Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy: The study of structure Subdivisions: Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional,

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy: The study of structure

• Subdivisions:

• Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional, surface, and systemic anatomy)

• Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology)

• Developmental (e.g., embryology)



• Essential tools for the study of anatomy:

• Mastery of anatomical terminology

• Observation

• Manipulation

• Palpation

• Auscultation



• Physiology: The study of function at many levels

• Subdivisions are based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)



• Essential tools for the study of physiology:

• Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic to cellular and molecular)

• Basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement)

• Basic chemical principles


Principle of Complementarity

• Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.

• Function always reflects structure

• What a structure can do depends on its specific form


___________ is the study of the body’s structure.

• Histology

• Anatomy

• Embryology

• Physiology


__________ is the study of the body’s function.

• Histology

• Anatomy

• Embryology

• Physiology


When the anatomy of a body part is intimately tied to its specific function, scientists call this the principle of ___________.

• hierarchical organization

• complementary nature of structure and function

• homeostasis

• negative feedback


Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical: atoms and molecules

• Cellular: cells and their organelles

• Tissue: groups of similar cells

• Organ: contains two or more types of tissues

• Organ system: organs that work closely together

• Organismal: all organ systems


Cardiovascularsystem

OrganelleMoleculeAtoms

Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules.

Cellular levelCells are made up ofmolecules.

Tissue levelTissues consist of similartypes of cells.

Organ levelOrgans are made up of different typesof tissues.

Organ system levelOrgan systems consist of differentorgans that work together closely.

Organismal levelThe human organism is made upof many organ systems.

Smooth muscle cell

Smooth muscle tissue

Connective tissue

Blood vessel (organ)

HeartBloodvessels

Epithelialtissue


12

3

4

56

Figure 1.1


MoleculeAtoms

Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules.1

Figure 1.1, step 1





Smooth muscle cell

12

Figure 1.1, step 2






Smooth muscle cell


12

3

Figure 1.1, step 3







Smooth muscle cell


Connective tissue


Epithelialtissue


12

3

4

Figure 1.1, step 4









Smooth muscle cell


Connective tissue


HeartBloodvessels

Epithelialtissue


12

3

4

5

Figure 1.1, step 5









Organismal levelThe human organism is made upof many organ systems.

Smooth muscle cell


Connective tissue


HeartBloodvessels

Epithelialtissue


12

3

4

56

Figure 1.1, step 6


Which of the following is a logical organization?

• Atoms, cells, molecules, tissues

• Molecules, atoms, cells, tissues

• Atoms, tissues, molecules, cells

• Atoms, molecules, cells, tissues


Overview of Organ Systems

• Note major organs and functions of the 11 organ systems

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3a

NailsSkin

Hair

(a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3b

Bones

Joint

(b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3c

Skeletalmuscles

(c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Main- tains posture, and produces heat.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3d

Brain

NervesSpinalcord

(d) Nervous System As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3e

Pineal gland

PituitaryglandThyroid

glandThymus

AdrenalglandPancreas

Testis

Ovary

(e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3f

(f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.

Heart

Bloodvessels

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3g

Lymphaticvessels

Red bonemarrow

Thoracicduct

Thymus

Spleen

Lymphnodes

(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3h

Nasalcavity

Bronchus

Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea

Lung

(h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3i

Liver

Oral cavity

Esophagus

Largeintestine

StomachSmallintestine

RectumAnus

(i) Digestive System Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3j

Kidney

Ureter

UrinarybladderUrethra

(j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3k-l

Prostategland

Ductusdeferens

Penis

Testis

Scrotum

Ovary

Uterinetube

Mammaryglands (inbreasts)

Uterus

Vagina

Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sexhormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the femalereproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remainingfemale structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus.Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.

(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System


The __________ level of organization is the main theme presented in this book.

• cellular

• tissue

• organ

• organ system


Organ Systems Interrelationships

• All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs

• Organ systems work cooperatively to perform necessary life functions

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2

Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces)

Respiratory systemTakes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide

Food O2 CO2

Cardiovascular systemVia the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs

Interstitial fluid

Nutrients

Urinary systemEliminates nitrogenouswastes andexcess ions

Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid

Integumentary system Protects the body as a whole from the external environment

Blood

Heart

Feces Urine

CO2

O2


Necessary Life Functions

1. Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments

• Plasma membranes

• Skin

2. Movement (contractility)

• Of body parts (skeletal muscle)

• Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)



3. Responsiveness: The ability to sense and respond to stimuli

• Withdrawal reflex

• Control of breathing rate

4. Digestion

• Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs

• Absorption of simple molecules into blood



5. Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells

• Catabolism and anabolism

6. Excretion: The removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion

• Urea, carbon dioxide, feces



7. Reproduction

• Cellular division for growth or repair

• Production of offspring

8. Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of organism


Survival Needs

1. Nutrients

• Chemicals for energy and cell building

• Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins

2. Oxygen

• Essential for energy release (ATP production)


Survival Needs

3. Water

• Most abundant chemical in the body

• Site of chemical reactions

4. Normal body temperature

• Affects rate of chemical reactions

5. Appropriate atmospheric pressure

• For adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs


Of the eight necessary life functions, which of the following is not required for an individual’s survival?

• Maintaining boundaries

• Metabolism

• Reproduction (organismal)

• Excretion


One survival need of humans is appropriate atmospheric pressure. At high altitudes where atmospheric pressure is lower, you might expect that oxygen acquisition would ____________.

• decrease

• increase twofold

• increase threefold

• remain unchanged


Homeostasis

• Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes

• A dynamic state of equilibrium


Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

• Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors (variables)

• Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones


Components of a Control Mechanism

1. Receptor (sensor)

• Monitors the environment

• Responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)

2. Control center

• Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained

• Receives input from receptor

• Determines appropriate response


Components of a Control Mechanism

3. Effector

• Receives output from control center

• Provides the means to respond

• Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)


Stimulusproduceschange invariable.

Receptordetectschange.

Input: Informationsent along afferentpathway to controlcenter.

Output:Information sent alongefferent pathway toeffector.

Responseof effectorfeeds backto reducethe effect ofstimulusand returnsvariable tohomeostaticlevel.

Receptor Effector

ControlCenter

BALANCE

Afferentpathway

Efferentpathway

IMBALANCE

IMBALANCE

1

2

34

5

Figure 1.4



BALANCE

IMBALANCE

IMBALANCE

1

Figure 1.4, step 1




Receptor

BALANCE

IMBALANCE

IMBALANCE

1

2

Figure 1.4, step 2





Receptor

ControlCenter

BALANCE

Afferentpathway

IMBALANCE

IMBALANCE

1

2

3

Figure 1.4, step 3






Receptor Effector

ControlCenter

BALANCE

Afferentpathway

Efferentpathway

IMBALANCE

IMBALANCE

1

2

34

Figure 1.4, step 4






Responseof effectorfeeds backto reducethe effect ofstimulusand returnsvariable tohomeostaticlevel.

Receptor Effector

ControlCenter

BALANCE

Afferentpathway

Efferentpathway

IMBALANCE

IMBALANCE

1

2

34

5

Figure 1.4, step 5


Negative Feedback

• The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus

• Examples:

• Regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism)

• Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)


Sweat glands activated

Shiveringbegins

StimulusBody temperaturerises BALANCE

Information sentalong the afferentpathway to controlcenter

Information sentalong the afferentpathway to controlcenter

Afferentpathway

Afferentpathway

Efferentpathway

Efferentpathway

Information sentalong the efferentpathway toeffectors

Information sentalong the efferentpathway to effectors

StimulusBody temperature falls

ReceptorsTemperature-sensitivecells in skin and brain

ReceptorsTemperature-sensitivecells in skin and brain

EffectorsSweat glands

EffectorsSkeletal muscles

Control Center(thermoregulatory

center in brain)

Control Center(thermoregulatory

center in brain)

ResponseEvaporation of sweatBody temperature falls;stimulus ends

ResponseBody temperature rises;stimulus ends


Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Volume by ADH

• Receptors sense decreased blood volume

• Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

• ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood


Which of the following is an example of a negative feedback mechanism?

• During labor, as uterine contractions begin, levels of the hormone, oxytocin, continuously rise to further stimulate more contractions.

• The thyroid gland releases thyroid hormone under the influence of the hormone TSH. TSH release decreases when thyroid hormone levels reach their set point.

• An individual who is incapable of synthesizing thyroid hormone will often develop an enlarged thyroid gland due to continuous TSH stimulation.


Positive Feedback

• The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus

• May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect

• Usually controls infrequent events e.g.:

• Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin

• Platelet plug formation and blood clotting


Feedback cycle endswhen plug is formed.

Positive feedbackcycle is initiated.

Positivefeedbackloop

Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.

Plateletsadhere to siteand releasechemicals.

Releasedchemicalsattract moreplatelets.

Platelet plugforms.

1

23

4

Figure 1.6




1

Figure 1.6, step 1





1

2

Figure 1.6, step 2







1

23

Figure 1.6, step 3


Feedback cycle endswhen plug is formed.






Platelet plugforms.

1

23

4

Figure 1.6, step 4


Homeostatic Imbalance

• Disturbance of homeostasis

• Increases risk of disease

• Contributes to changes associated with aging

• May allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart failure)


Anatomical Position

• Standard anatomical body position:

• Body erect

• Feet slightly apart

• Palms facing forward


Cervical

(a) Anterior/Ventral

Pubic(genital)

CephalicFrontalOrbitalNasalOralMental

ThoracicAxillaryMammarySternalAbdominalUmbilicalPelvicInguinal(groin)

Upper limbAcromialBrachial (arm)AntecubitalAntebrachial (forearm)Carpal (wrist)Manus (hand)PalmarPollexDigital

Lower limbCoxal (hip)Femoral (thigh)PatellarCrural (leg)Fibular or peronealPedal (foot)Tarsal (ankle)MetatarsalDigitalHallux

ThoraxAbdomenBack (Dorsum)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1.1






Regional Terms

• Two major divisions of body:

• Axial

• Head, neck, and trunk

• Appendicular

• Limbs

• Regional terms designate specific areas


Cervical

(a) Anterior/Ventral

Pubic(genital)

CephalicFrontalOrbitalNasalOralMental

ThoracicAxillaryMammarySternalAbdominalUmbilicalPelvicInguinal(groin)

Upper limbAcromialBrachial (arm)AntecubitalAntebrachial (forearm)Carpal (wrist)Manus (hand)PalmarPollexDigital

Lower limbCoxal (hip)Femoral (thigh)PatellarCrural (leg)Fibular or peronealPedal (foot)Tarsal (ankle)MetatarsalDigitalHallux


Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7b

Cervical Back (dorsal)

(b) Posterior/Dorsal

Scapular Vertebral Lumbar Sacral Gluteal Perineal (between anus and external genitalia)

Upper limb AcromialBrachial (arm) Olecranal Antebrachial (forearm)Manus (hand) Metacarpal DigitalLower limb Femoral (thigh) Popliteal Sural (calf) Fibular or peronealPedal (foot) Calcaneal Plantar

Cephalic Otic Occipital (back of head)



Body Planes

• Plane: Flat surface along which body or structure is cut for anatomical study


Body Planes

• Sagittal plane

• Divides body vertically into right and left parts

• Produces a sagittal section

• Midsagittal (median) plane

• Lies on midline

• Parasagittal plane

• Not on midline


Body Planes

• Frontal (coronal) plane

• Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts

• Transverse (horizontal) plane

• Divides body horizontally into superior and inferior parts

• Produces a cross section

• Oblique section

• Cuts made diagonally


Transverse plane

Median (midsagittal) plane

Frontal plane

Liver

Spleen

Pancreas

Aorta

Vertebralcolumn

Spinal cord

Subcutaneous fat layerBody wall

Rectum IntestinesLeft andright lungs

Liver HeartStomach

SpleenArm

(a) Frontal section (through torso)

(b) Transverse section (through torso, inferior view)

(c) Median section (midsagittal)


Anatomical Variability

• Over 90% of all anatomical structures match textbook descriptions, but:

• Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of place

• Small muscles may be missing


Body Cavities

• Dorsal cavity

• Protects nervous system

• Two subdivisions:

• Cranial cavity

• Encases brain

• Vertebral cavity

• Encases spinal cord


Body Cavities

• Ventral cavity

• Houses internal organs (viscera)

• Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm):

• Thoracic cavity

• Abdominopelvic cavity

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.9a-b

Cranialcavity(contains brain)

Dorsalbodycavity

Vertebralcavity(contains spinal cord)

Cranialcavity

Superiormediastinum

Pericardialcavity withinthe mediastinum

Pleuralcavity

Vertebralcavity

Abdomino-pelviccavity

Ventral bodycavity(thoracic andabdominopelviccavities)

Abdominal cavity(contains digestiveviscera)

Diaphragm

Pelvic cavity(contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)

Thoraciccavity(containsheart andlungs)

(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view

Dorsal body cavityVentral body cavity


Ventral Body Cavities

• Thoracic cavity subdivisions:

• Two pleural cavities

• Each houses a lung

• Mediastinum

• Contains pericardial cavity

• Surrounds thoracic organs

• Pericardial cavity

• Encloses heart


Ventral Body Cavities

• Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:

• Abdominal cavity

• Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver

• Pelvic cavity

• Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum


Cranialcavity(contains brain)

Dorsalbodycavity

Vertebralcavity(contains spinal cord)

Cranialcavity

Superiormediastinum

Pericardialcavity withinthe mediastinum

Pleuralcavity

Vertebralcavity

Abdomino-pelviccavity

Ventral bodycavity(thoracic andabdominopelviccavities)

Abdominal cavity(contains digestiveviscera)

Diaphragm

Pelvic cavity(contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)

Thoraciccavity(containsheart andlungs)

(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view

Dorsal body cavityVentral body cavity


Serous Membrane (Serosa)

• Thin, double-layered membrane separated by serous fluid

• Parietal serosa lines internal body walls

• Visceral serosa covers the internal organs


Outer balloon wall(comparable to parietal serosa)Air (comparable to serous cavity)

Inner balloon wall(comparable to visceral serosa)

Heart

Parietalpericardium

Pericardialspace withserous fluidVisceralpericardium

(b) The serosae associated with the heart.


Abdominopelvic Regions

• Nine divisions used primarily by anatomists


Right upperquadrant(RUQ)

Right lowerquadrant(RLQ)

Left upperquadrant(LUQ)

Left lowerquadrant(LLQ)


Abdominopelvic Quadrants

• Divisions used primarily by medical personnel


Epigastricregion

Umbilicalregion

Rightlumbarregion

Leftlumbarregion

Righthypochondriac

region

Lefthypochondriac

region

Hypogastric(pubic)region

Right iliac(inguinal)

region

Left iliac(inguinal)

region

Liver

Gallbladder

Ascending colon oflarge intestine

Small intestine

Appendix

Cecum

Diaphragm

Stomach

Descending colonof large intestine

Transverse colonof large intestine

Initial part ofsigmoid colon

Urinary bladder

(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes (b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs


Other Body Cavities

• Oral and digestive cavities

• Nasal cavity

• Orbital cavities

• Middle ear cavities

• Synovial cavities


If someone has broken a leg, he or she has damaged the ________ division of the body.

• dorsal

• appendicular

• superficial

• axial


The __________ division of the body is necessary for supporting life.

• axial

• superficial

• appendicular

• appendage


The term ___________ refers to internal organs, while the term _________ refers to body cavity walls.

• serosa; pleural

• visceral; ventral

• serosa; parietal

• visceral; parietal

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy: The study of structure Subdivisions: Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional,

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