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INDUSTRIAL VISITS SEMINAR REPORT

1. REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL VISIT TO DIESEL

LOCO SHED ERNAKULAM

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The Diesel Locomotive

The modern diesel locomotive is a self contained version of the electric

locomotive. Like the electric locomotive, it has electric drive, in the form of traction

motors driving the axles and controlled with electronic controls. It also has many of

the same auxiliary systems for cooling, lighting, heating, braking and hotel power (if

required) for the train. It can operate over the same routes (usually) and can be

operated by the same drivers. It differs principally in that it carries its own generating

station around with it, instead of being connected to a remote generating station

through overhead wires or a third rail. The generating station consists of a large diesel

engine coupled to an alternator producing the necessary electricity. A fuel tank is also

essential. It is interesting to note that the modern diesel locomotive produces about

35% of the power of a electric locomotive of similar weight.

The Diesel Engine

The diesel engine was first patented by Dr Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) in

Germany in 1892 and he actually got a successful engine working by 1897. By 1913,

when he died, his engine was in use on locomotives and he had set up a facility with

Sulzer in Switzerland to manufacture them. His death was mysterious in that he

simply disappeared from a ship taking him to London. The diesel engine is a

compression-ignition engine, as opposed to the petrol (or gasoline) engine, which is a

spark-ignition engine. The spark ignition engine uses an electrical spark from a "spark

plug" to ignite the fuel in the engine's cylinders, whereas the fuel in the diesel engine's

cylinders is ignited by the heat caused by air being suddenly compressed in the

cylinder. At this stage, the air gets compressed into an area 1/25th of its original

volume. This would be expressed as a compression ratio of 25 to 1. A compression

ratio of 16 to 1 will give an air pressure of 500 lbs/in² (35.5 bar) and will increase the

Dept of Mechanical Engineering, PAACET

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air temperature to over 800°F (427°C). The advantage of the diesel engine over the

petrol engine is that it has a higher thermal capacity (it gets more work out of the

fuel), the fuel is cheaper because it is less refined than petrol and it can do heavy work

under extended periods of overload. It can however, in a high speed form, be sensitive

to maintenance and noisy, which is why it is still not popular for passenger

automobiles.

1.2 Parts of a Diesel-Electric Locomotive

The following diagram shows the main parts of a US-built diesel-electric locomotive.

Diesel Engine

This is the main power source for the locomotive. It comprises a large cylinder block,

with the cylinders arranged in a straight line or in a V. The engine rotates the drive

shaft at up to 1,000 rpm and this drives the various items needed to power the

locomotive. As the transmission is electric, the engine is used as the power source for

the electricity generator or alternator, as it is called nowadays.

Main Alternator

The diesel engine drives the main alternator which provides the power to move the

train. The alternator generates AC electricity which is used to provide power for the


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traction motors mounted on the trucks (bogies). In older locomotives, the alternator

was a DC machine, called a generator. It produced direct current which was used to

provide power for DC traction motors. Many of these machines are still in regular use.

The next development was the replacement of the generator by the alternator but still

using DC traction motors. The AC output is rectified to give the DC required for the

motors.

Auxiliary Alternator

Locomotives used to operate passenger trains are equipped with an auxiliary

alternator. This provides AC power for lighting, heating, air conditioning, dining

facilities etc. on the train. The output is transmitted along the train through an

auxiliary power line. In the US, it is known as "head end power" or "hotel power". In

the UK, air conditioned passenger coaches get what is called electric train supply

(ETS) from the auxiliary alternator.

Motor Blower

The diesel engine also drives a motor blower. As its name suggests, the motor blower

provides air which is blown over the traction motors to keep them cool during periods

of heavy work. The blower is mounted inside the locomotive body but the motors are

on the trucks, so the blower output is connected to each of the motors through flexible

ducting. The blower output also cools the alternators. Some designs have separate

blowers for the group of motors on each truck and others for the alternators. Whatever

the arrangement, a modern locomotive has a complex air management system which

monitors the temperature of the various rotating machines in the locomotive and

adjusts the flow of air accordingly.

Air Intakes

The air for cooling the locomotive's motors is drawn in from outside the locomotive.

It has to be filtered to remove dust and other impurities and its flow regulated by

temperature, both inside and outside the locomotive. The air management system has

to take account of the wide range of temperatures from the possible +40°C of summer

to the possible -40°C of winter.


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Rectifiers/Inverters

The output from the main alternator is AC but it can be used in a locomotive with

either DC or AC traction motors. DC motors were the traditional type used for many

years but, in the last 10 years, AC motors have become standard for new locomotives.

They are cheaper to build and cost less to maintain and, with electronic management

can be very finely controlled

To convert the AC output from the main alternator to DC, rectifiers are required. If

the motors are DC, the output from the rectifiers is used directly. If the motors are

AC, the DC output from the rectifiers is converted to 3-phase AC for the traction

motors.

Electronic Controls

Almost every part of the modern locomotive's equipment has some form of electronic

control. These are usually collected in a control cubicle near the cab for easy access.

The controls will usually include a maintenance management system of some sort

which can be used to download data to a portable or hand-held computer.

Control Stand

This is the principal man-machine interface, known as a control desk in the UK or

control stand in the US. The common US type of stand is positioned at an angle on the

left side of the driving position and, it is said, is much preferred by drivers to the

modern desk type of control layout usual in Europe and now being offered on some

locomotives in the US.

Cab

The standard configuration of US-designed locomotives is to have a cab at one end of

the locomotive only. Since most the US structure gauge is large enough to allow the

locomotive to have a walkway on either side, there is enough visibility for the

locomotive to be worked in reverse. However, it is normal for the locomotive to

operate with the cab forwards. In the UK and many European countries, locomotives

are full width to the structure gauge and cabs are therefore provided at both ends.


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Batteries

Just like an automobile, the diesel engine needs a battery to start it and to provide

electrical power for lights and controls when the engine is switched off and the

alternator is not running.

Traction Motor

Since the diesel-electric locomotive uses electric transmission, traction motors are

provided on the axles to give the final drive. These motors were traditionally DC but

the development of modern power and control electronics has led to the introduction

of 3-phase AC motors. There are between four and six motors on most diesel-electric

locomotives. A modern AC motor with air blowing can provide up to 1,000 hp.

Pinion/Gear

The traction motor drives the axle through a reduction gear of a range between 3 to 1

(freight) and 4 to 1 (passenger).

Fuel Tank

A diesel locomotive has to carry its own fuel around with it and there has to be

enough for a reasonable length of trip. The fuel tank is normally under the loco frame

and will have a capacity of say 1,000 imperial gallons (UK Class 59, 3,000 hp) or

5,000 US gallons in a General Electric AC4400CW 4,400 hp locomotive. The new

AC6000s have 5,500 gallon tanks. In addition to fuel, the locomotive will carry

around, typically about 300 US gallons of cooling water and 250 gallons of

lubricating oil for the diesel engine.

Air Reservoirs

Air reservoirs containing compressed air at high pressure are required for the train

braking and some other systems on the locomotive. These are often mounted next to

the fuel tank under the floor of the locomotive.

Air Compressor

The air compressor is required to provide a constant supply of compressed air for the

locomotive and train brakes. In the US, it is standard practice to drive the compressor


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off the diesel engine drive shaft. In the UK, the compressor is usually electrically

driven and can therefore be mounted anywhere. The Class 60 compressor is under the

frame, whereas the Class 37 has the compressors in the nose.

Drive Shaft

The main output from the diesel engine is transmitted by the drive shaft to the

alternators at one end and the radiator fans and compressor at the other end.

Gear Box

The radiator and its cooling fan is often located in the roof of the locomotive. Drive to

the fan is therefore through a gearbox to change the direction of the drive upwards.

Radiator and Radiator Fan

The radiator works the same way as in an automobile. Water is distributed around the

engine block to keep the temperature within the most efficient range for the engine.

The water is cooled by passing it through a radiator blown by a fan driven by the

diesel engine.

Turbo Charging

The amount of power obtained from a cylinder in a diesel engine depends on how

much fuel can be burnt in it. The amount of fuel which can be burnt depends on the

amount of air available in the cylinder. So, if you can get more air into the cylinder,

more fuel will be burnt and you will get more power out of your ignition. Turbo

charging is used to increase the amount of air pushed into each cylinder. The

turbocharger is driven by exhaust gas from the engine. This gas drives a fan which, in

turn, drives a small compressor which pushes the additional air into the cylinder.

Turbo charging gives a 50% increase in engine power. The main advantage of the

turbocharger is that it gives more power with no increase in fuel costs because it uses

exhaust gas as drive power. It does need additional maintenance, however, so there

are some type of lower power locomotives which are built without it.


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Sand Box

Locomotives always carry sand to assist adhesion in bad rail conditions. Sand is not

often provided on multiple unit trains because the adhesion requirements are lower

and there are normally more driven axles.

1.3 Mechanical Transmission

A diesel-mechanical locomotive is the simplest type of diesel locomotive. As the

name suggests, a mechanical transmission on a diesel locomotive consists a direct

mechanical link between the diesel engine and the wheels. In the example below, the

diesel engine is in the 350-500 hp range and the transmission is similar to that of an

automobile with a four speed gearbox. Most of the parts are similar to the diesel-

electric locomotive but there are some variations in design mentioned below.

Fluid Coupling

In a diesel-mechanical transmission, the main drive shaft is coupled to the engine by a

fluid coupling. This is a hydraulic clutch, consisting of a case filled with oil, a rotating

disc with curved blades driven by the engine and another connected to the road

wheels. As the engine turns the fan, the oil is driven by one disc towards the other.

This turns under the force of the oil and thus turns the drive shaft. Of course, the start


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up is gradual until the fan speed is almost matched by the blades. The whole system

acts like an automatic clutch to allow a graduated start for the locomotive.

Gearbox

This does the same job as that on an automobile. It varies the gear ratio between the

engine and the road wheels so that the appropriate level of power can be applied to the

wheels. Gear change is manual. There is no need for a separate clutch because the

functions of a clutch are already provided in the fluid coupling.

Final Drive

The diesel-mechanical locomotive uses a final drive similar to that of a steam engine.

The wheels are coupled to each other to provide more adhesion. The output from the

4-speed gearbox is coupled to a final drive and reversing gearbox which is provided

with a transverse drive shaft and balance weights. This is connected to the driving

wheels by connecting rods.

Hydraulic Transmission

Hydraulic transmission works on the same principal as the fluid coupling but it allows

a wider range of "slip" between the engine and wheels. It is known as a "torque

converter". When the train speed has increased sufficiently to match the engine speed,

the fluid is drained out of the torque converter so that the engine is virtually coupled

directly to the locomotive wheels. It is virtually direct because the coupling is usually

a fluid coupling, to give some "slip". Higher speed locomotives use two or three

torque converters in a sequence similar to gear changing in a mechanical transmission

and some have used a combination of torque converters and gears.

Some designs of diesel-hydraulic locomotives had two diesel engines and two

transmission systems, one for each bogie. The design was poplar in Germany (the

V200 series of locomotives, for example) in the 1950s and was imported into parts of

the UK in the 1960s. However, it did not work well in heavy or express locomotive

designs and has largely been replaced by diesel-electric transmission.


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Governor

Once a diesel engine is running, the engine speed is monitored and controlled through

a governor. The governor ensures that the engine speed stays high enough to idle at

the right speed and that the engine speed will not rise too high when full power is

demanded. The governor is a simple mechanical device which first appeared on steam

engines. It operates on a diesel engine as shown in the diagram below. The governor

consists of a rotating shaft, which is driven by the diesel engine. A pair of flyweights

are linked to the shaft and they rotate as it rotates. The centrifugal force caused bythe

rotation causes the weights to be thrown outwards as the speed of the shaft rises. If the

speed falls the weights move inwards. The flyweights are linked to a collar fitted

around the shaft by a pair of arms. As the weights move out, so the collar rises on the

shaft. If the weights move inwards, the collar moves down the shaft. The movement

of the collar is used to operate the fuel rack lever controlling the amount of fuel

supplied to the engine by the injectors.

Fuel Injection

Ignition is a diesel engine is achieved by compressing air inside a cylinder until it gets

very hot (say 400°C, almost 800°F) and then injecting a fine spray of fuel oil to cause

a miniature explosion. The explosion forces down the piston in the cylinder and this

turns the crankshaft. To get the fine spray needed for successful ignition the fuel has

to be pumped into the cylinder at high pressure. The fuel pump is operated by a cam

driven off the engine. The fuel is pumped into an injector, which gives the fine spray

of fuel required in the cylinder for combustion.

Fuel Control

In an automobile engine, the power is controlled by the amount of fuel/air mixture

applied to the cylinder. The mixture is mixed outside the cylinder and then applied by

a throttle valve. In a diesel engine the amount of air applied to the cylinder is constant

so power is regulated by varying the fuel input. The fine spray of fuel injected into

each cylinder has to be regulated to achieve the amount of power required. Regulation

is achieved by varying the fuel sent by the fuel pumps to the injectors.


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The control arrangement is shown in the diagram left. The amount of fuel being

applied to the cylinders is varied by altering the effective delivery rate of the piston in

the injector pumps. Each injector has its own pump, operated by an engine-driven

cam, and the pumps are aligned in a row so that they can all be adjusted together. The

adjustment is done by a toothed rack (called the "fuel rack") acting on a toothed

section of the pump mechanism. As the fuel rack moves, so the toothed section of the

pump rotates and provides a drive to move the pump piston round inside the pump.

Moving the piston round, alters the size of the channel available inside the pump for

fuel to pass through to the injector delivery pipe.

The fuel rack can be moved either by the driver operating the power controller

in the cab or by the governor. If the driver asks for more power, the control rod moves

the fuel rack to set the pump pistons to allow more fuel to the injectors. The engine

will increase power and the governor will monitor engine speed to ensure it does not

go above the predetermined limit. The limits are fixed by springs (not shown) limiting

the weight movement.

Starting

A diesel engine is started (like an automobile) by turning over the crankshaft until the

cylinders "fire" or begin combustion. The starting can be done electrically or

pneumatically. Pneumatic starting was used for some engines. Compressed air was

pumped into the cylinders of the engine until it gained sufficient speed to allow

ignition, then fuel was applied to fire the engine. The compressed air was supplied by

a small auxiliary engine or by high pressure air cylinders carried by the locomotive.

Electric starting is now standard. It works the same way as for an automobile, with

batteries providing the power to turn a starter motor which turns over the main engine.

In older locomotives fitted with DC generators instead of AC alternators, the

generator was used as a starter motor by applying battery power to it.


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2. REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL VISIT TO KSRTC

CENTRAL WORKS, PAPPANAMCODE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The Kerala Road Transport Corporation, Which has been providing quality

transport to the people of Kerala, is one of the leading organizations of its kind. It is

presently headed by the honorable minister Sri. V.S.SIVAKUMAR.

The K.S.R.T.C has had a very glorious past. Begun in the late 60’s this

organization has been providing excellent service to the people both within the state

and the neighboring states. The travel is comparatively cheap and the innovative

mode of having Ordinary, Limited stop, fast and Super fast buses, super deluxe,

which caters to the different sections of the society, has made it immensely popular.

The K.S.R.T.C workshop at Pappanamcode

Central Works, is the main one, which deals to complaints at a large scale.

Assembly of parts for the launch of new buses is also done here. The campus is a

huge one and has different sections, mainly the overhauling and assembly sections

which engage in the maintenance of machine parts. A group of dedicated staff

personnel together under the close supervision of their superiors work in close co-

ordination to provide quality work. The dedicated work of the staff together with the

management has thus made the K.S.R.T.C one of leading organizations in the public

sector.

2.2 MAIN DEPARTMENTS

(A) WORKSHOP DEPARTMENT

1. Dismantling Section

2. Engine Overhauling & Assembly Section

3. Transmission Section

4. Fuel Injection Section

5. Suspension Section

6. Vehicle Overhauling Section


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(B) BODY - BUILDING DEPARTMENT

1. Welding Section2. Carpentry & Sheet metal Section3. Painting Section

(A) WORKSHOP DEPARTMENT

1. Dismantling Section

This section deals with the dismantling of the various parts of the vehicle. The vehicle

accessories are separated to provide for keen scrutiny of the defective parts. Generally

the overhauling is required in the following events:

1. Power loss due to poor engine compression.

2. Excessive consumption of lubricating oil.

Mechanical failures such as excessive noise due to defective ignition or

injection. The hood of the engine compartment is first removed. All coolants hoses

are disconnected, the radiator mounting bolts are removed and the radiator is lifted

from the engine compartment. All wires, tubing and controls connecting the engine to

the automobile are removed and tagged. The alternator and fans are removed to avoid

damage during removal of engine. After that the driver shaft and exhaust pipes are

disconnected. The mounting bolts are at last removed and the hoist is operated to lift

the engine.

The dismantling procedure is then followed by: Removal of:

1. Cylinder head.

2. Valves and valve mechanism.

3. Piston-connecting rod assembly.

4. Cylinder.

5. Crankshaft and main bearings.



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2. Engine overhauling and assembly section

Cylinder in the block is the place where power is generated. Hence after some

use they get worn out. The cylinder block form the dismantled engine is cleaned

thoroughly, then boring ands honing is done to remove wear. Cylinder head is cleaned

by removing carbon and rust from the head, valve and cylinder block. The valve is

grinded to proper finish and valve seat is lapped. The damaged piston is replaced by

anew one. The weared crankshaft is ground so that ovality and taper are within

permissible limits. The thorough cleaning of engine parts follows overhauling, and

then the crank shaft is coated with recommended lubricant and carefully placed.

Timing gears, sprockets, chains etc. are aligned and installed. Piston-connecting rod

assemblies are installed. Cylinder head is assembled and then valve lifters and push

rods are then placed followed by rocker arms. Water pump and outlet neck are then

fixed into the block.

3. Transmission Section

In this section the various transmission parts, which are the Clutch, Gearbox,

Propeller shaft and Differential are overhauled and assembled.

a. Overhauling Of Clutch Assembly

Clutch is a coupling fitted immediately after the engine in between the gear

box to disconnect engine power to gear box to change gear, to stop the vehicle as well

as to allow the engine to take up load gradually. Visual inspection of friction flywheel

surface is done for any scoring mark, heat crack and the pilot bearing play is checked

by inserting a finger in the bearing and feeling the play. Clutch plate is checked for

wear of the clutch lining wear. Cracks in the clutch plate steel disc are also checked.

The pressure plate is checked for heat damages, cracks and flatness using a steel rule

of feeler gauge. After cleaning all the parts and checking for any undue play in the

linkage, the parts are assembled.


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b. Overhauling Of Gear Box

Gearbox is fitted after clutch assembly and has a set of gears, which can be engaged

to increase driving torque to cope up road and load condition of vehicle. The teeth

of all gears are checked & the needle bearing if worn out is replaced. The dog clutch

and the sleeve are checked for pitted teeth and the splines are checked for wear. The

gear parts are then assembled, reverse gear first and then the second, third, fourth

gears in correct order with adequate provision for the washer and slide needle.

c. Overhauling Of Propeller Shaft

The propeller shaft is used to transmit power from the gear box to the rear axle.

Keeping the propeller shaft on the v-block and with a dial gauge check the propeller

shaft for bends, this should not exceed 2mm.If more, it is straightened out using

hydraulic press. The cross pin and bearing cap is checked for any sign of wear placed

with a new set if required. The propeller shaft is then fixed back to the gear box flange

and differential flange taking care that the yokes of the propeller shaft are properly

fitted.

d. Overhauling Of Differential

Differential is fitted in the rear axel housing and is a mechanism in which one wheel

is allowed to run faster or slower than the second rear wheel as and when required.

Each tooth is inspected minutely for any pitting or broken teeth on crown wheel

pinion, sun and star pinion and if worn out is replaced. The thrust washer and pinion

bearing are also checked for damages. Checking the back lash of the sun pinion with a

star pinion using dial gauge does assembly of the differential. The pinion is assembled

in oil seal with new oil seal in reverse order and after washing the differential casting

the pinion is inserted. The differential assembly is then fixed back in axle housing

with new gasket and nuts are all tight.


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4. Fuel Injection Section

The injection system consists of fuel tank, fuel feed pump, fuel injection

pump, fuel filter, fuel injection nozzle and a governor. The injection pump pumps

metered quantity of fuel to all injectors and ands should build enough pressure so that

diesel gets sprayed in fine atomized form. To increase or decrease the quantity of the

fuel a helix is cut on top of the plunger. The alignment of this helix determines the

quantity of fuel pumped. The delivery valve keeps the injector pipe always filled up

with diesel oil. This valves its back on its seat after the pumping operation and the

space vacated by the piston made on delivery valve is taken up by the diesel oil under

pressure in the pipe. These engines are equipped with governors to ensure that engine

doesn’t pick up speed when there is no load, as the engine speed is dependent on

quantity of fuel supplied. The diesel is fed into the injection pump in two ways

namely gravity feed and forced feed. The injection pump must give equal quantity of

fuel to all cylinders and the supply should commence and stop at fixed degree of

crank angle both of which are checked and adjusted on the injection pump test bench.

Phasing of injection pump is done by mounting the injection pump on the test bench

and noting the angle of delivery on its flywheel. Fuel filter is necessary to supply

clean fuel otherwise dust will wear the plunger and barrel. Primary filter made of felt

and secondary filter made of paper, which needs to be replaced at regular intervals,

are highly recommended. Injectors are used to spray diesel in fine atomized state

before the piston reaches TDC in compression stroke. Injectors should commence and

cut off fuel rapidly and at the same time should not dribble. Facilities have been

provided for suitable testing of the injectors, which includes Leak off test: The

injector tester is worked up to build a pressure of 150 atms, which is kept for 10

seconds (without spraying).In case there is a drop in pressure the body seat and the

needle is lapped. Spray test: The injector is fixed up as done earlier and pressure

gauge is disconnected by closing the valve. The tester is worked up four times and a

second and the spray pattern is noted. If the spray pattern is in the form of a stream or

jet, the needle and the nozzle body seat requires grinding. Nozzle and needle come in


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as one unit with the needle circular in shape having a taper end while nozzle body has

fine finish. Where the needle can slide there is a circular groove called pressure

chamber at the lower end connected to the oil gallery in the body though a drilled hole

and it is from this hole diesel oil reaches the pressure chamber and lifts the nozzle

valve of its seat and gets sprayed in atomized form.

5. Suspension Section

The automobile chassis is mounted on the axles, not direct but through some

for m of springs. This is done to prevent road shocks form being transmitted to the

vehicle components, safe guard the occupants from road shocks and to preserve the

stability of vehicle in pitching or rolling while in motion. All the parts which perform

the function of isolating the automobile from the road shocks are collectively called

suspension systems. The buses here commonly use the semi-elliptic steel leaf spring

variety. These are selected for their excellent durability and elastic capability. The

spring consists of a number of leaves called blades. All t he blades are bound together

by means of steel straps. The spring is supported on the axle, front or rear by means of

a v-belt. One end of the spring is mounted on the frame with a simple pin while on the

other end connection is made with a shackle. When the vehicle comes across a

projection on the road surface, the wheel moves up deflecting the spring, this changes

the length between the spring eyes. If both the ends are fixed the spring will not be

able to accommodate this change of length. This is provided by means of a shackle,

which gives a flexible connection.

Repair and Maintenance of Suspension Systems

After prolonged us or over loading, spring assembly gets flattened or one or

two of its leaves get broken. The centre bolt is then removed ant the broken leaf is

dismantled and replaced with the new one. The rubber bushes, which are used to

hinge the suspension systems to the chassis, are greased and are replaced if these are

worn out.


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The Chassis frame supports the load of the vehicle and provides connecting

link between frame and rear axle to withstand stresses caused due to cornering,

breaking, sudden acceleration or bad road conditions. Rough use of vehicle may cause

the chassis to crack, bent and dislocate its welded parts. The loose and distorted rivets

are removed and new heated rivets are fixed. Red oxide paint is s prayed on the

chassis frame to prevent corrosion. If the chassis has met with an accident, it should

be straightened out and the alignment checked, failing which, running the bent chassis

will make the steering hard and eat away the tyre. Defects in the external body of the

bus, which is made of sheet metal, are checked and the necessary corrective steps are

taken. These include providing fresh coat of paint to the rusted parts. Distorted

portions of the sheet metal are then sharpened out. New ones replace the worn out

furniture if necessary or the existing ones are repaired.

(B) BODY BUILDING DEPARTMENT

The chassis coming from the factories is brought to this section and the body is built

through a continuous process of welding, carpentry, sheet metal and painting. This

department essentially deals with the assembly of the interior and the exterior parts

of the bus with the engine, gear parts etc. being bought from other automobile

companies like TATA and ASHOK LEYLAND. In the welding section the steel

structure is welded to the chassis. To this frame work wooden attachments consisting

of the platform, the foot board and the wooden parts by the window sill are fixed. The

skeleton frame work is then covered using the sheet metal section. Care is taken to

ensure a clean and stable fit. Nuts, bolts along with additional fixtures are provided

wherever necessary to provide compactness to the structure. Painting glass fixing,

seating arrangements and other finishing touches are done to ready out the interior

and exterior portions.


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3. REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL VISITS TO KERALA

AGRO MACHINERY CORPORATION LIMITED.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Kerala Agro Machinery Corporation Ltd. (KAMCO) was established in the

year 1973 as a wholly owned subsidiary of Kerala Agro Industries Corporation Ltd.

(KAIC), Trivandrum, for manufacture of agricultural machinery specifically Power

Tillers and Diesel Engines. Subsequently KAMCO became a separate Govt. of Kerala

undertaking in 1986. Paid up capital is Rs. 161 lakhs and the Present Net Worth of the

Company is Rs. 6014.14 lakhs. Total work force at present is 567. Certified for ISO

9001 - 2000 version from September 2002.At present, KAMCO has four units,

located at Athani and Kalamassery in Ernakulam District, at Kanjikode in Palakkad

District, and at Mala, in Trichur district. With the present work force KAMCO can

produce 15000 Power Tillers & 5000 Power Reapers per annum.

3.2 DESCRIPTION

KAMCO's manufacturing facilities include Special Purpose Machines, Specially

built General Purpose Machines, and Imported machines. The inspection facilities

include modern inspection &testing equipment .KAMCO is equipped with its own

Metrology, Calibration & Engine Testing Lab. The following are the main activities

of the company:

Manufacturing and marketing of Agriculture machines such as Power Tillers,

Tractors, Power Reaper, Diesel Engines etc.

Power Tiller produced at Athani & Palakkad units. Major components for

Power Tiller are manufactured at Athani and all other components bought out

from dedicated Venders in India. There are around 250 vendors now.

Kalamassery unit produces Engine for Power Tiller

Power Reaper produced at Mala


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3.3 PRODUCTS

3.3.1 Diesel Engine Model ER90

KAMCO ER90 Engine is equipped with a radiator and specially designed die

cast multi-blade axial fan. The engine can operate continuously for several

hours. It can be used as a prime mover either for stationery or for moving

application

Specifications

Type : Horizontal Water Cooled, 4 stroke

Number of Cylinder : One

Bore x Stroke (mm) : 95 x105

Displacement (cc) : 744

Compression Ratio Continuous rated : 20

Maximum output (HP/rpm) : 12/2000

Maximum torque (kg/rpm): 4.5/2000

Cooling System : Pressure Radiator type (0.8kg/cm natural convection)

Lubricating Oil : SAE 30

Starting System : By hand cranking assisted by decompression system

Cooling Water Capacity(Ltr): 3.8

Fuel Tank Capacity (Ltr) : 12

Crank Case Oil Capacity(Ltr): 3

Overall dimension (mm) : 820 x 512 x 640

Weight : 145 Kg.

3.3.2 Power Tiller IDI KMB200

KAMCO Power Tiller is a versatile machine primarily used for preparation of land

for farming operations. With suitably designed accessories the machine can be used

for a large number of specific operations like tilling, ploughing, weeding, pumping,

leveling, hulling, ridging etc.


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Specifications

Model : Engine: ER 90

Tiller KMB 200

Type : Rotary, diesel-powered, water-cooled, with radiator

HP : Continuous: 9 Max : 12

RPM : 2000

Fuel consumption : 1.5 litres per hour

Fuel tank capacity : 10.70 litres,

No.of speeds : Forwards : 6 Reverse : 2

Tilling: 4

Wheel track : Maximum : 930 mm -Minimum : 690 mm

Tyre size : 6.00 x 12

Ground clearance : 203 mm

Travelling speed : 15 kmph (Max.)

Tilling width: 600 mm

Tilling depth : 190 mm

No. of blades : 20

Tilling capacity : 1 hectare/8hrs.

Overall dimensions: 2250 x 820 x 1030 mm

Weight: 485 Kg

Light Unit: 12 volts, 40 Watts


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3.4 FUNCTIONS OF THE TILLER MANUFACTURING UNIT

3.4.1. Purchase Department

Purchase department ensures all raw materials, semi-finished components,

fully finished components for production implements and accessories, consumables

and subcontracted component are produced from approved vendors. Purchase

department accesses vendor capability to affect supplier in accordance with purchase

order meeting acceptable quality and deliveries so that they can be listed as approved

vendors. The department ensures goods received from order. It also provides feedback

to vendors for improving quality of materials. The department should have the

responsibility to ensure the vendors performance is recorded, monitored and suitably

graded.

3.4.2. Assembly Department

The process is to identify the activities to be followed in assembly so that the

assembly power reapers meet the specification. The scope of this process covers the

assembly of power tillers and reapers with implant and bought out components.

Assembly of power tiller is done in separate assembly lines engine lines, transmission

line and tiller line. The process plans of assembly are annexed in each of these

different lines and several working centres. These work centres are designated as line

assemblies and for certain line assemblies there are sub assemblies too.

There are three assembly lines, they are

Engine line

Transmission line

Tiller line

After the production process, the next step is to paint power tiller and its components

as per specified process. Pre-treated components and cleaned Power Tiller / Power

Reaper engines are applied with one coat of primer and one coat of paint with

approved colour is painting booths. Painting process adopted is we-on-wet system and

solving enamel is used.


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3.4.3. Quality Assurance Department

Quality assurance department at KAMCO ensures:

Identification and traceability of all products both bought out and processed

inside the plant are established at various stages of process.

Identification of in-process materials and raw materials.

Quality of bought out components.

Quality of assembling process.

Control of non-confirming products.

For corrective actions, preventive actions, and continued improvement.

Criteria for corrective and preventive actions by Quality Assurance

Department.

Quality of inspection and testing.

Quality of maintenance and calibration of measuring instruments.

Quality of data analysis

3.4.4. Stores Department

The main purpose of the stores department is to spell out in detail how various

items are protected and preserved at all stages. The procedure of stores department

function is applicable to all areas where materials are handled and stored. The head of

the department ensures the compliance to this procedure.

Material Receipt: All materials including raw materials, components and

production consumables received from different vendors directly through

transporters along with dispatch notes are received. Received quality is

entered and the item is submitted to quality assurance department for

inspection with material tag.

Issue of Materials: Raw materials for outside machinery, components and

consumables for production, parts for subassembly are issued inconvenient

batches against stock issue cum delivery note.

Packaging: The finished engines dispatched to customers or dealers are packed

in separate wooden box for avoiding damage during transit. The finished


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tillers and reapers including toolkit and manuals are dispatched to various far

off destinations with a specially designed mounting frame to keep the tillers

vertically down in order to accommodate more number of tillers in a single

truck in which case oil and water are drained. Spare parts are packaged in

polythene covers and put in wooden box or cardboard box for dispatch.

3.5 ACHIEVEMENTS

The Tiller manufacturing facility at Athani, Ernakulum was visited. The

objective of study was to familiarize an organizational environment and to get an idea

about the functions of different departments. It helped me to given an immense

knowledge about the day to day working of the company.


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4. Report on industrial visit to HLL Life care Limited

4.1 INTRODUCTION

HLL Life care Limited (formerly Hindustan Latex Limited) (HLL) is an

Indian healthcare products manufacturing company based in Thiruvananthapuram,

Kerala, India. A Government of India -owned corporation (Public-sector

undertaking),it produces health care products, including condoms, blood bags, and

contraceptive pills. One of HLL's contraceptive products is ormeloxifene branded as

Saheli , a non-hormonal non-steroid weekly oral contraceptive.

HLL Life care Limited (HLL) commenced its journey to serve the Nation in

the area of healthcare, on 1st March 1966, with its incorporation as a corporate entity

under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. HLL was

setup in the natural rubber rich state of Kerala, for the production of male

contraceptive sheaths for the National Family Welfare Programme. HLL commenced

commercial operations on 5th April 1969 at Peroorkada in Thiruvananthapuram. The

Plant was established in technical collaboration with M/s Okamoto Industries Inc.

Japan.

Two most modern Plants were added, one at Thiruvananthapuram and the

other at Belgaum in 1985. Another Plant was added in the early nineties at Aakkulam

in Thiruvananthapuram for the production of Blood Transfusion Bags, Copper T

IUD’s, Surgical Sutures and Hydrocephalus Shunt.HLL had set its sights in 2003 -

when it had a turnover of a mere Rs 163 crores - to be a Rs 1000 crore company by

the year 2010. On the path of rapid growth, this year (2010) it has not only surpassed

this figure but has drawn a clear road map to achieve a five fold growth by the year

2015.HLL is today a Mini Ratna and upgraded as a Schedule B Central Public Sector

Enterprise.

HLL Lifecare Limited is the only company in the world manufacturing and

marketing the widest range of Contraceptives. It is unique in providing a range of

Condoms, including Female Condoms, Intra Uterine Devices, Oral Contraceptive

Pills –


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Steroidal , non-steroidal and Emergency contraceptive pills; and Tubal Rings. HLL

produces today1.316 billion condoms annually making it one of the world¶s leading

manufacturers of condoms, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the global production

capacity.

HLL’s Health care product range include: Blood Collection Bags, Surgical

Sutures, Auto Disable Syringes, Vaccines, In - Vitro Diagnostic Test Kits, Pharma

products for Women, Natural products, Hydrocephalus Shunt, Tissue Expanders,

Surgical and Examination Gloves, Blood Banking equipment, Neonatal equipment,

Blood Transfusion and Intravenous sets, Vending Machines, Iron and Folic Acid

Tablets, Sanitary Napkins, Oral Rehydration Salts and Medicated Plasters.

HLL’s Blood Bags were launched in Brazil in 2006. HLL also launched its

non-steroidal contraceptive pill under the brand name Ivy femme in Peru in

October 2008.HLL has introduced Closed System Blood Bags that are integrated with

Leukocyte Filter - called LD Bags. These bags are intended for leuko-depletion

immediately upon collection of blood from donors at blood banks.

HLL has also launched several initiatives in the services sector for medical

infrastructure development, diagnostic centre and procurement consultancy. These

have been conceived to bring about a whole new realm of accessible, affordable

healthcare delivery to every citizen. Over the years each of the initiatives taken up by

HLL are targeted at reaching quality healthcare at the doorstep of every family.

Associate Institutions of HLL namely HLFPPT and Life Spring Hospitals have

ensured his to the nation’s underserved and vulnerable populace, at an affordable cost.

HLL achieved a turnover of Rs. 4420 million during 2009-10, registering a

growth of 20% over that for 2008-09 of Rs.3680 million. However the business

handled by the company totaled Rs. 12960 million, including the value of transactions

handled by its Procurement and Consultancy Division of Rs. 4860 million and

Infrastructure Development Division of Rs 3690 million.


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4.2 MANUFACTURING FACILITIES

HLL has today six state of the art manufacturing facilities. HLL commenced

its commercial operations on April 5, 1969 at Peroorkada in Thiruvananthapuram in

the state of Kerala. Together with the manufacturing facility at Peroorkada , HLL

today has five state-of-the-art manufacturing facilities at: Kanagalanear Belgaum

(1985) - for contraceptives and pharmaceutical products; Akkulam in

Thiruvananthapuram (1994) - for hospital products; Kakkanad in the Cochin Special

Economic Zone (2004) - for female condoms and male condoms for export; and

Manesar in Gurgaon (2007) - for rapid in-vitro diagnostic test kits. All these units

have ISO 9001, ISO 14001- quality and environmental management system

certifications. HLL’s Peroorkada, Akkulam and Kanagala Plants have OHSAS 18001

Certification for efficient occupational health and safety management system. The

testing laboratory for finished products at Peroorkada factory has NABL accreditation

under ISO/EC 17025.

Peroorkada Facility, Thiruvananthapuram ( PFT ): The manufacturing unit at

Peroorkada was set up in 1969 in technical collaboration with M/s Okamoto

Industries Inc. Japan. The plant has since undergone continuous modernization over

the years and has an annual production capacity of 1066 million pieces of condoms.

The facility is equipped with modern machines and equipment for production,

inspection and quality testing, conforming to GMP and meets international standards.

The unit produces many variants of condoms with different flavors and textures.

Condoms manufactured in this facility have product certifications such as, CE,

KITE,SABS, NF Mark, and meet a range of international quality specifications and

standards such as: WHO 2003, ISO 4074:2002, SANS ISO 4074, ASTM D 3492, and

GOST-4645-81. The facility has certifications under ISO 9001, ISO 13485, WHO

4.3 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

From Blood Transfusion Bags to Hydrocephalus Shunts, to once-a-week Non

Steroidal Oral Contraceptive Pill, to several variants of condoms, every product from

HLL is a result of innovation. The last four decades have seen HLL tie up with


26


Various scientific and academic institutions of excellence, for developing new and

novel healthcare products. Today R & D Centre of HLL has several projects in hand,

both in-house and collaborative, with premier academic and research institutions in

the country and abroad, viz:- Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur; Central

Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Lucknow; Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute of Medical

Sciences &Technology (SCTIMST), Thiruvananthapuram; Regional Cancer Centre

(RCC),Thiruvananthapuram and Population Council, USA.

These projects cover a wide area of research ranging from development of

novel techniques for drug delivery to blood filters to novel contraceptives and

cancer care devices. Based on its technological competency, the R&D centre is

implementing sponsored projects from organizations.HLL has set up a Technology

Business Incubation Centre (TBIC) at Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology

(RGCB),Thiruvananthapuram. This would further be extended to the development of

new healthcare products.HLL is in the process of setting up a full-fledged world-class

R&D Centre in Thiruvananthapuram, to develop innovative products in the area

of Reproductive and Contraceptive.

Integrated Vaccine Complex

Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India will be setting up a

vaccine manufacturing unit- Integrated Vaccine Complex (IVC) in 100 acre of land at

Chengalpattu, 40kms away from Chennai at an investment of Rs.900 Crore. HLL

will be the implementing agency for this project.

Medipark

HLL will set up a MediPark in 330 acres of land at Chengalpattu near Chennai in

Tamilnadu, a first of its kind in the country. The MediPark, is envisaged as world

class industrial infrastructure for the manufacture of medical equipments, devices and

disposables, testing, research, bio informatics, training centers, business incubators, as

well as knowledge and health care business outsourcing services.


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Auto Disable Syringe facility

Auto Disable Syringe (ADS) provides protection against infectious diseases

particularly AIDS, Hepatitis etc. through the injection route, by preventing its reuse.

ADS incorporates an auto disable mechanism which makes the syringe dysfunctional

after its first use.

HINDLABS -Diagnostic Outsourcing Services

A novel initiative, Hind labs will deliver expert diagnostic services while

enabling outsourcing of the such services for its institutional partners. Hind labs has

been envisaged to add value to the partner hospitals by deploying the latest diagnostic

technology and operational support. Each center is equipped to deliver quality

diagnostic services and is staffed by trained and committed professionals. The

objective is to deliver quality services at affordable costs for the common people.

4.4 CONDOM MANUFACTURING PROCESS


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1. Collecting the raw materials

Rubber latex is obtained from the milky fluid produced by various tropical

plants. Latex is actually an emulsion or dispersion of tiny rubber particles in

water, and ingredients added to the latex must be able to attach to the rubber

particles during compounding.

2. Compounding

Chemical additives are mixed to form a paste. This paste is then blended

with the liquid latex in a process called compounding.

3. Storage

The latex and chemical compound is then unloaded into drums for storage,

where it remains for approximately seven days. During this period,

vulcanization chemically strengthens the bonds of the rubber.The storage

time also allows any air, which might have been trapped in the mixture

during compounding, to escape.


29


4. Dipping

The compound is then added to the dipping or condom-forming

machine. The dipping machine is a long, hooded machine approximately

100 feet (30.5 m) in length. Thick tempered glass rods move along a closed

belt between two circular gears. The belt drags the rods, which are called

mandrels, through a series of dips into the latex compound. The mandrels

rotate to spread the latex evenly. Several coats are required to build the

condom to its required thickness. Between each dip, the latex is hot air

dried.

After the final dipping and drying, the condoms automatically roll off

the mandrels. A machine shapes and trims the ring of latex at the base of

each condom.

5. Tumbling

The condoms are put in a tumbling machine, where they are coated

with talc or another similar powder to prevent the rubber from sticking to

itself.

6. Testing

After a curing period of several days, the condoms are sampled by

batch and tested for leaks and strength. The first such test is the inflation

test, in which the condom is filled with air until it bursts. Condoms are

required to stretch beyond 1.5 cubic feet, about the size of a watermelon,

before bursting. This test is considered most important because the elasticity

of the condom keeps it from tearing during inter-course.

In the water-leakage test, the condom is filled with 10 ounces (300

ml) of water and inspected for pin-sized holes by rolling it along blotter

paper.


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Condoms are also tested electronically. This involves mounting each

condom on a charged stainless steel mandrel. The mandrel is passed over by

a soft, conductive brush. If pin holes are present, a circuit will be established

with the mandrel, and the machine will automatically reject the condom.

7. Packaging

Condoms that have successfully passed these tests are rolled by a

machine. Rolling the condom makes it easier to package and use. Lubricant

and spermicide may be applied by a metering pump just before the top wrap

is added in the foiling process.


31


TRAVANCORE TITANIUM

PRODUCTS


32


COMPANY DESCRIPTION

Travancore Titanium Products Ltd. was incorporated on 18th of December

1946, to produce pigment grade Titanium dioxide from ilmenite

which is abundantly available as placer deposits on beaches near Kollam, 65 Kms

north of the capital city, Thiruvananthapuram in the coastal state of Kerala, India. The

unit was promoted by the then princely state of Travancore in collaboration with the

British Titan Products (BTP) Company Limited, U.K.(now known as Tioxide Group

Limited).The administrative control of the company was with a managing agency,

Indian Titan Products Company.

The Company which started production at a modest rate of 5 tonnes per day,

increased its capacity in stages to the present level of 40-45 tonnes per day. Till

recently, Travancore Titanium Products Ltd., was the only unit producing Anatase

grade Titanium Dioxide pigment, in India.Travancore Titanium Products, became a

State Public sector unit in 1960,with the Goverment of Kerala owning 80.94% of the

shares.

Production of titanium dioxide commenced in the year 1951,and the capacity

was raised to 10 tonnes per day in 1960, the year in which the management of the

Company was taken over by the Govt. of Kerala. The Company also installed its own

sulphuric acid plant to produce acid for captive consumption. In 1963 the capacity of

Titanium Dioxide produced was further increased to 18 tonnes per day wuth a

commensurate addition to the sulphuric acid production also.

Subsequently, a major expansion programme was undertaken and completed in 1973,

increasing the realisable capacity to 45 tonnes per day of anatase grade TiO2. To meet

the increased requirement of sulphuric acid, a third acid plant of 300 tonnes per day

capacity was also put on stream. Subsequently, a modern sulphuric acid plant was

commissioned in 1996, which utilizes the tail gas recycling DCDA (Double Catalysis

Double Absorption) technology. The alkali scrubbing system incorporated therein

helps to keep sulphur dioxide emissions well within permissible limits and helps in

maintaining a clean environment. The total man-power employed at present is arround

1300.


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PROCESS

Ilmenite + Sulphuric Acid-> Titanyl Sulphate ->

Hydrated Titanium Dioxide-> Titanium Dioxide

Travancore Titanium Products Limited is currently producing TiO2, antase grade,

through the sulphate route. Ilmenite, a mixed oxide of titanium, ferrous iron and ferric

iron is the main raw material for the production of titanium dioxide pigment.Ilmenite

is reacted with sulfuric acid in reinforced cement concrete tanks called Digesters,

lined with lead and acid resistant bricks. Exothermic reaction is initiated by the heat

of dilution of the acid with water and a porous cake is formed. The mass in the solid

form is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid to get titanium in solution as titanium oxy

sulphate (TiOSO4) along with other metallic ingredients in ilmenite as their sulphate.

The liqour is reduced using scrap iron, when the ferric iron gets completly reduced to

the ferrous state.

The resulting black liquor is clarified, concentrated and boiled by injecting steam to

precipitate the titanium content as hydrated titania. The hydrated titania is filterd over

drum type rotary vacuum filters. Any ferric iron still present is reduced to ferrous iron

by leaching the pulp with dilute sulphuric acid. It is washed free of iron and other

impurities and calcined in a rotary kiln is cooled in rotating coolers and de-

agglomerated in pendulum mills to very fine particles. The fine white powder is

packed in 25kg HDPE bags.

PRODUCTS

RUTILE GRADE TITANIUMDIOXIDE

Travancore Titanium Products Limited has recently launched a Rutile Grade Titanium

dioxide pigment viz., TTP RD-01. This product wass developed in the year 2002

indigenously through the Sulphate route pigment. TTP markets this product without

surface treatment at very competitive price.


34


ANATASE (SPECIAL GRADE): This low phosphorous anatase grade is used in the

manufacture of special quality welding rods, due to its insulating properties and high

melting point.

Composition: TiO2 98 - 98.5%

P2O5 0.1% (max.)

S 0.10 (max.)

ANATASE (GP): General purpose pigment is recommended for use in non-

decorative paints, cement paints, distempers and rubber products.

Composition: TiO2 ------ 97.5% (min.)

ANATASE (GR): This is non-milled granular type of commercial titanium dioxide,

having excellent dry mixing and free-flowing properties. For use in vitreous enamel

and metallurgical industries.

Composition: TiO2 ------ 97.5% (aprox.)

ANATASE (ISI) : This is a pigmentary form of TiO2 having the following desirable

properties:- High brightness, tinting strength, good colour, excellent dispersion

charectoristics in both aqueous and non-aqueous media. Sutable for use in paints,

paper,plastics, linoleum, rubber, leather finishes, soap and cosmetics and other

applications.

Composition: TiO2 97.5% (min.) Fe. 84 - 140 ppm.

Specifications: IS 411:1991

POTASSIUM TITANATE: Potassium titanate possesses low thermal conductivity

and high reflectance ranging from ultra-violet to infra-red region. Used in the

manufacture of special quality welding rods, due to its high insulating property and

high melting point.

Composition: TiO2 72 - 75%

K2O2 17 - 20%


35


SODIUM TITANATE: Sodium titanate finds use in fluxes for different types of

welding electrodes.

Composition: TiO2 75 - 80%

Na2O 15 - 18%

ANTASE (RG): Rayon grade anatase pigment with excellent dispersion properties

for specific use in Rayons is extremely fine and free from over-size particles. it is

used in de-lustring artificial fibre in textile industry.

Composition: TiO2 97.5% (min.)

Fe. 100 ppm

Residue 0.05 (max.)

TITANIUM DIOXIDE (ANATASE) : Titanium Dioxide is a brilliantly white, non-

toxic pigment. The unique properties of Titanium Dioxide which make it supreme

among the white pigments are its excellent opacity, extreme whiteness and chemical

stability, which lead to considerable economy in usage, when compared to other white

pigments. The titanium dioxide of our manufacture is marketed under the trade name

of 'ANJATOX' and is available in four grades- ISI, RG, GP and GR.


36

Content

Documents

high melting

dilute sulphuric

art manufacturing

quality assurance

weights move

travancore

dc traction

vehicle overhauling