subverting the authority of sornebody in

the organization". He wanted subordhates to consider these conditions when using

elecbonic communications. Other managers would agree with this finding as they voiced

concern about people being discourteous by "sending messages downward in the chah"

and "not going through their secretaries first" when attempting to contact them.

Designing, implementing, and monitoring policies and procedures to maintain

efliciency of the college system occupy much of managers' day-to-day administrative and

communicative work. For example, the majority of managers talked about ensuring

smooth operations of the campus or unit for which they were responsible. Attending to

practical, day-to-day tasks such as responding to requests, ordering mateaials, preparing

reports, and coordinating events consumed much of their day. One finding was that the

prime purpose of using technology was to cany out routine, administrative tasks. They

used the technology to respond to "quick" queries, requests for supplies, overtime

salaries, and factual information. When some managers wanted to send out rerninders of

policies (for example, policies related to ordering books and supplies), they banked

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cornposed messages in the e-mail filing system, retrieved them at a later date, and then

sent them to the college cornmuni@. Managers often used e-mail to implement and

monitor cornpliance of college policies and procedures by adding a tracking system of

when messages were sent to subordinates and subordinates read messages so as to avoid

confiict and dispute over policies.

5. What, if any, is the perceived impact of computer communication

technologies on college managers' work environment?

Managers were asked to discuss any advantages and disadvantages of utilizing the

technology. Managers were also directly asked what, if any, were the impacts of

computer communication technology. The two questions formed the basis of discussion

of perceived impacts.

Perceptions of the advantages and disadvantages focused primarily on two aspects

of technology use: technical and social aspects. Some managers stated that advantages of

the technology were related to technical efficiencies. For exarnple, a large number of

managers spoke about the increased speed and easy access of processing and distributing

information. However, other managers noted that, while the technology offered

"technical" eficiencies, the technology also added pressures and work demands to their

day. The technology's capability of speed and easy access of information increased the

arnount of work to be covered in a day.

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Technology use and assessment of the technology seemed to depend on what

benefits a particular application had to offer managers as opposed to the computer

communication technology itself. For example, for many of the managers, the

application of e-mail made excessive demands on their tirne, energy, and work load.

Managers perceived the technology as augmenthg rather than replacing or substituthg

communications. They spoke about still havhg a large number of meetings, still

conversing to their "inner circle" of contacts, and now having to handle e-mail messages

with its associated tasks. For some, e-mail requests entailed complexity which in turn

required them to often seek help from staff andlor reflect on messages before responding.

In contrast to e-mail, for many of the managers, Calendar Manager had the reverse

effect. Managers perceived Calendar Manager as helping hem by decreasing tirne and

energy spent in meetings and theu related tasks. While managers spoke about e-mail

adding work to their day, they lauded Calendar Manager for adding order and structure to

their day. Therefore, e-mail communication was perceived more a hindrance to their job

while Calendar Manager was perceived as more of a help.

Managers spoke about the impacts of cornputers in general and the impacts of

computer communications in particular. Several noted that adopting computer

communication technology was a continuation of their previous computer knowledge and

experience. These managers had gained extensive experience working with a variety of

computer systems and applications either in their former educational activities or in

previous jobs. So the technology itself or the learning of technology did not present any

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problems to their initial experiences with the technology. As one manager noted, leaming

the technology was as easy as leaming twelve words of a foreign language. There

appeared to be Little computer anxiety regarding the technical leamhg of the systems.

However, those managers who felt coerced into using the technology without pnor

consultation and agreement, regarded adoption in a negative light. One manager noted

that it took several monhs afler the college implemented the technology before he began

using e-mail and Calendar Manager. It was not until he underwent "derision" fiom

colleagues that he finally began using it.

Evidence fiom the data suggests that e-mail had more of an impact on managers

and theù work than did Calenda. Manager. Mile they noted that e-mail provided an

ease and efficiency in communication, they also noted that rapid changes were occunhg

in the level, quantity, and quality of e-mail communications. For example, they spoke

about the large quantity of messages that piled up when they were gone for severd days

from work. This rapid rate of increase in e-mail communication presented a challenge for

many of the managers. One manager talked about how the capability of speedy

communications meant that the time fiame to complete tasks was reduced. She talked

about in the past if a request came fiom the president for certain information a manager

would have a day or two to compile it, send it in the mail, and this probably meant a

week's tumaround to complete the task. Now, however, with the newer capability of

technology, this reduced tirne frame for cornpleting tasks put pressures on managers to

perform work-related tasks, especially requests fiom their superiors, in a much quicker,

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more demanding way.

Managers differed in their perceptions of the environmental value of computer

communications. Some suggested that e-mail eliminated the need for paper because "not

everybody prints off" messages. However, other managers stated that there was an

increase in paper usage and the number of filing cabinets because people printed off al1

messages in order to have hard copies. Hard copies make them feel more secure about

documenthg their tasks and filing communications. This may suggest a distrust in the

reliability of a cornputer's record keeping.

In the past, secretaries performed word-processing and made meeting

arrangements for managers. However, with the new technology, managers had to

perform those tasks tiiemselves. Some managers felt that there were costs and benefits to

the changing role of secretarial workers. They felt that the role of a personal secretary

was changing dramatically as a result of the adoption and implementahon of these

prograrns. The role of secretaries was changing fiom one of gatekeeper to one of

computer assistant. Their role in the past involved screening phone calls and visitors

before they could make contact with managers. Now with technology, since managers

kept their e-mail confidential, secretax-ies were unable to perform this task. Their role

changed to assisting managers in their computer learning and use. New tasks such as

helping managers in filing, processing, transfemng, and retrieving information were

introduced into their daily responsibilities. As one manager stated the "idea of having a

personal secretary is gone". Managers now became responsible for their own processing

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of communications as well as developing new strategies for gatekeephg and information

management.

Managers in the study were concemed that camaraderie and fiiendship might be

sacrifïced at the hands of technology. Several managers devised strategies to cope with

the excessive use of technology to ensure that camaraderie was not lost in the college

community. Strategies such as leaving their office to speak to others, tuming off their

computen occasiondly for more personal communication, and writing reminders to

themselves were some of the strategies to address this dilemma.

Several managers were conscious of the threat of information overload and

intentiondly reduced their membership in numerous online distribution lists. Senior

managers advised colleagues to be careful of overextending thernselves through

membership in distribution lists and discouraged their participation.

Main Question: How do college managers learn and use computer communication

technologies?

This question was the main focus cf the research. The study set out to gain an

understanding of college managers' computer communication technology leaming and use

process fiom a holistic perspective. To provide a holistic view of managers' leaming and

usage efforts, their processes and perceptions of adoption, leaming, utilization, post-

adoption, and impact were researched. Analysis of managersf responses revealed a

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number of complex process phases that these managers went through in leanhg and

using cornputer communication technology. The leaming process of these managers had

a number of interrelated phases and strategies. For convenience of explmation, the

phases and strategies are outlined in six separate categones. However, in the study, these

phases and strategies were intertwined and interdependent. The sketch of their leamhg

and usage process cm be described as follows:

1. Being introduced to (or coerced into) technology use by colleagues (developing

pro-technology or resistant amtudes)

2. L e h g to use the technical features of the technology (developing or enhancing

technical skills)

3. Practicing by doing on a need-to-know basidobtaining help fiom others

(developing leaming strategies)

4. Using the technology (developing information management and utilization

strategies)

5 . Assessing the positive and negative value of technology use (developing

concepnial and evaluative knowledge)

6. Containkg, limiting and controlling technology leaming and use (developing

coping and containment strategies to handle use)

These phases were identified by using the selective coding process outlined by

Strauss and Corbin (1990). The phases became clearer as the entire leaniing and usage

process was analyzed. The first phase was identified fiom managent narratives of their

initial introduction to the technology. The majority of managers embraced computer

communications. However, there were a few exceptions. In the early stages of adoption,

those managers who spearheaded and supported its introduction viewed computer

communications in a positive light. Managers who felt coerced into leamhg and using

technology resisted adoption until the t h e that they could not put up with the derision

aven to them by their peers. Colleagues in general and one senior manager in pamcular

had strong influences on managers' adoption process. Managers who were recmited at a

later date did not express conceni over adopting and using these technologies. They

accepted these technologies as a requirement of the job.

The second and third phases were identified fiom managers' descriptions of their

"hands-on" stories of using the technology. Once managers had obtained and adopted the

technology, they primarily used self-directed learning strategies to leam the technology.

Playing with the technology on their own through trial and error tactics and leaming in

the "doing" of administrative and communication tasks were the most frequently used

leaming strategies. Managers leamed the basic technical features on a need-to-how

basis, on their own initiative andor through colleague help.

The fourth phases was uncovered in managers' discussions of their roles and

assessments of the technology. Managers' conceptual and evaluative knowledge became

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clear to the researcher as managers were recounting their perceptions of the technology.

niroughout interviews, managers used hierarchical, bureaucratic terminology in

describing their leaming, use, and assessrnent of the technology. Managers pointed out

that the computer communication technology was primady used for handiing

administrative tasks and processing routine information. Some managers did cite a few

innovative uses such as collaborating with peers, getting feedback fiom college members,

and relationship building. However, the majority of comments were related to

administrative uses. This suggested that managers Mewed and used technology primarily

through a bureaucratic "fiame" of management. Their conceptual knowledge of computer

communications was acquired and interpreted through bureaucratic lenses (Bensimon,

1989).

Managers' evaluative knowledge was gleaned from their varied assessments of the

two applications. The majority of managers had ambiguous reactions to e-mail usage but

primarily positive reactions to ushg the meeting calendar. While conscious that e-mail

use offered advantages and disadvantages, many managers felt that e-mail use added to

their workday and work load rather than eliminating or lightening work load. Because of

the vast amount of t h e needed to process e-mail messages, the use of e-mail augmented

rather than elllninated use of other media. They still had to contend with face to face,

phone, fax, and voice mail communications. On the other hand, with the exception of a

few technical and managerial behavioural problems, Calendar Manager was perceived as

the most usehl and efficient piece of software in the college. The time spent checking

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Calendar Manager and responduig to meeting requests did not consume as much as their

t h e as e-mail. However, easy access for setting up meetings and the amount of t h e

spent in meetings did present problerns to them. They were quick to note that it was not

the technology but the people that caused the problem. Their evaluative knowledge

evolved fiom their assessments and perceptions of the technology itself.

The last phase was revealed through the analysis of their behavioural responses to

using computer communications. Managers devised a number of different coping

strategies to handle the demands of the technology. The purpose of the strategies

appeared to be attempts: (1) to limit the amount of administrative work and

communications associated with technology; and (2) to maintain order and organization

to their workday. Managers developed coping strategies to handle the extra work and

stress associated with technology use. A discussion of these coping strategies follow in a

later section.

6.3 Major Findings

Evidence supports the conclusion that college managers l e m computer

communication technology: (a) by experimenting with the technology; @) on a need-to-

know basis; (c) through peer influence; and (d) and with colleague support. How they

use the technology is a reflection of how they perceive and carry out their role in

everyday tasks. The major findings cm be summarized as follows:

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1. Social and environmental innuences enhance or constrain managerial

technology leaming and use. Peer inauence positively or negatively affects

adoption. Circumstances within the environment, such as resources and

conditions, shape the learning efforts of managers.

2. Managers' perceptions of their role significantly inauence the way college

managers use computer communication technologies. Perceptions of their

role are tied to the culture of the college. In this college, the organizational

culture was predominantly bureaucratic. Bureaucratie administrative

cultures support bureaucratic uses of communication technologies.

3. There is diversity in managers' assessments of the impact of computer

communication technologies and applications. Depending on theu assessments,

managers may perceive one particular computer communications application a

help and another computer communication application a hindrance.

4. There are definable phases to managers' technology learning process.

When managers add computer communications to their workday, they

develop leaming, utilization, information management and coping strategies

in their learning and use efforts. Coping strategies are a significant pari of

how they l e m and utilize computer communications. Their coping (or

contaiment) strategies can be organized into three categories: supports

systems; limits to usage; and technological and administrative work

routines.

191

nie implications of fmdings and recommendations will be presented and, where possible,

placed within the context of the existing research on managerial learning and technology

use.

Social and Environmental Influences

Rogers (1995) noted that the perceptions managers have of an innovation

technology will affect their rate of adoption. He pointed out that people are more easily

uifluenced to adopt a new technology in the early stages if they see benefit fiom

adoption. Fulk, Steinfield, and Schrnitz (1990) concluded that managers are socially

influenced by peers in their adoption efforts.

In the present study, technology adoption at the college was reported in the stories

told by managers of the early adoption and diffusion efforts at the college. The study

showed that senior managers and peers influenced managers' adoption and use processes.

The study M e r showed that peer influence was a negative experience for some

managers and a positive one for others. From this finding, we can suggest to

organizational leaders that, when inhoducing or implementing new technologies, they

understand that technology use can be viewed negatively or positively by members. This

fmdhg can provide valuable information for predicting and anticipating diverse

managerial reactions to other advanced technologies that colleges may pian to adopt.

Managers also need to recognize that their adoption and behavioural patterns of

computer communication technologies - how they use the technology - influence and arc

influenced by colleagues' knowledge and skill. An interactive social relationship

develops as college members l e m technologies together. This learning together

engenders what Thompson (1967) called "a reciprocal interdependence" among members

of the college community. College boards and senior college officials can be helpfid in

assisting and supporting managers and support staff to enhance their leamhg of

technology skills and knowledge. This cm be done by: providing learning opportunities

for managers and support staff to leam together; and encouraging managers and support

staff to set aside tirne for technology leaming, dialogue and reflection on the purposes of

comrnunicating via cornputers.

Circumstances and conditions within the environment also significantly impact

leaming and use. Spear and Mocker (1984) concluded that leamers tend to select

strategies and resources "from limited alternatives whicli occur fortuitously within their

environment, and which structures their leaming projects" (p. 4). They proposed the

Organizing Circumstance as the driving force behind much of self-directed learning.

Environmentai circurnstances within the college enhanced and limited the development of

managers' leanhg and usage strategies to handle the technology. The level and quality

of leaming is dependent upon the knowledge level of available helpers (Caff'ella &

û'Domeli, 1987). Advanced knowledge levels should include technical, conceptual, and

evaluative knowledge. Deep knowledge is needed for optimum use of advanced

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communications systems (Marshall, 1993). Experts who had technical knowledge were

identified by managers but no mention was made of individuals that possessed "deep"

conceptuai knowledge of benefits and impacts of computer communication systems.

In-service training should be designed for managers to help them recognize that there are

limitations of utilizing themselves and nearby support staff as their primary sources of

leaming. Experts that have broad and deep understanding of the impact of technology on

work environments need to be consulted and utilized by colleges to optimize benefits of

technology use. These experts can help develop managers' conceptual knowledge of

computer communication systems through strategies such as coaching and scaffolding

(Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989).

Influence of Perceived Role

It has been noted in the literature that conceptions of management are derived fiorn

the assumptions managers make about the nature of their organization, perceptions of

their role, what information they collect and share, and what communication processes

they use (Bensimon, 1994). in this study, managers Mewed their role from a bureaucratie

fiame of management with a c h i n of command communication model. Evidence fiom

the study noted that this style of management is canied over into managers' use of

computer communication technology. Managers paid particular attention to controllhg

the flow of information in e-mail communications, irnplementing college policies and

194

procedures, emphasizing organizational elements of information processing, and

establishing lines of authority for use of the technology. Managers perpetuated

bureaucratic use of the technology by modeling bureaucratic communicative behaviours

for members of the community.

If senior managers in a bureaucratic system utilize computer communications

primarily for bureaucratic communications, colleagues will also adopt similar usages.

Managers need to understand the impact that their behaviour has on college members.

They need to be understand that peers and staff "watch" and "model" communication

behaviour.

Weick (1976) noted that bureaucratic systems are known to foster the notion of a

tight, closely-coupled system of operations that depend on interna1 resources. Closely-

coupled systems rarely seek information from the extemal environment. In the current

study, technology learning and use occurred in a bureaucratic environment. Managers

perceived their role as designers, supporters and implementers of policies and procedures

in a hierarchical system of operahons. Dennison and Gallagher ( 1986) pointed out

managers' need to have more open communications in colleges and adopt a more

participatory mode of managing to build intemal strength to survive the competition of

private and public institutions. Encouragement and support for more collaborative and

innovative uses of advanced technologies were limited at the college. Managers should

become aware of the limitations of using computer communications technologies for one

particular purpose (for example, bureaucratic purposes) as well as the opportunities these

195

technologies offer for other purposes (for example, collegial or collaborahve purposes).

Contributors to Volume 90 of the Najaden Papers Series offer a wealth of advice on using

computer-mediated communications for increased collaborative uses (Kaye, 1992).

Diversity in Assessing Computer Communication Technology

Research theonsts have outlined two basic approaches to technology use research:

object-oriented and actor-oriented (Carter, 1997; Fuik, Steidïeld, & Schrnitz, 1987).

These two research approaches helped explain the practical actions of managers in their

technology use. Like researchers, managers assessed computer communication

technology from either an object-oriented view or an actor-oriented Mew or a

combination of the two views. In the current study, managers assessed e-mail primarily

from an object-oriented perspective. They made numerous references to the physicaî

charaiteristics of the technology. For example. computer communication technology

opened up the possibility of 650 college mernbers of communicating with managers on a

daily basis. Managers revealed that the capability of open access to managers could and

did cause problems to their workday. Managers viewed technology as causing

depersonalization and a new stratified system in the organization. It seemed that

techology had the ability to cause these events.

On the other hand, managers assessed Calendar Manager primarily from an actor-

onented perspective. Managers voiced concem not about Cdendar Manager itself but

196

about how managers used Calendar Manager. Managers, by Whie of having the ability

to schedule and control other managers' workday, were perceived as the problem. So the

focus was on the "actor" and not the "abject".

E-mail was perceived either as a help, as additional work, or as a double-edged

sword. Technology possessed both advantages and disadvantages to managers. The

implication of this fuiding is that organizations that are about to adopt newer technologies

should become aware that managers will have varied assessments and views about

technology use. To enhance their knowledge about the "power" and potential uses of

technology, managers will need to discuss the impact these technologies have on their

work lives and have opportuniries to share ideas and strategies for more appropriate and

effective uses.

Leaming and Coping with Technological Change

Findings from the current study of managers' process of learning and using

technology supported research fuidings from two different fields: self-directed learning

and computer communication technology use. Findings extended elements of Tough's

(1979), Knowles' (1 979, and Spear and Mocker's ( 1 984) research on adults' self-directed

leaming process. The study also provided a link between the theory of social influence

and the theory of self-directed leaming.

Both Tough (197 1, 1979) and Knowles (1 975) outlined detailed steps used by

197

leamers in planning their self-directed leaniing projects. Toughs and Knowles'

descriptions of how adults l e m seemed to imply that adults use a linear, stepwise

process in their leamhg efforts (Caffarelia & OIDonnell, 1988; Knowles, 1975; Tough,

1979). Their typologies included detailed steps that learners generally follow: identify

Iearnhg needs; decide which activities, methods and resources they will use; decide on

the pace; choose and implement appropriate leamhg strategies; and evaluate their

leaming. Tough and Knowles were primarily referring to "deliberate leaniing" efforts.

While the leaniing experiences that took place in this study were not "deliberate

preplanned leaming efforts", fmdings about managers' leaming do support a number of

steps in Knowles' and Tough's typologies.

in the current study, the identified first five phases of managers' technology

leaming process mapped onto several of the steps outlined by Knowles: managers took

responsibility for their leaming; informally diagnosed their technology leanllng needs on

a need-to-how basis; identified human and material resources to help with their

technology leaniing; designed appropriate leaming and usage strategies; and assessed the

value of technology related io their work needs. The differences in Knowles and Tough's

selfdirected leaming typologies and this study were located in the sequencing and

"consciousness" of the leaniing process. h the current study, phases that managers go

through when acquiring technology ski11 and knowledge were gleaned and technical and

conceptual knowledge acquisition occurred simultaneously and in a parallel fashion. So

the linear approach to self-directed leaming that Knowles and Tough outlined did not

198

appear in this study. One explanation may be that managers did not deliberately set out

to l e m cornputer communications. It was a naturai part of theû environment and an

expected leaming requirement of the job.

The sixth phase of "containing" or limiting 1 e a . g and use was not identified in

either Tough's or Knowles' research. The identification of this additional phase extends

Tough's and Knowles' research. Coping and controlling the impact of technology was a

significant phase of their leanllng process. This sixth phase may only be applicable to

leaming that involves rapid and continuous technological change.

This study also provided verification of Spear and Mocker's (1984) research

fmdings on the adults' self-directed leaming process. Similar to Spear and Mocken'

lemers, managers in the current study developed strategies and utilized resources that

were not preplanned. Their strategies came about as circumstances "unfolded" in the

managers' environment. For exarnple, managers discussed how, when they ran into

problems with learning to use the technology, they called for assistance from secretaries

in nearby offices. Managers did not specifically decide on who would help hem when

they ran into a technology problem but rather called upon whomever was in the

immediate vicinity. When that failed, they looked about for more knowledgeable

individuals. They did not plan these leaming experiences. They just started

experirnenting with the technology fust and then, when they needed to know something,

gained the knowledge on a need-to-know basis. The majority of managers fiequently

went through a nurnber of tnal and error occurrences before deciding on help. This

199

finding closely resembled Spear and Mocker's (1984) research on the Organizing

Circumstance. The current research helped qualify Spear and Mocker's fmdings in that

circumstances can also be viewed fiom a just-in-tirne and a need-to-know perspective.

Findings on the impact of the social environment on managerial leamhg in the

current study supported research of communication theorists on a social influence mode1

of technology use. Fulk, Schmia and Steinfield (1990) argued that users' subjective

views of theû environment impact technology use. They posited that technology

perceptions are subjective, socially constructed, and detennined by the attitudes and

behaviours of CO-workers. In the current study, managers constructed their perceptions of

cornputer communication technology from prior cornputer expenence. They were also

infiuenced by the interaction with peers and technology behaviours of colleagues.

Because the majority of managers utilized the technology for the same purposes - administrative functions - we may conclude that culture and peer interactions shape

usage.

Dennison and Gallagher (1986) noted that change in college structures and

technologies have had enormous impacts on colleges. With intemal and extemal

environmental changes occumng at a rapid pace, reappraisal and improvement in

management models are needed. Fullan ( 1 99 1 ) argued that administrators will have to

leam to lead and not just cope with change. The issue of coping pemeated managers'

conversations. What were managers coping with? How were they coping? Managers in

the study faced the challenges of resiructu~g, decreased federal funding, and leanllng

200

new roles. They also faced the challenge of leaming and using advanced computer

communication systems for their administrative and communication needs. Managers in

the current study voiced concem about how the use of cornputer communications resdted

in changes and impacts in their work environment: changed sense of time fiames, roles,

and expectations. Managers responded to the challenge by developing a number of self-

devised containment strategies. These strategies can be viewed fiom three environmental

circurnstances: supports systems; limits in usage; and administrative routines.

Support Systems

In the study, it was concluded that self-directed learning was the strategy used by

college managers for keeping up professionally as well as for leaming computer

communication technologies (Apps, 199 1). Past support for professional development

had once been provided by the college board of govemors but this support had decreased

over the past several years. College managers discussed a number of support strategies

that they employed in leaming and using computer communication technologies. In

keeping current and gainhg help with new computer applications, managers' primary

support system was "themselves". They initiated and carried out their own technology

learning. They relied on experimentation and "leaming by doing" strategies. M e n they

ran into problems, they utilized peers and staff in their immediate vicinities.

Seldin and Associates (1 990) noted that, in addition to self-directed learning,

20 1

positive organizationd c h a t e and support systems make a significant difference to

managerial growth and pedomance. He went on to Say that support fiom college boards,

department of education, and colleagues in the foxm of encouragement and praise elevates

the importance and outcomes of professionai development. Findings fiom the current

study suggest that coileges need to continue to create a supportive environment for

managers where managers are rewarded for taking responsibility for theu own leaming.

A supportive environment includes providing tirne, materials, and training for managerial

leamhg and development. Managers indicated that little support was proviaed by the

board of govemors and college to address their development needs. However, several

managers suggested that increased support for management developrnent was

forthcoming. A cornmitment to managerial development is necessary to ensure that

managers continue to improve and increase their leaming and effectiveness as managers.

DeMison (1995) pointed out that managers need to develop newer organizationd

"fiames" in which to view college environments. Makela (1997) argued that networking

will becorne the most important activity to help educational managers gain newer fiames

and newer perspectives on their roles. One strategy for networking is through the

utilization of computer communications (Makela, 1997). Managers in this study

primarily used cornputers to communicate with their intemal colleagues. They

participated in limited extemal computer communications. Managers were discouraged

fkom utilizing distribution lists and cornmunicating to outside contacts as one manager

predicted listsews codd "get out of hand". With the "outside" world so easily accessible

202

electronically, managers will need support and encouragement fiom college boards and

senior managers to increase rather than decrease their participation in distribution lists

and interact with colleagues fiom around the world to gain new perspectives and new

answers. Oppomuiities should be made available to managers to practice. network, and

share information with colleagues fiom around the world and not just with peers in their

"Unmediate" Mcuiities. Computer communications, networks, and distribution listsews

could facilitate this networking.

Managers were provided little guidance and support on the deeper knowledge

needed to effectively utilize these technologies. Knowledge about how information is

stmctured and the social and cultural impacts of technology use is needed by managers.

So in addition to technical training support, training departments in colleges will need to

include socio-cultural training and etiquette information for cornputer communications.

Limits to Usage of Computer Communications

Restmcturing and change are dismptive forces in work environments and the issue

of setting limits and boundaries during cimes of rapid change is important to managers

(Bridges, 1993). Covey (1990) suggested that, to control one's environment, managers

need to set aside t h e on weekly calendars for pnonty building, task completion, and

reflection. The need to feel control over environmental changes was revealed in this

study. Managers in this study uidicated that they had little time to devote to their own

203

professional development. In reference to technology use, they stated that an additional

technology had been added ont0 their other communication modes. To cope with the

added work that computer communications irnposed on their workday, they developed

strategies such as placing limits on their usage and setting priorities on their time and

work schedules.

Issues of limits and control appeared to be important to managers. Rather than let

technology control them, they made efforts to "control" the technology by placing limits

on their technology use. For example, managers in this study blocked out tiines on their

Calendar Manager and made themselves generally unavailable for several hours a week to

complete tasks, play catch up and do follow up work. They also developed a number of

strategies to cope with e-mail communications: tuming off their ccmputers and leavhg

their offices; avoiding the use of listservs; using secretaries to act as gatekeepers;

checking mail a limited number of times each day, not reading messages until they could

be answered, and not responding until a day later (as one manager noted "1 dont answer

them right away. If you wait a day, the issues generally solve themselves").

Colleges need to recognize and evaluate the strategies developed by managers in

coping with rapid change. If managers are setting limits and boundaries on their

technology leaniing and use, a college-wide assessment of the college's communications

systems in generaf and of computer communications in particular needs to be conducted

to help managers choose the most effective and appropriate medium for their

communication and administrative tasks.

204

Technological and Administrative Work Routines

In times of reorganization and change, managers continue to need small routines

and fimals to retain a sense of security and order to their day (Bridges, 1993). nie need

for routine tasks and daily work rinids were noted by managers in the study. For

example, they had regular tirnes for checking their e-mails. For many of îhem, this meant

checkuig their mail and calendar first thing each moning and specific times throughout

the day. Managers preferred predictable, routine administrative requests and meetings

over ambiguous, mu1 ti-task requests and unclear meeting agendas. Mu1 ti-task requests

took up a lot of managers' time and resources. As a result of the imposition that complex

requests placed on managers, many of the managers viewed cornputer communications as

a double-edged sword. Colleges need to aware of the "double-edged sword" perception

of communication technologies.

Efforts need to be made to help managers discuss the nature of their work.

Communications consume up to 80% of managers' time (Fulk, Schmitz, and Steinfield,

1990; Mintzberg, 1973). In a world of rapid technological change, college managerial

communication work will become even more complex and multifaceted than has been in

past decades (Dennison, 1 995). Arnbiguity and uncertain ty in managerial work wiil

increase, not decrease in the future (Bridges, 1993; Demison, 1995; Kops, 1993).

SimiJar to the fmdings in Dechant's (1989) study, managers need to improve their

capacity for cophg with these rapid change and increased diversities. Managers need to

205

leam to fûnction in a world that is becoming more challenging and cornplex by

developing tolerance and skill in handling ambiguous tasks and problems. These

ambiguous tasks and problems can corne via a number of different routes - face to face,

paper, or wire.

Coiiege boards need to be aware that college managers use self-directed strategies

for leaming new technologies and that managers leam by doing and on a need to h o w

basis. Training managers on technology systems that "rnay" be adopted for future use is

of little value to managers. Managers learn technology as they need it - in the here and

now. It is recommended that, if new technologies need to be leamed, training be

provided on-site and directly related to the work and tasks that managers do. Simulated

technology leaming activities rnay not be as relevant nor beneficial to managers as real

work activities.

Managers acquire technical, conceptual, and evaluative knowledge as the leaming

need occurs. They do not first learn the technical aspects of computer communications

and then the conceptual and evaluative knowledge. The process is intertwined and

parallel. As one l e m s a little technical knowledge, this impacts the leamer's conceptual

knowledge and vice versa. It is an iterative process. College managers need to

understand and reflect on their own technology leming and usage processes to ensure

that they are leamhg appropriate technical and conceptual knowledge related to computer

communications. They also need to be critical of the effectiveness of existing

communication technologies and investigate the advantages and disadvantages associated

206

with particular technologies at a time when more advanced communication systems keep

flooding the marketplace.

Chapter Seven

7.0 Conclusions

nie purpose of the study was to examine the process of leaming and using

computer communication technologies by a group of college managers in a public

community coilege. It was expected that the results of the study would provide a better

understanding of computer communication technology adoption, leaniing, utilizabon,

post-adoption, and impacts. It was anticipated that this understuidhg would provide

direction to college managers and adult educators for enhancing learners' technical and

conceptual knowledge related to advanced communication systems. It was also

anticipated that the results would provide information to college boards and managers in

their decision-making processes of adophng and diffising advanced communication

systems throughout their college communities.

'One primary question and five ancillary questions were formulated. The prirnary

question was: How do college managers learn and use computer communication

technologies? Anciilary questions included: (1) How do college managers Say they keep

up professiondly in their job? (2) How do college managers say they leam to use

computer communication technologies? (3) How do college managers Say they utilize

computer communication technologies? (4) Do college managers' perceptions of their

role influence their use of computer communication technologies? If yes, how?

( 5 ) What, if any, is the perceived impact of computer communication technologies on

208

coliege managers' work environment?

A qualitative case study research design was utilized in order to maximize the

understanding of college managers' 1e-g fiom their perspec the. Data were collected

using a semi-structured interviews with twenty senior, middle, and junior managers. The

study was carried out in a single public college system in Newfoundland.

The first six chapters provided an introduction to the study, a review of the

literature related to self-directed learning and technology use, an outline of the

methodology utilized, a description of fmdings, and recomrnendations to college

managers. ln this section, 1 will draw conclusions fiom the fmdings and provide

suggestions for m e r research in the area of computer communication technology

leaming and use.

7.1 Statement of Conclusions

Four conclusions have been drawn from the findings of the study. First, social

influence is a key factor in managers' computer communication technology leaming and

use. Secondly, managers' perceptions of their role as bureaucrats engender bureaucratie

uses of computer communication technology. Thirdly, managers have varied assessments

of the impact, advantages, and disadvantages of using computer communication

technologies. Fourthly, managers utilize self-directed leaming strategies when leaming

and using computer communication technologies.

209

Social influences affected managers' l e a n - g behaviour in several ways. The

influence of senior managers in introducing and difising computer communication

technologies put pressure on managers to start using cornputers for communications. For

some managers, it was a positive experîence but for others a negative one. This

conclusion supports the proposa1 that colleges should recognize the impact that

coileagues have on each other's learning and behaviour. Secretaries and support staff also

play a vitai role in assisting managers in their leaming process. They act as valuable

resources for al1 three levels of management.

The culture of the college strongly influenced how the technology was adopted,

diffused, and used. Managers need to consider the effect that particular college cultures

have on technology learning and adoption processes. Managers need to recognize that

how they perceive their role will influence how they enact their role and how they use

communication technologies.

Perceptions of the utility and impact of the two computer communication

technologies applications influenced how managers assessed their value. E-mail was

seen as a double-edged sword: it offered both advantages and disadvantages. Calendar

Manager was considered more of a help to managers. Ideally, if computer

communications are to be endorsed by any organization, the advantages should outweigh

disadvantages to make effective use of the technology.

Knowles' (1975) and Tough's (1 979) theones of self-directed leaming suggested

that self-directed leaming is canied out in a linear, well planned way. Spear and Mocker

210

(1984) concluded that: self-directed leamhg is less stnictured and more fluid;

circumstances determine leaming opportunities; and chance encounters affect leaming

outcomes. This study concluded that leamers do pass through defmable, recognizable

phases but the phases are unstnictured and intemined. Developing technical,

conceptual, and evaluative knowledge are not separate activities but are acquired in the

"doing" of the administrative and communicative tasks. The self-directed learning

process of managers can be supported by creating oppomuiities for managers to reflect

and share uses and strategies.

The current study uncovered an added phase in the leaming process - managers

place limitations on theu technology leaming and use and develop strategies to support

these limitations. This may bc one of the "elusive" elements that Candy (199 1) referred

to in his argument for more qualitative studies in self-directed leaming. Managers place

limits not only on their use of technology but on the development of their technological

skills and knowledge. They l e m just enough skilVknowledge they require to complete

tasks and l e m oniy when they need it. We may conclude fiom the current study that, in

times of rapid change, managers "contain" their leaming and use to buffer or control îhe

effects of change. Managers who are experiencing rapid change and resûucturing may

only be able to absorb a certain amount of technological leaming and change.

Consequently, managers developed strategies for coping with technology and change.

College boards need to be aware of these containment strategies and develop an open and

supportive leaming environment to help managers cope with ongoing change and

21 1

continuous technological leanllng.

7.2 Recommendations for Further Research

Data fiom this qualitative study support research fmdings of the social influence

theory of technology use (Fulk & Steinfield, 1990). Technology adoption and use

occurred within a web of social relationships and peer influence. Leaming relationships

developed between managers and support staff. With the downsizing in the nwnber of

college managers in Newfoundland, the role of support staff members in assisting

remaining managers in addressing their leaming needs is likely to increase. Support

staffs role in helping managers leam and use technology will be of significance to

researchers. Staffmembers do not change positions as frequently as managers. They are

often the consistent factor within offices and departments. For this reason, their role in

providing leaming assistance and support to managers warrants further research.

The current study examined the technology leaming process of college managers

who worked in a predominantly bureaucratic culture. An area for m e r research is the

completion of additional case studies to extend the findings from this study. The college

in the current study was unique in tems of the environment and conditions in which it

operated. Therefore, the fmdings in this study, while informative, may not be

generalizable. Additional case studies on other bureaucratic environments could validate

the fmdings presented in this study. Also M e r studies of college managers fiom

212

dflerent cultural environments wodd be bene ficial to provide cornparisons to fmdings in

this study. DSerent college settings, conditions, and times could present explanations of

the additional "elusive" factors that contribute to managers' perceptions, behaviours, and

learning processes with regard to advanced cornputer communications systems.

Spear and Mocker (1984) concluded that social and environmental conditions

aected adult learning processes. In their shidy, individual leamer's circurnstances

limited and organized the leming process. Learners selected resources fkom limited

alternatives that occurred fomiitously within their environment. The finciings of this

study lend support to their conclusions. Managers in the current study generally relied on

support staff within the imrnediate vicinity for technological support. Furuier research

could examine how managers rate the quality of these human resource supports.

Research could also be conducted to determine the level of technological knowledge and

skills that support staff and colleagues possess.

Further research that continues to clan& the technological leaxning processes of

adults needs to be undertaken. This study revealed that there are technical and social

issues related to adopting a new communication technology. Given the certainty of

M e r communication technology change, studies could be conducted on the process of

leaniing more advanced communication systems, for example, the internet.

Given the suggestions that managers will need to r e h e their perceptions and

views of bureaucratie technology use, studies could be done that examine the

implications of alternatives uses of communication technologies. For exampie, a study

213

could focus on the role of senior managers in colleges in bringing about coiiaborative and

hovative uses of computer communication technology, how college boards can support

collaborative usage, and how managers can best be equipped to handle more innovative

uses of communication technology.

The overail purpose of the study, to increase understanding of college managers'

computer communication technology leaming and use, has been accomplisheà, but

discretion needs to be shown in applying the results to other settings. However, if college

systems, college managers, adult educators, and researchers begin to consider learning

needs, environmental conditions, benefits and cost of adopting computer communication

technology systems in college communities, colleges will have a foundational and

conceptual fiamework within which to make wise technological implementation

decisions.

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APPENDIX A

Februaiy 1 1, 1996

(Address deleted)

Dear

Thank you for agreeing to help in my pilot research project. As suggested in our meeting on February 1,1 am providing you with details of my research. 1 am a doctoral student in the department of Curriculum at Ontario Lnstitute for Shidies in Education (OISE). My thesis title is Managers' reasons for learnine to use com~uter communication technologies.

1 plan to interview three managers from the Education Centre at the Toronto Dominion Bank. You have agreed to randomly select these three individuals and ask them to participate in an open-ended, semi-stnictured i n t e ~ e w of approximately one- hour duration at their convenience. They will be invited (a) to reflect on their usage of cornputer communication technologies, and (b) share with the researcher their perceptions of how these technologies have irnpacted on their work and work relationships. If participants are willing, 1 would like to tape-record these conversations. 1 am willing to discuss any concems with the participants before I start the interview. Managers will be asked to sign consent forms to obtain their permission to participate.

For this pilot study, my supervisor, Dr. Lynn DaMe, has suggested 1 follow OISE'S Ethical ReMew Process. A number of steps will be taken to ensure anonymity and confidentiality of the research and reports. Narnes will be coded and pseudonyms will be used when reporthg the findings. Al1 data will be kept strictly confidential. Once the i n t e ~ e w s are transcribed the tapes will be erased.

Participants will have the option of withdrawing fiom this research at any tirne they may choose. To do so, they must contact me at the address below, by phone [35 1 - 99251, or e-mail [[email protected]]. At that time ail data collected fiom the individual will be either destroyed or retumed at their discretion.

1 thank you for your support in this research. Your tirne and input are greatly appreciated.

Eileen M. Bragg, B.A. (Ed), M. Ad. Ed. 32 1 Bloor St. W. Toronto, Ont. MSS lS5

AGREEMENT FORM

I consent to serve as a subject in the pilot research shidy entitled: Managers' reasons for learning to use com~uter communication technolopies.

I understand that Eileen Bragg is a doctoral student at the Ontario Institute for Shidies in Education and this is part of her preliminary study. She will be conducting a one-hou, semi-structured interview. Names and identities will not be attached to comments or reports of the study. Findings of the study will be made available to me on request.

1 agree to proceed on the understanding that 1 may withdraw fkom the study at any t h e , without reason. Should 1 wish to withdraw, it will only be known to the researcher.

I understand that 1 am not placed under any risk and that reasonable safeguards have been taken to minimize any potential problems.

Signed (manager)

Date

Please sign two copies. Thanks!

Pilot Study

ln tewiew Questions

1. Background Information:

Age ? Nurnber of years in company? Number of years of experience using computers? Do you own a computer? How do you use computers? How did you l e m to use computers?

2. What are your role and responsibilities at the bank? How do you keep up-to-date professionally in your job? What professional development programs exist at the bank?

3. Tell me how you communicated with your CO-workers before computer technology? Tell me how cornputer communication technologies (Computer communication technology) got started at the bank? Why did the bank introduce Computer communication technology? What computer communications programs do you use?

4. What did the bank do for their employees before introducing Computer communication technology? How did the bank implement Computer communication technology? How did you leam to use Computer communication technology? How much t h e do you spend on computer communication technology, with whom, for what? If you wanted to l e m other features, how would you leam them?

5 . How has your work environment been affecteci by computer communication technology? How do you feel about Computer communication bchnology? What are the positivehegative effects of using Computer communication technology? Suggestions for improving Computer communication technology at the bank?

PILOT STUDY

PLANNING AND INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

Introduction to Project Novembei, 1 995

Project Planning Meeting January, 1996

Individual lntervie w s

Interview # 1

LnteMew #2

InteMew #3

February, 1996

February 8, 1996

February 8, 1996

February 9, 1996

Data Transcription Febniary, 1996

Data Analysis March, 1996

APPENDIX B

Chair, Board of Govemors (Name and address withheld)

Dear Mr. Chairman:

1 am presently undertaking a research project, entitled Co!lege Managers' Perceptions of the Utilization of Computer Communication Technologies. This project is part of my doctoral studies at the Ontario Institute of Studies in Education, University of Toronto.

1 plan to (a) review College [XI documents related to technology policies and (b) i n t e ~ e w college managers as part of the data gathering process. Attached is a copy of the interview questions which will be asked managers. As part of the Ethical Review Process of the University and to ensure confidentiality, names of participants will not be attached to reports of the study. Reasonable safeguards will be taken to minimize any potential problems or risks for the college and its managers.

1 look forward to sharing fmdings of the study with the Board of Govemors and management. 1 have been working in public colleges for the past seventeen years and am a permanent, full-time instmctor at the College [XI. I am currently designing and developing the college's fnst distance education course to be delivered via computer conferenchg systems. My study has provided a foundation for the development and implementation of computer mediated communication programming.

Thank you for your attention and support in this professional development activity.

S incerely,

Eileen M. Bragg Professional Development Co-ordinator

Main Research Study

Interview Questions

Icebreaker: Background Information:

Years of post-secondary education? Age (optional)? Number of years at college? In present job? Number of years of experience using cornputers? Number of years of experience ushg computer communications?

Please descnbe your role and responsibilities at the college?

How do you keep up-to-date professionally in your job?

What computer communication systems andlor programs do you currently use in your job? How do you iearn these systems and prograrns?

Please describe how you use computer communication technologies? D o you see any advantages to using computer communication technology? Any disadvantages? Please elaborate.

Has your work environment been affected by computer communication technology? If yes, how? Do you have any suggestions for improving computer communication technology at the college?

Main Research Study

AGREEMENT FORM

I consent to serve as a subject in the research study entitled: College Managers' Perce~tions of their Learnine and Use of Comauter Communication Technoloeies.

1 understand that Eileen Bragg is a doctoral student at the Ontario uistitute for Studies in Education and this i n t e ~ e w is part of her main study. She will be conducting a one- hou, semi-structured interview. Narnes and identities will not be attached to cornments or reports of the study. Findings of the study will be made available to her on request.

I agree to proceed on the understandhg that 1 may withdraw fiom the study at any the, without reason. Should 1 wish to withdraw, it will only be known to the researcher.

I understand that 1 am not placed under any risk and that reasonable safeguards have been taken to minimize any potential problems.

Signed (college manager)

Date

Please sign two copies. Thanks!

Introduction to Project

Main Research Study

PLANNING AND INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

Project Planning Meeting (With Chair of Board)

Individual Interviews

h t e ~ e w #1 - BP Interview #2 - BG Interview #3 - CW lnterview #4 - CJ i n t e ~ e w #5 - BU Interview #6 - BB I n t e ~ e w #7 - CF Interview #8 - AA Interview #9 - AH Interview # 10 - CM Interview #Il - CC Interview # 12 - AR Interview # 13 - CS Interview # 14 - CY Interview #I5 - BD Interview #16 - BE Interview # 17 - CK Interview #18 - CP Interview # 19 - CT Interview #20 - CR

Data Transcription

April - July, 1996 May 02, 1996 May 02, 1996 May 10, 1996 May 13, 1996 May 21, 1996 May 2 1, 1996 May 24, 1996 May 25, 1996 May 27, 1996 June 03, 1996 June 07, 1996 June 26, 1996 June 14, 1996 June 14, 1996 July 02, 1996 July 02, 1996 June 26, 1996 July 04, 1996 July 12, 1996 July 12, 1996

May - July, 1996

Data Analysis May 1996 - July 1998