Copper metallurgy: a hidden fundament of the theology of ancient Israel?

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Copper Metallurgy: A HiddenFundament of the Theology ofAncient Israel?Nissim Amzallaga

a Department of Bible, Archaeology and Near EastStudies, The Ben-Gurion University in the Negev, POB653, Beer Sheba 84105, IsraelPublished online: 23 Oct 2013.

To cite this article: Nissim Amzallag (2013) Copper Metallurgy: A Hidden Fundament of theTheology of Ancient Israel?, Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament: An InternationalJournal of Nordic Theology, 27:2, 151-169, DOI: 10.1080/09018328.2013.839105

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Vol. 27, No. 2, 151– 169, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09018328.2013.839105

2013 The Editors of the Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament

Copper Metallurgy: A Hidden Fundament of the Theology of Ancient Israel?

Nissim Amzallag Department of Bible, Archaeology and Near East Studies The Ben-Gurion University in the Negev POB 653, Beer Sheba 84105, Israel Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: The celestial universe and the mode of action of YHWH are sometimes depicted by metallurgy. This figuration is generally understood as a picturesque representation devoid of theological significance, introduced only for describing the infinite powers of the god of Israel using the extreme physical conditions characterizing metallurgy. This explanation is however contested by: (i) the many allusions to metallurgy encountered in Biblical theology, (ii) the detailed mention, in the divine context, of all the stages of metal production: mining, ore roasting, smelting, metal purification and even of furnace re-melting, (iii) the representation of the firmament and the earth as two giant pieces of metal, (iv) the vision of the holy domain of YHWH as a giant celestial furnace. These features attest the existence of a substantial metallurgical component in Biblical theology. Furthermore, the strong bias towards copper metallurgy suggests that these representations were anchored in Bronze Age metallurgical traditions. It is concluded that Israelite theology encompasses an important metallurgical component inherited from the pre-Israelite cult of YHWH.

Key words: copper metallurgy, Edom, Kenite hypothesis, pre-Israelite Yah-wism, divine smith, smelting god

Introduction

The god of Israel is occasionally represented in the Bible as a Divine Smith 1

the two major transitions in Israel's his-tory (from perspective of the biblical writers), the exodus from Egypt and the Babylonian exile, are symbolized by reference to a furnace or to the metal-working process, whereby God is represented as the Divine Smith purifying and transforming the people. 2 However, this image was interpreted as no

1. See for example, Ps 12,6; Prov 17,3; Isa 1,25; 48,10; Ezek 22,17-22. 2. See Paula McNutt, The Forging of Israel Iron Technology, Symbolism and Tra-dition in Ancient Society (Sheffield: Almond Press, 1990), p. 265.

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more than an illustration of transformation of the Israelites by the smelting of iron ore into a strong and durable metal.3 The use of the metallurgical image-ry is also justified by the combination of an essential association of YHWH with fire,4 with the capacity of intense fire to smelt metal from ore, to purify it and to improve its mechanical properties. However, at no time has this ever been considered as evidence of any essential relationship between YHWH, the religion of Ancient Israel, and metallurgy.

Superficially, this conclusion is entirely justified. Though it is mentioned Abram was very heavy ( ) in cattle, in silver, and in gold (Gen

13,2), the Israelite patriarchs are not described as miners, smelters or metal-workers. They are even not explicitly involved in the trade of metals. Fur-thermore, the rituals practiced by the Israelites do not apparently include any cultic reference to metallurgy, as might be expected in the worship of a smelting god. Moreover, metals do not seem to play any holy function in Israelite theology. Gold, silver and copper are extensively used in the taber-nacle (see Exodus 25-27). However, their listing together with precious stones, woods, fabrics, oils, perfumes and spices (Ex 25,3-7; 35,4-9) invites one to consider them as no more than raw materials.5 The same situation is attested to in Jerusalem, where the abundance of metals used in the temple is evoked, first of all, as a sign of exceptional prosperity of the kingdom of Isra-el, so that gold may replace silver (1Kgs 10,14-21) and copper may even be used without restrictions (1Kgs 7,47). These observations may lead us, at first sight, to conclude that metals were introduced in the Israelite shrines for their magnificence and as symbols of opulence, and not in the name of any essen-tial link with YHWH and his cult. There is apparently no need to look for any metallurgical dimension in the Israelite theology, so that the metallurgical component of the divine imagery is no more than a series of picturesque met-aphors.

This conclusion may be accepted only if the Israelite theology is accurate-ly reflected by the cult. But in case a discrepancy exists in the Bible between the essential nature of YHWH and his cult among the Israelites, the lack of the importance of metals in the Israelite religion is insufficient to refute any theological dimension to the metallurgical imagery. Indeed, the divine image-ry is assumed to reflect, first and foremost, the essential nature of a god, ra-ther than his worship by mortals.

The possible existence of an intrinsic metallurgical component of the Isra-elite theology has never been seriously considered in the past. Even the pro-moters of the Kenite hypothesis concerning the origin of the cult of YHWH

3. McNutt, op. cit., p. 266. 4. For the essential relationship of YHWH with fire, see Athialy P Saphir, The myste-rious Wrath of YHWH An Inquiry into the Old Testament Concept of the Suprara-tional Factor in Divine Anger. (Princeton: PhD Diss, 1964), pp. 20-21, 181-187. 5. This view is even strengthened by mention of the secular origin of the god used in the tabernacle (nose-rings, and ear-rings, and signet-rings, and girdles offered by the Israelites, see Exod 35,22).

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ignored such a possibility, by rejecting out-of-hand the presence of a metal-lurgical dimension of the pre-Israelite theology.6 This attitude is especially surprising in light of the identification of the Kenites as a Canaanite clan of smelters and metalworkers.7 Immanuel Lewy, for example, assumed that the Kenites borrowed the cult of Yahweh from another (unidentified) tribe and both in time forgot his (unidentified) former nat The Kenites and related tribes worshipped Yahu or Yahweh but they did not know the origin of that worship and so they attributed it to their ancestor, Cain, the first smith or hammerer 8 Such a claim is difficult to accept in the absence of any positive evidence, because metallurgical traditions are known in Antiquity for their extreme conservatism.9 This invites us to reconsider the eventual occurrence of a metallurgical component in Israelite theology.

6. The hypothesis of a Kenite origin of the cult of YHWH has been in existence for a

AJSL 35 (1918), pp. 1-JBL 52 (1933), pp. 212- Eretz-Israel 3 (1953), pp. 116- JNES 12 (1953), pp. 278- JBL 83 (1964), pp. 373-89. For recent

-Kenite Hypothesis Revisited JSOT 33 (2008), pp. 131-53; and Marlene E. Mondriaan, OTE 24 (2011), pp. 414-30. It is supported by the preva-

c-it involvement of YHWH in his birth (Gen 4,1), and by his mark (Gen 4,15), identi-fied as a protecting sign of affiliation to the Yahwistic cult community. Immanuel Lewy suggested that Genesis 4 overcame editorial modifications hiding the central importance of Cain The Beginnings of the Worship of

VT 6 [1956], pp. 429-35, 431). For Israel Knohl, Cain and not Seth was traditionally considered as the forefather of Humanity

Hurvitz and Shalom M. Paul [eds.] Sefer Moshe: The Moshe Weinfeld Jubilee vol-ume, [Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2004], pp. 63-70). The Kenite origin of yahwism is also supported by the revelation of YHWH to Moses

CBQ 25 [1963], pp. 1-11) and by the zealous Kenite cult of YHWH sometimes evoked in the Bible (See for example Ex 18,10-12; Numb 13,6; Jos 14,13-14; Jer 35,18-19; 2Kgs 10,15-16). 7. The Kenites have been identified as metalworkers by Smith (1918); Schmokel (1933); Abramsky (1953); Gray (1953), Albright (1963), North (1964). For recent developments, see McNutt, The Forging of Israel, pp. 239-249; JLand Whose Stones are Iron, and out of Whose Hills You Can Dig Copper: The

Davar-Logos 6 (2007), pp. 69-Canaanite God of Metallurgy? JSOT 33 (2009), pp. 387-404, and Mondriaan (2011). 8. Lewy (1956), p. 431. 9. This is revealed by the striking parallels in metallurgical traditions from Ancient Greece, Canaan and from recent African societies. See the comparative studies per-formed by Sandra Blakely (Myth, Ritual and metallurgy in Ancient Greece and Re-

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1. The theological dimension of metallurgy in the Bible

If metallurgy was a component of the religion of Ancient Israel, we may ex-pect to find its trace in crucial events characterizing it. This point is investi-gated here.

1.1 Founding fathers

The name Israel Divine Being at the Jabok river (Gen 32,29). During this struggle, Jacob is wounded in the thigh by the Divine Being, that results in his limping (Gen 32,26). This wounding is apparently regarded as a positive achievement since it is immediately followed by the request of Jacob to be blessed by the Divine Being (Gen 32,27). Ritual limping is known in Antiquity as an initiatory in-firmity typically (and even exclusively) related to metallurgy.10 This singular-ity is also attested in Canaan during the early Iron Age.11 So if the ritual limp-

Israel, it may be that the Israelite religion rests upon fundaments that issued, at least partly, from metallurgical traditions.

Some of the most prestigious Israelite heroes display genuine metallurgi-cal capacities. For example, it is mentioned that the golden calf was cast by Aaron (Ex 32,4). Even more, it is specified that Aaron himself made the mould used to cast this ritual artifact. It is likely that the description of Aaron fashioning the mould with an engraving tool ( ; Gen 32,4) evokes the lost-wax process of casting. This technique is extremely complex, and requires outstanding skill, especially for the successful completion of large artifacts. This transforms Aaron into a highly competent, professional metalworker. Moses too was approached as a metalworker, in for Moses request to forge by himself ( ) a copper serpent (Numb 21,8).12

1.2 Copper melting as divine signature

The reversible transformation of the scepter of Moses ( ) into a serpent ( ) (Ex 4,1-5) is a sign meant to demonstrate that Moses was truly sent by YHWH. That Moses was not acquainted with this sign is revealed by his

cent Africa [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006]) and by Paula McNutt (The forging of Israel, pp. 239-241). 10. Hephaestus in Greece, Vulcain at Rome and Wieland are known as limping dei-ties. See Gérard Capdeville, Volcanus - Recherches comparatistes sur les origines du culte de Vulcain What Could Have Caused the Limping of Hephaestos? Brit J Rheumatol 29 (1990) pp. 451- Electronic Antiquity 10 (2006), pp. 1-21, 11. Smiths and smelters are also figured as limping in Crete, Greece and Rome (Capdeville, Volcanus, pp. 55-56, 245-248). 11. A limping figurine has also been discovered in cultic context at the mining site of Timna. See Beno Rothenberg, The Egyptian mining temple at Timna (London: IAMS, 1988), p. 190. 12. ," ZAW 100 (1988), pp. 264-267.

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acknowledged by the Israelites in Egypt as a phenomenon essentially related to YHWH. Otherwise, it would not serve as a specific sign. This means that

Aaron performed exactly the same transformation without difficulty (Ex 7,10). The Egyptians were also able to perform the same miracle, and even without relating it to YHWH. This means that the scepter-serpent transfor-

The term matteh is generally understood as designating a wooden staff.13

However, in Isa 10,15, it designates an artifact hung on a wood-staff.14 It was apparently not made of wood because, according to Ezekiel, a flame may burn at its top. The metallic nature of the matteh is suggested by its eventual destruction by fire (Ezek 19,14).

The matteh-serpent transformation operates in the vicinity of an intense source of heat. The miracle is first performed (Ex 4,3) at the time Moses is instructed by a voice emanating from a burning bush which is not consumed (Ex 3,2), a feature strongly evoking the burning of coals.15 The term introduced to describe the way the Egyptians performed the same transfor-mation (Ex 7,11) also evokes an intense source of heat.16 Its furnace connota-tions are confirmed by the melting power of the intense heat described as in Deut 32,22 and in Ps 83,15. These instances suggest that the scep-ter/serpent/scepter transformation is none other than the melting of a copper artifact followed by the casting of a new shape. This means that Moses and Aaron had to account for their metallurgical skill in order to convince the Israelites that they spoke in the name of YHWH.

13. This interpretation is supported by mention of the miraculous blossoming of the

the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was budded, and put forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and bore ripe almonds" (Numb 17,23). 14 Shall the axe boast itself against him that hews therewith? or shall the saw magnify itself against him that shakes it? as if the rod ( ) should shake itself against them that lift it up, or as if the matteh should lift up itself, as if it were no wood?" ( ) (Isa 10,15). A similar distinction between the matteh and the wood-made rod supporting it is specified in the book of Ezekiel, where it is mentioned that a devouring fire will go out of the matteh, and that it will consume the matteh-'oz ( ). This latter is regarded as a rod used to

And fire is gone out of the matteh of her branches, it has devoured her fruit, so that there is in her no matteh-'oz to be a sceptre to rule (Ezek 19,14). This descrip-tion suggests that the wood-made staff used by the ruler, termed here matteh-oz, hanged at its upper extremity an artifact termed the matteh. The association between the two is probably the source of calling matteh the wood-staff of Aaron evoked in Numb 17,23. 15. See Amzallag (2009), p. 396. 16. See for example Isa 42,25; Joel 1,19; Pss 97,3; 104,4. The term lahat is also en-countered to evoke intense anger (see for example Job 41,13; 1Kgs 8,58, Pss 57,5; 106,18). However, here again, this anger is associated with flames and intense burn-ing.

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1.3 The smith as messenger of YHWH

If the mastering of metallurgical processes ensures that Moses speaks in the name of YHWH, we may conclude that the metalworkers were regarded as being closely related to YHWH and even those speaking in his name. This opinion is supported, first of all, by the mention in the Bible of a divine be-ing, called the emissary ( ) of YHWH, who is approached as his messen-ger par excellence, the one carrying his name (Ex 23,21). A comparative analysis of the many mentions of this emissary in the Bible with mythologies from neighbor cultures reveals that the emissary of YHWH displays strong affinities with Koshar, the Canaanite smith god.17 So we may assume that the metalworkers, identifying with their divine patron, were by extension consid-ered as men inspired by YHWH. Two indications in the Bible strengthen this opinion.

The first is the explicit mention of Bezalel as directly inspired by YHWH: See, I have called by name Bezalel the son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the

tribe of Judah; and I have filled him with the spirit of Elohim, in wisdom, and in understanding, and in knowledge, and in all manner of workmanship, to devise skilful works, to work in gold, and in silver, and in copper, and in cut-ting of stones for setting, and in carving of wood, to work in all manner of workmanship. -5).18 The position of metals at the head of the list of crafts mastered by Bezalel suggests that he was first of all a metalworker. Such divine inspiration was apparently not restricted to manual skill. The

a-el according to their inspiration (Ex 35,34) reveals that they were apparently involved in the dissemination of the word of YHWH, as well.

The second indication comes from the striking mention of the presence of YHWH in metallurgical workshoPs This is revealed in Isaiah, where YHWH

Behold, I have created the smith, blow the fire of coals, and bring forth a weapon for his work i-pation of YHWH is not mentioned in the Bible for any other human activity. It appears from this quotation that YHWH was considered as directly in-volved in blowing on burning coals, and in all the stages of metal production and work. Such a feature suggests that YHWH revealed himself to the smith at his work, a feature justifying his status of inspired man.

1.4 The Nehushtan as cultic artifact

The second book of Kings evokes a copper serpent, called Nehushtan, in the Jerusalem temple (2Kgs 18,4). This cultic artifact, attributed to Moses, was forged in the name of YHWH when the Israelites were encamped on the bor-der of the land of Seir (Numb 21,4.8). This detail is of great importance, be-cause a copper serpent has been discovered in the mining area of Timna, within a shrine (13-12th Century BCE) where cultic metallurgy has been

17 SJOT 26 (2012), pp. 123-144. 18. See also Ex 35,30-31.

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documented.19 This implies that, in the region where the Israelite Nehushtan originated and at the time it is expected to have been forged, this cultic arti-fact was specifically related to the cult of the smelting god.

It is in no way specified in 2 Kings 18 that the Nehushtan was removed because it was regarded as idolatry. So we may conclude that, before Hezeki-ah s reform, such a metallurgical dimension of Yahwism was acknowledged by the Israelites, and even fully integrated in their cult.

1.5 The Promised Land as a giant mining area

The Promised Land is described in the Deuteronomy as ..."a land whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills you may dig copperclaim is unrealistic, however, because copper and iron ores are not found in the land of the Israelites. This evidence was obviously well known in Israel, so that such a promise weakens the reliability of the entire blessing (Deut 8,7-10). This means that this promise was not simply introduced for literary pur-poses. Rather, it apparently fulfills a theological requirement transcending geological constraints. This may be justified only if YHWH was essentially related to the mining and smelting of metal ores. This conclusion is supported by Zechariah evoking YHWH as dwelling in mountains of copper (Zech 6,1-6), and by the mention of YHWH coming from Seir20 which comprised, in the early Iron Age, a huge area of copper mining and smelting.21 It seems, therefore, that the theological transformation of the Promised Land into a giant mining area accompanies the moving of YHWH from his holy moun-tain of Seir to his new dominion among the Israelites.

These few observations, when gathered, suggest the existence of an ig-nored metallurgical component in Israelite religion.22 They invite us to test the eventuality that the metallurgical imagery used in divine context is not 19. Rothenberg, The Egyptian Mining Temple at Timna (London: IAMS, 1988), p. 147; see also Sandra Blakely- l-ysis of Greek and Near Eastern Cult Studies from the Late Bronze through the Clas-

eds), Metals in Antiquity, (Oxford: Archaeopress, BAR International Series 792, 1999), pp. 86-90, 87. 20. See Judg 5,4; Hab 3,3; Deut 33,2. The identity of Seir and Esau is revealed in Gen 36,8. 21. The Punon area has revealed the most important site of copper production in the Near East during the Early Bronze Age, and the hundreds of tons of copper produced

r manufactory Antiquity 76 (2002), pp. 425-437. This activity developed ex-

tensively, as attested to by the 100,000 tons of slag accumulated at the site during Antiquity. See John R. Barlett, Edom and the Edomites, (Sheffield: Sheffield Univer-

of Biblical Edom: new excavations and 14C dates from Khirbat en-Antiquity 78 (2004), pp. 865-879, 867. 22. For other examples revealing the metallurgical roots of yahwism, see Amzallag (2009).

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simply introduced in the Bible for metaphorical purposes, but rather reflects a genuine theological reality.

2. The metallurgical powers of YHWH

Copper production is a complex activity. Copper sulfide ore (the most com-monly mined ore in the second-first millennia BCE) had first to be roasted. Then, smelting was performed in a furnace by mixing the ground ore with coals and fluxes. Thereafter, the metal was gradually purified through many stages of melting in a porous crucible (cupellation). All these processes are evoked in the Bible in a divine context.

2.1 Copper ore roasting

The term gofrit ( ) apparently designates a sulfured stone, so that it is generally translated as brimstone. However, this latter meaning is not con-sistent with the statement that gofrit results from the transformation by fire of an element called ( ): ( ) into pitch ( ), and the h ( ) thereof into gofrit ( ), and the land thereof shall become burning pitch ( )the meaning of may therefore be helpful for clarifying what is desig-nated by the word gofrit, and which process is evoked here as performed by YHWH.

If is translated as dust, as is generally accepted, its transformation into gofrit remains an obscure miracle devoid of any correspondence in the physical world. But also has another meaning in the Bible. In Job 28, a chapter extensively dealing with mining and smelting, the masculine form,

Iron is taken out of the ore ( ), and copper is molten out of the stone (Job 28,2). The same meaning is men-

it has ore ( ) of gold(Job 28,6). A similar designation of metallic ore by Job 22,24; 30,6; Prov 8,26; Isa 65,25 and Ezek 26,12. The two meanings (ore/dust) are interrelated via the practice of the fine grounding of the ore before its smelting. But the translation of as dust in Isaiah 34 is not only meaningless, it is also unlikely in a chapter dealing with Edom, the land where copper ore was mined.

These considerations reveal the nature of the transformation of ) in-to gofrit evoked in Isa 34,9: it is the roasting of copper sulfide ore prior to its smelting. This process, once initiated, was self-generated for several days until the complete oxidation of the sulfur components.23 The continuous burning of the sulfide ore (at 400-500 oC) without fuel was probably account-ed for by the direct involvement of the smelting god in the roasting process.24 23 Palé-orient 3 (1975), pp. 311-315. 24. gofrit is translated in the Septuagint as theion, a term understood as brimstone, though it also designates both a divine reality, and a process of flashing and sparking. The combination of these three distinct meanings suggests a designation of the roast-ing ore process.

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This feature may explain why the roasting of ore is explicitly related to YHWH in Isa 34,9.

By releasing sulfurs, salts and heavy metals, the roasting process was highly toxic. This reality is precisely evoked by Isaiah. Following transfor-mation of into gofrit .... the land thereof shall become burn-ing pitch. It shall not be quenched night nor day, the smoke thereof shall go up forever; from generation to generation it shall lie waste: none shall pass through it for ever and ever -10).

These considerations clarify why the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are assumed to have been destroyed by fire and gofrit (Gen 19,24): the soil sur-rounding the Dead Sea is both sterile, salinized and characterized by an in-tense sulfuric smell, exactly as expected for a site where roasting was exten-sively performed. This reveals that the transformation of ) into gofrit should not simply be considered as a metaphor nor as an obscure miracle. Rather, it evokes the genuine involvement of YHWH in the process of sulfide ore roasting.

2.2 Smelting

The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah is detailed in Genesis 19. Later, this event serves as reference for the expected ruin of Israel (Deut 29,22; Amos 4,11), of Edom (Jer 49,18) and of Babylon (Isa 13,19; Jer 50,40). This sug-gests that the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah was approached by the Israelites as an archetype of YHWH's intervention. While fire and gofrit are explicitly mentioned in Deut 29,22, they are ignored in all the other cases (Isa 13,19; Jer 49,18; 50,40; Amos 4,11), suggesting that the destroying process should not be restricted to the roasting of sulfide ore.

In Genesis 19, destruction by fire of the two cities is compared to the working of a giant furnace ( the smoke of the land went up as the smoke of a

Gen 19,28). This image fits very well with the falling of roasted ore (gofrit) and burning coals from the heavens (Gen 19,24), the two main com-ponents of furnace smelting. The singular mode transformation of the area in a giant furnace is also attested to by the essential difference existing between destruction by burning and by furnace smelting: a burning gradually expands with the help of winds, whereas furnace smelting is an all-or-nothing destroy-ing process occurring everywhere with equal intensity, so that no one may escape. The blind character of destruction of the two cities is stressed in Gen-

...to sweep away the righteous with the wicked (Gen 18,23). The subsequent negotiation (Gen 18,24-32) confirms that the cities are expected to be destroyed through an all-consuming process and not through a simple burning that expands gradually.

Perhaps the most intriguing feature here is that Abraham understood by himself how the cities are expected to be destroyed. He is not the only mortal guessing how YHWH intends to intervene. Lot, his nephew, knows it so well that he even asked the divine messengers to preserve two small cities in order to allow him and his family to escape (Gen 19,19-22). Such a situation is

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possible only if furnace smelting was extensively acknowledged as the divine mode of destruction par excellence.

This deduction is confirmed by the expression evoking this mode of ac-tion in the Bible. The destruction of the two cities is related in Gen 19,25 by the verb (to overthrow). This same expression divine overthrow ( ) is also mentioned in Deut 29,22; Amos 4,11, Isa 13,19 and Jer 50,40 for evoking such an event. Its specific meaning is revealed in Psalm

a-). As clarified by the literary context of Psalm 114,

this claim evokes the melting of flint and not the spring of drinkable water.25 It is corroborated by the capacity of YHWH, explicitly stated in Psalm 97, to

The mountains melted like wax at the presence of YHWH (Ps 97,5).26 The divine overthrow is therefore no other than stone melting, a phenomenon normally occurring in only one human activity: furnace smelt-

specific mode of action of YHWH, we may conclude that this latter is essen-tially related to furnace smelting.

2.3 Metal purification

In Ezekiel 22, the Israelites are likened to pieces of metal that YHWH intends the house of Israel is become dross ( ) unto Me; all

of them are copper and tin and iron and lead, in the midst of the crucible; they are the dross of silvera metalworker27 As they gather silver and brass and iron and lead and tin into the midst of the fur-nace, to blow the fire upon it, to melt it; so will I gather you in Mine anger and in My fury, and I will cast you in, and melt you. . The pro-cess evoked here is cupellation, a technique traditionally practiced to produce silver from galena and to purify it (as well as other metals) by melting in a porous crucible.

Ezekiel is not the only prophet to associate YHWH with cupellation. A similar pr The bellows blow fiercely, the lead is consumed of the fire; in vain does the founder refine, for the wicked are not separated. Refuse silver shall men call them, because YHWH has rejected them. -30). The image of cupel-lation is not restricted in the Bible exclusively to the fiery expression of di-vine anger. It is also used to describe YHWH improving the moral qualities 25Psa OTE 24 (2011), pp. 303-323, 313-314. It is worthy of note that the verb is never used elsewhere in the Bible to explicitly relate to the emergence of potable water from the rock. The gushing forth of potable water is evoked in the Bible by the verb (to bring out) (see Ex 17,6; Num 20,8; Deut 8,15, Isa 41,18 and Ps 78,16) 26. See also Judg 5,5; Isa 63,19; 64,2; Mic 1,4; Pss 46,7; 104,32; 144,5. 27 Yea, I will gather you, and blow upon you with the fire of My wrath, and ye shall be melted in the midst thereof (Ezek 22,21)

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of his faithful worshippers28 or testing purity of their heart.29 Cupellation is therefore approached as a normal activity of YHWH, which may be enhanced by his anger.

This representation should obviously be treated as a metaphor, because mortals cannot be purified and improved in a crucible. Its use by the Biblical authors may be justified by the nature of the process, in which purification (the positive issue) results from a (painful) destruction of shape by melting. This image is explicitly evoked in Isaiah, where the birth of Israel is envi-sioned as the result of a divine process of cupellation of the sons of Jacob

Behold, I have refined you, but not as silver; I have tried you in the crucible of affliction 30

The cupellation imagery is, however, more complex than might be ex-pected for a metaphor. In the book of Jeremiah, cupellation is considered as the only There-fore thus said YHWH Sebaoth: behold, I will cupellate/refine ( ) them, and examine their purity ( ); for how else should I do because of the daughter of My people?event that cupellation is a meaningless metaphor, especially for a deity acknowledged for his omnipotent powers. This claim reflects, however, a metallurgical reality: cupellation was the only technique of metal purification

for how else should I do", we may conclude that metallurgy was regarded as his privileged mode of inter-vention. This means that the metaphor of cupellation for raising the level of

metallurgical mode of action of YHWH approached by the Israelites as a theological reality.

2.4 Furnace re-melting

Furnaces are not only used for smelting the ores, but also for recycling oxi-dized copper artifacts by their re-melting. This procedure may be repeated infinitely without any loss of matter, transforming it into an authentic process of rejuvenation by fire. In w-

then will I set it empty upon its coals thereof, that it may be hot and its copper will be deformed, and will be molten in it its impurities and its corrosion ( ) will disappear

As previously mentioned for the cupellation process, the image of furnace re-melting may serve as a powerful metaphor for expressing the destroying anger of YHWH. But exactly as in the case of cupellation, some details sug-gest here a more complex situation.

28 The refining pot ( ) is for silver, and the furnace for gold; and YHWH tries ( ) the hearts (Prov 17,3). 29 Examine me ( ), YHWH, and test by crucible ( ) my reins and my heart Ps 26,2. 30. Exactly the same image is encountered in Ps 66,10-12.

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In this prophecy, Ezekiel does not only compare Jerusalem to a rusty piece of copper. He also likens the holy city of YHWH to a cauldron, a cultic artifact deeply associated in Antiquity with furnaces, volcanic activity and rejuvenation by fire.31 This image is, therefore, not simply motivated by the need to evoke metaphorically the process of furnace re-melting. It also intro-duces another essential element: the identifying of Jerusalem as the caul-dron/furnace of YHWH. This interpretation finds a support in Isaiah 31,

And his rock shall pass away by reason of terror, and his princes shall be dismayed at the ensign, said YHWH, whose fire is in Zi-on, and His furnace in Jerusalem

The image of furnace re-melting of the rust cauldron is, then, not an at-tractive metaphor introduced by Ezekiel for purely didactic purposes. Rather, it appears to be the extension of a theological imagery representing Jerusalem

his oracle and of his vitalizing power on earth.

3. The metallurgical cosmogony

One of the earliest stages in the Israelite cosmogony is the creation of the firmament ( ), first dividing the primeval waters (Gen 1,6) and thereafter separating the holy domain of YHWH from his created universe.32 Assumed to include the sun, the moon and the stars (Gen 1,14), the firmament is, there-fore, an element of central importance in Israelite cosmology.

In the Bible, the verb expresses the action of plating by hammering a piece of gold (Ex 39,3; Isa 40,19), silver (Jer 10,9) or copper (Numb 17,4). It

( ) encountered only in the book of Ezekiel (Ezek 6,11; 25,6). Even there, it evokes a mild and repetitive beating, so that it should be considered as a figurative derivation of the primary metallurgical meaning. We may then deduce that the term designates the firmament as a piece of metal.33 This conclusion is confirmed by the mention of its brightness (Dan 12,3) and by its similarity to a bronze mirror (Job 37,18). Such a metallic representation of the firmament is far from being trivial, because the sky has neither color, nor the appearance of a piece of metal. This means that the image is rooted in theological considerations rather than in empirical observations. If, for the

31. The cauldron is a cultic artifact that was symbolically compared to the crater of

Folklore 78 (1967), pp. 212- Folklore 82 (1971), pp. 216-232. Its indirect link with metallurgy is revealed by the parallel melting of stone, as revealed by the dwelling of the smith god in a volcano so frequently evoked in Ancient mythologies, especially in the Mediterranean area. 32. The distinction between the heavens of heavens (Ex 24,10-11) and the created universe is evoked in Deut 10,14; 1 Kgs 8,27; Ps 148,4; Ezek 1,25-26. 33. The metallurgical nature of the firmament, in the Bible, has already been sug-

TAPA 99 (1968), pp. 37- the Verb Does not Mean Create in Genesis 1.1- JSOT 34 (2009), pp. 3-23, 9.

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Israelites, YHWH has created the firmament by plating a piece of metal, this means that his demiurgic activity belongs to the metallurgical sphere. This

the firmament ( ) claims his handiworkas being stretched forth ( ) by YHWH.34

Comparing the earth to a piece of metal is even more counter-intuitive than the metallic representation of the firmament. This is why the mention of

spread forth the earth above the water136,6) is spontaneously envisioned as the extension of a giant piece of clay.

activity is, here again, . This suggests that the Israelites represented the creation of the earth and of the firmament by the same metallurgical process. This interpretation is confirmed by the parallel stressed in the book of Isaiah

Thus said God, YHWH creates ( ) the heavens and stretched them forth ( ), spreads forth ( ) the earth and that which comes out of it 35

The Israelites were obviously aware that the earth does not look like a piece of metal. Nevertheless, it seems that metals were regarded by the Israel-ites as essential fundaments of the earth. This is revealed in the poem about the birth of Lady wisdom (Prov 8,22-31), where the creation of the earth is

) (Prov 8,26). These latter are none other than the deep metallic treasures extracted by the miners (see Job 28,1-11). So it is likely that the superficial layers of the earth, the arable land and the surface of the mountains, were considered in Israelite theology as a mix of slag and low grade metallic ores, while higher concentrations of metals were found at depth, towards the me-tallic basements of the earth.36

34. See Isa 42,5; 44,24; 45,12; 51,13; Job 9,8; Ps 104,2. This singular belief is not restricted to Ancient Israel. In Egyptian cosmology as well, the firmament is identi-fied as a giant plate of copper hammered by Ptah, the smith-god (see E.A.Wallis Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians. Vol. I [London: Methuen, 1904], pp. 502, 511).

chalkeon uranon) used by Homer (Iliad 5:503-504, 17:424-425; Odyssey 3:1-2) suggests that also in Ancient Greece, the dome of the heavens was depicted as a giant piece of copper. Such a singular belief is also encountered in more recent cosmologies. In Finish mythology, the firmament is approached as a piece of metal forged and plated by Ilmarinen, the smith-hero (Kalevala 7:335-336 and 49:341-345). The same belief is encountered in contemporaneous traditional cultures. For the Bassaris (Togo), the firmament, the stars, the sun and the moon are metallic artifacts forged by the celestial smith. See Harry Tegnaeus, Le héros civilisateur Contribution à l'étude ethnologique de la religion et de la sociologie Africaines (Upsala: Studia Ethnographica Upsaliensa, 1950), p. 59. 35 I am YHWH makes ( ) all things; that stretched forth ( ) the heavens alone; that spread abroad ( ) the earth by Myself (Isa 44,24). 36. In Job 28,5, it seems that a genuine metallurgical process occurs in the depth,

). This continuous smelting of the deep layers of the earth may explain the existence of a metallic layer at its basement,

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These representations of the earth and the heavens as plated pieces of metals are deeply counter-intuitive, and they are not used in the Bible as met-aphors imaging any other reality. Rather, it seems that these representations are direct consequences of the figuration of the demiurgic activity of YHWH in a metallurgical context.

4. The celestial furnace

The fire coming from YHWH may consume sacrifices (Gen 15,17; 1 Kgs 18,38), devour the enemies (Num 1,11; 2Kgs 1,10-14), punish the sinner cities,37 and even provoke blind destruction on the earth (Job 1,16). The di-vine fire is also evoked in more positive contexts. The Garden of Eden is

n-sidered as metaphor of the destroying powers of YHWH. Rather, it appears as a central component of the divine reality. This is confirmed in the book of

these are a smoke in my nose, a fire that burn all the dayis evoked Smoke arose up in His nostrils, and fire out of His mouth did devour; coals flamed forth from Himthe combination of burning coals (evoked again in vv. 13-14) with devouring

es the work of a furnace. The metallurgical nature of the divine fire is confirmed by the image of

the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, where it combines with roasted ore (gofrit YHWH caused to rain upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah roasted ore and fire from YHWH out of heavenevoked in Ps 140,11, Isa 29,6; 34,9 and Deut 28,24. In Psalm 11,6, the celes-tial fire and roasted ores are even combined with burning coals, leaving few doubts concerning the metallurgical nature of the celestial fire.

associating the metallurgical imagery to the holy domain of YHWH, up to the firmament. If this latter also displays a strong metallurgical dimension, we may confidently assume that the fall of burning coals and roasted ore was

The most complete description of the divine domain is provided by the

first chapter of the book of Ezekiel. It begins with the opening of the firma-ment (Ezek 1,1) revealing a reality totally ignored by mortals. The first singu-

the one plated by YHWH. This latter representation fits the threat of YHWH to trans-form the land of the Israelites into metal through the smelting of its superficial layer (see Deut 28,23 and Lev 26,19). 37. Weston W. Fields (Sodom and Gomorrah. History and Motif in Biblical Narra-tive [Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997], p. 135) concluded that, in the Bible, the burning of a city is the standard punishment for transgression perpetrated by its

inhabitants

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larity attested to by the prophet is an intense and bright fire (Ezek 1,4). Then, Ezekiel mentions creatures covered by burning coals surrounding the throne of Yahweh (Ezek 1,13).

In another vision of this celestial domain, Ezekiel evokes a divine being ordered to destroy Jerusalem by casting burning coals from around the throne

Go in between the top of the galgal even under the cherubim, and fill both your hands with coals of fire from between the cherubim, and dash them against the city 38 This confirms that the image of burning coals combined with roasted ore falling from the heavens is not a meaningless metaphor. Rather, it should be considered as a direct conse-quence of the metallurgical nature of the holy sphere of YHWH. This inter-pretation clarifies why the rain of coals and roasted ore from the heavens is considered by Ezekiel as a revelation and even sanctification of YHWH, and not simply the expression of his anger.39

The burning coals (probably mixed with roasted ore) surrounding the throne of YHWH suggest that this latter is positioned at the midst of a giant furnace. This conclusion is supported by further details. In the midst of the radiating holy fire, the prophet distinguished something he called h

(Ezek 1,4.27). This word has been translated by the Septuagint as elektron, a term designating a metal of pale yellow color.40 We may doubt, however, that this term truly refers here to a copper alloy. Since the h mal described by Ezekiel is surrounded by burning coals, it cannot designate a copper alloy in its solid state. Instead, it evokes the intense pale yellow light radiated by met-al in a molten state.41 This interpretation is supported by the expression

,

but not for the definite prefix added to h s-sion in a construct form combining the two nouns and . In this grammatical context, it may be that the expression designates here a

) of molten copper, a phenomenon observed in an open furnace at work.42

38 Take fire from between the galgal, from between the cherubim" (Ezek 10,6). 39 ... I will cause to rain upon him, and upon his bands, and upon the many peoples that are with him, an overflowing shower, and great hailstones, fire, and gofrit. Thus will I magnify Myself, and sanctify Myself, and I will make Myself known in the eyes of many nations; and they shall know that I am YHWH (Ezek 38,22-23). 40. This meaning is confirmed by the parallel existing between and the Egyp-tian term hsmn the Akkadian word esmaru and its Elamite counterpart ismalu, all designating copper/silver alloys. See Daniel Bodi, The Book of Ezekiel and the Poem of Erra (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1991), pp. 82-90. 41. The metallurgical context of the term used to describe the divine being in the midst of the fire (Ezek 8,1-2) is also suggested by the correspondence of the di-vine being with the appearance of copper related in Ezek. 40,3 and in Dan 10,6. 42 -moulds and Ingots in the Arabah. The Archaeolo The

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Ezekiel's visions of the divine universe should be considered metaphors only with serious reservations because they echo the many mentions of fur-nace components falling from the heavens (see above). Furthermore, the con-stant use of the expression I see/I have seen (Ezek 1,4.15-16.27-28) and the precision of the descriptions reveals that the prophet intends here to relate an authentic vision of the divine domain as a giant furnace at work.43

5. The nature of the metallurgical imagery

Some features have revealed that the metallurgical images used in a divine context ought not be considered as metaphors devoid of any theological sig-nificance. This claim is discussed here in light of general considerations about the use of the metallurgical imagery in the Bible.

5.1 The low metaphorical value of metallurgical representations

A metaphor generates a parallel between a simple image and an abstract re-ality in order to clarify it. However, many of the metallurgical representations identified here are far from satisfying such a criterion. First of all, the metal-lurgical images are frequently described in great detail, a feature unusual for their use as metaphors. Furthermore, their metaphoric power was very lim-ited. Most of the Israelites probably ignored totally the practice of cupella-tion, copper ore roasting and re-melting, so that they could not visualize the images evoked here, exactly as they were later ignored by most of the exe-getes, translators and scholars. The very intriguing feature to be noticed here is rather the deep detailed descriptions of metallurgical process identified in the Bible. They reveal an outstanding metallurgical knowledge among the Israelite yahwistic circles. This singularity suggests that such knowledge had a theological value.

An impressive cohesiveness is indeed observed among the various metal-lurgical images: the metallurgical vision of the holy domain of YHWH corre-sponds to his metallurgical mode of action, and both visions are entirely compatible with the cosmogony. The collection of all these representations suggests the existence of a coherent system of beliefs linking metallurgy to the divine universe, the demiurgic activity of YHWH, and his mode of ac-tion. Neither such coherence nor these interrelated theological developments are expected to occur if the use of metallurgy in divine context was no more than a powerful but meaningless reservoir of images. The cohesiveness ob-served here provides another argument towards an essential link between YHWH and metallurgy.

Ancient metallurgy of copper (London: IAMS, 1990) pp. 1-77, 22-38. Coals and ore are continuously added to an open furnace. The molten silicates are eliminated by overflow, then gradually enriching the furnace in molten copper, a reality evoked in Ezekiel's vision by the visible presence of in the furnace. 43. Such a representation is not restricted to the book of Ezekiel. Also in the book of Daniel, the throne of Yahweh is surrounded by very hot fire from which

-10).

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5.2 Metallurgical metaphors and the Edom/Israel rivalry

YHWH was not only the national deity of Israel. As suggested by many scholars, it seems that YHWH was also a central Edomite deity at the Iron Age.44 In spite of their theological closeness, the relationships between Edom and Israel were apparently far from peaceful. It is likely that the story of transfer of primogeniture rights from Esau to Jacob (Genesis 27) and the strong anti-Edomite position so frequently expressed in the Bible reflect a struggle between Israel and Edom for authority in the cult of YHWH.

An intense smelting activity occurred from the Early Iron Age at the cop-per mining area of Punan Timna. It transformed Edom into a kingdom of

emergence, where metallurgy was far from being the principle occupation.45 Accordingly, it would be high-ly counterproductive for the Biblical authors to illustrate the powers of YHWH through metallurgical metaphors because they would have strength-ened the Edomite legacy at the expense of the Israelite one. We may rather assume that the profound silence of the Bible concerning the pre-Israelite cult of YHWH, and especially about its essential metallurgical component, is a consequence of the tumultuous transfer of authority of the cult of YHWH from Seir to Jerusalem. This being the case, the survival of metallurgical images in the Bible should not be justified by the search for useful meta-phors, but rather by the inability of the Biblical authors to definitely obscure this essential dimension of their national deity.46

5.3 Copper versus iron imagery

Iron, and not copper, was the dominant metal in the middle of the first mil-lennium BC. Thus, if metallurgy was no more than a powerful reservoir of

44. An Edomite worship of YHWH is evoked in Isa 41,11 and Jer 49,11 and elusive

Edom? The Relationships in the Oracle to Edom in Jeremiah 49:7- d-ingay (ed.) Rooting and Planting. Essays on Jeremiah for Leslie Allen, (New York: T & T Clark, 2007), pp. 78-115. Such a cult is also suggested by an investigation of the Edomite religion. See Barlett, Edom and the edomites, pp. 187-200. The interactions documented between the Kenites and Edomites genealogies point to the closeness of these two groups (see Blenkinsopp, 2008, pp. 149-152). Furthermore, some scholars have stressed the p -Adam in

n-derKam (eds.), Studies in the Hebrew Bible, Qumran and the Septuagint, (Leiden: Brill, 2006), pp. 387-401. This introduces another parallel with the status of Cain as the forefather of mankind. 45. See Barlett, Edom and the Edomites, pp. 36-37; Thomas E. Levy and Mohammad

BAR 32 (2006), pp. 24-35; Tebes (2007). 46. It cannot even be discarded that these metallurgical components have been dis-guised in metaphors by some Biblical authors, as a subtle compromise between the impossibility of silencing this essential dimension of their national deity, and the need to isolate the Israelite religion from its antecedents.

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metaphors, we may expect an extensive use of iron imagery in the Bible. The physical conditions required for iron smelting being more extreme than for any other metal, iron metallurgy would provide the best support for depicting

the Bible. As shown here, the imagery belongs almost exclusively to the metallurgy of copper. This paucity of iron imagery should not be considered as incidental, because it is echoed by the total absence of iron both in the tabernacle (Exodus 25-28) and in the Jerusalem temple (1 Kings 7), and by the taboo concerning the use of iron tools for the construction of the sanctuary at Shechem (Jos 8,30-31) and the Jerusalem temple (1 Kgs 6,7). The copper bias confirms, therefore, that the metallurgical imagery has not been introduced as metaphor. Rather, the met-allurgical images of the Israelite religion appear as a vestigial component inherited from a network of beliefs elaborated during the Bronze Age.

The main exception to this trend is the representation of the Exodus as the

quoted in the Bible in a similar fashion in Deuteronomy (Deut 4,20), at the inauguration ceremony of the Jerusalem Temple (1Kgs 8,51) and by Jeremi-ah (Jer 11,4). This triple occurrence reveals that this image was well-known in Israel. This invites to clarify its status and its theological significance.

The temperature required for iron melting was unattainable during Antiq-uity so that the iron always remained in a solid state during the smelting pro-cess. This latter was therefore considerably more laborious than the smelting of copper. The sponge iron produced in a furnace was thereafter extensively heated, beaten and hammered. This additional process was required in order to eliminate the slag trapped in the vacuolar iron matrix and to harden the metal by carburization. It justifies why iron smelting may successfully be used as a powerful image of violence and intense suffering.

The image of Egypt as the iron furnace differs, however, from all the oth-er metallurgical representations mentioned in this study by its ambiguity. We do not know whether it refers to YHWH working in Egypt as divine smith on the Israelites likened to a piece of iron, or whether YHWH is the liberator of the Israelites imprisoned in the iron furnace activated by the Egyptian smel-ters. Indeed, both solutions are less than satisfying. In the first instance (the divine blacksmith), YHWH becomes the source of the suffering, so that he can hardly be regarded as the liberator of the Israelites praised in the song of the Sea (Exodus 15). Furthermore, the Israelites are never positively associat-ed with iron.47 Finally, the suffering of the Israelites in the iron furnace is expected to harden them. However, the behavior of the Israelites immediately after the Exodus is so indecisive that forty years of peregrinations are re-

therefore difficult to praise YHWH as a powerful divine blacksmith forging the Israelites in an iron furnace.

47removed by YHWH's metallurgical intervention.

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The second solution (the Egyptian blacksmiths) is no more satisfying, be-cause iron metallurgy was exceptionally under-developed in Ancient Egypt. This metal was considered by the Egyptians as so evil that even the name of iron was taboo.48 This abjectness is so great that it becomes hard to equate Egypt with an iron furnace. Even more, it is difficult to imagine the Egyp-

to limit their strength, as mentioned in Ex 1,8-22. These considerations reveal that the mention of Egypt as an iron furnace

differs from all the other metallurgical images by its vagueness, its discon-nection from theological or empirical considerations, and by its very limited significance. For these reasons, it should be considered as a genuine Israelite metaphor, in contrast to all the other metallurgical representations in divine context.

6. Conclusion

This study reveals that the fiery representation of YHWH, his universe and his mode of action, through metallurgical imagery, cannot simply be justified by the metaphoric use of radiance, heat, and the destructive powers of fire. Rather, the central importance of metallurgy in the Israelite cosmogony, rep-resentation of the celestial universe and mode of action of YHWH reveal that copper metallurgy was an essential, through hidden component of the Israel-ite theology.

This conclusion is, at first glance, very surprising because metallurgy is neither a central activity nor the main source of wealth of the Israelites. This simple evidence, together with the bias towards copper metallurgy, suggests that the metallurgical imagery in the Bible is borrowed from a pre-Israelite source rooted in Bronze Age traditions. This conclusion fits the mention of YHWH coming from the region of Negev-Seir (Deut 33,2; Judg 5,4; Hab 3,3), an area known from Antiquity for its extensive metallurgical activity and for its central importance in the development of furnace metallurgy.49 It also fits the Kenite hypothesis assuming that YHWH had been formerly wor-shipped by the society of Canaanite metalworkers.

These considerations suggest that the Israelite religion developed as the extension, to a large community, of beliefs previously restricted to a small congregation of metalworkers. It looks like a redefinition of the cult of the smelting god out of his original context of metalworking, and even independ-ent of it. This assumption may help to understand why, on one hand, YHWH is essentially related to metallurgy, and on the other, this feature is almost totally silenced in the Bible.

48. See Laura Levi-Makarius, Le sacré et la violation des interdits (Paris: Payot, 1974), p. 117. See also McNutt, The forging of Israel, p. 148. 49 n-

AJA 113 (2009), pp. 497-519, 502-504.

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