CoopPS Translate

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Cooperative Problem-Solving:What it means in theory and practice

Henry Tam

Faculty of Education

University of Cambridge

Forum for Youth Participation & Democracy

#CoopPS

2012 Henry Benedict Tam


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IT!"#UCTI"

!er the year" e$ementary "choo$ "tudent"% education ha" "tre""ed the importance of

cooperati!e $earnin for the chi$dren%" de!e$opment' Cooperati!e $earnin in!o$!e" chi$dren in the

acti!e e(chane of idea" rather than pa"i!e $earnin' )e"earch ha" demon"trated the potentia$ of

cooperati!e pro*$em "o$!in for enhancin chi$dren%" coniti!e de!o$epment creati!ity and

$earnin'+ritin in Science for ,$$ ,merican" )utherford and ,h$ren in their di"cu""ion of

effecti!e teachin and $earnin of "cience mathematic" and techno$oy "ay-1

The coo$a*orati!e nature of "cientific and techno$oica$ .or/ "hou$d *e "tron$y reinforced

*y fruuent roup acti!ity in the c$a""room' Scienti"t and enineer" .or/ mo"t$y in roup" and

$e"" often i"o$ated in!e"tiator"' Smi$iar$y "tudent" "hou$d aain e(perience "harin

re"pon"i*i$ity for $earnin .ith each other' n the proce"" of comin to common under"tandin""tudent" in a roup mu"t freuent$y inform each other a*out procedure" and meanin" arueo!er findin" and a""e"" ho. the ta"/ i" prore""in' n the conte(t of team re"pon"i*i$ity

feed*ac/ and communication *ecome more rea$i"tic and of a character !ery diffrent from theu"ua$ indi!ua$i"tic te(t*oo/home.or/recitation approach'

Cooperati!e pro*$em "o$!in i" $i/e$y to *e effecti!e if chi$dren "hare a oa$ and ha!edifferin perpecti!e" on the *e"t .ay of attainin it' Thi" "harin of differin point" of !ie. in the

attempt to achie!e a common oa$ re"u$t" in coniti!e and creati!e ad!ance' Cooperati!e pro*$em

"o$!in often occur" in c$a""room"for e(amp$e .hen t.o chi$dren attempt to ride on ".in at

the "ame tim2'

e

$%$ T&e Cooperative 'pproac& to Solving Problems

+hene!er there i" a pro*$em *eyond the capa*i$ity of indi!idua$" on their o.n to dea$

.ith or the re"pon"e of one cou$d cau"e conf$ict .ith that of another it may "eem

appropriate to "ue"t that tho"e concerned .ith the pro*$em "hou$d cooperate .itheach other to find a "ati"factory "o$ution' ne .ou$d e(pect that .ith he$p offeredand reciprocated on an eua$ *a"i" there .ou$d *e *etter outcome" for a$$ in!o$!ed

.ithout anyone *ein e(p$oited' Ho.e!er "uch an approach ha" to contend .ith

fi!e type" of critici"m .hich in their different .ay" oppo"e it" recommendation'

Fir"t there i" the arument that it i" unrea$i"tic' Cooperation *eyond the *a"ic

e(chane of a""i"tance under the mo"t "traihtfor.ard circum"tance i" rearded *y

"ome a" inherent$y at odd" .ith the "e$fcentred nature of human *ein" not to

mention the $on"tandin tradition" of hierarchica$ "ociety'

Second$y the recommendation for a cooperati!e approach to pro*$em"o$!in i"

di"mi""ed a" nothin more than a p$atitudinou" a"piration offerin nothin"u*"tantia$ or coherent a" a uidin phi$o"ophy for ho. .e "hou$d o a*out dea$in

.ith the di!er"e comp$e( pro*$em" .e ha!e to face'

Third$y it can *e critici"ed for not *ein "ufficient$y di"tinct particu$ar$y .hen

ad!ocate" of po$icie" .hich ara!ate "ocia$ di!i"ion" rather than promote

reciproca$ interaction" a$"o dre"" their idea" up in the $anuae of 3cooperation% and

3mutua$ity%' +ithout ro*u"t criteria to identify enuine cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in

"uperficia$ ta$/ of cooperatin toether may actua$$y ma"/ condition" that e(p$oit the

contri*ution" of many for the *enefit of a pri!i$eed fe.'

Fourth$y it can *e undermined *y the chare that a$thouh it may "ound po"iti!e to

et e!eryone concerned to cooperate .ith each other in a reciproca$ manner inpractice it .ou$d a$$ too often $ead to de$ay" in "o$!in pro*$em" and in many ca"e"

far *etter re"u$t" cou$d *e "ecured *y either $ettin an authoritati!e fiure or *ody to

ta/e comp$ete chare of the pro*$em or $ea!in indi!idua$" to "ort thin" out on their

o.n .ithout any pre"umption they "hou$d enter into any forma$ cooperati!e

arranement'


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Fina$$y e!en if a$$ the other arument" can *e dea$t .ith the fact remain" that there

are too many po.erfu$ !e"ted intere"t" .hich are decided$y aain"t mo!in a.ay

from their fa!oured arranement" to.ard" much more ea$itarian form" ofcooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in' To promote the $atter .ou$d on$y *reed fa$"e hope and

"tir up fru"tration and aner .hen peop$e .ou$d *e *etter off re"inin them"e$!e" to

the hierarchica$ "tatu" uo'

The purpo"e of thi" paper i" to di"pe$ each of the"e critici"m" and in "o doin

demon"trate .hy there i" a di"tinct and !a$ua*$e cooperati!e approach to pro*$em

"o$!in .hich "hou$d *e adopted at a$$ $e!e$" of human interaction" from "choo$" and

the .or/p$ace to in"titution" operatin $oca$$y nationa$$y and $o*a$$y'

$%( T&e Cooperative #isposition: For and 'gainst

f a ca"e can *e made for the c$aim that it i" unrea$i"tic to e(pect human *ein" to *e

cooperati!e$y di"po"ed it may pre"ent u" .ith a "eriou" o*"tac$e' ,mon"t po$itica$

ad!ocate" and "ocia$ commentator" there i" no "hortae of tho"e .ho in"i"t that

"ociety can on$y function proper$y if peop$e .ere di"cip$ined *y "trict authoritarian

ru$e or tho"e .ho a$.ay" .ant to "ee pro*$em" $eft to indi!idua$" to find their *e"t of

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a$$ po""i*$e $i!e" in a .or$d of $ai""e4 faire 5or a" the p$utocraticminded .ou$d prefer

"trict di"cip$ine for the poor and tota$ freedom for the rich6' For them any pu"h formore effecti!e condition" to faci$itate cooperation i" na7!e and a di!er"ion from ho.

human affair" "hou$d *e arraned'

Thi" chare of mi"uided idea$i"m doe" not in fact "uare .ith the e!idence' To

*ein .ith anthropo$oica$ "tudie" ha!e found that human *ein" in the mo"tprimiti!e "tate .ere a$ready inc$ined to.ard" cooperatin on eua$ term" .ith each

other on the *road under"tandin that other" .ou$d reciprocate' +hi$e

uncooperati!e indi!idua$" on their o.n and "ocia$ unit" that di"interated throuh

$ac/ of mutua$ tru"t and "upport fe$$ *y the .ay"ide cooperati!e roup" de!e$oped

an e!o$utionary ad!antae and thri!ed1' Far from *ein in"tincti!e$y di"po"edto.ard" $oo/in after their o.n per"ona$ intere"t" and actin .ithout due reard of

the con"euence" for other" tri*e" e(emp$ified their mem*er"% readine"" to $oo/ out

for one another' ntertri*e conf$ict" "ometime" aro"e from $ac/ of mutua$

under"tandin *ut .here tru"t had manaed to ta/e root tri*e" often cooperated

informa$$y or e!en mered to form $arer cohe"i!e "ocia$ unit"'

t i" undenia*$e that after near$y 200000 year" of cooperati!e e(i"tence from around

8000 BC on $are "ca$e aricu$tura$ ci!i$i"ation" *ean to emere around the .or$d

and .ith thi" de!e$opment came the "harp hierarchica$ di!i"ion" *et.een ru$er and

"u*9ect" ma"ter" and "er!ant" 5e!en "$a!e"6 men and .omen pri!i$eed ari"tocrat"

and e!eryday .or/er" the rich and the poor' But thi" doe" not mean that human

*ein"% "en"e of ho. they ouht to *eha!e to.ard" one another under.ent a

comp$ete chane' n the contrary the ro.in threat aain"t the cooperati!e mode

of interaction fue$$ed deeper mora$ ref$ection" that $ed to the critica$ refinement and

articu$ation of the :o$den )u$e in a$$ ci!i$i"ed "ocietie"- peop$e .ere to treat other" a"

they .ou$d ha!e other" treat them' n the mid"t of di!er"e re$iiou" doctrine" and

cu$tura$ code" the :o$den )u$e .a" adopted e!ery.here a" the core ethica$ uide'

Contemporary de!e$opmenta$ p"ycho$oy ha" found that it i" the much $oner

"tandin cooperati!e mind"et rather than the di!i"i!e hierarchica$ menta$ity .hich

remain" firm$y em*edded in human di"po"ition' +ithout the need for in"truction offer

of re.ard or threat of puni"hment chi$dren from the ear$ie"t ae e(hi*it a

con"i"tent$y cooperati!e mode of *eha!iour2' nfant" are "o natura$$y he$pfu$ toother" .hi$e e(pectin other" to *e he$pfu$ to them that to protect them from

potentia$ predatory adu$t" chi$dren ha!e to *e e(p$icit$y to$d not to tru"t comp$ete

"traner"' Su"picion that "omeone may not reciprocate one%" he$pfu$ne"" may $ead

one to ho$din *ac/ from cooperation' ,nd the factor" .hich cou$d i!e ri"e to that"u"picion may he$p to e(p$ain .hy cooperation can *rea/do.n in practice'

Fir"t one can *e inorant of the intention" of another per"on or of the $i/e$y effect"of the comp$e( arranement" *ein propo"ed e"pecia$$y if they .ou$d in!o$!e a $areroup of peop$e inc$udin many .ho are re$ati!e "traner"' Second$y throuh

trauma or in"ti$$ed pre9udice one can *ecome mora$$y in"en"iti!e to.ard" one or

more roup" of peop$e ; cea"in to "ee them a" one%" fe$$o. human *ein"' t i" a

"ad fact that .hen a chi$d%" readine"" to he$p other" i" repeated$y or random$y met

.ith indifference ne$ect or e!en are""ion that chi$d i" at ri"/ of *ecomin

di"po"ed to adopt a "imi$ar "tance to.ard" other peop$e inc$udin tho"e .ho try to

*e he$pfu$ to them' Third$y po.er ineua$ity can $ea!e tho"e in di"ad!antaed

po"ition" to thin/ not .ithout rea"on *a"ed on their e(perience that their effort" to

1For e(amp$e Bo.$e" S' & :inti" H'A Cooperative Species: human reciprocity and itsevolution Princeton- Princeton


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he$p other" .ou$d not *e accorded eua$ re"pect or proper$y reciprocated' They may

ha!e to do .hat they are a"/ed to do *ecau"e the threat of force or de"titution$ea!e" them $itt$e choice *ut they .ou$d not *e actin in a "pirit of cooperation'

+hen re$ati!e$y "imp$e "ocia$ roup" .ere mered into the e(pandin comp$e(

hierarchie" do.n to around ?00 BC the chane" ara!ated a$$ three factor"' +ithne. method" of food production and $arer "ca$e" of "ocia$ orani"ation more

po""i*i$itie" of human interaction pre"ented peop$e .ith more un/no.n"' @ac/ of

/no.$ede a" to .hat miht or miht not *e enuine cooperati!e partner"hip" $ed to

uncertainty' ,t the "ame time the com*ination of "ett$ement" ro.in "u*"tantia$$y

in "i4e .ith ne. di!i"ion" pro$iferatin throuh a !ariety of "tatu" criteria meant that

ri!a$ry *red pre9udice" and .ithout the"e *ein more readi$y corrected *y the fami$iar

dai$y e(chane" more typica$ in "ma$$ roup" they cou$d *re. into to(ic in"en"iti!ity

to.ard" particu$ar roup" 5the poor the en"$a!ed .omen foreiner"6'

But .hi$e the"e t.o trend" cou$d o!er time *e *a$anced re"pecti!e$y *y the impro!in

capacity for /no.$ede acui"ition and the "pread of a co"mopo$itan out$oo/ "purred

*y increa"ed interaction" .ith di!er"e peop$e they .ere often e(acer*ated *y theacce$erated tran"formation re$atin to the third factor' Po.er ineua$ity .idened .ith

the ri"e of citie" and empire"' Tho"e .ho .ie$ded arm" to protect aricu$tura$

communitie" from e(terna$ raider" "oon di"co!ered the "ame po.er cou$d *e u"ed to

impo"e "u*mi""ion on tho"e .ithin the *oundarie" they contro$$ed' By incorporatin

prie"t$yA"cho$a"tic e(pert" into their "er!ice mem*er" of the ru$in e$ite .ere a$"o

a*$e to promote cu$tura$ norm" and *e$ief" that pre"ented them a" .orthy of

o*edience .hi$e channe$$in di"runt$ement amon"t the popu$ace to.ard"

!u$nera*$e "capeoat"' ,*o!e a$$ they cou$d for*id attempt" to ue"tion their

fa!oured *e$ief "y"tem a" "acri$eiou" and under the ha$o of their o.n contri!ed

$eitimacy "anctified the antithe"i" of the :o$den )u$e- do unto other" a" they p$ea"e

.ithout e!er .orryin .hat other" miht do in return'

Ho.e!er hierarchica$ e(p$oitation cou$d not e(tinui"h the em*er" of cooperati!e

di"po"ition *ecau"e u$timate$y the inui"iti!e human mind .i$$ "ooner or $ater

di"co!er that a mutua$$y "upportin roup of eua$" can come up .ith *etter an".er"

than a fe. .ho "ee/ to dictate to other" ho. they "hou$d $i!e' f the in"titution of

democracy in ,then" and the ad!ocacy for ea$itarian mutua$i"m *y =ohi"t

phi$o"opher" in China did not $a"t $on *eyond the fifth and fourth centurie" BC there"urence of the cooperati!e etho" in cha$$enin inorance mora$ in"en"iti!ity and

po.er ineua$ity .a" fu$$y reinited *y the 1thand 18thcenturie"' Domaticpronouncement" .ere di"p$aced *y "cientific re"earch "u"tained *y cooperati!eenuirer" conf$ictin re$iiou" in9unction" .ere "uper"eded *y a rene.ed mora$focu" on the :o$den )u$e of reciprocity and the unaccounta*$e reime" "er!in their

pri!i$eed e$ite .ere cha$$ened *y democrat" .ho demanded an eua$ "ay *y a$$ indeterminin .ho "hou$d o!ern'

+hi$e it too/ near$y 2000 year" for the cooperati!e "tru$e to *e re/ind$ed it too/

under 200 year" for the re!i!a$ to reach e!ery form of human a""ociation' By the

midd$e of the 20thcentury not on$y .a" there a .or$d.ide momentum to.ard"democratic o!ernance *y peop$e a" eua$ citi4en" chi$dren .ere *einnin to *ere"pected a" $earnin partner" in prore""i!e education cooperati!e enterpri"e"

f$ouri"hed income ineua$itie" .ere *ein "inificant$y *rouht do.n and

deco$oni"ation athered pace .ith the


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pro*$em" at any $e!e$ of "ociety to *e addre""ed throuh the cooperati!e

participation of tho"e concernedE'

$%) T&e Communitarian P&ilosop&y of Cooperation

The a"cendancy of cooperation in democrati"in po.er re$ation" and *ui$din mutua$

tru"t did not $a"t $on' Beinnin in the 1>80" hierarchica$ domination .a" on theri"e aain' n"tead of donnin an o$d ari"tocratic ui"e ho.e!er it no. appeared in

a fu$$yf$eded p$utocratic form' The po.er to ma/e profit" out of tran"action" under

mar/et condition" "tructured to fa!our profiteerin .a" to trump a$$ other po.er"' t

.ou$d ho$d a" a$$ie" tho"e $ea$ media po$itica$ re$iiou" and mi$itary aent" .ho

.ere prepared to "er!e it" intere"t" ; from defendin the freedom of profitma/er" to

act .ithout con"traint to di!ertin pu*$ic fru"tration to !u$nera*$e "capeoat"' t"

under$yin tactic" .ere not that different from tho"e u"ed *y ru$in e$ite" of the pa"t

*ut *y it" re$ent$e"" focu" on .ea$th accumu$ation it" in"idiou" "u*9uation of

!irtua$$y a$$ ma9or human acti!itie" to financia$ contro$ and it" u"e of information

techno$oy on a $o*a$ "ca$e to manify the po.er of money aain"t pu*$ic "crutiny

it rapid$y e"ta*$i"hed it"e$f a" a heemonic force' From it" *a"e in Britain and,merica p$utocracy "pread in the 1>>0" and 2000" to the re"t of the .or$d'

Durin the"e decade" the "pirit of cooperation .a" increa"in$y "tif$ed *y the dri!e to

dereu$ate *u"ine""e" ma/e .or/er" and con"umer" increa"in$y po.er$e"" to

conte"t corporate deci"ion" redi"tri*ute re"ource" from the poor to the rich

demutua$i"e friend$y "ocietie" .iden the income ap e(acer*ate the p$iht of the

poor *y cuttin do.n co$$ecti!e "upport and undermine the mutua$ "ecurity

uaranteed *y the pu*$ic "ector *y pri!ati"in more and more of it to profitma/er"

unencum*ered *y any duty to the common ood' Pro!o/ed *y the damae" inf$icted

*y the"e chane" a critica$ phi$o"ophy emered to cha$$ene the p$utocratic

.or$d!ie. and the mar/et indi!idua$i"m it promoted a" it" 9u"tification'

To under"tand thi" communitarian phi$o"ophy .hich arue" for un9u"t form" of

po.er re$ation" to *e rep$aced *y "tructure" of human a""ociation "upported *y the

cooperati!e participation of a$$ concerned it i" e""entia$ to di"tinui"h it from the

mot$ey co$$ection of inchoate !ie." a*out community $ife that are "ometime" $umped

toether under the $a*e$ 3communitarian% 9u"t *ecau"e they feature term" "uch a"

3re"pon"i*i$ity% 3ci!ic participation% 3common !a$ue"% and of cour"e 3community%'Three mar/er" "hou$d he$p to "ift out p"eudocommunitarian idea"- ,' they e(hi*it a

no"ta$ic attachment to traditiona$ communitie" !ie.in them in a romantici"ed

!er"ion of the 3ood o$d day"%' B' they are "i$ent on the need to chec/ thede"ta*i$i"ation of interper"ona$ re$ation"hip" *y corporate po.er" and the importance

of redi"tri*utin po.er in fa!our of the !u$nera*$e' C' their author" ne!er de"cri*e

them"e$!e" or their idea" a" 3communitarian%'

By contra"t .hat unite" communitarian thin/er" 5e'' onathan Bo".e$$ Char$e"

Der*er ,mitai Gt4ioni Phi$ip Se$4nic/ Henry Tam6 i" a critica$ ana$y"i" of .hy

contemporary "ociety need" to mo!e for.ard to a more democratica$$y mature "tate

.here peop$e can de$i*erate toether and "hape their co$$ecti!e .e$$*ein much

EFor an e(tended treatment of the hi"torica$ de!e$opment of democracy and cooperation in

the face of hierarchica$ domination "ee Harman C'A Peoples History of the World

@ondon- er"o 2008 and Tam H'Against Power Inequalities: reflections on the struggle forinclusive communities @ondon- Bir/*ec/ 2010http-AA...'eua$itytru"t'or'u/Are"ource"Aaain"tpo.erineua$itie"'

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more a" eua$ partner"I' Their diano"i" find" the centra$ pro*$em of uncooperati!e

interaction" in eoraphica$ and orani"ationa$ communitie" not in the fadin ofdeference to ar*itrary cu"tom" or doctrine" 5.hich .a" to *e .e$come6 *ut in the

di"empo.erment of peop$e *y "ocioeconomic "tructure" that increa"in$y

marina$i"ed them' +hi$e a "ma$$ e$ite ama""ed more po.er to "hape deci"ion" to

fa!our them"e$!e" often at the e(pen"e of other" a ro.in ma9ority .ere $o"intheir 9o* "ecurity and fami$y "ta*i$ity 5*ecau"e of the inten"ifyin demand for reater$a*our f$e(i*i$ity6' The $atter found that e!en .hen their producti!ity .ent up their

"hare of nationa$ income dimini"hed' Corporate irre"pon"i*i$ity threatened their

hea$th their pen"ion" and their en!ironment' ,t the "ame time their o!ernment

.hich ha" pre!iou"$y 5throuh the e. Dea$ or the foundin of the .e$fare "tate6

*eun the proce"" of reducin ro"" ineua$itie" and i!in a$$ citi4en" a decent

"tandard of protection "hifted it" prioritie" more and more to.ard" the concern" of

the financia$ mar/et" and the demand" of nationa$ and $o*a$ *u"ine"" intere"t"'

The communitarian pre"cription i" for the "ocia$ *ond" of cooperation to *e re

connected throuh the de!e$opment of more inc$u"i!e form" of community $ife in

e!ery "phere of human interaction' The three uidin princip$e" for thi" de!e$opmentare cooperati!e enuiry mutua$ re"pon"i*i$ity and citi4en participation?' Gach i"de!i"ed to counter re"pecti!e$y the three o*"tac$e" to reciproca$ a""ociation-inorance mora$ in"en"iti!ity and po.er ineua$ity'

he principle of cooperative enquiry

The princip$e of cooperati!e enuiry reuire" anyone ma/in an a""ertion to *e

9uded .ith reference to the e(tent to .hich informed participant" de$i*eratin under

condition" of thouhtfu$ and uncoerced e(chane" .ou$d concur' ,ny pro!i"iona$

con"en"u" reached *y one roup of indi!idua$" mu"t in turn *e open to po""i*$e

re!i"ion" "u*9ect to e(amination" carried out .ith input from other roup"' The

u$timate "trenth of any truth c$aim re"t" .ith the $i/e$ihood of that c$aim "ur!i!in thecritica$ de$i*eration" of e!er e(pandin circ$e" of enuirer"'

f peop$e .ere not a.are that *y cooperatin in a certain .ay they cou$d he$p each

other they miht .e$$ dec$ine any reue"t to enter into that mode of cooperation'

Thi" *ecome" e!en more pro*$ematic .hen the co$$a*orati!e arranement" and their

cau"a$ impact are too comp$e( or opaue' Potentia$ cooperator" can *e put off *yuncertaintie" o!er the efficacy of .hat they are *ein a"/ed to do' For e(amp$e a

mutua$ in"urance "cheme may in princip$e ma/e "en"e *ut if the c$aim" and

a""e""ment proce"" i" too difficu$t to fo$$o. it cou$d $ea!e peop$e thin/in that it.ou$d not de$i!er the a""urance .orthy of the re"ource" they ha!e to commit to it'

," inorance can ari"e out of count$e"" "ituation" it cannot *e countered .ithreference to a "in$e "ource of /no.$ede co!erin a$$ matter"' t can on$y *ecurtai$ed re$ia*$y throuh cooperati!e enuiry' Peop$e in po.erfu$ po"ition" may at

any time on the round" of re$iion corporate confidentia$ity nationa$ "ecurity or

"ome other 3unue"tiona*$e% edifice "ee/ to dec$are .hat i" /no.n or a$$o.ed to *e

/no.n on a i!en i""ue' t i" e""entia$ that the !eracity of their c$aim" can *e

e(amined in the $iht of chanin e!idence' For thi" to happen .e need the

IFor an critica$ ana$y"i" of the difference" *et.een !ariou" !ie." de"cri*ed a"

3communitarian% *y media commentator" and the actua$ idea" of communitarian thin/er" "eeHa$e Sarah!lairs Community: Communitarian hought and "ew #a$our =anche"ter


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cu$ti!ation of citi4en"% de$i*erati!e "/i$$" and in"titutiona$ "afeuard" for open and

critica$ di"cu""ion" to ta/e p$ace'

he principle of mutual responsi$ility

The princip$e of mutua$ re"pon"i*i$ity reuire" a$$ mem*er" of any community to ta/e

re"pon"i*i$ity for ena*$in each other to pur"ue tho"e !a$ue" .hich "tand up to thete"t of reciprocity' +hat an indi!idua$ may !a$ue cannot e(pect to command the

re"pect from other" if it" pur"uit i" incompati*$e .ith the rea$i"ation of oa$" !a$ued

*y other"' The rane of mutua$ re"pon"i*i$itie" .ou$d e(pand o!er time to co!er

direct and indirect care for dependent" he$p to tho"e .ho .ou$d other.i"e *e

ne$ected "afeuard" for !erifia*$e e!idence and coherent rea"onin and cu$ti!ation

of per"ona$ a*i$itie" not inimica$ to tho"e of other"' mi""ion to "upport a" .e$$ a"

action to harm .ou$d *e deemed a *reach of the re"pon"i*i$ity o.ed to each other'

nce hierarchica$ di!i"ion" aro"e in hi"tory pre9udicia$ !ie." a*out .omen

foreiner" the poor the di"a*$ed tho"e .ith different re$iiou" *e$ief" or "e(ua$

di"po"ition" are formed and pa""ed do.n the eneration"' +here the"e pre9udice"are em*edded in the youn they .ou$d ro. up to di"count any potentia$ reciproca$

cooperation .ith anyone *e$onin to the"e roup" a" irre$e!ant' Their natura$

"en"iti!ity to the 9oy and "ufferin of other peop$e i" di"p$aced in "uch ca"e" *y a

co$d indifference or in "ome in"tance" a !i"cera$ ho"ti$ity'

n"tead of acceptin "uch di"ruption" to mora$ "en"iti!ity a" the preroati!e of

autonomou" indi!idua$" or roup" they need to *e treated a" a/in to the in9uriou"

"u"pen"ion of a norma$ human facu$ty .hich .e come acro"" .hen !ictim" of

a*u"e "ufferer" of *rain damae or taret" of p"ycho$oica$ conditionin $o"e the

a*i$ity to "ee other" a" eua$$y human a" them"e$!e"' Their empathy need" to *e

re"tored "o they cou$d !ie. other" a" potentia$ partner" .ith .hom they can enae

in reciproca$ and hence mutua$$y *eneficia$ cooperation'

he principle of citi%en participation

The princip$e of citi4en participation reuire" that tho"e affected *y any i!en po.er

"tructure are a*$e to participate a" eua$ citi4en" in determinin ho. the po.er in

ue"tion i" to *e e(erci"ed' ,$$ tho"e "u*9ect to potentia$$y *indin command""hou$d *e entit$ed to $earn a*out re!ie. and ha!e an eua$ "ay in the deci"ion

ma/in proce""' Thi" app$ie" to not on$y o!ernment in"titution" *ut a$"o

*u"ine""e" "choo$" and community orani4ation"' t fo$$o." that po.er re$ation""hou$d not retain "tructura$ or cu$tura$ *arrier" .hich ho$d peop$e *ac/ from

acce""in information puttin for.ard their "ue"tion" ue"tionin propo"a$" or

"harin in deci"ionma/in'

Since eua$ participation .ou$d *e difficu$t to achie!e .hen "ome in "ociety ha!e

much more po.er a" a re"u$t of their .ea$th "tatu" or the coerci!e force" they

command .hi$e other" are p$aced in a di"ad!antaed po"ition po.er ineua$ity ha"

to *e "u*"tantia$$y reduced'

Peop$e .ith $e"" po.er cannot ma/e their !oice" count' They miht fear they .ou$d

*e pena$i"ed or they "imp$y cannot afford to purcha"e the additiona$ "upport the e$ite

can direct at their preferred outcome"' By contra"t a cooperati!e deci"ionma/in

"tructure .ou$d minimi"e the u$f *et.een the "tron and the !u$nera*$e and en"ure

that any remainin po.er difference" are /ept in chec/ "o that any irre"pon"i*$e

attempt to e(p$oit that difference can *e readi$y detected and he$d to account'

J


9/21

t i" "ometime" arued that ineua$itie" are nece""ary *ecau"e "uperior re.ard" are

needed to moti!ate the hih achie!er" .ho .ou$d end up *enefitin e!eryone andthere ha!e to *e pena$tie" to dea$ .ith tho"e .ho do not contri*ute a" much a"

other"' Ho.e!er reciproca$ cooperation doe" not reuire comp$ete eua$ity in a$$

a"pect" of $ife' Some peop$e can earn more than other" .here a rea"ona*$e deree

of differentiation .ou$d rea$$y aid moti!ation' Some de"er!e to *e pena$i"ed if theyha!e committed offence aain"t other" in the $iht of a 9u"t and tran"parent $ea$code' But ho. the di"tri*ution of re"ource" and authority .hich con"titute po.er in

human interaction" i" to *e carried out mu"t it"e$f *e "haped *y the participation of

citi4en" on eua$ term" if it i" not to *ecome an ar*itrary and oppre""i!e "tructure

contro$$in ho. .e $i!e toether'

Communitarian development of cooperative communities

+hat the communitarian phi$o"ophy demand" i" the prore""i!e de!e$opment of

citi4en" in"titution" and po$icie" in $ine .ith the three princip$e" out$ined a*o!e' The

e(tent to .hich the character and *eha!iour of indi!idua$" and roup" he$p or hinder

human interaction" in re$ation to the condition" ad!ocated *y tho"e princip$e"pro!ide" the reference point for 9udin their accepta*i$ity' :i!en that the term

3communitarian% oriinated from 1>thcentury de"cription of the cooperati!e idea" and

practice" in"pired *y )o*ert .en 5.hen the"e .ere introduced in ,merica6 it i" not

"urpri"in that the communitarian !i"ion for "ocia$ tran"formation i" focu"ed on the

nurturin and em*eddin of cooperati!e interaction" in a$$ form" of human

a""ociation' Far from *ein !aue or no"ta$ic it po"e" a radica$ cha$$ene to

rep$acin di!i"i!e hierarchie" *y pro*$em"o$!in co$$a*oration *a"ed on 9oint

de$i*eration" and eua$ re"pect that .i$$ he$p to re"o$!e per"i"tent conf$ict" he$p

rea$i"e our re"pecti!e potentia$ and e(pand our "hared hori4on'

n practice thi" mean" that for any i!en community neih*ourhood or

orani"ation a$$ tho"e connected .ith them "hou$d *e i!en the confidence "/i$$""upport and opportunitie" to enae in "hared de$i*eration" reardin .hat they

thin/ are pro*$ematic .hat they ma/e of the a!ai$a*$e e!idence and te"timony .hat

"ue"tion" for chane are to *e put for.ard ho. conf$ictin !ie." and prioritie" are

to *e re"o$!ed and .hat conc$u"ion" are to *e dra.n from their o.n e(perience and

a!ai$a*$e data a*out the impact of the "e$ected action"'

$%* T&e C&aracteristics of Cooperative Problem-Solving

Di"tinui"hin the communitarian phi$o"ophy of cooperation from mot$ey remar/"

ar*itrari$y $a*e$$ed 3communitarian% he$p" to articu$ate a c$ear a$ternati!e to the

p$utocratic conception of hierarchica$ "ocia$ "tructure' But on thi" foundation .e "ti$$

need to "et out .hat .ou$d actua$$y *rin a*out cooperati!e interaction"' Thi" ta"/ i"made more difficu$t *y the many !aue and "ometime di"inenuou" dep$oyment ofterm" $i/e 3cooperati!e% 3mutua$ity% or 3coproduction%' t i" not "urpri"in that "ome

po$itician" "en"in the po"iti!e a""ociation the"e term" po""e"" "hou$d try to u"e

them to co!er up their under$yin po$icie" to po$ari"e "ociety e!en further *et.een

the rich and the poor' t ma/e" it a$$ the more critica$ to e(p$ain .hat .ou$d tru$y

count a" cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in'

,$$ form" of hierarchica$ domination re$y on pre"entin $imited option" for re"pondin

to nonreciproca$ demand" a" 3cooperation%' From emperor" .ho a"/ their "u*9ect"

to $a*our in har"h condition" to *ui$d pa$ace" in return for not *ein *eaten *o""e"

.ho increa"e their o.n "a$arie" *y ettin .or/er" to do more for $e"" pay in return

for not *ein made redundant $are companie" .ho con!ince their "ma$$ "upp$ier" to

"in contract" .ith the mo"t unfa!oura*$e term" in return for not *ein pu"hed into


10/21

*an/ruptcy the "ame pattern ha" recurred .hen po.er im*a$ance ha" i!en ri"e to

iniuitou" pre""ure" .hich fe. .ou$d dare defy' Com*ined .ith the taretedcu$ti!ation of inorance and mora$ in"en"iti!ity the po.erfu$ can /eep other" in a

re$ati!e$y doci$e "tate of comp$iance indefinite$y'

The cyc$e of oppre""i!e contro$ can on$y *e *ro/en .hen the condition" for human

interaction" are radica$$y reformed' Dra.in from the e(perience of mo!ement"directed at di"p$acin oppre""i!e e(p$oitation *y enuine cooperation ; pre""in

o!ernment" to i!e an eua$ !ote to e!ery citi4en $ea!in autocratic firm" *ehind to

"et up *u"ine""e" .here a$$ .or/er" ha!e an eua$ "ay ho$din "er!ice

admini"trator" to account *y empo.erin u"er" to !oice their concern" not a"

"upp$icant" *ut on an eua$ footin ; .e can de$ineate the /ey e$ement" .hich need

to *e "ecured *y any effecti!e reform'

Peop$e can *e "aid to *e enaed toether in cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in if their

interaction" contain a$$ the fo$$o.in four e$ement"' Fir"t they "hare a readine"" to

e(p$ore ho. a "pecific pro*$em of concern to a$$ of them can *e "o$!ed' mp$icit$y

5.here they ha!e .or/ed toether effecti!e$y a" eua$ partner" o!er time6 ore(p$icit$y 5.here it i" $i/e$y a competent faci$itator i" needed to en"ure no one cou$d

e(ert any po.er ad!antae o!er other" throuh the u"e of threat coercion *ri*ery

or any other form of corrupt inf$uence6 they fo$$o. round ru$e" that reuire re"pect

for a$$ tho"e in!o$!ed i!e e!eryone an appropriate amount of time to e(pre"" their

thouht" and fee$in" .ithout a$$o.in any undue monopo$i"in of the di"cu""ion" *y

one or more indi!idua$" and e(c$ude a*u"e and ma$iciou" di"ruption'

Second$y once the initia$ emotion" and !ie." ha!e *een open$y "hared

con"ideration i" "y"tematica$$y i!en to the input from any re$e!ant .itne"" e(pert

and tho"e .ith re$ated re"pon"i*i$ity to e(p$ain to the participant" .hat po""i*$e

"o$ution" there miht *e' ,fter $i"tenin to the pro" and con" of oin a$on .ith

different option" and .hat con"traint" there miht *e to ta/in other cour"e" ofaction the participant" are a*$e to a"/ each other and in!ited "pecia$i"t" any re$e!ant

ue"tion to ad!ance their under"tandin of ho. their "hared pro*$em may *e

tac/$ed' The proce"" i" "tructured "o a" to pre!ent anyone u"in their "tatu"

re"ource" or acce"" to too$" for manipu$atin opinion" to intimidate or mi"$ead

other"'

Third$y participant" are encouraed to contri*ute any "ue"tion of their o.n and

ue"tion tho"e formu$ated *y other" *efore con"iderin ho. tho"e .hich con!ince

them a" the mo"t promi"in are to *e ran/ed in order of priority' ,t thi" "taeparticipant" ha!e the opportunity to $earn from one another .hat additiona$

imp$ication" they miht ha!e to dea$ .ith if particu$ar option" .ere cho"en' n"tead

of indi!idua$" "imp$y !otin for .hate!er they thin/ .ou$d "uit them"e$!e" per"ona$$ymo"t they are to i!e due con"ideration to .hat other" miht ain or endure *eforei!in their "upport for any i!en option' +herea" under e(p$oitati!e pre""ure" to

compromi"e i" often to concede a" a re"u$t of one%" .ea/ *arainin po"ition to

compromi"e .ith other" .ho ha!e an eua$ "ay i" to enae in reciproca$ i!eand

ta/e that i" at the heart of authentic cooperation'

Fourth$y on the *a"i" of the option" "hort$i"ted participant" u"e the "e$ection

proce"" they ha!e areed to 5*y ma9ority !ote entru"tin to de$eate" or unanimou"

!ote ; .hich method to u"e for different "ituation" can it"e$f *e addre""ed *y

cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in6 to choo"e .hich "o$ution they *ac/ aree to the

re"pon"i*i$itie" each ha" to ta/e on and p$an ahead for re!ie.in ho. .e$$ the

"o$ution .or/" in practice' The onoin feed*ac/ .i$$ then uide future a""e""ment

on .hether the adopted "o$ution i" to *e retained or re!i"ed'

8


11/21

The"e eneric feature" of .hat .e ha!e termed 3cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in% are

.hat underpin o*9ecti!e "cientific in!e"tiation democratic deci"ionma/in

community de!e$opment and cooperati!e enterpri"e' +ithout them in"tead of

reachin a free and informed con"en"u" of .hat are 9u"tifia*$e c$aim" "ociety .ou$d

end up either mired in domatic a""ertion" or perpetua$$y he$d up in a "tate of"u"pended *e$ief' Simi$ar$y e$ectora$ proce""e" .ithout the"e e$ement" are oftenreduced to a per"ona$ity conte"t or a competition in propaanda output' ,nd many

re"ident" fee$ they ha!e no "ay o!er their $oca$ity *ecau"e no one ta/e" their

concern" "eriou"$y .hi$e mo"t .or/er" are fami$iar .ith *ein treated a" a mere co

.hen their emp$oyer" do not reard them a" ha!in a "hare in the *u"ine""J'

Pu*$ic po$icie" and pri!ate action" can *oth *e 9uded in term" of ho. far they

promote or hinder the condition" for faci$itatin cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in' For

e(amp$e Con"en"u" Conference" ha!e *een run *y the Dani"h Board of

Techno$oy to incorporate the con"idered !ie." of citi4en" in it" a""e""ment of ne.

and often contro!er"ia$ "cientific and techno$oica$ de!e$opment"' Such conference"

ha!e $ed the Dani"h Par$iament to e(c$ude tran"enic anima$" from the fir"to!ernmenta$ *iotechno$oy re"earch and de!e$opment proramme'

De$i*erati!e pinion Po$$" de!i"ed *y ame" Fi"h/in ha!e *een u"ed in ,merica

and other countrie" to pro!ide ci!ic deci"ion ma/er" a "ource of information *a"ed

on .hat peop$e thin/ not a" i"o$ated indi!idua$" .ithout any re$e!ant /no.$ede *ut

a" citi4en" de$i*eratin toether in $iht of the /ey e!idence and te"timony8' TheHea$thy Communitie" nitiati!e ha" "pread from Canada and a num*er of Guropeancitie" .ith the he$p of +H 5+or$d Hea$th rani"ation6' The Co$orado Communitie"

Hea$th nitiati!e for e(amp$e *rouht citi4en" toether throuh a "tate.ide counci$

to "teer $ei"$ator" on the priority i""ue" to addre"" and pro9ect" to "upport 5ranin

from $and u"e teen i""ue" "upport for e$der$y peop$e6>' Since the 1>>0"

Participatory )ura$ ,pprai"a$ ha" *een u"ed in o!er 100 countrie" acro"" @atin,merica ,frica ,"ia and Gurope .here*y peop$e .ho are meant to *enefit from

de!e$opment proramme" et to p$ay a centra$ and informed ro$e in "hapin the

de"in and de$i!ery of tho"e proramme"10'

Pro!ided they retain the /ey e$ement" out$ined a*o!e cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in in

different form" can *rin peop$e toether to find out .hat .ou$d rea$$y *e to their

common intere"t reconci$e contra"tin !ie.point" and e!en ho"ti$ity and pro!ide a

$e!e$ p$ayin fie$d for inc$u"i!e and de$i*erati!e e(chane"'

$%+ T&e Effectiveness of Cooperative Problem-Solving

De"pite the appea$ of fe$$o. human *ein" arri!in at "hared "o$ution" throuh openand mutua$$y re"pectfu$ de$i*eration" cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in i" "ti$$ on$y

>


12/21

adopted in a minority of ca"e"' ne of the mo"t freuent$y dep$oyed o*9ection" i"

that it" co"t" in time re"ource" and di"ruption to e"ta*$i"hed po.er re$ation"out.eih .hat *enefit" it miht *rin' Thi" can *e $oo/ed at in enera$ and "pecific

term"'

n enera$ term" it ha" *een o*"er!ed that the approach of reciproca$ cooperation

de$i!er" the *e"t o!era$$ re"u$t" in di!er"e form" of human interaction' :ame theoryana$y"t" u"in too$" "uch a" the 3Pri"oner"% Di$emma% te"t" ha!e *een a*$e to

demon"trate that a cooperati!e "tratey ; a$.ay" *ein ready to he$p other" and

continuin to pro!ide that he$p "o $on a" other" reciprocate .ith commen"ura*$e

he$p in return ; tend to produce the mo"t *eneficia$ re"u$t" for the participant"11' For

tho"e attemptin to e(p$oit other" *y not reciprocatin they may ain a re$ati!e

ad!antae in the "hort term *ut they "ti$$ $o"e out .hen .hat they manae to "ecure

i" u$timate$y $e"" than .hat they cou$d ha!e o*tained *y cooperatin .ith other"'

The"e findin" are further confirmed .ith the he$p of computer mode$" trac/in the

ain" in term" of *ein he$ped *y other" and $o""e" in term" of *ein inored or

pena$i"ed *y other" in re$ation to one%" readine"" to he$p or pena$i"e other" o!er!aryin $enth" of interaction"' =o"t peop$e are inc$ined to fo$$o. the cooperati!e

"tratey and "ecure the reate"t mutua$ *enefit"' , minority ho.e!er prefer to re$y

on acceptin he$p from other" .hi$e con"tant$y "ee/in to a!oid i!in he$p in return

and they are the one" .ho routine$y perform the .or"t in term" of actua$$y "ecurin

the $ea"t *enefit" for them"e$!e"'

f the ame theory ana$y"i" i" too a*"tract in the enera$ c$aim" it ma/e" .e can

$oo/ at more "pecific area" .here the effecti!ene"" of cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in

ha" *een .ide$y reconi"ed in re$ation to a$ternati!e approache"' @et u" ta/e fi!e

type" of e(amp$e from education enterpri"e reeneration & de!e$opment to "er!ice

prioriti"ation & impro!ement and conf$ict re"o$ution'

&ducation

Student" and teacher" ain from a $earnin en!ironment .here /ey i""ue" are

addre""ed throuh cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in' )e"earch commi""ioned *y the

G"mee Fair*airn Foundation and the Carneie


13/21

a po"iti!e impact of "tudent participation on their o.n .or/' Furthermore "tudent

in!o$!ement in deci"ionma/in i" con"idered .e$come in re$ation to re"ource" andeuipment "choo$ ru$e" timeta*$in and uniform a" .e$$ a" e(tracurricu$ar acti!itie"

and pa"tora$ i""ue" "uch a" *eha!iour po$icie" and practice'

rani"ation" "uch a" Pupi$ oice in +a$e" ha!e re!ie.ed e(i"tin re"earch and

conc$uded that "tudent in!o$!ement in deci"ionma/in i" $i/e$y to $ead to *etterre$ation"hip" more re$e!ant and effecti!e po$icie" and *etter $earnin' The *enefit"

e(tend to interaction" .ith the .ider community .hi$e fami$iari"ation .ith democratic

de$i*eration" impro!e" "/i$$" and confidence for ci!ic enaement'

n hiher education there i" a$"o ro.in e(pectation that uni!er"itie" need to

enae the .ider pu*$ic in "hared de$i*erati!e proce""e" to impro!e the

under"tandin of re"earcher" and citi4en" more enera$$y' ,cademic" .ho produce

their findin" in i"o$ation are $i/e$y to encounter pa""i!e di"intere"t or e!en "tron

di"tru"t from other" .ho ha!e had no in!o$!ement in their re"earch aenda'

Ho.e!er "y"tematic in!o$!ement of the pu*$ic in di"cu""in the pro*$em" re"earch

i" *ein de"ined to addre"" and ho. a "o$ution may *e reached can tran"form adeep "en"e of pu*$ic remotene"" to.ard" incomprehen"i*$e 3e(pert"% into a mutua$$y

re.ardin $earnin e(perience1E'

&nterprise

,$thouh many *u"ine"" $eader" "ti$$ *eha!e $i/e monarchica$ ru$er" of the pa"t in

in"i"tin that they cannot concede to the 3anarchic% demand" of rantin e!eryone

in!o$!ed in their *u"ine"" an eua$ "ay cooperati!e and other form" of .or/er$ed

enterpri"e ha!e "ho.n that democratica$$y run orani"ation" function *etter *oth

"ocia$$y and economica$$y' ot on$y ha!e cooperati!e" $i/e =ondraon in Spain and

other" in ta$y France and the


14/21

n the 80" come to reconi"e that the

cooperati!e participation of tho"e $i!in in the tareted communitie" i" e""entia$ to it"

"ucce""' So $on a" the enaement i" one that $ead" to the meaninfu$

in!o$!ement of re"ident" a" eua$" and not i!e" "ome a pri!i$eed "eat .hi$e

interactin .ith other" 9u"t to/eni"tica$$y it increa"e" the $i/e$ihood "u*"tantia$$y that

the option" cho"en .ou$d de$i!er .hat $oca$ peop$e rea$$y need' )e"ident" of poorcommunitie" under"tand .hat hurt them mo"t and .hat .ou$d a$!ani"e peop$e in

*ac/in chane" that .ou$d rea$$y he$p them' Bein cooperati!e$y in!o$!ed in

de!i"in the "o$ution" a$"o mean" that they ta/e o.ner"hip of tho"e "o$ution" and

are more prepared to he$p imp$ement them on the round'

ne of the mo"t freuent o*9ection" to openin up de!e$opment to cooperati!e

pro*$em"o$!in i" that it .ou$d add to the co"t" *ecau"e it .ou$d ta/e "o much

$oner to orani"e' Ho.e!er the +or$d Ban/ and other $eadin de!e$opment

aencie" ha!e found that any increa"e to the initia$ p$annin and manaement co"t"are more than compen"ated *y "a!in" in the $ater "tae" of the pro9ect"'

Furthermore there are "inificant efficiencie" in a!oidin .a"tae of pro9ect fund"

that fai$ to de$i!er and not ha!in to ma/e co"t$y correction"1' The F, 5Food and,ricu$ture rani4ation6 ha" recommended that aricu$tura$ coop" "hou$d *e i!ena centra$ ro$e in food "ecurity and po!erty reduction' ot on$y .ou$d they he$p to

enae communitie" in democratic deci"ionma/in they are more di"po"ed

to.ard" 9oinin force" .ith other" in "pea/in .ith a "in$e !oice and increa"in their

communitie"% inf$uence in po$icy ma/in18'

1JDetai$" from Cooperati!e"


15/21

The "ame princip$e" app$y in de!e$oped countrie" and reeneration .or/ in the EM' n Birminham it" dep$oyment in fi!e tareted

.ard" o!er a fifteen month period reduced crime acro"" tho"e area" *y an a!eraeof 1IM t.ice that of other comparator area" and cut d.e$$in hou"e *ur$ary *y

I1M o!er three time" the rate in other part" of the city22'

The ue"tion i" no $oner if citi4en" "hou$d *e ena*$ed to participate in cooperati!e

pro*$em"o$!in .ith pu*$ic po$icy ma/er" *ut .hich participatory techniue "hou$d

*e u"ed in each "ituation to faci$itate it' The Commi""ion for Hea$thcare ,udit and

n"pection re!ie.ed the e!idence and conc$uded that there i" Ra remar/a*$e

con"en"u" amon patient" the pu*$ic and HSU tru"t" on the *enefit" of effecti!e

1> , u"efu$ "ummary of


16/21

enaement peop$e and communitie" fee$ !a$ued and hea$th "er!ice" pro!ide

*etter care'2E Thi" important o*"er!ation i" *a"ica$$y true of a$$ pu*$ic "er!ice" ;from tenant in!o$!ement in hou"in manaement to re"ident participation in

neih*ourhood impro!ement2I'

Conflict resolution

,$thouh it i" "ometime" "ue"ted that cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in on$y .or/" .ith

peop$e .ho are not di!ided *y "eriou" difference" it actua$$y ha" an e(ce$$ent trac/

record in ena*$in peop$e to re"o$!e their difference"' For e(amp$e the techniue of

3P$annin for )ea$% 5de!i"ed *y the eih*ourhood nitiati!e" Foundation6 ha" *een

freuent$y u"ed to dea$ .ith di!i"i!e p$annin i""ue" affectin neih*ourhood"'

)e"ident" and *u"ine""e" .ho cannot at the out"et aree on .hat they .ant or

oppo"e in draft p$an" put for.ard are in!ited *y P$annin for )ea$ faci$itator" to *ui$d

and u"e a ED mode$ of their neih*ourhood a" a foca$ point to e(chane idea" on

their preference" their rea"on" and "cope for re!i"ion"' The re"u$t i" a reciproca$

informed i!eandta/e that radua$$y ena*$e" peop$e .ho had at the out"et ta/en

uite different po"ition" to "in up to a re!i"ed p$an2?

'

n ca"e" .here the difference" ha!e manife"ted them"e$!e" in heated di"pute" the

techniue of Community Conferencin 5pioneered *y the Thame" a$$ey Po$ice6 ha"

*een dep$oyed .ith the he$p of a trained po$ice faci$itator oin into an area .here

re"ident" in a neih*ourhood ha!e had "eriou" di"areement .ith each other' The

faci$itated di"cu""ion" ena*$e a$$ concerned to e(p$ore po""i*$e "o$ution" con"ider

their imp$ication" and try out mutua$ commitment" to find a .ay for.ard2J' n mo"tca"e" the oriina$ di"pute i" di"p$aced *y ca$mer re$ation"' Thame" a$$ey Po$ice

in!e"ted in the u"e of the techniue *ecau"e it .a" far more effecti!e and $e"" co"t$y

than a$ternati!e" "uch a" repeated$y "endin po$ice in to pre!ent ten"ion from

eruptin into !io$ent di"order'

G!en .here difference" ha!e pa""ed into deep"eated ho"ti$ity cooperati!e pro*$em

"o$!in ha" pro!en to offer a .ay *ac/ for the affected partie"' For e(amp$e .ith the

he$p of )e"torati!e u"tice pupi$" .ho ha!e committed harmfu$ act" aain"t other" in

a "choo$ ha!e *een *rouht toether *y a faci$itator .ith tho"e .ho fear or re"ent

them' They di"cu"" the pro*$em of the damae .hich ha" *een done and e(p$ore

ho. re$ation"hip" can *e re"tored' Both the perpetrator" and !ictim" ha!e a chanceto offer "o$ution"' )e"earch found that >EM of the"e faci$itated "e""ion" $ed to an

areement on .hat chaned *eha!iour "hou$d *e adhered to and in >JM of the

ca"e" the areement .ere /ept2' The pro*$em"o$!in efficacy of thi" approach i""u*"tantia$$y hiher than the con!entiona$ techniue" of "tandard puni"hment "ucha" detention e(c$u"ion from "choo$ or the crude in"i"tence that the perpetrator i" to

i""ue an apo$oy' ffence" are "e$dom repeated and the confidence of a$$concerned in more re$a(ed and re"pectfu$ re$ation" in the future i" enhanced'

2E"ational Study of how well healthcare organisations engage local people in planning and

improving their services the Commi""ion for Hea$thcare ,udit and n"pection 200>'

2I See e''"eigh$ourhood .anagement: an overview of the /001 and /002 'ound 3Pathfinder Household Surveys DC@: 200J'

2? For more information "ee http-AA...'p$anninforrea$'or'u/A.hat.edoA.hat"et"u"

apartA

2J 3=endin Fence"% a paper on community conferencin *y the Thame" a$ ey Partner"hip

2002- ...'thame"!a$ eypartner"hip'orA.pcontentAup$oad"Amendin'pdf2 )e"earch conducted *y the Youth u"tice Board in "choo$" .hich had adopted the practice52001200I6

1I


17/21

$%, earning to "vercome t&e "bstacles to Cooperation

+e ha!e e"ta*$i"hed that it i" not unrea$i"tic to pur"ue cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in

"ince it i" in fact a mode of human interaction em*edded in our e!o$utionary ro.th

and endor"ed *y mora$ ref$ection" in a$$ cu$ture"' Far from *ein an a*"tract

a"piration it ha" *een de!e$oped into a critica$ communitarian phi$o"ophy .hich "et"out .hat .ou$d *e reuired for the propo"ed form of reciproca$ cooperation to *erea$i"ed' t" practica$ characteri"tic" *a"ed on it" app$ication in di!er"e fie$d" ha!e

*een identified and pro!ide a uide for ho. it can *e promoted and in"tituted' t"

effecti!ene"" and *enefit" ha!e *een .ide$y "tudied and recorded' The one

o*9ection .hich may "ti$$ remain i" that the mo"t "eriou" *$oc/ae to cooperati!e

pro*$em"o$!in ; name$y the p$utocratic tendency to fue$ .idenin po.er ap" to

ena*$e e(p$oitati!e re$ation" to trump cooperation ; i" not oin to di"appear'

Some amon"t the rich and po.erfu$ may ha!e the fore"iht and mora$ appreciation

to "ee that the corro"i!e$y di!i"i!e hierarchica$ arranement" *efore u" need to *e

dra"tica$$y a$tered' Yet the ma9ority appear to fa!our the "tatu" uo .hich i" not a

"tatic po"ition *ut a re$ent$e"" dri!e to ama"" more po.er for the corporate e$ite "othat the re"t of the .or$d ha!e to $i!e and .or/ on the term" they "et' Their

imp$aca*$e oppo"ition to any ma9or redi"tri*ution of po.er may "tri/e "ome a" an

in"upera*$e *arrier' n ref$ection ho.e!er it i" the depth of thi" reca$citrance that

$ea!e" no dou*t that it i" nece""ary to pre"" for cooperati!e reform" re"o$ute$y'

Throuhout hi"tory peop$e .ho champion prore""i!e chane" dra. on the

under"tandin and determination they ha!e de!e$oped to ad!ance the frontier" of

cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in' ,nyone .ith an educati!e ro$e in teachin trainin or

"harin idea" and practice" on reciproca$ cooperation ha" therefore a !ita$

re"pon"i*i$ity to inform and moti!ate other" in-

Bui$din fami$iarity and confidence .ith the cooperati!e cu$ture

rani"in for po.er redi"tri*ution =aintainin !ii$ance

!uilding familiarity and confidence with the cooperative culture

The $earnin en!ironment in "choo$" uni!er"itie" or $ife$on education

e"ta*$i"hment" "hou$d offer reu$ar and .e$$faci$itated opportunitie" for participant"to e(perience cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in' =o"t of the techniue" that ha!e *een

mentioned can *e app$ied or adapted "o that teacher$earner interaction" can he$p to

fami$iari"e tho"e in!o$!ed .ith ho. cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in .or/" and theimpact it ha"' To achie!e thi" tho"e in chare of educationa$ in"titution" need to

"ho. that they are them"e$!e" committed to re$atin to the teachin "taff a" .e$$ a"

their "tudent" in thi" manner'

n"titution" .ith a re"earch function need to enae .ith tho"e .ho "ee/ to $earn

from their findin" "o that the $atter can contri*ute a" a cooperati!e enuirer' The u$f

*et.een comp$e( modern $ife and .hat .e are "uppo"ed to *e$ie!e .ithout ue"tion

ha" ro.n "o $are that tru"t in e"ta*$i"hed authority ha" *een eroded *y a ri"e of

"ceptici"m aain"t 3e(pert"% in po$itic" ad!anced techno$oy and orani"ationa$

manaement' Thi" trend can on$y *e re!er"ed *y e(perti"e *ecomin underpinned

*y the cooperati!e in!o$!ement of tho"e it i" "uppo"ed to uide'

n para$$e$ .ith tac/$in "ceptici"m a*out e(pert findin" it i" a$"o nece""ary to "teer

the media a.ay from *eha!iour .hich *reed" cynica$ di"tru"t and to.ard" more

open and tran"parent communication .ith the pu*$ic' )eu$ation of 9ourna$i"m

ad!erti"in pu*$ic re$ation" art and entertainment .i$$ a$.ay" *e a "en"iti!e i""ue'

1?


18/21

But it i" no different from reconi"in for e(amp$e that doctor" or enineer" "hou$d

*e pre!ented from and if nece""ary pena$i"ed for pa""in on un.arrantedinformation e"pecia$$y .ith a !ie. to per"uade other" to act in .hat on the e!idence

.ou$d *e detrimenta$ to them' t i" not on$y po""i*$e to identify *ut a$"o appropriate

to cen"ure f$arant$y fa$"e or harmfu$$y mi"$eadin information' ,nd in"tead of

in!o/in "ome un$imited freedom to decei!e the cu$ture of the media ha" to "hift to amuch reater .i$$inne"" to "crutini"e and .here 9u"tified ha$t the di""emination of$ie" and di"tortion" .hich particu$ar$y .hen *ac/ed *y the riche"t corporate

machine" can render attempt" to find an".er" cooperati!e$y !irtua$$y impo""i*$e'

4rganising for power redistri$ution

," .e ha!e "een cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in reuire" an inc$u"i!e "tructure .hich

accord" a$$ tho"e in!o$!ed eua$ re"pect' =any "ocia$ and orani"ation" "y"tem" do

not po""e"" "uch a "tructure and .i$$ per"i"t in tyin peop$e do.n to !aryin $e!e$" of

marina$i"ation .ithin their riid hierarchie"' f thi" i" to chane tho"e .ho are

committed to cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in "hou$d he$p other" $earn ho. to de!i"e

campain" "trateie" and mo!ement" to reform undemocratic in"titution" or "et upne. one" .ith far $e"" di!i"i!e and e(c$u"ionary arranement"'

Gffort" to democrati"e o!ernment *odie" often tai$ off after the *a"ic demand for

one per"onAone !ote ha" *een "ecured' But many citi4en roup" ha!e increa"in$y

come to "ee that forma$ e$ection" "eparated *y $on inter!a$" actua$$y i!e peop$e

!ery $itt$e rea$ inf$uence o!er the de!e$opment of po$icie" that affect their $i!e"'

:o!ernment *odie" at the nationa$ and $oca$ $e!e$" "hou$d *e pre""ed into i!in

citi4en" meaninfu$ participatory opportunitie" "o that cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in

can proceed' Furthermore *eyond the democratic "tate on$y a minority of

orani"ation" "uch a" .or/er cooperati!e" and partner"hip" ha!e comp$ied .ith the

princip$e of one per"onAone !ote'

The *a"i" for conferrin re.ard" or authority decidin ho. much reater they are to

*e compared .ith .hat other" .i$$ ha!e and curtai$in them "hou$d circum"tance"

chane mu"t *e critica$$y con"idered and uni!er"a$$y app$ied' ,nd there ha" to *e a

cei$in other.i"e un$imited "uperiority .i$$ $ead to corruption and di"tortion of

re$ation"hip" ma/in enuine mutua$ re"pect and cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in

impo""i*$e'

Gua$$y a uaranteed f$oor $e!e$ or "afety net ha" to *e "et to pre!ent tho"e .ith the

$ea"t in "ociety or in an orani"ation "in/in to a $e!e$ .here they are dependent onthe mercy of other" that they ha!e neither the capacity or confidence to enae .ith

an independent mind in con"iderin .hat "hou$d *e pur"ued for the common ood'

Contrary to the mi"uided arument that the "afety net "hou$d *e re$ent$e""$y$o.ered to ma/e peop$e .or/ harder .hat .ou$d ma/e peop$e .or/ harder are rea$opportunitie" to "ecure *etter condition" of $ife' Since po.er i" a re$ati!e force the

more re"ource" and inf$uence are to *e at the di"po"a$ of tho"e hiher up in a*"o$ute

term" the "afety net ha" to *e re$ati!e$y $ifted to a!oid it *ecomin a to/en e"ture'

+ith the he$p of orani"ed effort" to pre"" for .e$$defined reform" more inc$u"i!e

deci"ionma/in "tructure" can *e *rouht in "o that e!eryone can aree the *a"i" of

different re.ard" and pena$tie" tru"t in the con"i"tency of their app$ication and

dedicate them"e$!e" to promotin co$$ecti!e "ucce"" .ith .hich they can identify

their per"ona$ intere"t"' )e"i"tance from tho"e .ho .ant to pre"er!e their pri!i$eed

po"ition i" to *e e(pected *ut that i" .hy indi!idua$" mu"t $earn to orani"e

them"e$!e" into a common front in demandin the condition" for reciproca$

cooperation'

1J


19/21

.aintaining vigilance

+ithout a democratic po.er "tructure it can *e difficu$t to enender cooperation'

But .ithout onoin effort" to ma/e "ure the "tructure operate" fair$y and open$y

cooperation .i$$ not *e "u"tained' There ha!e *een too many e(amp$e" of citi4en"$o"in intere"t in !otin *ecau"e po$itica$ repre"entati!e" ha!e $o"t touch .ith themdemocratic e$ection" *ein e(p$oited *y antidemocratic roup" mutua$ enterpri"e"

"urrenderin their core princip$e" .hen their mem*er" are *ouht off .ith a *onu" or

community orani"ation" $o"in impetu" .hen they fai$ to "u"tain enaement .ith

their acti!itie"' The participation in informed de$i*eration" mu"t *e !ii$ant$y

maintained' ," "oon a" peop$e o!er$oo/ ho. deci"ion" affectin them are made

.ithout their in!o$!ement the ri"/ of tho"e deci"ion" oin aain"t them e"ca$ate"'

Citi4en" "hou$d $earn to .atch con"tant$y for any "in that the condition" for

reciproca$ cooperation are *ein undermined' The "in" may come from indi!idua$

.hi"t$e*$o.er" or acti!i"t in!e"tiator" .ho need to *e i!en encouraement and

protection to "hare their findin"' There "hou$d *e readi$y acce""i*$e co$$ecti!ere"ource" to en"ure tho"e .ith po.er cannot perpetrate and hide any attempt to ta/e

unfair ad!antae of other" in any form'

Detection in turn ha" to *e *ac/ed *y the appropriate re"pon"e to "ecure redre""

and deterrence' Thi" i" re$e!ant to the crimina$ and ci!i$ $a. *ut a$"o to $oca$ *y$a."

company ru$e" and "tandard" and procedure" e"ta*$i"hed *y $are federation" or

neih*ourhood roup"' Cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in "hou$d *e app$ied to *oth the

proce"" for determinin .hat in enera$ .ou$d con"titute an offence and .hat .ou$d

*e a "uita*$e pena$ty and that for 9udin the c$aim" and counterc$aim" re$atin to

any "pecific ca"e' By it" !ery nature there can *e no a prioricooperati!e uide to

.hat $a." and ru$e" there "hou$d *e in a$$ different circum"tance"' +hat i" reuired

i" a !ii$ant re!ie. of the e(tent to .hich e(i"tin or propo"ed proce""e" re"pect thecore reuirement" of cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in'

$%. Toget&er /e Can

+hen "ociety i" con"tant$y po$ari"ed *y the arandi"ement of the p$utocratic e$ite

the po$itic" of defiance i" not enouh' Prote"t and di"ruption may pro!ide channe$"for inten"e fru"tration *ut u$timate$y the im*a$ance of po.er ha" to *e rectified' n

e!ery from of human a""ociation in e!ery "phere of $ife any re$ation"hip $oaded to

fa!our the e(p$oitation of tho"e $o.er do.n in the ried hierarchy mu"t *e rep$aced*y one .hich i!e" a$$ in!o$!ed eua$ re"pect and operate" throuh cooperati!e

pro*$em"o$!in' The po""i*i$ity of thi" tran"formation i" dai$y demon"trated *y the

.or/ of en$ihtened reformer" and cooperati!e acti!i"t"'

From "ma$$ community cooperati!e" democratic tenant" and re"ident" a""ociation"

cooperati!e "choo$" throuh community$ed de!e$opment "cheme" cooperati!e

enterpri"e" of a$$ "i4e" to "tatutory *a"ed *odie" at the $oca$ and nationa$ $e!e$" that

ha!e in addition to the re$ati!e$y remote interaction" of e$ectora$ democracy *ui$t up

"y"tematic in!o$!ement of citi4en" in participatory deci"ionma/in there are many

e(amp$e" a" .e ha!e "een of cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in *ein main"treamed into

ho. .e orani"e our $i!e"'

The cha$$ene i" to ha!e more of them more uic/$y more inten"i!e$y e"ta*$i"hed'

,nd to do thi" the di!er"e champion" in different "ector" "hou$d 9oin force" to *ui$d

up a reater momentum than any they cou$d indi!idua$$y achie!e' n a num*er of

$oca$itie" thi" ha" indeed *een attempted' ,t the nationa$ $e!e$ the Briti"h

1


20/21

:o!ernment *et.een 200E and 2010 pro!ided the $eader"hip for one of the mo"t

comprehen"i!e e(amp$e" of a "y"tematic campain for reciproca$ cooperation' The"e!enyear initiati!e ta/en for.ard *y the Ci!i$ )ene.a$


21/21

=ore peop$e from di!er"e *ac/round" .ere encouraed to *ecome mai"trate"

mem*er" of youth referra$ pane$" pro*ation *oard and po$ice authority mem*er"'nno!ation" in !oter rei"tration 5"uch a" u"in youn ur*an arti"t" to dri!e up the

rei"tration of 182I year o$d"6 .ere promoted' $der peop$e and peop$e .ith

di"a*i$itie" .ere in!ited to "er!e a" ad!i"or" on o!ernment po$icy de!e$opment

roup"' Parenta$ in!o$!ement *ecame "tandard in the de!e$opment of Sure Startpro9ect" 5for chi$dren6' Support .a" i!en to enain $oca$ peop$e in 3myth *u"tin%campain" to tac/$e raci"m and mi"information and to the u"e of mentor" from

.ithin communitie" to .or/ .ith refuee and *ui$d mutua$ under"tandin'

Po$icie" introduced to enhance community "afety inc$uded the ro$$in out of

neih*ourhood po$icin team" .ith a "tron focu" on "ee/in community !ie." the

de!e$opment of Community u"tice Centre" .ith $oca$$y *a"ed 9ude" .ho reu$ar$y

met .ith $oca$ peop$e the promotion of re"torati!e 9u"tice proce""e" to enae

offender" .ith their !ictim" to cut reoffendin and the enaement of $oca$ peop$e

fami$ie" !ictim" and youn peop$e throuh Tareted eih*ourhood Pre!ention

Proramme" in pre!entin youth crime' +hi$e po$icie" re$atin to hea$th promoted

initiati!e" "uch a" the de!e$opment of Hea$thy Communitie" Co$$a*orati!e .hich*rouht community .or/er" hea$th profe""iona$" and $oca$ re"ident" toether to

.or/ out ho. to reduce pro*$em" "uch a" fa$$" dia*ete" and ma$nutrition2>'

,$thouh there ha" *een no "y"tematic promotion of cooperati!e pro*$em"o$!in on

the "ca$e of 3Toether +e Can% "ince the chane of o!ernment in the

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